UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

BENGALURU-560 065

Practical manual

for

“Dryland Farming and

Watershed Management”
AGR 512 (2+1) (II semester 2022-23)

Dr. Jayadeva, H.M.

Professor of Agronomy

Department of Agronomy
Agricultural College, GKVK,
Bengaluru-560 065
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
G.K.V.K., BENGALURU-560065

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. / Miss …………………………………………………………

I.D. No. ……………………. has satisfactorily completed the practical in AGR 512, “Dry land
farming and Watershed management” (2+1), prescribed by the University of Agricultural
Sciences for the M.Sc. (Agri.) degree course, conducted in the Department of Agronomy,
Agriculture College, GKVK, Bangalore during the year 2022 - 2023.

Date: Course Teacher

Marks obtained:
 LIST OF PRACTICALS

Pract. Page
Date Title Remarks
No. No.
Seed priming, seed germination and crop
1 establishment in relation to soil moisture
contents
Moisture stress effects and recovery behavior of
2
important crops
Determination of Relative Water Content and
3
Saturation Deficit of Leaf
Estimation of Potential ET by Thornthwaite
4
method

5 Measurement/ estimation of soil water balance

6 Rainfall variability analysis and interpretation

7 Estimation of moisture index and aridity index

Remote sensing and familiarization with agro-

8&9
advisory service bulletins
Study on anti-transpirants to alleviate the
10
moisture stress
Collection and interpretation of data for water
11
balance equations for ACZ of Karnataka
12 Rain water budgeting
13 Water use efficiency
Preparation of crop plans for different drought
14
conditions
Study of field experiments relevant to dryland
15
farming
Map reading – Watershed delineation
16

17 & Visit to dryland research station and Watershed

18 projects
Exercise No. 1: Seed priming, seed germination and crop establishment in relation to soil
moisture contents

Seed priming: Seed priming hastens the germination process and enhances the rate of
seedling emergence even under extreme climatic conditions and in problem soils. Seed priming
is categorized into different types, viz. hydropriming, osmopriming, halopriming, hormonal
priming and biopriming, and provides extensive crop benefits.
Hydropriming is a highly accessible and economic technique that involves soaking of
seeds in water followed by drying.
Osmopriming consists of soaking seeds before sowing, in the PEG solution to initiate the
membrane repairing systems and metabolic preparation for germination via controlling the water
absorption rate of seeds, different compounds are used in osmopriming procedure
including polyethylene glycol (PEG), mannitol, sorbitol, glycerol, and inorganic salts such as
NaCl, KCl, KNO3, K3PO4, KH2PO4, MgSO4, and CaCl2.
Halopriming refers to treatment of seed with salt in order to improve germination and
decrease saline intolerance.
Hormonal priming: Seed priming with hormone solutions is referred to as hormonal
priming, and hormonal seed priming plays an important role in seed metabolism. Currently,
hormonal seed priming is a commonly used technique to improve seed germination, seedling
growth, and crop yield in adverse conditions. Ex. GA, Auxin, Cytokinin, Gibberellin, Abscisic
Acid, Salicylic Acid and Ethylene.
Biopriming refers to the inoculation of seeds with beneficial microorganism. Ex. PGPB

Seed germination and seedling growth are critical stages of plant development leading to
the establishment of new individuals. These two aspects are highly sensitive to environmental
variability, and require favorable conditions of soil moisture, which is rarely static. As a result,
seeds in the soil in natural conditions routinely experience periods of alternating wet and dry
conditions (Baskin and Baskin, 1982) caused by the episodic nature of precipitation.

Pre sowing seed hardening: it is one of the methods which modifies physiological and
biochemical nature of seeds so as to get characters that are favorable for drought tolerance.
Drought tolerance of many crops could be improved by subjecting them for several days to
alternating cycles of wetting and dehydration, low temperature, soaking in chemical solutions or
growth regulators. Beneficial effects of seed hardening include – i. accelerated rapid germination
and growth rate of seedlings, ii. Induces resistance to salinity as well as to drought condition, iii.
Hardened plants recover much more quickly from wilting than from untreated plants, iv. Seeds
withstand higher temperature for prolonged period without loss of viability, v. flowering is
slightly accelerated in treated plants, vi. Early emergence enables seedling to complete more
effectively with weeds, and vii. Hardened seeds perform better and result in more effectively.
Seed hardening is, therefore done to overcome the adversity of moisture stress which is
common in dryfarming. Although, it varies from crop to crop, the basic principal remains the
same. When dry seeds are soak in water/ chemical solution, the quiescent cells get hydrated and
germination initiated. It also results in enhanced mitochondrial activity leading to the formation
of high energy compounds and vital biomolecules. The latent embryo gets enlarged. When the
imbibed seeds are dried again, the triggered germination is halted. When such seeds are sown,
reimbibition begins and the germination event continues from where it has stopped previously.
As a consequence, there will be multitude of benefits which make the plants prepared to resist
the adverse weather if any.
Seed soaking in water
Very young seeds, which are still in milky stage, and have attained only one eight of the
volume of the mature seed, can be completely air dried without losing their vitality. The excised
embryo can be dried to a moisture content of 5 per cent, and will resume normal development
and germinate if remoistened and placed on a suitable substrate. As germination proceeds, the
sprouting embryo rapidly loses its ability to withstand desiccation without loss of viability. The
critical stage occurs at the time of emergence of radical. It is radical that dies first under
dehydration, but before it reaches this point through desiccation the seed of embryo can be
subjected to a number of alternative hydration and desiccation cycles without any harm. Indeed,
a succession of alternative hydration and desiccations found to increase resistance of seedling to
desiccation has only a purely physical effect on the colloids of the embryo; its vitality is not
affected. By contrast, biological dehydration involving death of radical is irreversible.
Based on these findings, a method for increasing drought resistance of plants by
treatment before sowing was proposed and developed by Russian researchers (Genkel and
Henckel, 1934). The method consists of repeated cycles of soaking seeds in water or other dilute
solutions for a specified period and drying to the original moisture level. Such treated seeds are
referred as hardened seeds. For instance, seed soaking in wheat, cotton, sorghum, sunflower (12-
24 hrs), groundnut (8 hrs), greengram (4hrs), soybean (24 hrs) etc., was advantageous.
Hardening of seeds to induce resistance to drought, salinity stress, radiation stress, cold injury
and chemical injury have been demonstrated. The beneficial effect on better root growth, higher
root: shoot ratio, higher rate of photosynthesis and increase in yield are reported.

Chemical solutions
Other methods of presowing “hardening” of seeds have also been investigated. Solutions
containing various inorganic salts viz., KH2PO4, MgSO4, Na2SO4, NaCl, CaCl2, ZnSO4, FeSO4,
boric acid, boron + manganese, organic acids, mannitol, CCC, auxins, GA, extracts from
different plant tissues, etc., were used (Table 1). Seed treatment with 0.09% solution of succinic
acid, for 3 hours before sowing was found to improve germination, promote plant growth and
increase crop survival. In India, presowing exposure of seeds for gamma radiation was found to
induce drought tolerance in barley plants. Growth was maintained in plants even under
conditions causing wilting.
Seed hardening was found beneficial in rice, sorghum and millets where dry sowing is
practiced. In Niger, seed hardening with water 100 per cent of its volume can be used as a
method for increasing the drought resistance genotypes at the seedling stage. In maize it was
observed, seedlings from treated seeds are not only capable of drought tolerance but also recover
quickly when supplied with water after a drought period, the recovery being greater in seedling
from seeds soaked for 2 hrs. in water. In fingermillet, the process of presowing hardening of
seeds increases the tolerance to sodium chloride and high osmotic stress. Presowing exposure of
seeds to gamma radiation induced drought tolerance in barley plants. It not only improved the
growth behavior but also maintained active metabolism in plants even under wilting condition.
Overnight soaking of seeds of sorghum, pearlmillet, fingermillet etc. in 1 per cent CaCl2 solution
is recommended to induce drought tolerance.
Table 1. Effect of seed treatment on germination and performance of different crops
Material Treatment Crop Effects Reference
Water Soaking for 12 hrs Wheat Early germination Mehrotra et al.(1968)
Water Soaking for 24 hrs Soybean Increased germination Nalwad et al.(1973)
Water Soaking for 12 hrs Pop Early germination Chittaprand Kulkarni
sorghum (2002)
ZnSO4 Soaking in 0.1 % soln. Bulk wheat Increased seed yield Semina (1968)
ZnSO4 Soaking in 0.1 % soln. Maize Increased seed yield Anisimov (1971)
CaCl2 Soaking in 0.1 % soln. Sorghum Early germination and Anonymous (1998)
increased seed yield
CaCl2 Soaking in 0.1 % soln. Peas & faba Increased seed yield Leshina (1970)
KH2PO4 Soaking in 0.5 % soln. Wheat improved yield and Mehrotra et al.(1968)
for 24 hrsyield parameters
KH2PO4 Soaking in 0.5 % soln. Sorghum Higher field emergence Vanangamudi and
Kulandaivelu (1989)
GA Soaking in 200 ppm Cotton Improved seedling growth Karansingh andAfria
(1990)
GA Soaking in 500 ppm Maize Increased germination and Lin (1985)
vigour

Study Question:
1. Study the effect of pre sowing seed hardening on germination growth and development in
different crops and record the observations.
2. Write on physiological reasons for tolerance to drought, salinity, frost etc. with seed
treatment.
Exercise No. 2: Moisture stress effects and recovery behavior of important crops

Moisture stress can be defined as a scarcity of water sufficient enough to significantly

reduce the growth and yield of crops. It is one of the major constraints limiting the productivity
of crops. Moisture stress or scarcity of water occurs at any stage of crops or intermittent level of
crop growth.
Moisture stress affects the growth, dry mater and harvestable yield in a number of plant
species, but the tolerance of any species to this menace varies remarkably. A ramified root
system has been implicated in the drought tolerance and high biomass production primarily due
to its ability to extract more water from soil and its transport to aboveground parts for
photosynthesis. In addition to other factors, changes in photosynthetic pigments are of paramount
importance to drought tolerance. Of the two photosynthetic pigments classes, carotenoids show
multifarious roles in drought tolerance including light harvesting and protection from oxidative
damage caused by drought. Thus, increased contents specifically of carotenoids are important for
stress tolerance.

Procedure : Prepare a PEG solution of different atmospheric potential i.e., 0.50 bars to -16 bars
from their solutions. Pipette out 5ml of solution to the petriplates and keep in to germination for
about 72 hours and also keep one control and allow the germination of seeds. Record
germination in each treatment and calculate % of germination.

Material required: Ragi seed, cowpea, PEG solution (Different concentration) and petriplates

Observation : Influence of moisture stress on germination and seedling growth.

Shoot length
Root length
Shoot & root ratio.
Morphology of plants
Table 1: Critical growth stages to water stress for major field crops

Crop Crop duration (days) Critical stages for irrigation

Wheat (dwarf) 130-140 Crowing, flowering, jointing, milk and dough
Wheat (tall) 140-150 Tillering, heading and dough
Barley 125-135 Tillering, booting
Rice (dwarf) 130-140 Flowering, grain filling, tillering
Rice (Basmati) 140-150 Flowering, grain development
Summer maize 90-110 Tasseling and silking, and grain development
Winter maize 150-180 Tasseling, grain development
Pearlmillet 75-85 Heading
Sorghum 90-110 Flowering, seeding, grain filling
Cotton 150-180 Flowering and boll development
Chickpea 130-140 Preflowering and pod development
Pigeonpea 150-170 Flowering initiation, pod development
Moongbean 65-75 Flowering
Clusterbean 130-145 Branching and flowering
Mustard 140-150 Pre-flowering and pod development
Groundnut 110-135 Pegging, pod-setting and pod filling
Sunflower 100-120 Flowering, seed filling, late vegetative
Sugarcane 280-330 Tillering and grand growth

Table 2: Water requirement (WR) of major dryland crops and fruit trees

Summer crops WR(mm) Winter crops WR(mm) Fruit crops WR(mm)

Pearlmillet 250 Rocket plant 150 Gonda 560
Mungbean 225 Mustard 200 Ber 660
Clusterbean 275 Chickpea 250 Aonla 660
Cowpea 240 Lentil 285 Clusapple 860
Pigeonpea 450 Peas 300 Guava 1160
Maize 400 Barley 300 Pomegranate 1160
Sorghum 400 Wheat 350 Mango 1260
Exercise No. 3: Determination of Relative Water Content and Saturation Deficit of Leaf

Two basic parameters describe the degree of unsaturation in plant body, indicating the
plant water deficit are 1) plant water content and 2) energy status of water in the cell. The water
content is usually expressed as relative to saturation (instead of absolute percentage) to make it
more meaningful. It is called “Relative Water Content” or “Water Saturation Deficit”. The
energy status of the water is usually expressed as “Total water potential”
Determination of RWC by Weatherley method

RWC is calculated as
Fresh wt – Oven dry wt
RWC=-----------------------------X 100
Turgid wt- Oven dry wt

WSD is calculated as
Turgid wt- Fresh wt
WSD=--------------------------------X100
Turgid wt- Oven dry wt

WSD= 100 - RWC

Procedure:

 Take 10-15 discs of leaves, whose water content is to be found by a punching machine
ensuring that leaf is carried from the field in a sealed bottle.
 Immediately after discing, weigh them on a precise balance (+/- 0.01mg)
 Float the leaf discs over a distilled water in a petri-dish for 4-6 hrs at room temperature
 Remove excess water on discs by gently placing them on filter papers ( up and down) for
a minute
 Weight them again while the leaves are turgid. Dry the discs in an oven for 24 hrs at 70 o
C
 Weigh the dry discs
 Calculate the mean fresh wt, mean turgid wt and mean dry wt
 The weight of discs can be taken by placing them in watch glass, suitably by subtracting
the wt of watch glass
 Calculate RWC by using above formula
Measurement of water potential

The measurement of water potential in plant cells and tissues is matter of critical concern
in the study of plant-water relations. The water potential a leaf or tissue cane found by

1) Liquid equilibriation method (dye method) (also called Shardakov method)

2) Vapor equilibriation method by thermocouple Psychrometer

3) Pressure equilibriation method by pressure bomb or chamber apparatus

Dye method (Shardakov method)

 Several uniform tissue samples (discs of same leaf) are selected from the leaf brought
from the field under sealed bottle
 They are immersed in series of graded test solutions of known water potential
 Each test solution is colored lightly by dye (methyl orange/ methylene blue)
 A parallel series of control solutions of similar potentials is also created withour dye

Dye method depends upon change in the density of test solutions. If the water is transferred
into the tissue during immersion, density of test solution will increase. If the water is
transferred out of the tissue during immersion, density will decrease. The density will not
change, if there is no movement of water in or out of the tissue

 After an hour or two, the density of each test solution is ascertained

 The water potential in the test solution, in which no density change during immersion is
observed, is equal to water potential of the tissue

To test the change in the density of test solution, a drop of dyed test solution is placed
carefully into the uncolored control solution of corresponding water potential. The drop, made
visible by the presence of dye will fall in control solution – if there is an increase in the density
of corresponding dyed test solution. If density has decreased, the drop will rise in control
solution. If no change in density is observed, the colored drop will diffuse away, when placed
in corresponding control solution.

For convenience, the test solutions are made using glucose, whose ionization constant is 1.0

Molarity 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.37 0.41

Sucrose solutions
Water potential of test solutions in -6.0 -7.0 -8.0 -9.0 -10.0 -11.0
bars
Water potential of the most concentrated test solution is calculated by Vant Hoff’s law as
follows:

Water potential of the most concentrated test solution = m i R T, where

m= molarity of test solution
i = Ionisation constant ( in sucrose it is 1.0)
R= Gas constant (0.083 litre bars./Mole degree)
T = Absolute temperature

After determining the water potential concentration, it is possible to calculate the water potential
of any desired solution by using the formula
m1/Ψ1 = mn / Ψn

where, m1 and mn are molarity of most concentrated and desired solutions and Ψ1 and Ψn are
osmotic potential of most concentrated and desired solutions

Study question: Collect the lesf samples from the field and estimate the RWC, WSD and water
potential.
Exercise No. 4: Estimation of Potential ET by Thornthwaite method

Information about evapotranspiration (ET), or consumptive water use, is significant for

water resources planning, for irrigation scheduling in crops (García et al., 2007), and for forestry
(Calder, 1977). Also, ET is very important for understanding natural plant communities
(Mielnick et al., 2005). As the changes of plant cover modify the ET and the energy balance, the
knowledge and measurement of the changes in ET are necessary to understand the
ecohydrological changes (Prater and DeLucia, 2006).

Potential ET is a function of atmospheric forcing and surface types. In order to remove

the influence of surface types, the concept of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was introduced
to study the evaporative power of the atmosphere independent of crop type, crop development
and management practices (Allen et al., 1998). This climatic parameter represents the
evapotranspiration from a standard vegetated surface. As water is abundantly available at the
reference evapotranspiring surface, soil factors do not affect ETo. Relating ETo to a specific
surface (grass) provides a reference from which ET for other surfaces can be estimated (Allen et
al., 1998). In general, techniques for estimating ETo are based on one or more atmospheric
variables, or on some measurements related to these variables, like pan evaporation. Some of
these methods are accurate and reliable; others provide only a rough approximation.

The Penman–method (PM) is considered to be the most physical and reliable method and
recommended by the FAO as the sole standard to verify other empirical methods (Allen et
al., 1998). The FAO Penman– method has a strong theoretical basis, including energy balances
to model ETo. It is based on fundamental physical principles, which guarantee the universal
validity of the method. However, it needs four meteorological parameters: air temperature,
relative humidity, wind, and net radiation, which may not be everywhere available (Camargo and
Camargo, 2000).

Other methods only contemplate the temperature, as for example, those of Thornthwaite
(1948) and Hargreaves (Hargreaves and Samani, 1982). These methods have the advantage of
requiring few meteorological data; however, they were developed for use in specific studies and
are most appropriately applied to climates similar to that where they were developed (Xu and
Chen, 2005). In fact, large errors can be expected when these methods are extrapolated to other
climatic areas without recalibrating the constants involved in the formulae (Hounam, 1971).
Thornthwaite's model (TM) is very simple, only requiring mean air temperature, a widely
available variable, and two tabular indexes: number of sunny hours, and monthly heat index
(Thornthwaite, 1948).

In many regions of the planet, the meteorological stations do not have enough data to use PM.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to develop procedures for realizing regional and temporal
adjustments TM to obtain the best estimations of ETo (Borges and Mendiondo, 2007).
MODIFIED PENMAN METHOD:
Among the climatological approaches, Penman method gives fairly satisfactory estimation of
ET0.
ETo = C (W x Rn + (1-W) x f (U) x (ea – ed)]
Where,
C = Adjustment factor for ratio of U day and U night
U = Wind speed in m/s
W = Temperature and altitude dependent weighing factor
Rn = Net radiation mm/d
Or Rn = 0.75 Rs – Rn1 Where Rs = (0.25 + 0.5 n/N)
Rn1 = f (T) x f(ed) Where T – Mean temperate
ed = ea x RH / 100 Where ea = Saturation vapour pressure
f(U) = 0.27 (1-U/100) (U in km/d)
ea – ed = vapour pressure deficit

Thornthwaite method:

The estimation of ETo with TM is computed in according with Thornthwaite (1948) by

the equation:

To calculate Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) using Thornthwaite method, first the

Monthly Thorthwaite Heat Index (i) calculation is required, using the following formula:
I = (t/5)1.514
where “t” is the mean monthly temperature

The Annual Heat Index (I) is calculated, as the sum of the Monthly Heat Indices (i):
12
t=∑
i=1
A Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) estimation is obtained for each month, considering a
month is 30 days long and there are 12 theoretical sunshine hours per day, applying the
following equation:
PET non corrected = 16 (10t/I) α
Where α is
𝛼 = 675 x 10−9 x 𝐼3 − 771 x 10−7 x 𝐼2 + 1792 x 10−5 x 𝐼 + 0.49239
Obtained values are later corrected according to the real length of the month and the theoretical
sunshine hours for the latitude of interest, with the formula:
PET = PET non corrected N/12 x d/30
N: are the theoretical sunshine hours for each month and d number of days for each month.

Study question: Collect the weather data 05 2022, GKVK and workout the PET
Exercise No. 5: Measurement/ estimation of soil water balance

Water balance technique which integrates moisture distribution in space and time is a
better tool to understand water availability in dry land conditions than rainfall alone. Studies of
water balance of soils are of great importance to crops and plant communities. These studies not
only help in establishing the relationship between the amount and intensity of incident rainfall
and the amount that enters into the soil but also are useful in understanding the relation between
the amount of water actually utilized by the crop and amount actually present in the soil. They
also help in preparation of supplementary irrigation schedules.

Soil water balance is necessary to appreciate the role of various management strategies in
minimizing the losses and maximizing the utilization of water, which is the most limiting factor
of crop production in semi-arid tropics (SAT).

Water is essential for plant life. The important functions of water in the plant are:
Dissipate heat that is produced by the plant's metabolic activities.
Plants continually absorb water from their growth medium and evaporate part of it into
the surrounding atmosphere. This is transpiration and takes place mainly through the leaves.
Water loss through transpiration helps the plant dissipate heat that has accumulated as a result of
metabolism and radiant energy intake.

Donate electrons through photolysis for photosynthesis.

The photosynthetic process is driven by light energy. Light functions initially to split
water into protons (H+), electrons (e-), and molecular oxygen (1/2 O 2 ).
Light H 2 0 -------------> (2 H +) + (2 e -) + (1/2 O 2 )
The released electrons participate in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions that
eventually drive the biochemical reactions in photosynthesis.

Dissolve minerals and organic compounds in cells.

Water is called the universal solvent, because any molecule that is polar will dissolve in
it. As ions are formed, they are surrounded by the oppositely charged ions of water. In the cell,
water serves as a medium through which solutes move.
 Water requirements of the plants are met by the supplies from soil, which acts as
reservoir for water. The amount of water held by soil depends on the inputs and losses from the
system and holding capacity of the soil. Important sources of water in the field are generally
rainfall and irrigation. Losses of water include surface runoff from the field, deep percolation out
of root zone or drainage, evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from the crop
canopy.
Soil water balance equation
Soil water balance, like a financial statement of income and expenditure, is an account of
all quantities of water added, removed or stored in a given volume of soil during a given period
of time. The soil water balance equation thus helps in making estimates of parameters, which
influence the amount of soil water.
Using the soil water balance equation, one can identify periods of water stress/excesses
which may have adverse affect on crop performance. This identification will help in adopting
appropriate management practices to alleviate the constraint and increase the crop yields. The
amount of water in a soil layer is determined by those factors that add water to the soil and those
factors that remove water from it.
Hence the soil water balance equation is:

Change in soil water = Inputs of water - Losses of water Addition of water to the soil:

Water is usually added to the soil in three measurable ways - precipitation (P), irrigation (I), and
contribution from the ground-water table (C). The contribution from the ground water will be
significant only if the ground-water table is near the surface.
So, the inputs of water can be presented as:
Water Inputs = P + I + C
Removal of water:
Water is removed from the soil through evaporation from soil surface or transpiration through
plant together known as evapotranspiration (ET), and deep drainage (D). Further, a part of the
rain water received at the soil surface may be lost as surface run-off (RO).
The above three factors are negative factors in the equation. The losses of water from soil can
then be represented by the following equation.
Water Losses = ET + D + RO
Soil water balance
The change in the soil water content which is the difference between the water added and
water withdrawn will now read:
Change in Soil water = (P + I + C) - (ET + D + RO)
Soil water refers to the amount of water held in the root zone at a given time. This
amount can be measured. The change in soil water from one measurement to another depends on
the contribution of components in the equation. Suppose the amount of water in the root zone at
the beginning is M1 mm and at the end of a given period is M2 mm, thus the equation is
expressed as M1 - M2 = P + I + C - ET - D - RO or M1 + P + I + C = ET + D + RO + M2
With the help of this equation one can compute any one unknown parameter in the equation if all
others are known.
The quantitative data on rainfall (P) evapotranspiration (ET), deep drainage (D) and soil
moisture at a given time (M1 or M2) for different locations and for different practices are useful
for selecting appropriate water-management strategies.

Soil water balance computation

Let us work a few examples using the Soil Water Balance Equation to appreciate the
usefulness of this model.

Example 1: Soil = Clay loam; Crop = Ragi; Period = 01 to 31 Aug; Area = 2 ha

Soil moisture in the profile # on Aug 01 (M1) 400 mm
Precipitation or Rainfall (P) 100 mm
Irrigation (I) Nil
Contribution from ground water (C) Nil
Run-off of 200 cubic m from 2 ha field (R) 10 mm
Deep drainage (D) Nil
Soil moisture in the profile on Aug 31 (M2) 350 mm

Estimate evopotranspiration (ET) from the field during 01 to 31 Aug. Equation:

M1 + P + I + C = ET + D + RO +M2
400 +100 + 0 + 0 = ET + 0 + 10 + 350
ET = 500 mm - 360 mm = 140 mm
Thus, evopotranspiration which is difficult to be measured could be estimated using the Soil
Water Balance Equation.
Study Question:
1.Estimate: Deep drainage (D) losses from the field during crop period for the following table
and draw conclusion.
Soil = Clay; Crop = Maize; Area=2 ha; Period = 10 June (sowing date) to 30 Sept (harvesting)
Given:
Soil moisture in the profile on Jun 10 (M1) 100 mm
Precipitation or Rainfall (P) 500 mm
Irrigation (I) Nil
Contribution from ground water (C) Nil
Evopotranspiration (estimated) (ET) 400 mm
Run-off of 200 cubic m from 2 ha field (RO) 70 mm
Soil moisture in the profile on Sep 30 (M2) 100mm
Exercise No. 6: Rainfall variability analysis and interpretation

Rainfall variability analysis is important for planning and execution of agricultural

operations for predicting drought / flood and to give fore warning to tide over the situation and
for reducing the risks in dry farming.
Average annual rainfall: To decide the crops and cropping pattern
Seasonal rainfall analysis: to decide the cropping period
Monthly rainfall analysis: To decide length of growing season
Weekly rainfall analysis: To find out dry and wet spells within the growing season, to plan
agricultural operations, to identify mid season risks and to initiate corrective measures.
I. Rainfall Periodicities and A Long Term Trend.
1. A graph can be plotted with the year on X- axis and the annual rainfall on the y-
axis. The rainfall undergoes a periodic variation with 11 – year cycle. This is due to
the influence of the sunspot cycle or solar cycle. Percentage deviation from the
normal on this graph helps to classify a year as excess (>+ 20%), normal (-19 to 19)
or deficit (<-20 % of average rainfall) year.
2. Trend is a long time gradual increase or decrease in a weather parameter. To study
the trend the short term fluctuation of annual rainfall due to the influence of solar
cycle has to be filtered. To achieve this, 11 year moving average method is used;
Graph helps to understand the trend.
3. Intensity of rainfall mainly influence erosion of soil. Study of rainfall intensity helps
in identifying probable period of floods, filling of irrigation tanks etc. If the intensity
of rains exceeds the rate of infiltration of soil run off occurs. Intensity of rainfall in
mm / day in the last 10 years is considered to estimate run off losses.
4. Number of rainy days (days with > 2.5 mm rain) indicates distribution of rainfall in
the growing season and also length of growing season. A rainfall < 0.5 mm is
recorded as traces and not considered for accounting.
5. Periodicity of rainfall : Certain events of rainfall are repeated at periodical intervals
such events are onset of monsoon, recurrence of droughts, probability of receiving
certain amount of rainfall etc.
a. Onset of monsoon: More than 70 per cent of rainfall is received during June to
September in the country (Table 1). The summer monsoon normally arrives over South
 Kerala on 1st June. Thereafter, it continues to advance northwards and westwards and
reaches Rajasthan by mid July. The actual date of monsoon onset over a place in a year
undergoes variation of 8 days (Probability being 67 %). Estimation of onset of mason is
important for taking up dry sowing (Table 2).
b. Withdrawal of monsoon : the normal monsoon withdrawal from western parts of
Rajesthan commences by 1 st September and the withdrawal is completed by October
15ththen north- east monsoon sets in.
Table 1. Seasonal distribution of annual rainfall in India

Source & Duration Seasonal distribution (%)

Summer monsoon (March - May) 10.4
South – west monsoon (June – September ) 73.7
North-east monsoon (October – December) 13.3
Winter monsoon (January - February) 2.6

c. Rainfall distribution: Long term studies on the behavior of rainfall distribution shows
that the availability of rain is confined to a period marked by a beginning and end. A
small departure from the normal is enough to trigger drought like conditions.
d. Length of growing season (LGS): LGS is the period during a year when precipitation
exceeds half the potential evapotraspiration plus a period required to evapotraspiration an
assumed 100 mm of water stored from precipitation in the soil profile (FAO definition).
In dry farming, LGS depends on duration of rainy season and moisture retentive
characteristics of soil. LGS is a period between seed germinating rains to end of season
when profile moisture is reduced to a AE/PE to 0.5.
e. Dependability of rainfall: Another important character of rainfall is its dependability.
The measure used for describing degree of variability is the coefficient of variability {CV
(%) = [σ / mean] X 100 }. The higher the CV, the higher is the variability and less is the
dependability. In west of Surat to Delhi line, CV exceeds 30 % and rise to 60 to 80 % in
west of Rajasthan and Kutch. Elsewhere CV is 20 to 30 % with lower values along the
west coast and with east Assam. Monthly rainfall variability in the rainiest months (July
and August) is as high as 40 to 50 per cent. CV further increases in September and
October, the uncertainly becomes nearly complete. If these aspects are not taken note in
crop planning risk, of uncertainly with consequent failures is great.
 Table 2:Effect of mean annual rainfall on coefficient of variation and probability of
occurrence of deficit rainfall
Station Mean Annual Probability of
annual rainfall occurrence of deficit
rainfall cv (%) rainfall
(mm) (< 75 % of normal)
Jodhpur 369 55 51
Anantpur 568 30 38
Hyderabad 767 29 31
Varanasi 1026 25 25
Ranchi 1434 21 20
Shillong 2415 15 7
The coefficient of variation in its occurrence, increases with a fall in annual precipitation
(Table 2)
II. Recurrence of rainfall events :
In the rainfed agriculture the question is how much rainfall can be expected at least in
the time interval in three out of four years or four out of five years. This can be known
by using ranking order method (as described by Doorenbos and Pruitt (1984) or
Weibulls method). The main assumption in this method is that the rainfall is more or
less normally distributed.
The return periods according to weibul’s formula are calculated as under and arranged
in a table (Table 3)
P ={ m/n+1} X 100
Where, P= Plotting position in per cent chance, m = rank number when the data are arranged in
descending order and n = Total number of years events weeks for which data is available
Table 3. Recurrence of rainfall events
Rainfall Rainfall Plotting
(P) order (m) (Descending
order) position/
probability %
1 Highest -
2 - -
3 - -
- - -
n Lowest -
If a probability level of 50 is require, it can be calculate as under. 30 = 100 (m)/ (30+1) when n=
30 years /event
(Note: If the quotient is 0.5 and above, it should be rounded of to next number)
In general, 75% probability is used in agriculture as dependable rainfall.
The information can be depicted in a graph using total amount of rainfall on Y-axis and
probability recurrence interval on X-axis and useful conclusions could be drawn.
iii. Estimation of rainfall Probabilities(Statistical Predictions)
The concept of estimating probabilities with respect of a given amount of rainfall is
useful in a agricultural operational planning. In a given crop –growing season many times
decisions have to be taken based on the probability of receiving certain specified amount of
rainfall during a week.
A given week (Standard week) is wet, if during that week a rainfall of an expected
amount or more is received and the week is dry if the rainfall is less than that amount. The levels
of expected amounts of rainfall could be 5,10 or 20 mm etc., depending upon the purpose for
which we calculate probalities would be used based on the climatic demand of the area.
Estimation of probability of receiving an amount of rainfall during a given week P (W) is
called “ initial probability”. To meet the agronomic needs of crop growth, information on
distribution of dry or wet periods is essential. This leads to the concept of estimating the
probability of rain next week if we had rains this week P (W/W) and probability of next week
being wet, if this week is dry P (W/D). As the probabilities are estimated based on conditional
statements, such probabilities are termed as conditional probabilities. The “ conditional
probabilities” can be obtained by employing Markov chain modal (Choudhury et al., 1978,
Virmani et al., 1978).
i. P (W) = F ( W) /N
Where,
P (W)= Probability of the week considered being wet (initial probability)
F (W)= Frequency of wet weeks
N= number of weeks of data used.
ii. P (D)= F (D)/ N
Where,
P(D)= Probabilities of the weeks considered being dry (Initial probanility)
F(D)= Frequency of dry weeks
iii. P(W/W)= F (W/W)/ F(W/W) + F (D/W)
 Where,
P(W/W)= probability of wet week given that the previous week was wet (conditional
wet probability)
F(W/W)= Frequency of wet week given that the previous week was wet.
F(D/W)= Frequency of dry week given that the previous week was wet.
iv. P(2W)= P (W) x P (W/W)2
Where, P(2W)= Probability of two consecutive wet weeks
P(W)= Initial wet probability
P(W/W)2= Conditional probability if second week (next week)
v. P(3W)= P (W) x P (W/W)2 x P (W/W2)3
Where, P(3W)= Probability of three consecutive wet weeks
P(W)= Initial wet probability
P(W/W)2= Conditional probability if second week (next week)
P(W/W2)3= Conditional probability if third week (2nd next week).
Similarly P (D/D), P (2D) and P (3D) can be estimated in the same manner as P (W/W), P (2W)
and P (3W) except that week being dry in place of wet. Using the above formula, initial
probability for dry and wet week, conditional probability of wet week and dry week preceded by
dry week and probability of consecutive two and three wet or dry weeks starting with the wet or
dry can also be worked out. Usually the probabilities are given in percentage. After computation
of probabilities for a locality a graph has to be drawn with standard weeks on X-axis and
probabilities levels on Y-axis for interpretation of the analyzed data.
In the context of the semi arid and arid rainfall situation it is suggested that at least 10mm
dependable weekly rainfall be adopted as criterions for effective rainfall during monsoon crop.
This limit is considered based on the climatic demand of these areas during cropping season.
Then around 70 per cent probabilities level is considered a lower threshold of dependable
rainfall. The period during which the probabilities graph for 10mm and the conditional
probabilities exceed 70 per cent line is considered as safe cropping period.
In the context of semi arid and arid rainfall situation it is suggested that at least 10mm
dependable weekly rainfall be adopted as criterions for effective rainfall during monsoon crop.
This limit is considered based on the climatic demand of these areas during cropping season.
Then around 70 per cent probabilities level is considered as lower threshold of dependable
rainfall. The period during which the probabilities graph for 10 mm and the conditional
probabilities exceed 70 per cent line is considered as safe cropping period.
Based on the initiation of this period and its extent crop pattern has to be planned for
each locality. Having computed initial and condition probabilities as stated above, the next step
is to classify the said area in to four categories as follows:
a. Highly dependable area= Initial probability > 70%
b. Dependable area = Initial probability > 60%
c. Low dependable area = Initial probability >50%
d. Not dependable = Initial probability <50%
Note: The crop plants meet almost all of their water requirement from their root rhizosphere. The
water retention and release characteristics of soils, therefore, have an important role in
agricultural production. The relevance of only rainfall analysis without the consideration of soil
characteristics will defeat the purpose.
Computations:
Suppose we want to know proper sowing time for rabi crops in the Bijapur area in the month of
September, we consider rainfall of 37th and 38th weeks for estimating probability of receiving at
least certain amount of rainfall (say 10mm) in 37 th week and continuity of wet week to 38th
week. 50 years of rainfall is considered as an example. Firstly, we are interested to know the
probability of 37th week being wet or dry for the expected amount of rainfall 10mm. from the
Table we know that in28 years out of 50years. The rainfall was 10mm or more during 37 th week.
That means number of dry occasions will be (50-28 =22), 22 out of 50years. The probability of
37th week being a wet is given by P(W)= F(W)/N= Frequency o wet occasion/ Total no. of
occasions= 28/50= 0.56
Then, the probability of 37 week being dry is P(D)= F(D)/N= Frequency of dry occasions/Total
no. of occasions= 22/50=0.44
Otherwise, P (D) 1-P (W) =1.0-0.56=0.44
Conditional probability: Now, we want to know the continuity of wet or dry season, ie as per
the above example, probability of 38th week also being wet if 37th week is a wet week
(P(W38/W37) for rainfall exceeding 10mm. the computations areas as follows:
Now find out the number of occasions in which the 38th week received a rainfall of 10mm or
more. Out of 28 occasions of 37th week being wet, during 22 occasions the 38th week is also
found to be wet.
F (W38/W37)
i. Then, P (W38/W37)= W38
F( )+ F (D38/W37)
W37

= 22/22+6= 22/28= 0.79

ii. The probability of 38th week being dry week if 37 week is wet week.
F (D38/W37)
Then, P (D38/W37) = W38
F( )+ F (D38/W37)
W37

= 6/22+6 = 6/ 28 = 0.21
That means, the probability of 38th week being dry when 37th week wet,
P (D38/W37)= 1 – P (W38/W37)= 1-0.79 = 0.21
iii. Probability of 38 week being wet week, when 37 week being a dry week (<10mm)
Frequency of 38th week wet when 37 week is dry
P(W38 (D37)= ---------------------------------------------------------
Frequency of 37th week being dry

F (W38/D37)
= = 6/22 = 0.273
F (D38

iv. Probability of 38 week being also dry when 37 week being dry.

Frequency of 38th week dry when 37 week is wet

P(D38 (D37)= ---------------------------------------------------------
Frequency of 37th week being dry

F (D38/D37)
= = 12/22 = 0.55
F (D37)

That means P(D38 /D37)=1-Pc (W38 /D37)= 1-0.273= 0.727

Study question
1. Interpret the distribution of annual rainfall according to seasons in India.
2. Collect the rainfall data from the Department of Agrometeorology and interpret it zonewise
and district wise for various districts of Karnataka. Correlate it with last year’s rainfall.
3. Make use of the rainfall data of Bangalore from 1999 to 2018 and complete the table given
below and draw conclusion also represent the information using graph.

A.Distribution characteristics and probability of rainfall

Months/ Rainfall No. of S.D. C.V Probability of rainfall % of years
season (mm) av. rainy .%
days
Av. Range 10 25 50 75 90 D N A
Jan
Feb
Mar
April
May
June
July
August
Sept
October
Nov.
Dec.
Total
SW
monsoon
Post
monsoon
NE
monsoon
Pre
monsoon
D deficit, N normal, A Excess
B. Collect the rainfall data from 1st to 52 weeks for the last 10 years for Bangalore and
work out P(D), P(D/D), P(2D), P(3D), P(W), P(W/W), P(2W), P(3W) considering a week
receiving > 20mm rainfall as wet. Arrange the data as under and draw conclusion.
Meteorological
week P(D) P(D/D) P(2D) P(3D) P(W) P(W/W) P(2W) P(3W)
No. Period
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
 9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Exercise No. 7: Estimation of moisture index and aridity index

The amount of potential evopotranspiration being dependent only on climate, by

comparing it with precipitation Thornthwait developed a classification system for arid climates.

Thornthwaite (1948) System:

From the annual values of water need (WN), water surplus (WS), and water deficiency
(WD), indices have been defined as
Huidity index (Ih) = (WS/WN) x 100
Aridity index (Ia) = (WD/WN) X 100
Moisture index (Im) = Ih – 0.6Ia*
= (100WS -60WD) / WN
*He was of the opinion that a surplus of 6 inches in one season will counteract a deficiency of 10
inches in another.
On the basis of moisture index (Im), Thornthwaite evolved the famous scheme of classification
of world climates, when precipitation is adequate to supply the water that is needed for potential
evaporation, the ‘moisture index’ is considered as equal to zero. Moist climates have positive
values and arid climates have negative values of this index.
Im values Symbol Type of climate
≥100 A Per humid climate
80 to 100 B4
60 to 80 B3 Humid Humid
40 to 60 B2 climate
20 to 40 B1
0 to 20 C2 Dry sub humid
-20 to 0 C1 Dry sub humid
-40 to -20 D Semi arid Dry
-60 to -40 E Arid (risk in crop production ) climate

In Thornthwaite’s method, potential evaporation is computed by an empirical formula

involving mean monthly temperature and average day length. The values of other imported
factors influencing evaporation such as wind, humidity and solar radiation are considered to be
kinked with variation in temperature and were, therefore , omitted from the formula on order to
simplify the method without affecting its usefulness.
 Thornthwaite’s method of calculating potential evaporation was developed in a climate of
summer rainfall and has not proved entirely satisfactory in other types of dry climate.

Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) classification

In this system, moisture index (Im %) for a place is computed by using the formula
Im (%) = (P-PET)/ PET X 100
Where, P- is annual precipitation (mm) and PET is the annual evapotranspiration (mm)
Limits of Im Symbol Type of climate
( %)
≥100 A Per humid climate
80 to 100 B4 Humid
60 to 80 B3 Humid
40 to 60 B2 Humid
20 to 40 B1 Humid
0 to 20 C2 Moist sub humid
-33.3 to 0 C1 Dry sub humid
-66.6 to -33.3 D Semi arid
-100 to -66.7 E Arid
Mather (1974)
Semi arid regions comprise areas where precipitation meets 1/3 to 2/3 of the evaporation needs.
Subramanyam and sastry (1972) worked out aridity index (A/c Thornthwaite & Mather, 1955)
aridity index =(PE-AE)/ PE x 100 for individual years and standard deviation.Based on the
departure of Ia from the medium value they classified drought as under.
Departure of Ia from Drought index
the medium value
<½σ Moderate
½ to σ Large
σ to 2 σ Severe
>2 σ Disastrous
Reference
Mather, J.R., 1974, Climatology- Fundmetals and applications, McGraw Hill Book Co.
Subramaniam, A.P., 1964, Climate and natural vegetation of Mysore state. Indian Society of Soil
Science, 12:101-112.
Study question
1. Make use of the information and find out the climate types at different places.
Exercise No. 8 & 9: Remote sensing and familiarization with agro-advisory service
bulletins

Remote sensing is defined as the art and science of gathering information about objects or
areas from a distance without having physical contact with objects area being investigated.
Remote sensing is a technique of obtaining reliable information of objects on earth
surface by using sensors mounted on different platforms. The platforms are ground based
(sensors mounted few meters above the ground), aircraft based (cameras mounted to the aircraft
flying at 1 – 10 km above the ground) and satellite based (revolving at an altitude of about 900
km). The products / data obtained from these platforms are employed depending upon the
purpose, level of planning and cost of inputs.
Ground based sensors are useful for collecting data from the pot and field experiments.
The sensors include spectroradiometers, spectrophotometers, infrared thermometers and
chlorophyll meters. The spectroradiometers / spectrophotometers measure the reflectance while
the infrared thermometers measure the canopy and air temperature. The spectrometers consist of
bands comparable to the different bands of the sensors mounted on the satellites launched by
different countries. The spectral reflectance is the cumulative effect of a number of crop factors
including crop canopy, foliage densities, leaf area index, leaf orientation, chlorophyll content,
leaf nitrogen, leaf moisture content etc., The leaf nitrogen and chlorophyll contents can be
estimated from the spectral readings of a crop with respect to the varietal, soil and climatic
factors. The chlorophyll meter is useful in measuring the chlorophyll content of the crops insitu.
Powerful cameras are used for taking aerial photographs of different kinds. The different aerial
photographs are black and white, infrared, colour infrared and colour photographs. Of these,
colour infrared photographs are useful to distinguish in the different stages and conditions of
crops. The black and white photographs are employed for soil mapping, watershed delineation,
ground water targeting etc. The aerial photographs are costly and give one time data.
The satellite gives synoptic and repetitive coverage of earth surface once in 16 – 26 days.
Different formats (photographic formats and digital data) are available. Of these, digital data are
more useful in distinguishing the crops, varieties and crop conditions. The photographic products
are utilized for soil resource inventory and land degradation studies. The satellite revolves
around the earth at altitude of about 900 km, and the reflected solar energy by the objects on the
earth is recorded in the sensors.
Application of Remote Sensing:

Remote sensing is a potential tool in providing spatial and temporal information on soil
and crop variables which could be related with crop growth and yield models. The kind of
information on soil and crop variables largely depends on the remote sensing platforms (ground
based, aircraft and satellite) and the remote sensors (camera radiometers and scanners with
different resolutions).

AGROMETEOROLOGICAL ADVISORY SERVICE

India Meteorological Department (IMD) started weather services for farmers in the year
1945. It was broadcast by All India Radio in the form of Farmer’s Weather Bulletin (FWB).
Subsequently, in the year 1976, IMD started Agro-Meteorological agriculturalAdvisory Service
(AAS) from its State Meteorological Centers, in collaboration with Agriculture Departments of
the respective State Governments. Though these services are being regularly provided by IMD
for the past many years, the demand of the farming community could not be fully met due to
certain drawbacks in the system. In view of that IMD launched Integrated Agromet Service in
the country for 2007 in collaboration with different organizations/institutes. At present bulletins
are being issued from three levels as mentioned below.

National Agromet Advisory Bulletin

The bulletin is prepared for national level agricultural-planning & management and is
being issued by National Agromet Advisory Service Centre, Agricultural Meteorology Division,
India Meteorological Department. Prime users of this bulletin are Crop Weather Watch Group,
(CWWG), Ministry of agriculture..Bulletin is also communicated to all the related Ministries
(State & Central), Organizations, NGOs for their use.

State Agromet Advisory Bulletin

This bulletin is prepared for State level agricultural planning & management. These
bulletins are issued from 22 AAS units at different State capitals. Prime user of this bulletin is
State ACWWG. This is also meant for other users like Fertilizer industry, Pesticide industry,
Irrigation Department, Seed Corporation, Transport and other organizations which provide inputs
in agriculture.
District Agromet Advisory Bulletin
This is prepared for the farmersof the districts. These bulletins are being issued from 30
AMFUs functioning at State Agricultural Universities. This contains advisories for all the
weather sensitive agricultural operations form sowing to harvest. It also includes advisories for
horticultural crops and livestock.. These weather based advisories are disseminated to the
farmers through mass media dissemination, Internet etc as well as through district level
intermediaries. The advisories will be communicated through multi-channel dissemination
system.

Preparation of Crop Weather Calendar:

In order to provide the farmer with an efficient weather service, it is essential that the
weather forecaster should be familiar with the crops that are grown in a particular agro-climatic
zone. The type of fore warnings to be given depending upon the state and stages of the crop
should also to be known. In case of farmers, they should become familiar with weather bulletins
and learn how to interpret them. To meet the above requirement, the detailed information
collected from the agricultural departments has been condensed by the IMD and presented in a
pictorial form known as crop weather calendar.
The crop weather calendar consists of three parts viz., crop husbandry, climate
requirements and weather warnings. The important crop phases like sowing, germination,
transplanting (in the case of rice), tillering, elongation, flowering, grain formation and harvest
are indicated under the crop husbandry against the standard agro-meteorological weeks in lower
part of the calendar. The normal monthly rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and number of
rainy days are depicted in middleof the calendar with water requirements and upper most portion
of the calendar indicates the nature of the weather warnings to be issued in different crop
periods. These crop weather calendars help the weather forecaster to see at a glance the type of
weather warnings are to be issued for a particular district in a given weather situation during a
particular phase of crop. They are of equal interest to the farmers for better crop management.
The crop weather calendars are to be prepared at the village / panchayat level by the agro-
meteorological field units (AMFUs), established in different agro-climatic zones, through
research and development activities taken up for major crops and varieties. They help in
improving quality of agro-advisory based on medium range weather forecasting.

Study Question:
1. Explain the role of remote sensing in agriculture
2.Write a report onWeather Based Agromet Advisory Bulletin, Department of Agro-
Meteorology, UAS, GKVK, Bangalore
Exercise No. 10: Study on anti-transpirants to alleviate the moisture stress

Plants transpire water vapours continuously from all above ground parts particularly
through leaves. This process of evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants is termed as
transpiration. Approximately 99 percent of the water taken by the plants roots is transpired to the
atmosphere. Transpiration occurs through different types of apertures such as cuticles, lenticels
and stomata. Among these apertures stomata accounts for 90-97 per cent of transpiration.
Transpiration is considered as a necessary evil. Reduction in transpiration may help in
maintaining favorable water balance in dry farming. Any material that is applied to plant
surfaces with the aim of reducing or inhibiting water loss from plant surface is called
antitranspirants.
Scope of antitranspirants
• Under dryland area to reduce water losses through transpiration.
• In costly irrigation facilities for extending the irrigation intervals.
• For reducing transplanting shock of nursery plants

Types of anti-transpirants: Based on mode of action, anti-transpirants are of four types

Stomata closing type: Most of the transpiration occurs through stomata on the leaf surface.
Spray material used for various purposes such as certain fungicide (phenyl mercuric acetate,
herbicide (atrazine) and metabolic inhibitors have been found to cause the closure of stomata and
thereby reduction in transpiration. The effectiveness of an antitranspirants is also depends on the
coverage of lower surface of leaves, interaction of the antitranspirants with external
environments, surface anatomy of leaves and rate of formation and growth of new leaves.

Film forming type: Foliar spray of waxy or plastic emulsions such as mobileaf, hexadecanol
and silicone produce an external physical barrier outside the stomatal opening to retard the
escape of water vapour through stomatal opening. The film so formed should have more
resistance to the passage of water than to that of carbon dioxide. Film type antitranspirants which
provide selective type of permeability barriers to water vapours and carbon dioxide diffusion in
the required directions have not yet been found so far.

Reflectance Type: White reflecting materials such as whitewash or kaoline spray form a coating
on the leaves and increase the leaf reflectance (albedo). By reflecting the large amount of
radiation, they reduce leaf temperature and vapour pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and
thus reduce transpiration. Application of 5% kaolin spray has been found to reduce transpiration
losses markedly.

Growth retardants: Foliar application of chemicals such as cycocel reduces shoot growth,
increases root growth and induces stomatal closer. Thus, the application of such chemical helps
in improving the water status in the plants and soil.

Limitations of antitranspirants:
• May reduce the rate of photosynthesis
• May increase the leaf temperature by reducing evaporative cooling
•Interaction of climatic factors with antitranspirants reduces their effectiveness for longer
duration
• Sometimes marginal cost is more than marginal returns.
• May produce toxic effects on leaves.

Demonstration of on effect of anti-transpirants

Loss of water in the form of water vapour from the aerial parts of plant is known as
transpiration. The water vapour can be seen in the form of water droplets if a transpiring plant
covered thoroughly

Material required: A well watered potted plant, Beljar, rubber sheet, grease, or Vaseline, anti-
transpirants.

Procedure: Take a small well watered plants. Cover the external soil surface of pots and its soil
thoroughly with polythene bags to prevent direct evaporation of water. Invert a dry bell jar over
them. Seal the edges of bell jars with Vaseline and place it in sunlight for few hours. After some
time the bell jars becomes misty and its inner walls contains drops of water that may flow down
the sides of bell jars. Weigh the pots. Weight of the each pot is less as compared to its initial
weight, this reduced weight is due loss of water in transpiration.
Precaution:
• The bell jar should be air tight at rim base by putting grease or Vaseline.
• The pot should be well watered before starting the experiment
• The bell jar should be made up of glass to penetrate light for photosynthesis
The pot surface and soil must be covered carefully to avoid evaporation losses.

Practical work
Spray the Chemicals on the test crops, record observation and draw conclusion.
Exercise No. 11: Collection and interpretation of data for water balance equations for ACZ
of Karnataka

Water balance technique which integrates moisture distribution in space and time is a
better tool to understand water availability in area than rainfall alone. Studies of water balance of
soils are of great importance to crops and plant communities. These studies not only help in
establishing the relationship between the amount and intensity of incident rainfall and the
amount that enters into the soil but also are useful in understanding the relation between the
amount of water actually utilized by the crop and amount actually present in the soil. They also
help in preparation of supplementary irrigation schedules.

Soil water balance

The change in the soil water content which is the difference between the water added and
water withdrawn will now read:
Change in Soil water = (P + I + C) - (ET + D + RO)
Soil water refers to the amount of water held in the root zone at a given time. This
amount can be measured. The change in soil water from one measurement to another depends on
the contribution of components in the equation. Suppose the amount of water in the root zone at
the beginning is M1 mm and at the end of a given period is M2 mm, thus the equation is
expressed as M1 - M2 = P + I + C - ET - D - RO or M1 + P + I + C = ET + D + RO + M2
With the help of this equation one can compute any one unknown parameter in the equation if all
others are known.
The quantitative data on rainfall (P) evapotranspiration (ET), deep drainage (D) and soil
moisture at a given time (M1 or M2) for different locations and for different practices are useful
for selecting appropriate water-management strategies.
Table 4: Monthly PET values (mm) for selected places of Karnataka
STATION
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
NAME

KARWAR 106.0 110.0 144.0 141.0 128.0 91.0 83.0 87.0 95.0 100.0 105.0 103.0

HONNAVAR 121.0 121.0 146.0 141.0 134.0 98.0 92.0 94.0 96.0 106.0 112.0 118.0

MANGALORE 136.0 136.0 164.0 154.0 141.0 96.0 91.0 95.0 100.0 109.0 116.0 128.0

BIDAR 122.0 138.0 184.0 192.0 217.0 173.0 135.0 128.0 116.0 127.0 114.0 109.0

GULBARGA 125.0 144.0 191.0 210.0 235.0 185.0 152.0 148.0 131.0 146.0 130.0 118.0

BIJAPUR 109.0 123.0 165.0 180.0 197.0 157.0 137.0 135.0 124.0 123.0 102.0 97.0

RAICHUR 132.0 145.0 193.0 202.0 224.0 189.0 170.0 164.0 143.0 143.0 126.0 121.0

BELGUAM 113.0 125.0 167.0 171.0 132.0 114.0 92.0 95.0 100.0 117.0 110.0 106.0

GADAG 121.0 131.0 173.0 179.0 184.0 145.0 130.0 131.0 123.0 113.0 113.0 112.0

BELLARY 115.0 129.0 171.0 181.0 195.0 167.0 156.0 153.0 138.0 123.0 106.0 104.0

CHITRADURGA 124.0 134.0 172.0 171.0 172.0 138.0 121.0 120.0 119.0 117.0 107.0 111.0

SHIMOGA 109.0 118.0 153.0 153.0 145.0 110.0 95.0 98.0 101.0 101.0 99.0 99.0

HASSAN 111.0 119.0 157.0 149.0 146.0 111.0 110.0 104.0 106.0 105.0 98.0 100.0

BANGALORE 117.0 130.0 166.0 158.0 157.0 127.0 116.0 114.0 109.0 105.0 98.0 103.0

MYSORE 128.0 134.0 166.0 154.0 148.0 124.0 116.0 117.0 117.0 111.0 106.0 114.0

BAGALKOT 135.0 127.0 152.0 161.0 172.0 151.0 137.0 132.0 124.0 141.0 133.0 135.0

BALEHONNUR 73.0 86.0 109.0 122.0 117.0 91.0 84.0 81.0 77.0 85.0 71.0 73.0

C.R.PATTANA 76.0 103.0 144.0 152.0 151.0 120.0 107.0 106.0 101.0 101.0 85.0 75.0

COONDAPUR 140.0 127.0 152.0 160.0 168.0 148.0 131.0 130.0 142.0 142.0 136.0 138.0

HAVERY 87.0 127.0 167.0 178.0 187.0 165.0 160.0 149.0 142.0 105.0 101.0 73.0

ILKAL 84.0 127.0 167.0 180.0 192.0 168.0 156.0 151.0 142.0 141.0 97.0 71.0

KOLAR 70.0 82.0 132.0 144.0 110.0 157.0 98.0 97.0 92.0 81.0 78.0 69.0

KOTTUR 86.0 109.0 160.0 178.0 186.0 172.0 160.0 158.0 151.0 142.0 100.0 71.0

MERCARA 65.0 74.0 102.0 102.0 97.0 77.0 70.0 70.0 66.0 74.0 71.0 64.0

SIRA 68.0 81.0 132.0 144.0 151.0 107.0 160.0 95.0 91.0 91.0 76.0 67.0

YADGIR 83.0 127.0 167.0 180.0 197.0 175.0 156.0 150.0 142.0 141.0 96.0 83.0
Availability of information on rainfall and water balance.
In Karnataka, the information on rainfall is documented by Department of Economics
and Statistics, Bangalore from more than 1050 rain gauge stations of the State. The India
Meteorological Department maintains about 175 rain gauges and documents the information.
Drought Monitoring Cell (DMC) under the Department of Science and Technology compiles the
information from all available rain gauges in the state. Information on water balance presently is
available from DMC on taluk level which helps in understanding the crop conditions in each of
the taluks.

Study question: 1. Collect and interpret the data for water balance equations for ACZ of
Karnataka
Details of agro-climatic zones of Karnataka and their prominent copping patterns

Geographi annual Crops/

Zone Agro-climatic
cal area rainfall Districts Soil type cropping
No zone
(lakh ha) (mm) systems
North eastern Medium S, B, R, Sa,
Entire Bidar, parts of
1 transitional zone 8.74 830-919 black clay. Be, W, SF,
Gulbarga
NETZ laterite Su, GU
S, R, Ba, G,
North eastern Part of Gulbarga & Deep black
2 17.59 633-807 Ch, C, Sa,
dry zone NEDZ Raichur clay
SF, P,GU
Bijapur, parts of Bellary, M, G, S,W,
Northern dry Black clay ,
3 50.77 405-786 Raichur, Dharwad, Ch, Su, Be,
zone NDZ sandy loam
Belgaum Sa, SF
S, SM,H, P,
Chitradurga, parts of
Central dry zone Red sandy Su, FM,V,
4 19.99 456-717 Hassan,
CDZ loam, black Mu, M,
Chkamagalore,Tumkur
Co,GU
Bangalore, Ra, M, Su,
Eastern dry zone Red loamy,
5 17.97 679-889 Chikkaballapur, Kolar, V, FM, P,
EDZ laterite
Ramnagar, Tumkur Mu,Co
Entire Mandya, parts of
Southern dry Red sandy Ra, P, M, Su,
6 15.56 671-887 Mysore, Tumkur, entire
zone SDZ loam, black B, G, Mu,Co
Chamaraj nagar, Hassan
Ra, P, M, S,
Southern Parts of Shimoga, Hassan,
Red sandy G, B, Su,
7 transitional zone 16.60 611-1054 Chikmagalore,
loam SF,T, C, A,
STZ Davanagere, Mysore,
Mu, Co,GU
Northern Medium
Parts of Belgaum, SF,S, G, C,
8 transitional zone 11.30 619-1303 black caly,
Dharwad Su P, A, Co
NTZ red sandy
Parts of U. kannada,
P, coffee,
Belgaum, Shimoga,
Redcaly tea, pepper,
9 Hilly zone HZ 22.89 905-3695 Hassan, Chikmagalore,
loam, laterite Co, A, Su,
Dharwad, Haveri, whole
rubber
of Coorg
Red laterite,
3011- Parts of U kannada, entire P, B, GU,
10 Coastal zone CZ 9.84 coastal
4694 Udipi and D. Kannada Su, rubber,
alluvium
S: sorghum; B: blackgram; R: redgram; Sa: safflower; Be: Bengalgram;W: wheat; SF:
sunflower; Su: sugarcane; Ba: bajra; G: greengram; Ch: chillies; M: maize; SM: small millets;
H:Horsegram; FM: fodder maize; V: vegetables; Ra: ragi: Co: coconut; Mu: mulberry; P: paddy;
GU: groundnut
Exercise No. 12: Rain water budgeting

The total amount of rainwater falling in an area and the amount of outflow from the area
have to be accounted properly to help in deciding the number and the capacity of each
conservation and storage structure. This type of accounting of rainwater received in the
watershed, possible storage in different structures and the outflow from the watershed is called
rain water budgeting.

Table 1: Normal Rainfall (mm) distribution in different agro climatic zones of Karnataka

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Total
Zone1 4 6 9 21 28 123 183 174 200 87 20 5 860
Zone2 3 5 6 19 34 105 147 142 182 99 21 4 767
Zone3 2 2 5 25 53 69 76 75 139 99 33 7 585
Zone4 3 4 6 30 80 55 65 69 114 124 50 11 611
Zone5 4 6 10 36 93 63 83 103 155 149 60 14 776
Zone6 3 5 11 54 128 53 61 70 117 153 63 16 734
Zone7 3 4 10 54 105 98 184 110 94 138 56 13 869
Zone8 1 2 7 41 78 103 169 108 104 116 42 9 780
Zone9 2 2 8 48 94 401 803 463 175 148 55 12 2209
Zone10 3 2 5 30 147 1046 1256 768 346 202 73 15 3893

In low rainfall areas (up to 750 mm) most of the runoff can be collected and stored in
farm ponds, nala bunds, check dams, trenches and percolation tanks. Nevertheless, keeping in
view of the sustainability of the storage structures like tanks, sizable amount of rainwater has to
be allowed as runoff. From the experience of the Dryland Research Project at GKVK, Bangalore
and Dry land Research Station at Bijapur it is recommended to provide a farm pond of 250m 3
capacity for every hectare of cultivated catchments in red soil areas and 150m3 capacity in low
rainfall black soil areas. If the land is uncultivated and is a forest catchment, trenches of suitable
size for harvesting rain water may be created. In general, about 25% of the total runoff may be
retained in the watershed allowing 75% of runoff into natural streams and tanks in the lower
areas.

In high rainfall area as in Zone 9 and 10 (Hilly and Coastal Zone) it is not feasible to
collect 25% of the runoff due to huge costs of creating storage structures. If the storage is for
protective irrigation, the amount required to provide 3-4 irrigations to the specified area may be
stored. In general, the strategy in high rainfall areas should be to open trenches across the slope
and to create percolation tanks to increase the groundwater recharge.

As a thumb rule, about 5 per cent of the total rainfall enters into water table and recharges
groundwater. It will however be higher when recharge structures are created. In any case, the
withdrawal from open as well as bore wells should not exceed the annual recharge. Otherwise
an imbalance will be created.

Taking an example of Ankanahalli Watershed, the total amount of water available as

runoff and groundwater recharge is calculated as follows.

I. Total amount of runoff

1. Area of the watershed - 866 ha
2. Annual rainfall - 750 mm
3. Number of run-off producing rains - 11 days
(of more than 20 mm/day)
4. Average total annual precipitation of the
above run-off producing rains - 418 mm
(10 years average)
5. Assuming 25% as average run off of the
runoff causing rains, the runoff will be - 104.5 mm
6. Volume of run off from the watershed
= Area x depth of run-off
= 866 x 104.5 x 10,000
-------------------------
1000
= 904970 cum
= 90.05 ha m or 905.0 thousand cubic meter/year
= 905 TCM/year

Note: Structures to retain about ¼ of the runoff or 225 TCM of runoff at a time may be created.
It comes to around 3.5% of the total rainfall in the present example.

II. Ground water recharge

1. Total area of the watershed = 866 ha.
2. Average rain fall of the area = 750 mm
3. Total recharge @ 5% of the total rainfall = Area x R F x 5
100
= 866 x 750 x 5 x 10000
1000 100
= 324750 cu m
= 325 TCM/year
Withdrawal from the ground water in the watershed should not exceed 325 TCM.
 The amount of water stored against existing structures is calculated. It is considered that
while taking total storage capacity, it may be multiplied by 1.5 expecting that structure may fill
more than once.
5 Water stored by different structures
(I) Water stored by Nalabunds/ Gokattas/ Percolation tanks
Water stored against the above structures is arrived at by capacity contour calculation
method. If data are not available, topographical survey is done at 0.5 m contour intervals starting
from lower contour and tabulate the capacity between each contour in the table given using the
following formula
A1 + A2
Capacity between two contours = 2 xh

A1 is area of 1st contour, A2 is area of second contour and ‘h’ is the height between two
successive contours.

Table for cumulative volume of water

R.L of the Height Volume of Cumulative
Area of each
capacity between two water between volume of
contour
contour contours two contours water
- A1 h1 X1 X1
- A2 h2 X2 X1 + X2

(II) Water held in farm ponds

In case of farm ponds, area at the top, at half the depth and at the bottom are obtained by
measuring the sides and substituted in the formula below for getting volume (m3) of water stored.
V is volume of pond in cubic meters (m3)
A + 4B + C A is top area of the pond (m2)
V = 6 xD B is area at half the depth of pond (m2)
C is the at the bottom of pond (m2)
D is depth in meters (m)

If the ponds are trapezoidal in shape V is arrived by using the formula

 D
V = 3 [A + B + A  B ]

Where V is volume, d is depth, A is top area and B is bottom area

(III) Water held against drop structures

The volume of water held against a structure is computed from the formula
V = ¼ [ Length of crest x Impounding height x Water spread length]

Impounding height x 100

Water spread length = % slope on U/S of structure

(IV) Water stored against bunds

Water stored against bunds is computed using the formula
V=½xAxD
V is volume of water (cubic meters m3)
A is area of water spread (m2)
D is depth of water impounded (m)
Area A = L x W
Where W is length of water impounding along the bund
L is length of water impounding from bund towards the field
L = D x 100 / S
Where S is land slope (in %).
Exercise No. 13: Water use efficiency

Water use efficiency (WUE) indicates how efficiently water is used by the crop in
producing yield. It can be defined as the amount of water used to produce unit quantity of
biomass / yield & expressed as
a. Plant water use efficiency (Physilogical approach)
Plant water use efficiency (kg/cm) = Y /ET
Where, Y= yield or Biomass (kg)
ET = Plant evapo- transpiration (cm)
b. Field water use efficiency (Agronomic approach)
Field water use efficiency (kg /ha -cm) = Y/WR
Where, Y= yield or Biomass (kg)
WR = Water requirement/ applied (ha-cm)
Water use efficiency varies between crops, soil, season as the yield values varies.
Transpiration ratio is another term used to express WUE. It is the amount of water transpired to
produce unit quantity of dry matter.
Methods to improve water use efficiency
1. Increasing the crop yield through
a. High yielding varieties & Hybrids
c. Better nutrient management
d. Pest management
2. Increasing irrigation efficiency through
a. Selection off suitable method of irrigation
b. Reducing water use
3. Improved soil & water conservation measures for best harvest of rain water
4. Reducing ET losses through anti-transpirants etc.

Study Questions:

1. List and explain the different ways to increase the crop yield and WUE in dryland farming
Exercise No. 14: Preparation of crop plans for different drought conditions

Cropping plan is a plan, prepared in advance, of cropping in the entire farm over a
period of one year. It usually results into sequence of crops for each piece of land in a farm over
all 3 seasons. A plan of cropping may also include inter cropping systems in a specific season. A
plan may also be drawn for a span of 3-5 years also.

Drought Features

The rainfall features for any particular month or year are described by the excess or
deficiency compared to normal values for the locality/region. The following four rainfall
categories are recognized by IMD.

Excess = + 20.0 % and more

Normal = + 19.9 % to – 19.9%
Deficit = –20.0 % to – 59.90%
Scanty = – 60.0 % and less

Drought is a climatic anomaly, characterized by deficit of moisture resulting from sub-

normal rainfall, erratic distribution, higher water need or a combination of all the three factors.
Drought is one of the most recurrent natural hazards in Karnataka. The state ranks next to
Rajasthan in terms of total geographical area, which is drought prone. The National Commission
on Agriculture in 1976 has classified drought into meteorological, hydrological and agricultural
drought.

Meteorological drought

In this classification, mainly rainfall deviation from its normal is considered. The Govt.
of India has adapted the method suggested by India Meteorological Department considering
annual rainfall. According to this classification, an year with annual rainfall of 75% or less of
the normal is considered a drought year and 50% or less as severe drought year. Irrigation
commission (1972) identified areas receiving less than 750 mm average annual rainfall as
drought prone areas. They further recommended the exclusion of such areas where 30% of the
cropped area is irrigated, from the list of drought prone districts. Accordingly 88 taluks have
been identified as drought prone in the state (Fig. 2.2.10).

Mild drought : When the rainfall is less upto 25% of the normal

Moderate drought : When the rainfall is less by 25 to 50 % of the normal

Severe drought : When the rainfall is less by more than 50% of the
normal

An area where the frequency of drought is more than 20 % of many years (30 years or
more), is declared as the drought prone area. Drought prone area indicates an area that
experiences a condition which does not receive even the minimum amount of rainfall to grow a
satisfactory crop.

Based on the meteorological drought, normal, moderate and severe drought years have
been identified and their percentage of probability of occurrence in different agro-climatic zones
is given in Table 1 and Fig. 1 The drought occurring during south-west monsoon and north-east
monsoon is also given in the same table.

Agricultural drought

This classification is based on the amount of water available through rainfall and stored
in the soil and the water required by the crop at different growth stages. If the amount of soil
water stored plus the rainfall is less than the crop water requirement at any stage of the crop, then
the crop will be subjected to drought, and if this situation persists for longer period then the crop
is subjected to severe stress leading to yield loss. This drought again depends upon the soil type,
crop grown in the particular area and the stage of the crop.

According to NCA (1976), drought is an occasion when the rainfall for a week is half of
the normal or less, when the normal weekly rainfall is 5mm or more. Agricultural drought is a
period of 4 such consecutive weeks in the period from middle of May to October or 6 such
consecutive weeks during the rest of the year. Seasonal droughts occur when the actual seasonal
rainfall is deficient by more than twice the mean deviation.
Table 1. Probability of occurrence of meteorological drought in different agro-climatic
zones of Karnataka
Deficit Percentage of moderate and severe
Sl. years (annual) % droughts
Season Zone
No Sever S- W N- E
Moderate
. e Moderate Severe Moderate Severe
1 N-E transition 23.7 5.6 27.8 8.8 15. 26.1
2 N-E Dry 21.1 1.9 24.3 6.1 16.9 19.1
3 Northern Dry 24 2.4 24.6 6.6 18.2 23.9
4 Central Dry 22.5 3.1 25.4 8.3 20 21.4
5 Eastern Dry 25.6 2.3 27 6.2 23.2 18.7
6 Southern Dry 22.2 1.5 24.2 8.3 23.4 16.3
7 Southern
24.3 1.7 25 4.7 24.3 18.2
Transition
8 Northern
23.8 1 25.5 1.8 22 21.6
Transition
9 Hilly 19.2 1 20.9 2.2 24.8 17.7
10 Coastal 14.6 0.3 15.3 0.8 23.6 16.6
Source: Drought Monitoring Cell, DST, GOK.
Hydrological drought

This is assessed based on the marked depletion in the level of water stored in the
reservoir. This drought is mainly applicable in the field of irrigation projects and hydroelectric
projects. The hydrological drought is also defined as a condition when runoff is less than 75 per
cent of normal runoff.

Contingent Crop Planning

A rigid cropping pattern is risky under dryland conditions as the choice of crops and
method of establishment will have to suit the rainfall situations. ‘Contingent crop planning’ and
‘mid season-correction’ are the most appropriate steps for stabilized crop yields under rainfed
conditions.
The time of onset of monsoon and amount of rainfall vary so much between years that the
crops and management practices may have to change considerably from what is planned for
normal years. Four types of aberrations in normal rainfall are generally experienced:
 Commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably delayed.
 There may be prolonged breaks during cropping season.
  There may be spatial and temporal aberrations.
 Rains may terminate early or continue for longer periods.
Early commencement or delayed onset of rains will require corrective measures such as
change of crops or varieties to suit the needed duration. For example, in deep red soils of
Southern Karnataka, it is recommended to transplant 4-week-old seedlings of ragi when the rains
are delayed till the end of August. For this, advance preparation for raising the seedlings in
nursery becomes essential. General principles of contingent crop planning are provided in the
accompanying box.
Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather situations

Red soil

When the rains are delayed:

 Use short-duration varieties
 Sow sunflower, cowpea or horsegram instead of ragi.
 Transplant seedlings instead of direct seeding
 Dry seeding when the land is ready but dry at normal sowing season.
 Increase the seed rate to get more population as late sown ones do not make much growth.

If rain stops after germination:

 Intercultivate to remove weeds
 Remove weak seedlings and reduce population
 Irrigate from farmpond
 Gap-fill after rains revive and top dress with nitrogenous fertilizers.

If rain stops before usual time:

 Irrigate from farm ponds
 Intercultivation to reduce evaporation
 Mulch with organic residues, including weeds removed from the fields.

Crops for different times of sowing in black soils

June – Hybrid bajra, pigeon pea, spreading groundnut in shallow soils, jowar, hybrid
bajra, groundnut, pigeon pea, green gram and black gram in medium deep black soils.
July 15–30 – Hybrid bajra, pigeon pea, spreading groundnut, sunflower, setaria, sesamum,
niger, castor, horsegram in shallow soils; hybrid bajra, spreading groundnut, pigeon
pea, sunflower in medium deep black soils.

August – Sunflower, castor, sesamum, niger, horsegram in shallow soils; cotton, sunflower in
medium and deep soils.
September 15–30 – Sunflower in shallow soils; sunflower, safflower, rabi jowar in medium
deep soils.
October upto 15 November – Safflower, rabi jowar, wheat, gram in medium and deep soils.
Upto end of October – Wheat, bengal gram in deep black soils.

Study question:
1. Prepare crop plans for different dry zones of Karnataka for different drought conditions.
Exercise No. 15: Study of field experiments relevant to dryland farming

Dry Land Farming constitutes 60% of cultivated area (about 85 million ha) and
Contributes approx. 40% of total food production. Dry land is Native to many nutritious crops
(Dicoccum wheat, ragi, pearl millet, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, etc.). It is characteised by successive
years of deficient rainfall, resulted in loss of crop, reduced productivity and loss of income, Loss
of wages to labourers & unemployment, increased drought relief, migration of farm labourers
and farmers, high indebtedness and debt trap for farming community and migration and loss of
animal/ livestock.

So, need to re-invent country’s monsoon agriculture through change in policy &
approach. Target dry land areas for diversification- livestock, horticulture, silviculture, grassland,
fodder in keeping with natural resource availability. Improve in-situ moisture conservation and
ground water recharge. Adopt dry land farming approach- raised bed, ridge furrow, zero tillage,
mulching. To assess the value of new varieties, cultivation practices or methods of seed
treatments doses of manures, conservation practicesetc., Study of field experiments relevant to
dryland farming is required.

I. Study on mechanical and agronomic measures to control soil erosion in arable land

Mechanical measures
1. Contour bunding
2. Graded bunds
3. Graded-border strips
4. Bench terracing
5. Compartment bunding
6. Water harvesting ponds:

7. Contour trenches:

Agronomic measures
Agronomic measures of soil and moisture conservation include contour farming, dense
growing crops, close growing crops, strip cropping, mixed cropping and vegetative barriers.
II. Study of in situ Moisture Conservation techniques for Field Crops
(Study of in situ Moisture Conservation Practices for Red soils and Black soils)

1. Dead furrows or Idle furrows

2. Ridging
3. Graded furrows
4. Broad bed and furrows
5. Tie ridging
6. Mulching
7. Scooping
8. Off season tillage
9. Compartment bunding
10. Zing terraces
11. Contour cultivation
12. Contour ploughing

III. Study of in situ soil moisture conservation techniques for dryland orchards
1. Micro catchment 2. Crescent bunding and catch pits 3. Contour trench ‘V’ ditch
4. Contour bunds 5. Contour live hedge 6. Trench planting
7. Mulching 8. Vertical mulch 9. Wind break
10. Pitcher irrigation 11. Terraces. 12.Off season tillage

Study question:
1. Collect the research paper on for above field experiments and write the inferences.
Exercise No. 16: Map reading – Watershed delineation

Watershed is defined as a geographical area with a specific drainage point. All the
precipitation received in this area moves along the slope and finally drains through the common
drainage point. Thus, there is a definite natural relationship between the precipitation, the
topography and the runoff. Further, there is an intricate and intimate relationship among the
natural resources like soil, water, vegetation and the human and animal population using the
watershed. This relationship was more stable and sustainable a couple of generations ago,
partially on account of low biotic pressure and mainly due to a reverence people had towards
trees, forests and other natural assets. However, the status of these resources is worsening over
the years, both because of the increasing human and animal population and the changing
attitudes and lifestyles of the people. The consequent increasing demands and the reducing
concerns about the environment and ecology among the general public has lead to severe
degradation of the natural resources. The ill effects are more clearly visible in the rain fed agro-
ecosystems.
This calls for immediate measures to improve rain fed agriculture on watershed approach,
in the country where a large part of the cultivated area is rainfed and a majority of the farming
community depends on this land base.
Watershed Delineation
Since Watersheds are natural hydrological units, there are no standard maps indicating
watershed boundaries for the state as in case of administrative boundaries viz., taluka, village etc.
The non availability of such maps for watersheds has resulted in different implementing agencies
delineating the watershed boundaries in their own way and has led to the following ambiguities
a. Duplication of efforts by different agencies in treating the same watershed
b . Lack of information about which agency is treating which watershed
c. Lack of spatial information about area treated in the past and area to be covered in future.
d. Difficulty in preparing new project proposals for large areas/number of watersheds.
e. Delineation of watersheds in isolation may result in not adopting the ridge to valley concept
f. Difficulty in coordination of developmental activities in watersheds, which are shared by
two or more administrative units (Tq/dist).
g. Wrong delineation of watershed boundaries by inexperienced agencies and staff.
 To overcome these ambiguities, it is essential to delineate the watersheds up to micro
watershed level for the entire state and then generate the watershed maps for any administrative
unit. Although All India Soil and Land Use Survey (AIS&LUS, 1990) has developed a 5-stage
delineation system demarcating Water Resources Region, Basin, Catchment, Sub-catchments
and Watershed for entire India, it is very difficult to take up watershed as a unit for
implementation, because watershed comprises huge area( 0.2- 3 lakh ha). Keeping in view the
hurdles in managing large areas (watershed-wise), Karnataka State Remote Sensing Applications
Centre (KSRSAC), Bangalore has further delineated the watersheds into sub-, mini- and micro-
watersheds to facilitate the implementing agencies to choose a smaller unit.
Table 1: Use of different maps for identification, delineation and characterization
of a watershed

Maps Information to be extracted

Toposheets of different scales Contour lines, Drainage lines, Transport network, Water
Viz., : 1:25,000 bodies, Hills and hillocks, Settlement, Political boundaries
1:50,000 etc.
1:63,360
1:250,000
Village maps: Farmer’s plots, Survey Nos., Govt. lands,
Viz., : 1”:666’ or 7,920 Community lands, Drainage lines, Water bodies
1:12,500 Settlements, Transport network etc
1:16,000
Aerial photographs Three dimension topographical view of hills, ravines and
(3 dimensional pictures) rivers
1: 6,000
1: 10,000
Satellite imageries - Land use and land cover information
1: 12,500 - Extent of area under different vegetation
1: 25,000 - Temporal changes of the above information.
1: 50,000 etc.
Resource inventory maps Slope map, Erosion status map, Land capability class map,
(according to the required scale)
Contour map
(according to the required scale)
Soil depth map, Soil texture map, Soil structure map, Soil
suitability map, Land use and land cover map, Ground water
table map and Geological map.
- Contour lines
- Suitable places for arable, Non-arable and Drainage line
treatments/ structures
- Capacity contours of water bodies.

Table Map scales

Map scale Dimension (Unit) Area of one unit square Contour interval
Toposheets
1” = 4 mile 1” = 4 mile 1 sq. inch = 10240 Acres -
1” = 1 mile 1” = 1 mile 1 sq. inch = 640 Acres 50 ft
1: 25,000 1 cm = 0.25 km 1cm2 = 6.25 ha 10 m
1: 50,000 1 cm = 0.5 km 1cm2 = 25 ha 20 m
1: 100.000 1 cm = 1.0 km 1cm2 = 100 ha 50 m
1: 250,000 1 cm = 2.5 km 1cm2 = 625 ha 100 m
Village maps
1” = 660’ or 1” = 660’ or 1 sq. inch = 10 acres or -
1: 7920 1 cm = 0.0792 km 1cm2 = 0.63 ha

Micro-Watershed Delineation

 With the help of toposheet, water bodies and drainage lines can be identified and
extracted as shown in Fig. 3.8. At the bottom of the area, an outlet or spill way of the
major water body is fixed and traversing starts either from the right or left of this
point. While traversing go on fixing / marking the elevated places or originating
points of first order drainage lines and finally after traversing round about, reach back
to the starting point. The line drawn touching all the elevated places is called
watershed divider line or boundary line (Fig 3.8).
  After the boundary line marking, extract all the information of the toposheet within
the watershed boundary. This toposheet has to be matched/ super imposed over the
village map to extract further detailed information of the villages in the watershed.

 Before matching/ super imposing of these two maps, their scales have to be adjusted
to uniform scale either by suitable reduction of village map or by enlargement of the
toposheet. Extent of enlargement of the toposheet to the scale of village map can be
calculated using the following formula:

Scale of the toposheet

Extent of enlargement of the toposheet = -----------------------------
Scale of the village map
Example:
If the toposheet scale is 1:50,000
and the village map scale is 1:7920(1” = 660’),
50,000
the extent of enlargement of toposheet = -----------
7,920
= 6.313 times
Matching of these two maps can also be done through projectors. Using GIS these can
also be matched once these maps are digitized
 Ridge line

Micro
watershed

Water source

Village
Road
Tank

Outlet
Fig. 3.8 Watershed delineation using toposheets
Basics of Map Reading

Fig. Typical map

Title : A map's title provides important clues about the cartographer's intentions and goals.
One can hope to expect entirely different information on a map titled "Land use/cover" versus
Soils.
Orientation : With a North arrow (pointing in the correct direction), a user can determine
direction and orient the map.
Legend : Legend will show the user what different symbols mean e.g., Roads are
represented by a variety of widths and combinations of lines.
Scale : It is the ratio of unit of measurement on the map to the unit of measurement on the
ground. e.g.,1:50,000 scale. i.e 1 unit on the map is equivalent to 50,000 units on the ground or
we can say as 1 cm on the map = 50,000 cms. Maps are often known as large or small scale.
Larger the scale more the information but represent smaller area and vice - versa

Different Sources of Spatial Data

i. Cadastral map

Fig.2 Typical cadastral map

 Cadastral maps were generated by Department of Survey Settlement and Land Records
before independence.
 These maps provide information on boundaries of villages and parcel with survey
numbers.
 Also provides information on drainages/streams/rivers, roads, tanks and settlement
location etc.
 These maps are available in 1 :7920 Scale (1 inch = 660 feet)
ii. Topo map

Fig. 3 Typical topo map

 Topomaps /toposheets have been generated by Survey of India.
 These maps provide information on roads, tanks, village location, forest boundaries and
wastelands etc.
 Contours information is also available in these maps for 20 meters interval (sometimes 10
meters also), which can be used to generate slope maps.
 These maps are available in 1 : 50,000 scale for the entire state and in 1 :25,000 scale for
some of the areas. Maps are also available on 1 : 2,50,000 scale.

iii. Aerial photograph

Fig. 4 Typical aerial photograph

 Aerial photographs are used to generate spatial information on various natural resources
and base layers.
 It can also be used to measure the elevation and contour maps at closer intervals.
 It is also useful to create digital elevation model which can be used to delineate drainage
lines accurately and also to suggest soil and water conservation measures
iv. Satellite image

Fig. 5 Typical satellite image

 Satellite images are used to generate spatial information on natural resources.
 These images help in generating maps, very fast and are cost effective than conventional
methods of survey.
 Repetitive coverage of the same area by the satellite helps in identifying the changes in
the land use pattern over a period of time.
 Accuracy of these images depends on spatial resolution of the data.

v. Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

Fig. 6 Typical GPS

 GPS (Global Positioning System) is a tool. used to locate the area by its latitude and
longitude points and also altitude.
 It is used to know the directions, direction of movement, speed of movement and altitude
of the area from mean sea level.
 The information acquired by GPS can be stored and used to get accurate infor- mation
along with the satellite images.
Exercise No. 17 & 18. Visit to dryland research station and Watershed projects

Objectives
1. To study the soil and moisture conservation practices
2. To study the crops and cropping systems in drylands and model watershed

Study question
1. List the different mechanical structure laid out at dry land center, GKVK and state the
purpose of each structure
2. List the different agronomic practices followed at dry land centre, GKVK for soil and
moisture conservation and state the function of each practice.
3. List the different dryland crops and state the criteria used in selection of crops