Periodization of English Literature

2. Old English (Anglo-Saxon Period)

years 410 AD – 1066 AD

Historical Background

- Celts group of Europeans from north-west Germany invading England in circa 900 BC
- speaking Celtic, divided into tribes – Britons, Gaels, Belgae
- often lead by druids – preserving myths, legends, heroic poems

- Romans – 55 BC to 407 AD
- brought Christianity into England
- roads, language, baths…

- Anglo-Saxons arriving in Britain in circa 450 AD

- tribes from Europe (mainly northern Germany) Germanic - Angles, Saxons, Jutes
- speaking in Anglo-Saxon or Old English
- the start of the Anglo-Saxon period is the year 410 AD, which marks the withdrawal of Roman legions
from Britain.
- By the year 500 CE, the Anglo Saxons had invaded most parts of Britain

- Vikings arriving to Britain in the circa 793 AD

- from Denmark, Norway and Sweden (Scandinavia)

The Anglo-Saxon period was characterized by a complex web of conflicts, alliances, and power
struggles. The various kingdoms and external threats shaped the political, social, and cultural landscape
of England during this time. The Viking invasions, in particular, had a profound impact on the course of
English history and left a lasting imprint on the culture of the region.

Literature

This period consists of literature written in Old English in Anglo-Saxon England from the 5th century AD to the
Norman Conquest of 1066.

We know that most Anglo-Saxon literature was written during the Christianization of England. The monks
who attempted to preserve Anglo Saxon poetry were most likely only focused on preserving religious verses.
Hence, a significant amount of poetry that survives today is religious.

- usually about battles, gods and their ancestral heroes, religion, wars..
- orally transmitted, or sung

Beowulf – Unknown

- only existing heroic (epic poem) of the Anglo-Saxon period

- found in the Nowell Codex (also called as Beowulf manuscript) from the early 11th century, together
with four other texts
- displays all the characteristic features of Old English poetry, formally and thematically
- inspired The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien
- pagan traditions and Christian values

- kennings - compound expressions that replace a single, straightforward noun (whale-road" - sea)
- unrhymed and alliterative verse
- no stanzas, written in lines divided into halves
- each half two stressed syllables
- number of unstressed syllables varies

Setting

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 - Place: Scandinavia, Denmark
Time: Around the year 500 A.D, in the territories of two tribal groups, the Geats and the Scyldings

Themes

- good vs evil
- bravery, heroism, mortality, loaylty

Plot

- the Danes struggle with Grendel because he kills people in the mead hall called Heorot.
- nobody is able to kill Grendel until Beowulf comes to help. Beowulf, a young Geatish (Swedish)
warrior, fights Grendel and kills him – he tears Grendel´s arm off. Then he also kills Grendel´s mother
too.
- he then returns to Geatland, and after Hygelac and his son died, Beowulf ascends to the throne of the
Geats.
- he rules for fifty years.
- but when a thief steals something from the dragon´s barrow, the dragon is angry and begins
- destruction.
- Beowulf fights and eventually kills the dragon with the help of Wiglaf, but the dragon manages to bite
Beowulf in the neck which kills him.

Characters

Beowulf is valiant and powerful because he comes to fight Grendel and then his mother too. Despite the powers
he was given, he didn´t exploit them but used them to save others.

Grendel is a monster, an outcast, descendant from Cain´s clan. He is lonely and jealous which drives his
atrocious actions.

Hrothgar is a wise and aged king of Denmark. He is a father figure to Beowulf. As an experienced king, he is
able to pass on some knowledge to Beowulf – he warns him not to give in to pride.

3. Middle English Period (Medieval Literature)

years 1066 AD – 1500 AD

Historical Background

- 1066 AD the Normans invaded England (Norman Conquest)

- Normans (Vikings) - “Northman” came from France
- absorbed the culture of the late Roman Empire and had been Christianised
- the languages of court, religion and science: Latin, Norman French
- the first piece of Norman writing in England was a Doomsday Book
- Normans (laws, castles, knowledge of the art of war) supressed the Anglo-Saxons, their culture and
language
- mixing of cultures, languages and mythologies
- women not being equal to man
- present anti-semitism - prejudice, discrimination, or hostility directed against Jews as individuals or as a
group

Literature

- what we now call Middle English appears after the great silence of 200 years, in the 2nd half of 14th
century.
- prior to that time - literature consisted primarily of religious writings
- influence of the Old French on literature
- themes of love
- rising popularity of literature and languages was accompanied by the development in education
- everything on the literal level of the story can be interpreted symbolically: characters, settings, tests, etc.
- the protagonist, an “everyman” character, usually embarks on a journey – symbolic of the journey
through life or to death.
- literature consisted of religious and non-religious writings
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 - religious:
Sermons and Homilies
Visionary literature: accounts and interpretations of individuals’ visions of encounters with the divine
presence of God
Hagiographies: the body of literature describing the lives and veneration of the Christian saints,
Exempla (sg. exemplum): tales told to exemplify good or evil lives,
Allegories: narratives to be interpreted on a variety of levels – often dream visions
Devotional songs
Hymns
Marian lyrics
Carols

- non-religious:
Chronicles
- Legendary Histories of Britain
Romance
- Novella (pl. novelle)
- Fabliau (pl. fabliaux)
- Ballades: poems with at least three stanzas having the same rhyme and metrical schemes and repeating
the same last line: refrain
- Complaints
- Reveries: spring songs
- Rounds and Dances
- Love Songs

Geoffrey Chaucer – Canterbury Tales

(1340 – 1400)

The most important English writer before Shakespeare, civil servant, polymath and philosopher, the
„father“ of English literature

- the son of a wine merchant

- attended school at St. Paul's Cathedral,
- he was considered intelligent, with strong sense of humour, a fine musical ear, the ability to tell a story,
- a page to the Countess of Ulster, promoted to a diplomat,
- his close relationship with the John of Gaunt provided him with opportunities to observe the
comportment of the nobility and study the arts, sciences and the literatures,
- by 1366 he was married to Philippa Rouet who passed away in 1387
- between 1367 and 1378 Chaucer made several journeys to European countries (Italy, France),
- was elected to the Parliament,
- period of great creativity,
- Chaucer died in London on October 25, 1400.
- he was buried in Westminster Abbey in the Poet's Corner.
- important work: The Book of the Duches, The House of Fame, The Parliament of Birds

- Canterbury Tales is narrative collection of poems, character portraits, parody, estates satire, romance
written in 1386-1395
- the originality of Chaucer’s tales lies in the fact that it was created in English which was not used as
much
- inspired by and most analogous to Giovanni Boccaccio‘s Decameron,
- set in the late 14th cent.
- describes a Christian Pilgrimage to Canterbury Cathedral to visit the site where St. Thomas Beckett was
slain in 1170,
- involves following the Pilgrim‘s Way (several options), but since the story begins in Tabard Inn, the
likely route led from Southwark Cathedral in London to Canterbury (Kent) – approx. 88km,
- framing the tales in the narrative of a pilgrimage may have been chosen by Chaucer because it was a
popular form of leisure activity,
- walking the Pilgrim‘s Way ties The Canterbury Tales together,
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 - observation and depiction of real life and real people,
- the pilgrims represent a broad cross-section of society from diverse backgrounds and professions who
function as both characters and authors of the stories,
- Chaucer thus assembled a series of tales that impart ethical and moral advice and guidance to the reader,
- full of wit and humour,
- the primary narrator is anonymous, describes his encounters with other pilgrims and some of them
narrate most of tales (29) (the tale within a tale),
- each individual tale has its own protagonist
- The tales cover various conflicts, such as clashes between social classes, differing tastes, sexes etc.
- thematic range is also diverse and touches on themes such as the pervasiveness of “Courtly love,” the
importance of company, the corruption of the Church and many others.
- originally Chaucer intended to write 120 tales,
- the collection remains unfinished
- pilgrims were supposed to tell 2 stories on their way to Canterbury and 2 stories on their way back,
- the birth of a modern type of narration, as every tale expresses the character of its narrator
- similar to drama because of the interaction.
- sort of social commentary

The Wife of Bath´s Tale

Themes

- gender roles and power dynamics between man and women

- relationships
- authority and obedience
- redemption and transformation

Plot

- knight rapes a young maiden and is sentenced to death

- Queen Guinevere, in the spirit of mercy, allows him one year to discover the answer to the question,
"What do women most desire?"
- on his quest to find the answer, the knight encounters an old woman who claims she can provide the
correct answer in exchange for a promise he must make - she tells him that women most desire
sovereignty over their husbands and lovers
- with this answer, the knight returns to the court, saves his life, and fulfils his promise to the old woman
– to marry her
- on their wedding night, the old woman gives him a choice: she can remain old and faithful, or she can
become young and unfaithful
- the knight, leaving the decision to her, gives her the power to choose, pleased with his answer, the old
woman transforms into a young and beautiful woman, and they live happily ever after.

4. Renaissance (Elizabethan Period, The Age of Shakespeare)

years 1500 AD – 1660 AD

Historical Background

devision of renaissance:
Elizabethan (Elizabeth I, 1558-1603)
Jacobean (James I, 1603-1625)
Carolinian (Charles I, 1625-1649)

- meaning re-birth, renaissance was a rebirth of the classical age

- started in Italy by Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch

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 - human as the object of observation, study of mankind, art and thought of ancient Greece and Rome
(humanism)
- printing press – Johannes Gutenberg, better distribution of the books – significant advancements in
science and mathematics, exploration and discovery
- beauty and aesthetics
- era of peace, of economic prosperity, of stability, of liberty
- development of art, literature and drama
- rapid rise of industrial towns gave employment
- criticism of the Church, censorship of some text from the Church
- division between Catholic and Protestant Church

Literature

- satire, social commentary, love, patriotism

- poetry of his period is remarkable for the spirit of independence

- poets refused to follow set rules of poetic composition
- varieties of poetic forms like lyric, elegy, eclogue, ode, sonnet
- golden age of English drama - would not be possible without the encouragement of the Queen herself
- in tragedies portraying heroic figures of the past (Mohammed)
- in comedies – folk elements, mythology, medieval drama
- heroic language, large amount of formality in style
-
Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) – one of the most prolific poets of the time
Astrophel and Stella (108 love sonnets and 19 songs)

Edmund Spenser (1552-1599)

The Shepherdes Calender – 12 poems
The Faerie Queene

William Shakespeare – Hamlet

(1564 – 1616)

- playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers in the English language and
world literature
- rich language, complex characters, and universal themes
- born in England in 1564, son of glove-maker and alderman
- married Anne Hathaway
- drama : A Midsummer Night's Dream, Measure for Measure (comedy)
Julius Ceasar, McBeth, Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, Othello (tragedy)
- historical plays: Henry IV, Henry VIII, Richard II..
- romances: Cymbeline, Pericles
- sonnets: a collection of 154 poems, themes of love, beauty, time, and mortality

Hamlet

- longest play – in 5 acts

- originated between 1599 – 1602
- language is a powerful device in Hamlet
- eloquent – served to move to action
- partly experimental
- iambic pentameter
- oxymorons, epithets, metaphors, similes, personifications, soliloquy („To be, or not to be, that is the
Question:“ ), irony, paradox
- combination of prose and verse = most of Hamlet is written in verse

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Setting: Denmark – Elsinore Castle
Themes: human psyche, morality, and the consequences of unchecked ambition and corruption, revenge, justice

Plot

- The ghost of King Hamlet appears to watchmen.

- Prince Hamlet then sees the ghost too, who tells him that i tis his father´s spirit who was murdered by
Claudius.
- He tells Hamlet to seek revenge.
- Hamlet is willing to avenge his father´s death and pretends that he is mad.
- His uncle, now king Claudius and Hamlet´s mother Gertrude worry about Hamlet´s erratic behaviour
and they try to find the cause of it, so they employ Hamlet´s friends – Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to
watch him.
- They spy on Hamlet when he meets Ophelia, but they find out that he is rude to her and so his madness
isn´t caused by his love for Ophelia.
- A group of actors comes to Elsinore and Hamlet seizes the opportunity and asks the actors to perform a
scene resembling the murder of King Hamlet by Claudius so that he would find out from Claudius
´reaction to it whether he is guilty or not.
- Claudius left the room which proved to Hamlet that he was guilty of the murder.
- Hamlet decides to kill him but he doesn´t do it because Claudius is praying. Instead, he kills Polonius
(Ophelia´s father) unintentionally, thinking i is the king hiding behind a curtain.
- He is exiled for the murder to England with Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.
- Claudius ordered Hamlet to die, but Hamlet doesn´t die because he switches the letter, in which he
demands the death of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern instead.
- Because of her father´s death, Ophelia goes mad and drowns in the brook.
- Laertes (Ophelia´s brother) returns from France enraged and Claudius convinces him that Hamlet is
responsible for his father´s and sister´s deaths.
- Claudius comes up with a plan for how to kill Hamlet – there will be a sword fight between Laertes and
Hamlet.
- Laertes´s blade will be poisoned so it could kill Hamlet. As a backup plan, the King decides to poison
the goblet, which he will give Hamlet to drink if Hamlet scores.
- Hamlet scored the first hit but declined to drink from the poisoned goblet. Instead, Gertrude drinks
from it and dies from being poisoned.
- Laertes then wounds Hamlet, though Hamlet does not die of the poison right away. Laertes is then cut
by his own poisoned sword´s blade and admits that Claudius is responsible for the queen´s death.
Laertes dies.
- Hamlet then stabs Claudius with the poisoned sword and forces him to drink the rest of the poisoned
wine. Claudius dies and Hamlet dies too.
- At this point, a Norwegian prince named Fortinbras enters and sees the whole royal family dead. He
takes the power of the kingdom.

Characters
Hamlet - He is enigmatic and philosophical – he is curious about the afterlife. One of Hamlet´s negative traits
are his impulsiveness for example when he stabs Polonius through a curtain. Hamlet´s speech is often
misogynistic when he indicates his disgust and distrust of women in general.
Ophelia - Innocent girl, the men in her life tell her what to do from the beginning. Ophelia obeys them. At the
end, she dies because she spiralled into madness.
Claudius - Hamlet´s major antagonist, corrupt and manipulative, but also shrewd.
Gertrude - She is frail and doesn´t think critically but rather acts instinctively. Gertrude is dependent upon men
in her life.
Polonius = He is overprotective of his children.

5. Neoclassicism (Enlightenment or The Age of Reason)

years 1660 AD – 1798 AD

Historical background

- beginning can be traced back to the intellectual and artistic movements of the Renaissance, but it gained
prominence in the 18th century as a reaction against the excesses of the Baroque and Rococo styles
- renewed interest in classical art and philosophy
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 - The French Revolution (1789–1799) is often associated with end of this era
- Roman and Greek models refers to the revival of classical art, architecture, and ideals that characterized
the movement - Napoleon Bonaparte - during this period, French citizens radically altered their political
landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as the monarchy and the feudal system.
- historical developments that spans the Reformation, the development of government, the establishment
of the Prime Minister and Cabinet system, the evolution of constitutional monarchy, the expansion of
empire building, and ultimately, the occurrence of revolutions in America and France
- The Age of Pope
- The Age of the Novel - newspapers, journals, political pamphlets
- artist seen as craftsmen who followed rules of their craft

Literature

- principles or laws in literature, literary creation, structure of the work

- many attempts to formulate a theory of literature – trying to explain its nature, form, etc.
- establishes canons of taste as well as defined principles of composition and criticism
- literature artistic and rational process
- imagination guided by reason
- art identified with persuasion and rhetoric
- tragedy serving as warning
- comedy to expose national vices
- literature as imitation of nature, especially human nature
- Joseph Addison (The Spectator)
- Sir Richard Steele (The Tatler)
- these publications played a significant role in the development of the essay as a literary form and had a
profound impact on the cultural and intellectual life of their time
- Alexander Pope:
- Essay on Criticism (1711)
- Purpose of literature: to instruct and delight
- The Rape of the Lock
- Classic of the mock-heroic epic
- Cutting of the lock of Miss Arabella Fermor´s hair gives rise to a quarrel between two families
- The Dunciad – satire
- The Essay on Man – philosophical work in heroic couplets
- Neoclassical writers often adopted an objective and detached tone. The focus was on presenting ideas in
a rational and impartial manner, avoiding excessive emotional expression
imitation of nature and human behaviour

The Puiritanism

- Puritanism refers to a religious and social movement that emerged in the late 16th century and played a
significant role in the religious landscape of England and, later, in the American colonies. The term
"Puritan" was originally used pejoratively to criticize those who sought to "purify" the Church of
England from what they perceived as remnants of Roman Catholic practices. Over time, it came to
describe a specific group of religious reformers with distinct beliefs and practices.
- following the English Civil War and the Interregnum when the monarchy was restored with the return
of Charles II to the throne
- shift from joyful Renaissance
- puritans advocated moral reform and earnestness and
- puritans with Parliament against King
- closed theatres
- art considered idolatrous

Restoration era (1660–1688)

- power of monarchy replaced with the power of parliamentary system

- origin of two parties Whigs – Tories
- executive power in the hands of Prime Minister
- Thomas Hobbes´ Lewiathan (1694) shifted focus on:
- society as a total organism
- individual as subject of state control
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 - stability
- affirmation of religion and return to traditional beliefs
- the society was Protestant
- rise of middle class
- concentration on: commerce, respectability
- John Bunyan 1628-1688 - Pilgrim´s Progress (PROSE)
- symbolic vision
- human life as pilgrimage – long narrative of the lonely suffering of individual soul
- various characters he meets represent conflicting states of his mind
- aim – to portray the horror of life without faith – tenets of an ideal Puritan
- John Milton - Paradise Lost (1667) POETRY
- commentary on God’s supremacy, ‘to justify the ways of God to men’.
- no questioning of religious values
- no religious dissent

Metaphysical poets

The term "Metaphysical poets" refers to a group of 17th-century English poets who were known for their
intellectual and philosophical approach to poetry.

- first by John Dryden who in 1693 criticised John Donne (he disapproved of his extravagant conceits
and tendency to hyperbolic abstractions)
- they tried to deal with the world as a whole
- (worldly and spiritual)
- fuse passion with reason
- spoke about religion as if it was love – and about love as religion
- witty conceits and far-fetched imagery
- conceits based on „discordia concors“
- (combination of dissimilar images, or discovery of occult correspondences between things otherwise
unlike)
- laborate metaphors, intellectual wit, and exploration of complex themes, often blending the physical
and the metaphysical

Cavalier Poets

The Cavalier poets were a group of 17th-century English poets who were associated with the Royalist
supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War. The term "Cavalier" was originally a derogatory
label used by their opponents, but the poets embraced it, and it came to represent a certain style and attitude
in poetry. The Cavalier poets were known for their lyrical and often hedonistic poetry, celebrating the
pleasures of life and expressing a royalist and aristocratic perspective.

- Robert Herrick 1591-1674

- the greatest poet of the Cavalier group
- "Hesperides,"
- Andrew Marvell 1621-1678
- Combines metaphysical wit with classical grace of Horatian poems
- „To His Coy Mistress“

John Milton – Paradise Lost

(1608–1674)

- English poet, polemicist, prose writer, and civil servant

- played a significant role in the political and religious controversies of his time
- born in 1608 in London, England, into a prosperous middle-class family, his dad was a legal and
financial writer
- wrote numerous pamphlets and essays on issues such as freedom of the press, divorce, and religious
tolerance
- Milton's most famous work is the epic poem "Paradise Lost," which he began composing around 1658
and completed in 1667

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 - following "Paradise Lost," Milton wrote other significant works, including "Paradise Regained" and
"Samson Agonistes," both published in 1671.
- "Paradise Regained" explores themes of temptation and redemption, while "Samson Agonistes" is a
dramatic poem based on the biblical figure Samson.
- contributions to literature, political thought, and religious philosophy have left a lasting impact
- Milton's ideas on freedom of the press and individual liberty have influenced later thinkers and have
become integral to discussions on civil liberties
- died in 1674 in London, completely blind

The Paradise Lost

- greatest epic poem, written in blank verse, unrhymed

- written when Milton was totally blind
- widely considered one of the greatest works of English literature
- complex exploration of theological, moral, and political themes, presenting the biblical story of the Fall
of Man and the expulsion from the Garden of Eden
- poem retells the biblical story from the Book of Genesis, primarily focusing on the rebellion of Satan
and his fellow fallen angels, the creation of Adam and Eve, and their subsequent disobedience leading
to the Fall
- one of the striking features of "Paradise Lost" is the sympathetic portrayal of Satan. Milton presents
Satan as a complex and charismatic figure, a tragic hero who rebels against God's authority and is
ultimately defeate
- epic similes and grand imagery throughout the poem, drawing on classical influences

Setting: both heavenly and earthly realms

Themes: obedience and disobedience, sin and innocence, fate and free will, rebellion, temptation, and
redemption

Plot: The poem opens with Satan and his rebellious angels being cast out of Heaven after their failed revolt
against God. In Hell, Satan rallies his followers and proposes a plan to corrupt God's newest creation, humanity.
Satan travels to Earth, disguises himself as a serpent, and successfully tempts Eve into eating the forbidden fruit
from the Tree of Knowledge. Adam, influenced by Eve, also partakes in the forbidden fruit.

As a consequence of their disobedience, Adam and Eve are expelled from the idyllic Garden of Eden. The poem
explores the immediate aftermath of the Fall, depicting the guilt, shame, and sorrow experienced by the first
human couple. God, in His justice, outlines the consequences of their actions but also hints at a future
redemption through the sacrifice of His Son, Jesus Christ.

Characters:
Satan: The central figure in the poem, Satan was once a high-ranking angel in Heaven but rebels against God.
Despite his fall from grace, Satan remains a charismatic and defiant figure. He serves as both antagonist and, in
some interpretations, a tragic hero.

God (the Father): The supreme deity in Christian theology, God is portrayed as omnipotent, just, and merciful.
God presides over Heaven and plays a crucial role in determining the fate of humanity.

The Son (Jesus Christ): The Son is the second person of the Holy Trinity and takes on a crucial role in the
redemption of humanity. He willingly offers himself as a sacrifice to save humanity from the consequences of
the Fall.

Adam: The first human created by God, Adam is placed in the Garden of Eden. He is given dominion over the
animals and names them. Adam's choice to eat the forbidden fruit results in the Fall.

Eve: The first woman, created from Adam's rib. Eve is tempted by Satan and, in turn, tempts Adam to eat the
forbidden fruit. Her actions lead to the expulsion from Eden.

Raphael: An archangel who serves as a messenger and recounts the story of the war in Heaven and the creation
of the world to Adam. Raphael provides important background information to the narrative.

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Beelzebub: One of Satan's chief lieutenants in Hell, Beelzebub accompanies Satan on his journey to Earth and
plays a significant role in the demonic discussions in Pandemonium.

6. Rise of the English Novel (still Neoclassicism)

- connected with the rise of middle class and the rise of literacy
- origins go back to Elizabethan prose
- for Johnson it was „a small tale, generally of love“
- some scholars search for the roots of the novel in chivalric fiction
- name from Italian „novella“ – a piece of news
- close relationship to „ballad“ and „news“
- 17th century ballad and other short texts were mostly concerned with criminal/legal actions or natural
disasters
- difficult to distinguish between fact and fiction
- early novels not labelled as novels, but as „private histories“, autobiographies, or „secret histories“
- authors pretended to be editors
- pseudo-factual fictions – chronicles, travellers´s reports, letters – stressing the factual rather than
fictional context
- description of characters (Robinson Crusoe or Moll Flanders) – first signs of realism
- although it was just formal realism (numeral realistic details in an otherwise non-realistic narration –
Tristram Shandy)
- illusion of tangible reality created by set of narrative techniques
- characters given proper names and are set in a specific time and place to produce authentic account
- language must fit as well
- texts attempt to be as close to life as journalistic report
- focused on lower classes and criminals
- before Richardson and Defoe –many women writers

- Daniel Defoe (1660-1731)

- Robinson Crusoe 1719
- styles himslef as an editor – to give veracity to the story – based on accounts of castaways on
uninhabited islands
- Moll Flanders
- Roxana, or the Unfortunate Mistress

- Samuel Richardson 1689-1761

- Pamela: or Virtue Rewarded (1740) – epistolary novel – allows the author to systain emotional contact
with the reader, allows the reader´s direct access to character´s mind
- Richardson denies authorship of Pamela – claiming to be just the editor of letters
- Pamela – symbol of invincible virtue – but wise enough to win a husband
- Clarissa Harlowe (1748) – tragic story
- More psychologically worked

- Henry Fielding 1707-1754

- Insists on epic quality of his novels (unlike Defoe)
- Therefore he structures them on Homeric epic poems
- The History of Tome Jones, a Foundling (1749)
- set during the time of Jacobite rebellion (1745)
- he did not pretend that his story was factual or real
- places himself rather as commentator or observer

- Jonathan Swift 1667-1754

- - great satirist
- A Modest Proposal (1729)
- Gulliver´s Travels

- Laurence Sterne (1713-1768)

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Daniel Defoe – Robinson Crusoe
(1660-1731)

- english writer, journalist, and pamphleteer, best known for his novel "Robinson Crusoe," one of the
earliest and most influential works of fiction in English literature
- born in 1660 in London, England, to a family of dissenters
- journalism, newspaper, contributing to the development of the English press
- politically active and engaged in the turbulent political and religious issues of his time
- supported the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which led to the establishment of constitutional monarchy
in England
- wrote numerous pamphlets on a wide range of topics, including politics, economics, and social issues
- often journal-like approach
- is often considered one of the pioneers of literary realism
- Defoe passed away in 1731 in London

Robinson Crusoe

- first person narrative, sort of autobiographical

- realism
- Crusoe occasionally describes his feelings, but only when they are overwhelming. Usually he favours a
more factual narrative style focused on actions and events
- dairy, journal entries
- inspired many tv series and shows, film adaptations
- based on real life adventures of Alexander Selkirk
- survival narrative
- easy to read language
- personal growth, Christianity and Colonialism or racism
- reflection on the word it was written in
- set in times of Colonial Expansion and Exploration
- the title character is cast away and spends 28 years on a remote tropical desert island near the coasts of
Venezuela and Trinidad, encountering cannibals, captives, and mutineers before being rescued

Setting: deserted island, England, Guinea….

Themes: survival, isolation, adaptation, and the transformative power of human agency
Plot: Robinson Crusoe, an Englishman in the 17th century, defies his family's wishes to study law and sets out
on sea voyages. After facing shipwrecks, enslavement, and adventures, he becomes the sole survivor of an
expedition and is stranded on a deserted island. Crusoe learns to survive, builds a life, and encounters cannibals.
One day, he discovers a footprint, leading to the rescue of a man named Friday. Together, they defend against
cannibals and rescue other survivors, including Spaniards. Crusoe eventually returns to England, learns of his
prosperous Brazilian plantations, and sets out for new adventures in the East Indies.
Characters:
Robinson Crusoe - the novel’s protagonist and narrator. Crusoe begins the novel as a young middle-class,
yearns for a life at sea, and his subsequent rebellion and decision to become a merchant is the starting point for
the whole adventure that follows. His vague but recurring feelings of guilt over his disobedience colour the first
part of the first half of the story and show us how deep Crusoe’s religious fear is. Crusoe is steady and plodding
in everything he does, and his perseverance ensures his survival through storms, enslavement, and a twenty-
eight-year isolation on a desert island.

Friday - A twenty-six-year-old Caribbean native and cannibal who converts to Protestantism under Crusoe’s
tutelage. Friday becomes Crusoe’s servant after Crusoe saves his life when Friday is about to be eaten by other
cannibals. Friday never appears to resist or resent his new servitude, and he may sincerely view it as appropriate
compensation for having his life saved. But whatever Friday’s response may be, his servitude has become a
symbol of imperialist oppression throughout the modern world. Friday’s overall charisma works against the
emotional deadness that many readers find in Crusoe.

7. Pre-romanticism
years 1740 AD – 1790 AD

- cultural movement in Europe

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 - precursor to the Romantic movement
- artists began to emphasize emotional expression, intuition, and the exploration of the individual's inner
world
- shift marked a departure from the rationalism and intellectual emphasis
- explored the emotional and spiritual responses elicited by landscapes and natural phenomena
- a revival of interest in medieval literature, art, and folklore
- fascination with the supernatural and mysterious
- breaking free from the constraints of classical forms and embrace a more spontaneous and emotive
approach
- writers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Gray, and James Macpherson's Ossianic poems
are considered precursors to Romanticism and played a significant role in shaping preromantic
sentiments

William Blake – The Sick Rose, Songs of Innocence, The Clod and the Pebble
(1757–1827)

- English poet, painter, and printmaker

- his works are known for their visionary and mystical qualities, often combining poetry and visual art
- lake's ideas and artistic expression were unconventional for his time, and he was largely unrecognized
during his lifetime
- born in London in 1757
- Blake's most distinctive works are his illuminated books, where he combined his poetry with original
illustrations. Notable examples include "Songs of Innocence" (1789), "Songs of Experience" (1794),
and "The Marriage of Heaven and Hell" (1790–1793).
- his poetry often explores themes of spirituality, the imagination, and the conflict between innocence and
experience - seeing world in terms of opposites
- rebellion against the rationalism of the 18th century
- symbolism

The Sick Rose

The poem is known for its rich symbolism and has been interpreted in various ways. Here are some key themes
and interpretations:

Symbolism of the Rose: The rose in the poem is often seen as a symbol of beauty, love, or innocence. The fact
that it is "sick" suggests that something is undermining or corrupting these qualities.

The Invisible Worm: The invisible worm is a mysterious and destructive force. It is not explicitly identified, but
it is often interpreted as a symbol of corruption, decay, or a destructive influence that operates unseen.

Night and Storm: The mention of the worm flying in the night and the howling storm adds to the ominous
atmosphere. The night and storm could symbolize darkness, chaos, or troubled times.

Bed of Crimson Joy: The rose's "bed of crimson joy" is often interpreted as a symbol of love or passion. The
intrusion of the invisible worm into this bed implies a corrupted or destructive influence infiltrating a joyful or
innocent aspect of life.

Dark Secret Love: The phrase "dark secret love" is intriguing. It suggests a hidden, perhaps sinister, form of love
that causes harm. The poem raises questions about the nature of this love and its impact on the rose.

Life Destruction: The final lines suggest that the rose's life is being destroyed by this dark influence. The poem
captures a sense of tragedy and loss, as something beautiful and innocent succumbs to a hidden malevolence.

Songs of Innocence – Introduction

Key themes and elements in the "Introduction" include:

Piper and Child: The poem begins with the speaker, a piper, piping songs of joy in the wild valleys. The
encounter with a child on a cloud initiates the exchange of songs.

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Innocence and Joy: The child's request for a song about a lamb reflects innocence and simplicity. The act of
piping songs of pleasant glee reinforces the joyful and carefree nature associated with innocence.

Contrast with Experience: The reference to "Piping down the valleys wild" and the subsequent weeping of the
child suggest that the innocence depicted in this introduction will be contrasted with the more complex and
sometimes darker themes explored in "Songs of Experience."

Nature Imagery: Blake uses nature imagery with lines like "Summer’s leaves all kinds of berries" and
"Blossoms, leaves, and berries," creating a vivid and pastoral backdrop for the innocent scenes.

Musicality and Repetition: The repetitive nature of the piping and the child's request for the song to be piped
again contribute to a musical and rhythmic quality, emphasizing the playful and melodic essence of the
collection.

Emotion: The child's weeping at the repetition of the song introduces an element of emotion and foreshadows the
potential for deeper, contrasting emotions to be explored in subsequent poems.

The Clod and the Pebble

"The Clod and the Pebble" is one of William Blake's poems from his collection "Songs of Innocence and of
Experience," published in 1794.

Clod's Perspective: The clod of clay personifies the perspective of innocence. It describes love as selfless,
seeking the well-being of others, and even finding joy in the midst of difficult circumstances. The clod sees love
as a force that can create heaven even in the face of despair.

Pebble's Perspective: The pebble, representing the perspective of experience, has a contrasting view of love. It
sees love as self-centered, seeking only to please itself. According to the pebble, love can lead to the joys of one
person causing suffering for another, creating a kind of hell in the midst of heavenly experiences.

Contrasting Views of Love: The poem explores the dual nature of love and how it can be interpreted differently
based on one's perspective. The clod's view aligns with a more altruistic and selfless understanding of love,
while the pebble's view aligns with a more selfish and possessive interpretation.

Metaphorical Imagery: The choice of a clod of clay and a pebble as the speakers adds metaphorical depth to the
poem. The clod, associated with the earth, represents humility and simplicity, while the pebble, associated with
the brook, may symbolize something polished and shaped by experience.

Musical Elements: Like many of Blake's poems, this one has a musical quality, especially with the use of rhyme
and meter. The contrasting perspectives are presented through the musical dialogue between the clod and the
pebble.

8. Romanticism
years 1785 AD -1832 AD

- reaction against the principles and values of the Enlightenment, Neoclassicism, and the Industrial
Revolution
- romanticism placed a strong emphasis on emotion, intuition, and the individual's subjective experience
- inspiration in nature, viewing it as a source of beauty, inspiration, and spirituality
- the power of the imagination and the creative spirit, emphasizing the mysterious and the sublime
- romanticism emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the
spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental
- imitation of native folklore, folk ballads and poetry, folk dance and music, and even previously ignored
medieval and Renaissance works
- after 1789 – novelists brought new themes, new approaches
- high-class society contrasts with the primitive;
- national concerns with regional;
- male points of view with female;
- present with past,
- as more and more new subjects become the raw material for fiction.
- important the formulation of contrast between
- “classical – romantic” (Schlegel in his Berlin lectures)
- Classical – poetry of the ancients
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 - Romantic – modern poetry, associated with the progressive and Christian
-

Jane Austen – Pride and Prejudice

(1775–1817)

- her novels, which often explore the themes of love, marriage, and social class, continue to be widely
read and studied today
- born in 1775, in Steventon, Hampshire, England, into a large and close-knit family
- what Jane Austen did – and no author before her had attempted it so successfully
- was to apply the techniques of the novel to the acute observation of society in microcosm
- she deliberately avoids effect, exaggeration and excess
- going against the trend of the novels of her time
- she applies the microscope to human character and motivation
- no great didactic, moral, or
- satiric purpose
- but a gentle irony and perspicacity
- her novels unique, as representations of universal patterns of behaviour,
- and as documentation of an aspect of the provincial society of her time.
- focus on young heroines:
- the contrasting Elinor (sense and self-control) and Marianne (sensibility and impulsiveness) in Sense
and Sensibility
- Elizabeth Bennet in Pride and Prejudice
- Fanny Price in Mansfield Park
- Emma in the novel that bears her name
- and Anne Elliot in Persuasion.
- sisters are often contrasted
- and the closely worked out plots usually involve the twists and turns of emotion in the search for love,
marriage, happiness and social status.
- in each novel a fully realised and populated world
- strictly limited in scope, such that the reader can observe –
- without being made to judge
- a group of characters whose emotions are
- recognisable
- whose faults are human,
- whose traits are familiar
- the ‘issues’ may seem small-scale
- when compared to the wars being waged
- outside the limits of the village
- but it is precisely the universality of
- the characters’ preoccupations that makes these issues, and their expression, attractive to a great many
readers.
- Jane Austen and the Romantic writers of the early nineteenth century write in an English which is
recognisably a modern variety
- can normally be read without any reference to dictionaries or special editions
- some subtle differences in the English used by Jane Austen when it is compared, for example, with the
presentday language

Mary Shelly – Frankenstein

(1797–1851)

- English novelist, best known for her groundbreaking work in the science fiction genre, "Frankenstein;
or, The Modern Prometheus."
- was born 1797 in London, England
- Mary's parents were influential figures in the intellectual and literary circles of their time
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 - "Frankenstein" was published anonymously in 1818. The novel tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a
scientist who creates a living being through reanimating dead tissue
- Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" is considered a seminal work in both science fiction and Gothic literature
- it explores themes of scientific responsibility, the consequences of unchecked ambition, and the nature
of humanity.
- the novel has inspired numerous adaptations, films, and other works across various media
- works – Frankenstein, Valperga, The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, Lodore, The Last Man

Frankenstein

- first published anonymously in 1818

- written in an age of scientific discovery
- first science-fiction text/one of the first horror stories
- time of social change: Industrial Revolution – in 1815 a volcano erupted in Europe, which created a
- big black smoke cloud, there was a cold summer that year.
- the descriptions in the text are quite icy, and snowy
- horror gothic story
- nature plays an important role, in creating an appropriate setting
- Shelley employs Gothic elements in the novel, including eerie settings, supernatural occurrences, and a
sense of horror and dread. The desolate landscapes and atmospheric descriptions contribute to the
novel's dark and mysterious tone.
- as been adapted into numerous films, plays, and other media. The character of Frankenstein's monster
has become an iconic figure in horror literature.
- "Frankenstein" remains a classic and enduring work that raises ethical and philosophical questions
about the boundaries of scientific experimentation and the moral responsibilities of creators. Mary
Shelley's exploration of the consequences of playing god and tampering with the natural order has left a
lasting impact on literature and popular culture.
- very descriptive language with focus on emotion and imagery, long pieces of dialogue
- combines aspects of romanticism and gothic imagery – many contrasts between light and dark

Setting: Switzerland, Germany (he goes to university there), France, England, Scotland, Arctic Ocean
Themes: Identity, Revenge, Humanity – what really makes something human, Tragedy – very little happiness in
the story
Plot:
- Captain Robert Walton, on an Arctic expedition, writes to his sister about a mysterious stranger he has
rescued from the ice.
- The mission is interrupted by the ice – that is when Walton encounters Victor Frankenstein.
- Victor builds a creature from dead bodies and chemicals. One night, he secretly brings his creation to
life in his apartment. But when he looks at the monster he has created, he is terrified.
- Because of his terrible deed, Victor prepares to run to his family to Geneva, but find out that his brother
William has been murdered.
- Victor hurries home, and saw the sight of the monster when passing through the woods, and is
- convinced that the monster is his brother´s murder.
- Victor feels guilty, and he takes a vacation to the mountains where he meets the monster.
- The monster admits that he is the murderer of William. Because the monster feels lonely, he wants
Victor to create a friend for him.
- Victor works at creating another monster, but in the end, he destroys his new creation because he is
horrified by the possible consequences.
- Victor took the boat later that night and threw the remnants of the second creature in the water.
- His friend Henry Clerval, killed by the monster.
- Victor marries Elizabeth and fears that he will be killed by the monster but the monster kills Elizabeth
instead.
- He tracks the monster; he almost catches him but because the ice broke he couldn´t reach him. At this
point Walton encounters Victor.
- When Walton returned to the room in which Victor´s body lay, he sees the monster weeping over Victor.
- The monster said that when his creator has died, he can too and departs to die. He departs, “lost in
darkness and distance.”

Characters:
Victor Frankenstein - At first, Victor was innocent, fascinated with the „secret of life “

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He had the desire to attain the godlike power of creating new life, but the monster kills people, Victor refuses to
admit to anyone that he was the one who created it and becomes guilty
The Monster - Creation was made of old body parts and chemicals, giant and strong, but with the mind of a
new-born. Also sensitive because he tried to save a girl from drowning. Nobody liked him so it ended up lonely.
Robert Walton - The captain of a North Pole-bound ship. He is also driven by a desire for discovery
and feels lonely like Victor.
Elizabeth Lavenza = Frankenstein´s adopted sister and later his wife.
Henry Clerval = Henry also desires to achieve great things. He also makes a discovery at university.
9. First Generation of Romantic Poets

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) – Tintern Abby

- known mainly for Lyrical Ballads (1798)
- co-authored with S. T. Coleridge
- considered manifesto of Romanticism
- his Preface to the Second Edition of the Lyrical Ballads (1800), in which he characterises his poetry,
made him famous
- The Reader will find that personifications of abstract ideas rarely occur in these volumes; and are
utterly rejected as an ordinary device to elevate the style, and raise it above prose. My purpose was to
imitate, and, as far as possible, to adopt the very language of men; and assuredly such personifications
do not make any natural or regular part of that language.”
- Poetry is a “spontaneous overflow of powerful feeling: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in
tranquillity. The emotion is contemplated till, by a species of reaction, the tranquillity gradually
disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which was before the subject of contemplation, is gradually
produced, and does itself actually exist in the mind”
- his aim is to purify the language of poetry
- moving from great symbolic principles of Milton, and allegories of Pope
- to language representing visible universe
- attempts at direct relation of mind to object
- no abstractions or symbols in between
- other principles of Romantic (Wordsworth´s) imagination: childhood, nature
- the poems of the Romantics - designed to communicate Nature’s transformative power.
- nature is portrayed as omnipresent and capable of altering human perception and perspective.
- the settings of these poems, therefore, are picturesque and exotic
- nature - so powerful that it could not be contained
- it takes on a mysterious, sometimes even scary quality
- supernatural elements
- nature is celebrated and portrayed not superficially
- but its impact on human mind is stressed
- „he records the evidence of his senses, looking inward rather than outward“
- thus empirical poetry

Tintern Abby
- "Tintern Abbey" was first published in the collection "Lyrical Ballads" in 1798
- the poem is set along the banks of the River Wye near Tintern Abbey in Wales. Wordsworth revisits the
location five years after his first visit, providing a reflective account of the changes in his own life and
the enduring beauty of the natural landscape.
- reflective and meditative poem that explores the relationship between nature and the human mind
- reflects on the healing and transformative power of nature, describing the landscape in vivid and lyrical
language
- themes such as memory, the passage of time, the impact of nature on the human psyche, and the
spiritual connection between the individual and the natural world
- the poem has had a significant impact on literary criticism, particularly in discussions about
Romanticism, nature poetry, and the relationship between literature and the natural world.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) – The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

- while Wordsworth´s poetry is concerned with the everyday
- Coleridge depicts a mysterious world,
- irrational
- extraordinary
- dreamy
- English poet, literary critic, philosopher, and one of the central figures of the Romantic movement in
English literature
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 - "Lyrical Ballads," co-authored by Coleridge and Wordsworth, included Coleridge's famous poem "The
Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and Wordsworth's "Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey."
The collection is considered a foundational work in the Romantic literary canon.
- narrative poem that explores themes of guilt, redemption, and the supernatural. It is known for its vivid
imagery and symbolism.
- Coleridge was not only a poet but also a prolific literary critic and philosopher
- his poetry often explores the connection between nature and the human psyche

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

- written in a form of medieval ballad

- narrative poem
- Coleridge´s attempt to understand the transcendental
- the poem is famous for its beautiful cadence (tempo, rhythm, pace, beat) and wonderful imagery.
- the combination of the natural and supernatural, the ordinary and extraordinary makes it one of the
masterpieces of Romantic poetry
- makes him to increase his sensual perception by taking drugs
- an old sailor (the Ancient Mariner) stops a wedding guest to tell his tale
- The Ancient Mariner recounts a sea voyage during which the ship is driven southward into icy waters
near Antarctica. The crew encounters an albatross, which is initially seen as a good omen. However, the
Mariner irrationally shoots the albatross with a crossbow, bringing a curse upon the ship.
- The killing of the albatross leads to dire consequences for the ship and its crew. The wind stops
blowing, and the ship becomes stranded in the desolate sea. The crew members, initially supportive of
the Mariner's actions, turn against him when they realize the gravity of their situation.
- The Ancient Mariner sees a spectral ship approaching, with Death and a woman, Life-in-Death, playing
dice for the souls of the crew. Life-in-Death wins the Mariner's soul, and the crew drops dead one by
one, leaving the Mariner alone.
- The Mariner is left alone on the ship, surrounded by the corpses of his former crewmates. He is
burdened by guilt and longs for death but is unable to die. He finds a spiritual connection to nature and
realizes the importance of all living creatures.
- The ship is eventually guided back to land by a supernatural force, and the Mariner encounters a hermit
and a pilot. He is compelled to share his tale as a cautionary story about the consequences of harming
innocent creatures and the need for humility before nature.
- "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" explores themes of guilt, redemption, and the interconnectedness of
all living things. The killing of the albatross symbolizes the violation of the natural order, and the
Mariner's journey becomes a quest for spiritual and moral understanding.
- Its vivid imagery, supernatural elements, and moral themes have made it a subject of study and
interpretation for generations. The poem's impact extends beyond literature, influencing art, music, and
popular culture.
- themes of Sin, Punishment, Penance, Divine intervention
- Coleridge divided the poem into seven parts
- most of the stanzas in the poem have 4 lines
- the metre – somewhat loose
- the rhyme – the rhymes generally alternate in an ABAB
- literary devices – alliteration, anaphora, irony, onomatopoeia, personification, allegory

10. Second Generation of Romantic Poets

George Gordon
Lord Byron (1788–1824) – Childe Harolds Pilgrimage

- a prominent British poet and one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement in English literature
- Byron gained widespread acclaim with the publication of the first two cantos of "Childe Harold's
Pilgrimage" in 1812
- the poem, which follows the travels of a young man named Childe Harold, made Byron a literary
celebrity and established him as a leading Romantic poet
- Byron was known for his passionate involvement in political and social causes
- Byron's poetry is characterized by its emotional intensity, narrative skill, and a blend of Romantic and
Classical influences. His works often explore themes of love, freedom, individualism, and the

17
 complexities of human nature. "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" and "Don Juan" are among his most
celebrated works.
- was involved in social issues, known for his verse satires
- he created a popular Byronic hero – a melancholy, solitary figure
- themes in his work – forbidden love, idealized love, sexual repression, marriage, nature

- narrative poem written by Lord Byron

- the poem follows the travels and reflections of a young man named Childe Harold. The title "Childe" is
an archaic term referring to a young nobleman or knight.
- Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" explores themes common to Romantic literature, including the individual's
search for meaning and identity, the impact of nature on the human spirit, and the contemplation of
historical and cultural heritage.
- Childe Harold is often seen as a semi-autobiographical representation of Byron himself
- ideals of individualism, emotion, and the sublime
- use of descriptive language and his ability to convey the emotional and philosophical depth of his
protagonist

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) - Ode to the West Wind

- one of the major English Romantic poets, known for his lyrical and visionary poetry, as well as his
radical political and social views
- his early poems, such as "Queen Mab," reflected his radical ideas and denounced social and political
injustice.
- Shelley was an advocate for social reform and political freedom. His works often expressed a vision of
a utopian society based on reason, justice, and individual liberty
- Shelley's poetry is characterized by its lyricism, idealism, and passion. His exploration of the sublime in
nature, his advocacy for social reform, and his vision of the poet as a transformative force have had a
lasting impact on literature and philosophy.
- explores political and social questions
- has often been self-pitying
- a new approach to life
- he believed that poetry could reform the world

- a powerful and symbolic poem that uses the image of the wind to convey the poet's desire for social and
political change
- the poem is written in five stanzas, each consisting of fourteen lines. It follows the traditional structure
of an ode, expressing a heightened, often lyrical emotion
- the ode is set against the backdrop of the changing seasons, particularly the autumnal period when the
west wind begins to blow
- the wind is portrayed as a powerful and transformative force in nature
- Shelley employs similes and symbolic language throughout the poem
- compares himself to a "leaves" and "ghosts" driven by the wind but unable to find rest
- the metaphor of the lyre, a musical instrument, to convey the idea that the wind can be a source of
inspiration for the poet
- the final stanzas of the poem shift to a vision of spring and the potential for rebirth

John Keats (1795-1821)

- the main theme of Keat´s poetry is the conflict between the everyday world and eternity
- other themes
- pleasure in pain
- excitement in emotion and intellect
- dreams and reality
- celebrates beauty and knows all things must die
- love and death closely connected
- style
- precise descriptive detail
- synaesthesia – is a choice of imagery and language which describe sensory impressions in terms of
other senses

11. The Victorian Age - Victorian Novel I.

years 1832 AD – 1901 AD
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Historical Background

- Queen Victoria (reigned 1837-1901)

- time of stability
- height of imperial power
- after her reign it became to decline
- growth
- economic growth
- London grew from 2 to 6,5 million inhabitants
- change of life – from rural to industrial (based on manufacturing, industrial trade)
- Britain was the first country to industrialise
- philosophy of free trade
- laissez-faire
- the policy of leaving things to take their own course, without interfering.
- abstention by governments from interfering in the workings of the free market. - "laissez-faire
capitalism„
- inventions, technology
- britain became workshop of the world and world banker
- steam power – used in railways, ships, printing
- postal services and communications
- optimism – people believed in expansion
- however, there were also negatives – paradoxes
- poor conditions of working class in britain and in colonies
- tolerance (abolition of slavery) and repression (bad working conditions)
- dominant trend – realism
- term first used in the 1850s in France
- to describe works concerned with representing the world as it is rather than as it ought to be
- presenting authentic detail
- function of the environment in creating character
- contemporary life
- everyday scenes
- effect of „real“ life
- a slice of life
- language transparent and referential
- first person or third person omniscient narration
- narrator absent from the text
- though in dickens ironic presence in the text
- variety of characters from all social classes
- structure of society analysed
- included cruelty, suffering, criminal communities
- Charles Dickens
- W. M. Thackeray
- Bronte Sisters
- George Eliot

Emily Bronte – Wuthering Heights and Charlotte Bronte, Anne Bronte

(1818 - 1848
- contributed to the growth of the novel
- and focused attention on the role of women
- though they used pseudonym not to draw attention to the fact that they were not men
- Charlotte and Emily – opposite to Jane Austen
- romantic – passions, violence
- Austen explores decormum AND restraint
- Ch. Bronte´s Jane Eyre published in 1847- bildungsroman

Wuthering Heights

- Theme: The Significance of Setting

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 - „Never have two more opposing places existed than Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights.
Wuthering Heights is a dwelling characterized by fiery emotions, primal passions, bitter vengeance, and
blatant evil. Thrushcross Grange is a peaceful, beautiful abode which epitomizes all that is good and
lovely. Emily Bronte includes these two places in the Romantic novel, Wuthering Heights, to create a
contrast which furthers the overall theme of good vs. evil.“
- The houses reflect their inhabitants
- symbolize them
- settings in general influence the novel's characters
- contrasts
- The use of twos:
- Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange;
- two families, each with two children;
- two couples (Catherine and Edgar, and Heathcliff and Isabella);
- two narrators;
- the doubling-up of names
- the novel is a dark and intense tale of love, revenge, and the destructive power of passion. It is now
considered a classic of English literature
- Brontë's writing is known for its intense emotional depth, Gothic elements, and exploration of the dark
aspects of human nature. "Wuthering Heights" is celebrated for its complex characters, vivid
descriptions of the Yorkshire moors, and its unconventional narrative structure.
- the narrative unfolds through multiple perspectives, with characters recounting events from their own
points of view

Setting:
Wuthering Heights:
Wuthering Heights is a remote and imposing farmhouse located on the Yorkshire moors. The name "Wuthering"
suggests the tumultuous and stormy nature of the place. The house is described as dark, gloomy, and isolated,
reflecting the harshness of its inhabitants and the emotional turbulence within. It becomes the primary residence
for characters like Heathcliff and Hindley Earnshaw. The house's physical setting, surrounded by desolate moors,
contributes to its eerie and foreboding atmosphere.

Thrushcross Grange:
Thrushcross Grange is a contrast to Wuthering Heights, representing a more refined and civilized environment. It
is described as elegant and orderly, situated in a more cultivated part of the moors. The Linton family resides at
Thrushcross Grange, including Edgar and Isabella Linton. The Grange stands in stark contrast to the wildness of
Wuthering Heights and serves as a symbol of societal norms and conventions.
The Yorkshire moors themselves play a significant role in the setting, serving as a backdrop to the characters'
lives and emotions. The moors are described as desolate, windy, and rugged, reflecting the harshness of the
characters' experiences. The landscape becomes intertwined with the narrative, with its wildness mirroring the
untamed passions and conflicts within the novel.

The combination of these settings—the dark and brooding Wuthering Heights, the refined Thrushcross Grange,
and the expansive, windswept moors—creates a rich and atmospheric backdrop for the unfolding drama. The
physical settings are closely linked to the characters' emotions and experiences, contributing to the Gothic and
Romantic elements that define the novel.

Themes: love and obsession, revenge, social class and prejudice, nature and the supernatural

Plot:
"Wuthering Heights" is a Gothic novel by Emily Brontë that explores the intense and destructive love story
between Heathcliff and Catherine Earnshaw. The novel is narrated by Mr. Lockwood, who rents Thrushcross
Grange and becomes curious about his mysterious landlord, Heathcliff. Lockwood seeks information from the
housekeeper, Nelly Dean, who recounts the history of the Earnshaw and Linton families.

Heathcliff, an orphan taken in by the Earnshaws, develops a deep connection with Catherine. However,
Catherine chooses to marry Edgar Linton for social reasons, breaking Heathcliff's heart. Heathcliff's revenge
becomes a central theme, leading to a cycle of suffering and vengeance that spans generations. The novel
explores themes of love, revenge, social class, and the destructive power of unchecked passion against the
atmospheric backdrop of the Yorkshire moors. The characters' fates are intertwined with the desolate landscape,
creating a haunting and unforgettable tale.

Characters:

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Heathcliff: The enigmatic and tortured protagonist of the story. An orphan taken in by the Earnshaw family,
Heathcliff develops a deep and passionate love for Catherine Earnshaw. His experiences shape him into a
vengeful and brooding figure who seeks revenge against those who mistreated him.

Catherine Earnshaw (Cathy): The spirited and wild daughter of the Earnshaw family. Catherine shares a
profound connection with Heathcliff, but societal expectations lead her to marry Edgar Linton. Her internal
conflict and untamed nature contribute to the novel's tragic trajectory.

Edgar Linton: A refined and well-mannered young man who becomes Catherine's husband. Edgar represents
the societal norms and expectations of the time. Despite his love for Catherine, he is ultimately powerless in the
face of her emotional ties to Heathcliff.

Isabella Linton: Edgar's sister, who marries Heathcliff. Isabella is drawn to Heathcliff's mysterious and
passionate nature but soon realizes the dark reality of her choice. She becomes a victim of Heathcliff's revenge.

Hindley Earnshaw: Catherine's older brother, initially Heathcliff's tormentor. Hindley's mistreatment of
Heathcliff sets off a chain of events that shape the characters' destinies. His descent into alcoholism contributes
to the novel's themes of degradation and decay.

Nelly Dean: The housekeeper at Thrushcross Grange and Wuthering Heights. Nelly serves as the primary
narrator, recounting the events of the story to Mr. Lockwood. Her perspective provides insights into the lives and
motivations of the characters.

Mr. Lockwood: A tenant at Thrushcross Grange who rents from Heathcliff. Mr. Lockwood serves as the initial
narrator, introducing the reader to the mysterious inhabitants of Wuthering Heights. His interactions with the
characters provide an outsider's perspective.

Joseph: The surly and fanatically religious servant at Wuthering Heights. Joseph's presence adds to the
atmosphere of gloom and tension within the household.

Hareton Earnshaw: Hindley's son, who grows up at Wuthering Heights under Heathcliff's guardianship.
Initially treated cruelly by Heathcliff, Hareton becomes a symbol of the destructive cycle of revenge.

George Eliot
1819 - 1880
- George Eliot was the pen name of Mary Ann Evans, a prominent Victorian-era novelist, poet, and
translator
- George Eliot's first novel, "Adam Bede," was published in 1859 and achieved immediate success. She
followed it with a series of highly acclaimed novels, including "The Mill on the Floss" (1860), "Silas
Marner" (1861), and "Middlemarch" (1871–1872), considered her masterpiece.
- Mary Ann Evans chose the pen name "George Eliot" to ensure that her works would be taken seriously
in the male-dominated literary world. The use of a male pseudonym was a common practice for female
authors during that period.
- her writing style is characterized by its depth, complexity, and psychological insight. She was known
for her ability to depict the inner thoughts and motivations of her characters, providing readers with a
nuanced understanding of human behaviour
- Many of Eliot's novels include a strong element of social critique. She addressed issues such as class
distinctions, gender roles, and the impact of industrialization on society. Her works often reflect a
concern for moral and ethical questions.

12. Victorian Novel II.

Charles Dickens – Oliver Twist

1812 – 1870

- novelist and social critic

- began his literary career as a journalist and reporter
- advocated for social change, particularly in relation to education and the treatment of the poor
- Dickens's writing style is characterized by vivid and memorable characters, intricate plots, and a keen
sense of humor. His ability to create both humor and pathos contributed to the universal appeal of his
novels.
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Oliver Twist
- most well-known novel, published in serial form between 1837 and 1839
- explores themes of social injustice, the plight of the poor, the corrupting influence of criminality, and
the possibility of redemption. Dickens uses the novel to critique the harsh conditions faced by orphaned
and impoverished children in Victorian England
- "Oliver Twist" has been adapted into numerous stage plays, films, and television series. It remains a
popular and enduring work that continues to capture the imagination of audiences worldwide
- novel serves as a powerful vehicle for Charles Dickens to provide a social commentary on the harsh
realities of Victorian society, particularly the treatment of the poor and vulnerable
- Dickens criticizes the deplorable conditions in workhouses, novel sheds light on the exploitation of
child labor, especially through the character of Oliver Twist, children are forced into a life of crime and
poverty, the stark contrast between the privileged classes and the impoverished masses
Setting: London, Victorian Era
Themes: poverty, expliotation, social injustice, criminality, mortality, redemption, compassion, fate
Plot:
- Oliver was born in a workshop and his mother died. Oliver spends his first 9 years in a poorly
run orphanage, then is transferred to an adult home
- There is another apprentice, Noah Claypole, who makes inappropriate comments about Olivers mother,
Oliver attacks him and then runs away.
- Outside of London, Oliver, who is starving and exhausted, meets Jack Dawkins, a boy his own age. He
offers Oliver shelter with Fagin. Fagin is a criminal who trains orphan boys to pickpocket for him.
- After training, he is sent to steal. When he sees the boys stealing the handkerchief from the
- elderly gentleman, he runs away because he is horrified.
- They catch him. Mr. Bronwlow, the man whose handkerchief was stolen, takes Oliver home
- and helps him recover.
- Oliver is fine at Brownlows, but Bill Sikes and his lover Nancy, who belong to Fagins gang,
- capture Oliver and take him back to Fagin
- Fagin sends Oliver to help Sikes with the burglar
- Oliver is shot by a house servant.
- Sikes escapes and Oliver is taken in by the women who live there. They like Oliver and he spends the
summer with them in the countryside
- Fagin along with a mysterious man named Monks want to recapture Oliver.
- It is discovered that Oliver's mother left a gold locket after her death, but Monks retrieves it
- and destroys it.
- When the Maylies return to London, Nancy secretly meets with Rose and informs her of Fagin;s plan
- When Sikes finds out, he brutally murders Nancy and flees London. -An angry mob chases him and
hangs himself trying to escape.
- It turns out that Monks is Oliver's half-brother. Their father, Mr. Leeford, was unhappily
- married to a wealthy woman and had an affair with Oliver's mother, Agnes Fleming.
- Mr. Brownlow forces Monks to transfer Oliver's share to Oliver.
- Fagin is hanged for his crimes. Eventually, Mr. Brownlow adopts Oliver and they go to live in the
countryside.
Characters:
Oliver Twist: The protagonist of the story, Oliver is an orphan born in a workhouse. He endures hardship and
mistreatment but maintains his innocence and virtue throughout the novel. Oliver's quest for his true identity and
his struggle against the criminal influences around him drive the narrative.

Mr. Bumble: The pompous and self-righteous beadle who oversees the workhouse. Mr. Bumble represents the
callous and indifferent attitude of authority figures toward the poor. He later becomes involved with the Widow
Corney.

Widow Corney: The widow who runs the workhouse. She later becomes romantically involved with Mr.
Bumble and plays a role in the exploitation of Oliver.

The Artful Dodger (Jack Dawkins): A charismatic and cunning member of Fagin's gang. The Artful Dodger
introduces Oliver to Fagin and the world of pickpocketing. He is a central figure in the criminal activities of the
novel.

Fagin: The elderly and manipulative leader of a gang of child thieves. Fagin trains children in the art of
pickpocketing and exploits them for his own gain. He is a complex character with both cunning and moments of
vulnerability.

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Bill Sikes: A brutal and violent criminal associated with Fagin's gang. Bill Sikes is involved in serious crimes,
including murder, and becomes a significant antagonist in the story.

Nancy: A sympathetic character who is part of Fagin's gang. Nancy, despite her involvement in criminal
activities, exhibits compassion and inner conflict. Her complex relationship with Bill Sikes adds emotional depth
to the narrative.

Mr. Brownlow: A kind and compassionate gentleman who takes an interest in Oliver. Mr. Brownlow becomes a
father figure to Oliver and plays a crucial role in unraveling the mystery of Oliver's background.

Rose Maylie: A virtuous and compassionate young woman who becomes involved with Oliver. Rose's
background and connection to the narrative contribute to the unfolding events.

The Maylies (Mrs. Maylie and Harry Maylie):

Rose's adoptive mother, Mrs. Maylie, and her son, Harry, are characters associated with wealth and privilege.
They contrast with the darker aspects of the novel and play roles in Oliver's fate.

Monks (Edward Leeford):

A mysterious and sinister character with a connection to Oliver's past. Monks is involved in a plot that unfolds
throughout the novel, adding an element of mystery.

Charley Bates:A member of Fagin's gang and a friend to Oliver. Charley Bates undergoes some moral conflict
as the story progresses.

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