The Construction Industry in The Fourth Industrial Revolution Proceedings

Clinton Aigbavboa · Wellington Thwala
Editors
The Construction
Industry in the
Fourth Industrial
Revolution
Proceedings of 11th Construction
Industry Development Board (CIDB)
Postgraduate Research Conference
The Construction Industry in the Fourth Industrial
Revolution
Clinton Aigbavboa Wellington Thwala
•
Editors
The Construction Industry

in the Fourth Industrial
Revolution
Proceedings of 11th Construction Industry
Development Board (CIDB) Postgraduate
Research Conference
123
Editors
Clinton Aigbavboa Wellington Thwala
Construction management Construction management
and Quantity Surveying and Quantity Surveying
University of Johannesburg University of Johannesburg
Johannesburg, Gauteng Johannesburg, Gauteng
South Africa South Africa
ISBN 978-3-030-26527-4 ISBN 978-3-030-26528-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1
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Contents
A Systems Thinking Approach to Construction

Project Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Joe Frederick Cobbinah, Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa,
Wellington Didibhuku Thwala, and Kwamina Ewur Banson
Barriers of Project Bond Initiatives in Infrastructure
Financing in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
De-Graft Owusu-Manu, Caleb Debrah, Prince Antwi-Afari,
and David John Edwards
Factors Influencing the Cost Performance of Traditional
and Public-Private Partnership Procured Housing Projects
in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Olusola Festus Akinradewo and Alexander Ejiro Omoraka
Assessment on the Influence of Stakeholders on Sustainable
Building Construction in Ondo State, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke, Diekolola Abiola-Ogedengbe,
and Ainlolu Akinseli
Investigating a Male-Dominated Space: Female Students’
Perceptions of Gendered Cultures in Construction Workplaces . . . . . . . 43
Mariam Akinlolu and Theo C. Haupt
Construction Transaction Costs in a Developing Economy:
The Nigerian Construction Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Matthew Osivue Ikuabe and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke
4IR Leadership Effectiveness and Practical Implications
for Construction Business Organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Kehinde Alade and Abimbola Windapo
v
vi Contents
Evaluation of Safety and Security Measures: Preliminary Findings

of a University Student Housing Facility in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Solomon Adisa, Fredrick Simpeh, and Julius Fapohunda
Work-Life Balance Practices in the Construction Industry
of Swaziland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bhekinkosi Dlamini, Olalekan Shamsideen Oshodi, Clinton Aigbavboa,
and Wellington Didibhuku Thwala
Apprenticeship: A Narrative Review of Factors Influencing Career
Choice of Young People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Olalekan Shamsideen Oshodi, Clinton Aigbavboa,
Oluwayomi Kayode Babatunde, and Bamidele Temitope Arijeloye
Relevance of Competencies of Construction Project Risk Managers
to Quantity Surveying Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Edosa Mark Osazuwa and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke
Killing What We Intend to Grow: The Challenges of the Local
Construction Industry with the Public Procurement Systems
in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Christopher Amoah and Winston Shakantu
Mentoring Practices in Construction Professional Firms in Nigeria . . . . 124
Osamudiamen Kenneth Otasowie and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke
A Model of Network Communication in Building Information
Modelling Supply Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Oluseye Olugboyega and Abimbola Windapo
A Building Information Modelling-Integrated Model
of Construction Project Performance Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Oluseye Olugboyega and Abimbola Windapo
Graduating Female Students’ Long-Term Career Decisions
and Underrepresentation of Women in South Africa’s
Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Yolanda Moraba and Oluwayomi Babatunde
Applied Systems Analysis for Analysing Challenges
in Construction Projects: A Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Dillip Kumar Das
Effects of Land Administration on RDP Land
and Buildings-A Case of Alexandra Township . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Gladness Makgobi, Mashwama Nokulunga, Thwala Didi,
and Aigbavboa Clinton
Contents vii
Awareness of Green Building Prerequisites for Skill Development

Among Built-Industry Professionals in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Comfort Olubunmi Ade-Ojo and O. A. Awodele
A Review of the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use
of Automation and Robotics in the Construction Industry . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Josephine Llale, Matleko Setati, Success Mavunda, Thando Ndlovu,
David Root, and Paulin Wembe
Corporate Governance and REITs Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Moloi Nosipho and Akinsomi Omokolade
Repositioning Waste Management Architecture for Sustainable
Upstream Performance in Lagos, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Akintade Samuel Afolayan
Regulatory Distress: Architects’ Perspective on Enforcement
of Building Regulations in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Justice Kwame Offei-Nketiah, Titus Ebenezer Kwofie,
and Daniel Yaw Addai Duah
Making Rental Housing in the Gap-Market More Affordable
Through Green Building Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Prisca Simbanegavi, Ziev Shani, Justin Watkins, and Kimera Ramruthan
Identification of Planning and Design Factors Influencing
Stakeholders’ Acceptance of Public Transport Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Innocent Shima Azege, Dilip Kumar Das, and Bankole Awuzie
Evaluating the Impact of Emerging Contractors’ Failure
to Secure Tenders from the Tender Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Sikhumbuzo Lufele
Enhancing Financial Communication in Quantity Surveying Practice . . . 276
Rolien Terblanche, Obinna Ozumba, and David Root
Empirical Evidence on the Measurement of Information
Asymmetry on the Pricing of REITs on the Johannesburg
Stock Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Oluwaseun Damilola Ajayi and Omokolade Akinsomi
Barriers for the Adoption of Incorporating RFID with Mobile
Technology for Improved Safety of Construction Professionals . . . . . . . 297
Temidayo O. Osunsanmi, Ayodeji E. Oke, and Clinton O. Aigbavboa
Organizational Culture for Construction Enterprises in the Fourth
Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Oluwayomi Babatunde and Olalekan S. Oshodi
viii Contents
Construction Education’s Simulation Study in the Fourth

Industrial Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Oluwayomi Babatunde
Sustainable Project Delivery of Public Procurement Projects:
Contractor Selection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
James Akanmu, Oluwaseyi Ajayi, and Olusegun Akinsiku
Challenges to Lean Construction Implementation in South Africa . . . . . 337
Thabiso Monyane, Fidelis Emuze, Bankole Awuzie,
and Gerrit Crafford
Barriers to Construction Procurement Change in Higher Education
Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Xebiso Kamudyariwa and David Root
An Examination of Contextual Factors that Cause Variations
in Labour Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Mochelo Lefoka and Abimbola Windapo
Assessment of Political Risk Factors Associated
with Public-Private Partnership Projects in Developing Countries:
A Case Study of Lagos State Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Akintayo Opawole and Kahilu Kajimo-Shakantu
Delphi Survey on the Influence of Succession Planning
in Leadership Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Murendeni Liphadzi, Clinton Aigbavboa, Didibhuku Thwala,
and Titus Kwofie
Impact of Construction Health and Safety in Economic Growth . . . . . . 380
Sitsabo Dlamini and Gcinithemba Masimula
Sustainable Water Supply in Buildings Through Rooftop
Rainwater Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Chidozie Charles Nnaji
Macro-BIM Adoption Study: Establishing Nigeria’s BIM Maturity . . . . 401
Mansur Hamma-adama and Tahar Kouider
Criteria to Be Considered in the Selection of Building Materials
for Sustainable Housing Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Bimpe Alabi and Julius Fapohunda
Contracting Firms Compliance to Health and Safety Measures
on Construction Sites in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Olusola Festus Akinradewo and Bamidele Temitope Arijeloye
Contents ix
Supplementing Quantity Surveying Traditional Services

with Arbitration as One of the Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR) Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Xoliswa Mangese and Mart-Mari Els
Perceptions of Urban Stakeholders Concerning the Value
of Urban Open Spaces in Bloemfontein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Lindelwa Toba
Probable Challenges Facing Servitization Adoption in Construction:
Lessons from the Manufacturing Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Rotondwa B. Ramafalo, Bankole O. Awuzie, and Clinton Aigbavboa
Resolution of Management Issues with Mega Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Ayodeji Olatunji Aiyetan and Mhlongo Scelo
An Assessment of the Challenges in the Delivery of Umgeni
Water Project in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Ayodeji Olatunji Aiyetan and Naidoo Ashok
Exploring the Quality Management Methods Adopted by
Contractors in Fast-Track Construction Projects in Eastern Cape . . . . 477
Fidelis Emuze and Michael Oladokun
Using Case Study Design to Investigate the Delivery of Building
Energy Retrofit Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Chikezirim Okorafor, Fidelis Emuze, and Dillip Kumar Das
Developing a Framework for Deploying Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) to Improve Construction Safety Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Lesiba George Mollo, Fidelis Emuze, and John Smallwood
Communication Channel at Pre-contract Phase and Construction
Project Delivery in South-West, Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
E. Aladeloba Adesina, I. Idoro Godwin, and Osunsanmi Temidayo O
The Implications of Not Utilizing a Quantity Surveyor
as Principal Agent for Residential Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Tascha Bremer, Henry Deacon, Mart-Mari Els, and IG Mare
A Review of Critical Project Management Techniques
to Enhance Construction SMEs Project Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Chijioke Emere, Innocent Musonda, and Chioma Okoro
An Investigation of Causes of Deterioration for Health Physical
Infrastructure Transitioned from Donor to National Management . . . . 529
Bwalya Helena Mutale, Erastus Mwanaumo, Nathan Musonda,
and Sampa Chisumbe
x Contents
Success Strategies for Competitive Advantage in the Ghanaian

Construction Industry: A Delphi Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Matthew Kwaw Somiah, Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa,
and Wellington Didibhuku Thwala
Accuracy Influencing Factors for Pre-tender Cost Estimates
for the Roads Sector in Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Chipulu Chipulu, Erastus Mwanaumo, Balimu Mwiya,
Lubinda Haabazoka, and Sampa Chisumbe
An Investigation into the Critical Barriers to the Practice of Design
for Construction Safety in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Adekansola Labo-Popoola, Abdul-Majeed Mahamadue, Patrick Manu,
Clinton Aigbavboa, and Krzysztof Dziekonski
Determinants of the Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain Performance
in Zimbabwe: A Case of the National Oil Infrastructure Company . . . . 566
Lovemore Tendedziso, Erastus Mwanaumo, Nathan Musonda,
Mwewa Mambwe, and Lubinda Haabazoka
Ethics and Stakeholder Engagement for Industry/Construction 4.0:
A Systematic Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Kamil Okedara, Obuks Ejohwomu, and Paul Chan
An Assessment of Risks Associated with the Use of Second Hand
Tyres in Zambia from the Perspective of Enforcement Authorities . . . . 588
Bridget Kamanga, Erastus Mwanaumo, Nathan Sefuka Musonda,
and Mwewa Mambwe
Professional Construction Health and Safety Agent (CHSA)
Practice Issues in the South African Construction Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Claire Deacon
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607

A Systems Thinking Approach to Construction
Project Management
Joe Frederick Cobbinah1(&), Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa1,

Wellington Didibhuku Thwala1, and Kwamina Ewur Banson2
1
Department of Engineering Management,
University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
petsdf@yahoo.com
2
Department of Technology Transfer Centre (TTC),
Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research Institute (BNARI),
Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC), Legon-Accra, Ghana
Abstract. Construction projects plays an important role in nation’s development.

The complexity and dynamic environment of the construction industry charac-
terized it frequent cost, time overruns, low quality, etc. for construction project
management. This study therefore uses a systems thinking approach to identify the
key variables that are affecting this trend. Casual loop and Systems Archetypes
were used to develop systems models to determine the components and interac-
tions between the policy and the social, environmental and economic dimensions
of the industry. As demonstrated in the aforementioned CLD and archetypes,
construction projects will remain to be the engine that develops and empowers the
emerging and existing commercial business, housing sectors and nation building
across Africa. This systems thinking approach will also provide more clarity in
dealing with the complex management challenges and gradually replace the tra-
ditional theoretical approach of dealing with construction project management.
Keywords: Construction projects Project management Systems thinking

Technology Contractors
1 Introduction
The growing complexity in the field of construction projects poses substantial man-
agement challenges [1, 2]. Each construction project is unique in nature and operates in
complex environment which requires its own sets of managerial techniques [3]. These
managerial techniques span long time intervals, in some cases decades or more [4].
Large investments, at times billions of dollars, are involved. Debrah and Ofori [5] and
Yip, Rowlinson [6] assert that construction project management are complex because
of the extensive use of sophisticated plant, equipment, modern methods of construc-
tion, and multi-disciplinary and multi-tasked aspects of its team and workforce. It was
further stated that these complexities are very high and could lead to cost escalation,
delays, and technical problems which can undermine the financial feasibility of the
project, jeopardize it completion, threatens the solvency of stakeholders, and some-
times provoke legal disputes.

C. Aigbavboa and W. Thwala (Eds.): CIDB 2019, The Construction Industry
in the Fourth Industrial Revolution, pp. 1–11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_1
2 J. F. Cobbinah et al.
Despite advances in project management methodologies many projects continue to

fail. Modern project management methods have evolved tremendously over the years
to correct this undesirable situation but with limited success [7]. Introduction of pro-
duction management tools along with project management tool: critical path method
(CPM) and a number of ingenious cost management systems have and in the best cases
only resulted in marginal improvements [8]. These hitches and challenges cannot be
solved with the same level of thinking that created them and tools of the past [9]. The
solution requires moving away from tradition linear approached to systems thinking
holistic approach which integrates social, environment, economic, and politics for the
control of construction project to achieve the sustainable outcomes desired. The key
premise of systems design thinking is that people are an integral part of the system
alongside technology, social, environment, economic and politics and should be
regarded as such through the entire design process [10, 11]. Concerns have been raised
as to the relevance of the traditional construction project management tools and
techniques to the management of modern construction projects, hence a proposal has
been put forward for an alternative theoretical approach by academicians and practi-
tioners from both developed and developing countries [12]. This study will fill this gap
by applying a systems thinking approach as an alternative theoretical tool for con-
struction project management. Systems thinking application which is a new approaches
to construction project management allows for more effective selection of key mea-
sures, a less arbitrary process for setting objectives, and most importantly, creating a
true model of the business that can be tested and used to support improved decision
making. The research used casual loop diagrams and systems archetypes as key tools.
Finding of this research will add to the knowledge and understanding of the subject of
construction project complexity management and its application by project managers to
enhance performance in the construction industry.
1.1 Systems Thinking

The systems thinking framework view ‘problems’ as fragments of a complete system
and addresses the root causes of challenges thus, transdisciplinary approach [13].
Currently, the words “sustainability” or “green” is the key word of many researchers
and is applied to anything from ground preparation to consumption [14]. Overcoming
today’s problems requires a shift from a “traditional” way of thinking to a “systems”
viewpoint that organizes thought and behaviour in line with the natural acts of sus-
tainability [13, 15]. Systems thinking is a “framework for seeing inter-connectedness
relationships rather than events, for seeing patterns of alteration rather than static
portraits” [16, 17]. Systems thinking fosters new ways and levels of rational and
enables people to sustain and manage states of complexity and uncertainty which have
no simple answers. The construction industry and its sustainable management might
profit from a systems thinking approach to situational interventions and capacity
development, to address problematic issues holistically and recommend the desirable
sustainable results.
A Systems Thinking Approach to Construction Project Management 3
1.2 Systems Archetypes

A well-defined structure, that unveils distinct behavior over time chart, and has a
defined strategies for dealing with the underlying organization of a system being
studied is called system archetype [18]. System archetypes do not specifically describe
any one problem at a time but describe a spiral of problems generally [18]. Their
usefulness comes from the discernments they offer from the vigorous relations of
complex systems components. This framework reveals one’s understanding of a
specific system’s organization and behaviour, which nurture communication and
identification of high leverage points for problematic complex structure.
1.3 Causal Loop Diagrams

A causal loop diagram (CLD) is a causal diagram that aids in visualising how different
component in a system interacts and it is the first-step to modelling in systems thinking
to convert complex structure into an easy understandable structure [19]. They are
connected by key causal relationships to represent realism used to exhibit the behavior
of cause and effect from a system position [20]. Arrows connect variables in Causal
loop diagrams (CLDs) with polarities such as ‘negative’ ‘−’ and ‘positive’ ‘+’ signs
and delays ‘||’ to describe the causal relations [13, 17, 21]. The cause and effect that
take on a life of their own are represented by a feedback loops.
2 Research Methods
National data sources includes qualitative and quantitative data from participants’
project records, documents (media reports, publications, policy documents, previous
studies and statistical records). Stakeholder’s workshop and focus group discussions
were also conducted to collect data. Structured and open ended questionnaires were
used to direct discussions held with stakeholders individually and in groups. All the
data obtained from the study areas made used of the four levels of thinking model
(Fig. 1) to provide an overview of the current state and impact of management
strategies in the construction industry ripple by multiple feedback loops. Data collec-
tion began by assembling the mental models of all stakeholders involved in the con-
struction industry of Ghana in the workshop. They also analyse the systems’ barriers
and drivers to construction management.
The model which starts at the ‘first level of thinking’, involves a series of literature
reviews and interviews with experts in the field. Data on stakeholder opinions and
perceptions of how the construction project system works, the barriers to success, the
system drivers and the possible strategies (solutions) to overcome these problems were
obtained through focus group discussions with a group of experts (e.g., construction
managers and site managers or foremans and labourers) to obtain their mental models
of the construction sector under deliberation. Using the CLD modelling approach with
the VENSIM Software program (Ventana Systems UK), variables were processed into
CLD loops concerning the issues under consideration. When unintended consequences
and potential barriers have been identified, results are interpreted and patterns explored
Fig. 1. Feedback learning laboratory [19].
using the ‘second level of thinking’. Also the kind of feedback loops, reinforcing loops
and balancing loops that were generated are analsed.
Step three precedes, ‘third level of thinking’, in which pre-existing system arche-
types influencing the construction industry are identified. Finally, the ‘fourth level of
thinking’ emphasises the strategies needed to overcome the problems and challenges
fronting the entire complex construction system. The research process used concen-
trated on the use of the Evolutionary Learning Laboratory (ELLab) as knowledge
integration tools in sustainable management and policymaking [22]. The ELLab
demonstrations a new way of ‘thinking’ beyond the traditional ‘linear’ approach to help
equip policy makers, researchers and all relevant stakeholders of solving problems.
This framework is useful for prioritisation of management interventions and policy
support.
3 Results and Discussion

3.1 The Mental Model of the Construction Industry
The relationships of their views or mental model are drawn out in a causal loop
diagram (CLD) in Fig. 2. In this diagram, successful project delivery is in direct
conflict with client payment delay which is in opposite direction to project funding and
“Late payment of salaries or wages” which in turn demotivate workers leading to delay
of contract and theft as shown in the Fig. 2 (B2, R4, B3). Delay of contract is in the
same direction with inflationary effect which leads to price increases leading to high
project cost and this in turn affect project design to suit current budget. This results in
project variation which can affect construction project R&D.
S
S
Fund Management O Gvernment Revaluation Political
S Change of
Of Projects Interference
Construction S Governement
O
Equipments Interest Rate S S R5 O
B1 R1 S Poor Policies Governemnt
S O Stakeholder S Support O Low Eductional
O R7
Low Wage Resources O Consultation Background
S
Funding S S B8 Lack of PassionS S
Natural Disasters S
O Finance S Client payment
B2 O S R&D S
Delay Supervision and
Salary Delay S
S O SUCCESSFUL B6 Variation Word Order
S O Site Safety & PROJECT
Security O B3 O O S
Planning S
O S R4 S Frequent Design
S S S Theft B7
Motivation O S R6 Changes
Delay Of Contract R8
Capacity Building S Project Cost S
O Poor S
R3 Project Time
O Inexperienced S SS
Communication R2 S Monitaring and
Personels O Price Increases
Project Delivery Evaluation
Client-Contractor No Hutments
O B4
Conflict
Bribery and S S Legal Action O
S Corruption R9
B5
S
Fig. 2. CLD of the construction industry
The Casual Loop Diagram (CLD) of Fig. 2 gave rise the preceding underlining
systems archetypes which disentangle the complexity of the construction industry.
Systems archetypes have proven to be effective in unraveling complexity and dynamic
forces within a complex system [22–24].
3.2 Escalating Archetype

At the heart of an escalation dynamic are two (or more) parties, each of whom feels
threatened by the actions of the other as shown in Fig. 3. Each side attempts to keep
things under control by managing its own balancing process. Actions taken by con-
tractor A, for example, improve contractor A’s result by submitting lower bid relative to
contractor B. This decreases contractor A’s feeling of threat, so contractor A eases off
its activities (B 1) as depicted by the Escalating Archetype.
Lower Bid By Lower Bid By

Contractor "A" Contractor "B" S
S
S O
Submitting Bid By B1 Success Of Contractor
B2 Submitting Bid By
Contractor "A" "A" Relative to "B"
Contractor "B"
S S
O
S
Under Estimate & Threat Of Under Estimate & Threat
Losing Bid To Contractor Of Losing To Contractor
"B" "A"
Fig. 3. Escalating archetype

Contractor B, on the other hand, now feels threatened by contractor A’s relative
advantage and increases its activities by submitting lower bid in order to improve its
result over contractor A (B2). The interaction of the two contractors trying to unilat-
erally maintain control produces a reinforcing spiral in which nobody feels in control.
One of the reasons we get caught in escalation dynamics may stem from our view
of competition. This archetype suggests that cutthroat competition serves no one well
in the long run. The archetype provides a way to identify escalation structures at work
and shows how to break out of them or avoid them altogether. The purpose of bidding
is of course to enhance competition and transparency. The drawback is that it leads to
under estimate of project cost and hence results in shoddy work and conflict.
Effective Strategies. Nothing comes without a cost and there is a limit to the results
that one can generate. In this archetype, “contractor A” and “contractor B” are on a
mutually destructive course. A point must be reached where the structure can grow no
more because nothing grows forever. There are two effective strategies for dealing with
this structure. One approach is to disconnect the two loops so “contractor A” and
“contractor B” are no longer competing with each other but competing with them-
selves. This produces two reinforcing loops. The second approach is to begin evalu-
ating the composite of “contractor A” and “contractor B’s” actions rather than their
individual actions. In this way, they begin to see the value of cooperation rather than
competition and the structure turns into two synergistic reinforcing loops.
3.3 Fixes that Fails Archetype

The Fixes That Fail structure consists of a balancing loop and a reinforcing loop as
shown in Figs. 4 and 5. These two loops interact in such a way that the desired result
initially produced by the balancing loop is, after some delay, offset by the actions of the
reinforcing loop. A paradox and I quote; “why don’t people have time to do things right
in the first place, but have time to fix them over and over again? is posed.
S
Pressure To Deliver B1
Epedite Project S
On Time Order B1 Project Management
O Project Delay Practices
S
S S O
Project Delivery S
Assign More
Shoddy Work Resources
R1
S
R1
S
S
Increased Project High Interest Loan Increasing Coplexity
Cost S Acquisition of Projects
Fig. 4. Fixes that fails archetype A Fig. 5. Fixes that fails archetype B
The internal balancing loop operates in the standard balancing loop fashion. The
Action to expedite project order in Fig. 4 increase pressure to deliver project on time
which leads to assigning more resources which may be obtained at high interest rate
increasing project cost and may lead to some Unintended Consequences such as
shoddy works. These Unintended Consequences subsequently impede the objective of
expediting project order in the intended direction. The fixes that fail archetype high-
lights how one can get caught up in a dynamic that reinforces the need to continually
implement quick fixes to address the problem. In Fig. 5, a problem symptom gets bad
enough that it captures attention: for example, project management practices, leads to
increasing complexity of projects (quick fix) that makes the symptoms go away (project
delay). However, that action initiates unintended consequences which make the initial
symptoms resurface with time which is normally worse than previous. Consequently,
restraining business enlargement and progress.
Effective Strategies. A “fixes that fail” structure is often part of a more elaborate
structure in which the fixes that fail structure simply represents dealing with the
symptoms rather than the root cause underlying the real problem. A “fixes that fail”
structure often results in becoming dependent on the fix, thus applying it over and over.
The most effective strategy for dealing with this structure is advance planning. Since
one can never do just one thing, as everything affects everything else, before taking
action to change the current state, one has to think about what else that action is apt to
affect. And, what the impact will be. Sometimes the unexpected consequences may be
several affects away, so one be able to forecast. Fundamentally, identify the unantic-
ipated consequently, which makes it no longer unexpected than before. An alternative
strategy is to disengage the unexpected consequence from affecting the current state in
time, it wouldn’t be a consequence any longer.
3.4 Limit to Growth or Success

Figure 6, reveals the limit to growth archetype. In this, certain actions such as fund
management initially lead to successful project delivery and progression, inspiring the
contractor to continue in more of those similar efforts. Later, nonetheless, the system
bump into limit that slow progressions. As progression deteriorations, the contractor
tends to apply the actions that originally led to progression. Marketing is a common
engine of growth in the Limit to Growth Archetype for the construction industry.
Contractors assign a convinced fraction of the budget to marketing and participate in
numerous marketing deeds that can attract and awards contracts. More contracts lead to
increased revenue and a corresponding rise in fund management (R1). However, as
contract awards grow, the client base naturally expands, along with following up calls
to build customer relationship marketing and minimize contractor client conflict (B1).
If the company fund management support capacity does not increase fast enough to
meet the growing demand, the adequacy of that capacity begins to drop. This trend
leads to lower customer satisfaction and downwards pressure on fund management.
Contractors begin to seek for substitute occupation or decrease capital in the current
contract for other segments.
Effective Strategies. The best defence is a good offence. As defined in the effective
strategies for the Reinforcing Loop, if there is a Reinforcing Loop operating start
looking for what is going to become a limiting factor, and remove it before it even has
a chance to create a substantial impact on results.
Monitoring &
Evaluation
R1 S S
Successful Project B1
Fund Management Client Contractor
Delivery Conflict
S O O
Fig. 6. Limit to growth archetype
If the structure is already at a stage where the limiting factor is interacting with
results to limit them the options are the following: 1. Modify the limiting factor to the
extent that it no longer intermingles with the results which creates a reducing action, 2.
Find a way to separate the results from the reducing action so that, it no longer occurs.
3. Disengage the reducing action from the consequences so it can have no effect on
results.
3.5 Shifting the Burden Archetype

In the ‘shifting the burden’ shown in Fig. 7, most self-depended contractors opt to
depend upon private consultations rather than stakeholder consultation to mobilize
adequate information during crisis, which in long run, was unable to solve the problem
of delay crisis (Fig. 7). Very often, leading to shoddy works which attracts government
intervention for project revaluation. The construction industry needs a radical policy
reform to support government’s agenda of “trade beyond aid”. Currently, the industry
is faced with a lot of challenges including; Delayed payment leading to cash flow
challenges that threaten the sustainability of construction firms and banks; Lack of
capacity of local contractors to deliver big projects and quality; Unfavourable com-
petition from foreign players; and Unwillingness of banks to advance credits due to
high levels of unserviced debt [25].
S
Stake Holders
Consultation
S
Project Time
Delay of Contract B1 Delivery
S
S
Government Dependency Of Stake
R1 Holders Consultation
Revaluation Of Project
O
S
B1
Poor Policies
O
Government
Support S
S
Fig. 7. Shifting the burden archetype
Effective Strategies. When dealing with the delay of contract problems, a manager
must ask himself whether he is avoiding future revaluation of projects by the
Government or addressing the root cause of the problem. Regularly, out of
convenience, self-depended or private consultation as a answer is vital. Dealing with a

Shifting the Burden structure, the most effective strategy is by obtaining sufficient
information through stakeholder discussion of that business. Hence, one resolves the
pertaining problem and make sure that it do not reoccur.
3.6 Success to Successful Archetype

The demand made by domestic contractors in comparison to foreign contractors for a
common resource such as funds, labour, etc. are linked by two reinforcing loops as
shown in the Success to successful Archetype in Fig. 8. As the resources dedicated to
‘local contractors’ and ‘local contractor’s success both increase, the resources invested
in ‘foreign contractors’ and in turn ‘foreign contractors’ success decline. Thus, ‘foreign
contractor’s net returns stay low or negative longer than ‘local contractors’, and ‘for-
eign contractors’ begins to look less attractive as an alternative. Thus, a lesser amount
is invested in ‘foreign contractors’, which delays ‘foreign contractors’ attainment of
success even further. Eventually, resources, such as people, equipment, etc. is even
taken away from ‘foreign contractors’ because government don’t want to waste
resource on “lost cause”. In turn, ‘foreign contractors’ performance only drops further.
Finally, ‘foreign contractors’ will be considered a undependable contractors and
abandoned.
S
Success Of Local Government Provide
Contractors Resouce To Local
R1 Contractors
S
S
Government Awarding
O
Contract To Local
Contractors
R2
O
Foreign Contractors Foreign Contractors
Success Unable To Compete
O
Fig. 8. Success to successful archetype
Effective Strategies. There are two strategies for dealing with a Success to the Suc-
cessful situation; 1. Identify the resource(s) being unequally distributed and balance the
distribution. 2. Disconnect the two reinforcing structures so they are not dependent on
the allocation of shared resource(s).
4 Conclusion
To many construction project managers, a complex project seems to be a labyrinth with

many hidden dangers. This research presents a systems-based approach to construction
project management that can facilitate a greater understanding of the complexity
inherent in construction projects and how that complexity can be effectively managed.
The systems approach permits the onsite construction project manager to take a
complex construction project, holistically manage it and ensure that all systems are in
alignment with the original goal of the project. This approach combines industrial
engineering, project management, and finance into a unified approach for effective
management of complex construction projects, ranging from a power plant to a
highway project. The system archetypes revealed insights into the complexity in
construction projects that previously exist to antedate potential problems and its
symptoms. With the archetypes, it has been recognized that superior traditional or
linear answers do not solve the problems, but systemic approach to the problems could
lead to the delivery of the accurate management policies.
Acknowledgements. The authors would like to express a great gratitude to all the respondents
and construction stakeholders of Ghana and Tarkoradi Technical University students of the
faculty of Built for their time, willingness and contributions to this study.
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Barriers of Project Bond Initiatives
in Infrastructure Financing in Ghana
De-Graft Owusu-Manu1, Caleb Debrah1(&), Prince Antwi-Afari1,

and David John Edwards2
1
Department of Construction Technology and Management,
College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, PMB, Kumasi, Ghana
d.owusumanu.cap@knust.edu.gh, cal.debrah@gmail.com,
pantwiafari.carp@st.knust.edu.gh
2
Faculty of Technology Environment and Engineering,
Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK
david.edwards@bcu.ac.uk
Abstract. This research was centred on examining the barriers of project bond
initiatives in infrastructure financing in Ghana. The use of project bond; an
alternative form of financing infrastructural projects throughout the world
became intensified after the global financial crisis which led to stricter banking
regulations. The introduction of project bonds in Ghana has not seen much
growth due to some inherent challenges identified. The analysis depicted pre-
dominant challenges like lack of industrial expertise, currency issues, being the
cedi-dollar exchange rate due to the constant depreciation of the Ghanaian Cedi
and unavailability of project bond investors. The gaps in literature identified in
this study set the course for future studies in this field in Ghana. The paper
provides information for policy makers and investors on the major barriers
affecting project bond initiatives in infrastructure in Ghana. The evidence sug-
gests that these challenges have curtailed project bond initiatives in the country.
Keywords: Bonds Construction Ghana Investors Project financing
1 Introduction
Traditional means of financing infrastructural development remain important, but pri-

vate investment is very crucial to solving the infrastructural gap and meeting demand in
Africa [1]. Briceño-Garmendia et al. agree that governments are the main financiers of
infrastructure investment in Sub- Saharan Africa [2]. Badu et al. opined that infras-
tructure deficit is directly linked to funding availability especially in developing
countries [3]. Private Participation in Infrastructure (PPI) have over the years focused
on investment of the private sector through the public sector of multifaceted funding
[4]. The traditional methods of financing infrastructure have failed to solve Ghana’s
infrastructure deficit [3], nonetheless, participation in infrastructural projects through
the private sector as posited by the World Bank has augmented in most economies [4].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_2
Barriers of Project Bond Initiatives in Infrastructure Financing 13
The stringent guidelines and capital requirements imposed on the banking industry
after the global financial distress have restricted their urge to invest in long-term
infrastructural projects [5]. Sponsoring Public Private Partnerships (PPP) through
more innovative means has been the quest for many developers recently hence the
advancement of project bonds [6].
Project bonds were first issued in the 1990s and were an important source of capital
for infrastructure developments in Western Europe and North America [7]. Deloitte
states emphatically that project bonds offer long-term investors attractive yields and
significant credit spreads with the comfort of an underlying asset, often in a quasi-
monopolistic position and often with indirect access through contractual payments
from governments to the issuer, to sovereign credit rating [6]. Culp et al. also put it
across that pension plans, insurance companies, hedge funds, finance companies, and
other asset managers are all examples of investors in project bonds [8].
Project bonds have been utilized in Europe and America to fund infrastructure
projects [6]. Also, tax-exempt municipal bonds, corporate bonds of utility firms, as well
as Project Financing Initiatives (PFI) bonds in the UK are examples of institutional
investor portfolios of project bonds [9]. In countries like Kenya, Senegal and Ghana,
there are some examples of government bonds earmarked for infrastructure investments
although it is not clear the extent the ‘infrastructure label’ leads to actual investment
[9]. Ghana acquired a 15-year $1 Billion Bond guaranteed by World Bank. The
Sankofa Integrated Oil and Gas Project, being US $700 million, was a program under
the World Bank guarantee [10]. In Ghana, bonds are usually used mostly to service
debts and not primarily for financing project development [11]. World Bank makes it
known that Ghana in 2007 issued its first Eurobond and successfully raised $750
million and in 2014 and 2015 $2 billion was raised. An enonomy’s investor base is
broadened by bond issuance [12].
Project bond is an initiative being taken by various governments to ensure the
country’s development especially in the infrastructural sector [11]. This initiative has
gained grounds in continents like Europe and America with a lot of researches. Africa,
including Ghana, is also developing much interest in project bonds. Green bonds in
Africa and Ghana is a developing variance in project bond financing that needs much
research to ascertain the challenges affecting such an alternative in project financing in
Ghana. Green bonds gained grounds in 2007 as a tool to finance a more sustainable
development and green bonds have a market of unexploited potential [13] in Africa and
the world at large. Academic literature has not yet covered much on project bonds in
Ghana. Less is also said about the accompanying challenges of project bonds although
the potentials in its exploitation are numerous for Ghana. With this gap in literature,
this research seeks to explore the challenges facing the alternative means of financing
infrastructure in Ghana through project bonds.
2 Literature Review
With the current scarcity of bank loans, project sponsors now agree that they must now
exploit the project bond market to finance any project that needs US $1 billion or more
in financing even in the early stages of the project [14]. Arca then alludes that early
14 D.-G. Owusu-Manu et al.
project bonds throughout the world over benefitted from guarantees given by mono-
lines [15]. Monoline insurers offer investors a guarantee on returns from Structured
Mortgage Products (SMP) bonds [16]. Although monoline bond insurers gave out
payment guarantees against risk premiums for project bonds, this halted in the event of
the 2008 financial crisis [17]. As technical as project bonds can be, it has its own
drawbacks like all other developments and Arca could not agree much by saying that
every peculiar project bond has its characteristic challenges [15]. Discussed below are
some examples of the setbacks facing the project bond industry in Ghana, Africa and
the world at large.
2.1 Construction Risk

A construction project is the riskiest adventure any firm does in their normal day to day
business [18]. The construction industry has touted as highly risky; as a result, bond
investors who are risk averse avoid funding infrastructure developments through
project bonds [6]. Nonetheless, not all projects have a construction risk. Project bonds
devoid of construction risk are known as operating asset securitizations or the take-out
phase of financing project [15]. He further points out the two elements to construction
risk being credit risk and timing risk.
Credit Risk. The fear of defaulting bond is referred to as credit risk. It means in the
event project is not completed, the unfinished surety must be sold. This means no
revenue but a loss [15]. Babatunde and Perera add credit or default risk to their list of
risk linked with corporate bonds [5]. Municipal bonds are classified as one of the safest
types of investment but there remain some risks associated with it which includes credit
risk, call risk, interest risks [19].
Timing Risk. According to Arca, delay risk like a delay in construction is the main
cause of timing risk leading to delayed payments or revenue generation which are
mostly addressed with reserve accounts [15].
2.2 Currency Issues

Arca mentions some of the risks associated with the currency market bonds include; a
dollar denominated mode of payments, an overly dollarized economy, overcollateri-
zation and the issue of currency hedges from a credit-worthy counterparty typically
banks. The major international currencies like the US dollars deepen the demand in the
international bond market although there have been bits of interest on the local cur-
rency bond issues [15].
2.3 Rating Ceilings

Verdouw et al. state that the basics for acquiring funding from the capital market is to
get a credit rating at or above the investment grade from rating agencies. These are
internationally recognised which are done after a thorough and an in-depth review of
the project’s ability to meet all its financial commitments [20]. Arca then emphasizes
that few countries over the years in the new markets have a rated investment grade on a
foreign currency based on issues like convertibility and transfer of foreign currency
payments, economic and political stability within the issuing country [15]. Ratings are
very important, and they sometimes breach the sovereign ceiling [20].
2.4 Industrial Expertise

Typical financial advisers have a direct experience on bond financing as they mostly
have the technical know-how. Arca agrees that a team knowledgeable in bonds issues
explicitly country of issue, asset type etc. are always present in banks involved in
project lending. However, the financial institutions devote more time to learn about it
than it is normally required in bond execution anytime they lack experts in counter-
signing a bank loan and documenting it [15]. Banks consistently involved in project
lending are expertise in extended variety of investments as fixed income investment
likened to institutional investors with some level of knowledge which is incomparable
to the bank connoisseurs in bonds.
2.5 Political Risk

Gardner et al. explain political risk to mean the risk that an investment suffers due to
political instability or changes in government in a country. This could be wars, riots,
breaches in contract by government [21]. Chan and Kumaraswamy put it across that
political “force majeure” is contractually borne by the government in most PPP pro-
grams, the efficacy of that solution to investors would be annulled by a strategic
sovereign default. Political risk can hardly be checked in the insurance markets.
Varying degrees of political risk insurance can be obtained through the use of financing
products available from multilateral and export credit agencies [22].
3 Methodology
The philosophical concepts guiding this study is that of the positivist and objectivist
paradigm [3, 5]. In the data collection, a survey questionnaire was employed.
According to Babatunde and Perera, one of the most accepted social research methods
is survey questionnaire [5]. Prior to the questionnaire development and distribution, an
extensive literature on the challenges of project bonds were perused [cf. 3, 4, 15].
Fifteen barriers to project bond initiatives were identified after an extensive review of
extant literature which aided the design of the questionnaire. The Likert scale was used
in the questionnaire of the study and was administered to professionals in the banking
sector, insurance firms and managers of pension funds involved in project bonds.
Convenient and purposive sampling were used to limit the population to just financial
institutions and subsequently census sampling was used using the Kish formula to
obtain the sample size. The study was conducted in Kumasi, the capital city of the
Ashanti Region of Ghana where most of the financial institutions are concentrated.
There are 34 Banks in Ghana [23], 33 registered pension fund managers [24] and 40
insurers and reinsurers in Ghana [25]. A total population of 107 commercial banks,
pension fund managers and insurance firms were present during the time of the study.
A total of 63 questionnaires were distributed among sampled branches in Kumasi

representing 58.88% of the total populations. The anonymity and confidentiality of
respondents were assured. The response rate used for the data analysis was 57% (36 out
of the 63 questionnaires administered). Relative Important Index, standard deviation,
mean statistics and standard error were employed as the data analysis tool. The Sta-
tistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21 was used in coding and analysing
data collated.
4 Analysis of Results
Several preliminary procedures were employed to ensure the consistency and reliability
of the quantitative data to guarantee a meaningful interpretation of data. Prevalent
among them were categorising, coding, editing and generating data files. The demo-
graphics analysed encompassed position of respondents, work experience and roles of
respondents. The respondents were asked to indicate their positions in the banks,
insurance companies and pension funds. Out of the total of 36 responses received,
41.7% were managers, 30.6% were customer service personnel, 11.1% were Executive
Directors, and with Chief Executive Officers (CEO) and Senior Executives, a response
rate of 8.3% each were received. According to EIB, Project Bond Initiatives are
structured to attract investors such as insurance companies and pension funds [26]. It is
in this vein that the researchers targeted pension fund managers, top executives of
banks and insurance as the respondents of the study.
The Relative Important Index (RII) was used to analyse the data gathered. RII is
calculated by means of
RW
RII ¼
AN
N being the overall respondents; A - Higher response integer (5); W - weighting

ranging from 1 to 5 as factors given by respondents [21].
Gardner and Wright put it this way by saying that the RII has been preferred over
the mean and standard deviation as they are not credible and reliable tools for exam-
ining the overall ranking of key attributes [22]. The mean, standard deviation, RII,
standard mean error was calculated for each variable as shown in Table 1. To ensure
that the results obtained were reliable, the Cronbach’s Alpha was used to check the
internal consistency. Validating the reliability of the measuring instrument is one of the
basic elements in evaluation [27].
The Cronbach’s Alpha for the data was 0.904 for 15 items or variables of study
which was a most significant thing to consider in this test. For a scale to be reliable,
ideally the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient should exceed 0.70 [28]. From the results
obtained, it proved that the scale that was used was very reliable. Before the data was
analysed, the significance level was set at 95% confidence interval, thus, based on the
five-point Likert scale rating, a success criterion deemed significant if it had a mean of
3.5 or more. Where two or more criteria have the same mean, the one with the lowest
standard deviation assigned the highest significance ranking [29]. From the result from
Table 1. RII of the challenges or barriers of project bond initiative

Challenges of project N Sum Mean Std. RII Ranking
bond initiatives Statistic Std. deviation
error
Lack of industrial 36 164 4.556 0.084 0.504 0.911 1st
expertise on project
bonds
Currency issues 36 160 4.444 0.109 0.652 0.889 2nd
(cedi-dollar exchange
rate)
Availability of 36 153 4.25 0.101 0.604 0.85 3rd
project bond
investors
Delayed revenue 36 151 4.194 0.096 0.577 0.839 4th
generations or
repayments
Limiting government 36 144 4 0.138 0.828 0.8 5th
policies
Risk to investors in 36 140 3.889 0.087 0.523 0.778 6th
new markets
Poor structuring of 36 140 3.889 0.142 0.854 0.778 7th
bond issued
Constructions risk 36 139 3.861 0.139 0.833 0.772 8th
Economic instability 36 138 3.833 0.129 0.775 0.767 9th
of issuing nation
Fluctuations and 36 134 3.722 0.13 0.779 0.744 10th
instability in the bond
market
Rating agencies of 36 131 3.639 0.144 0.867 0.728 11th
project bonds
in Ghana
Sustainability of 36 127 3.528 0.084 0.506 0.706 12th
project bonds in the
long run
Political instability of 36 123 3.417 0.115 0.692 0.683 13th
issuing nation
Over reliance on 36 110 3.056 0.159 0.955 0.611 14th
traditional means of
financing projects
Emergence of 36 100 2.778 0.127 0.76 0.556 15th
innovative and new
ways of financing
Field Survey (2018)
Table 1, all the mean statistics range between 4.55 and 3.52. This meant that all the
barriers were critical to the success of project bonds in Ghana except political insta-
bility, over reliance on traditional means of financing projects, and emergence of
innovative and new ways of financing which had their means below the accepted mean
to be important for the study. Also, standard deviation shows how close the individual
data values are from the mean value [30]. This helps us to ascertain how the sample
mean is from the true mean population. A standard deviation over 1 means the
responses were away from the mean. All the standard deviations were below one
proving that our respondents agreed to most of the barriers of project bonds in Ghana.
A small standard error is an indication of the reliability of the mean. The smaller the
standard error, the more accurate the actual sample mean [30]. It could be deduced
from Table 1 that all the standard errors were closer to zero, proving that the responses
were accurate and critical barriers to project bonds in Ghana.
Project bond initiatives in infrastructure has come as one of the greatest innovations
in infrastructural financing. Nonetheless, every innovation or any new development has
its own inherent challenges. One of the extreme challenge impeding project bond
initiative in infrastructural development globally is the lack of industrial expertise in
project bond structuring and administration. This is the first ranked variable in this
section. Several authors and scholars over the year have written on this issue and have
suggested several remedies, but it is still the reason why potential investors in so many
countries hold little infrastructure bond [15]. Critical among the challenges is the
currency in which project bonds is administered. Gardner and Wright [22] put this
across that hard currency loans creates currency risk if revenues are in the local cur-
rency. Liabilities grow by 15% if the Ghanaian cedi denigrates to dollar by 15%
granted revenue does not change. This can lead to an asset-liability current disparity if
Ghana procures a power plant through bonds financed in dollars, causing an upsurge in
tariffs charged in Ghanaian cedis. It is for this reasons that currency issues were ranked
as 2nd variable among the challenges of project bonds initiatives. The need to build a
great pool of indigenous long-term investments and savings through the issuance of
domestic insurance and pension funds. There is also the element that makes the bond
attractive to foreign investors as well [31]. This introduces us to the third ranked
variable being availability of project bond investors in the industry.
Ostendorf [32] could not agree more that project bonds have become an established
primary source of funds for large-scale non-resource undertakings for over 20 years
now. This has led to a diversified investor base to support the product syndication with
each class of investor approaching the credit process in their varying dimensions.
5 Discussion of Findings
After the data analysis, the emergence of innovative and new ways of financing
infrastructure other than project bonds were the least of the barriers. Nonetheless, the
lack of industrial expertise has had a toll on the development of project bonds in
infrastructure in Ghana. Africa as a continent, with Ghana inclusive, has not exploited
project bond to its full potential. Research on project bonds in Ghana is not sufficient if
not lacking. Mengel [33] agreed to the above assertion that projects being financed with
bonds is a common phenomenon in the US, Canada and Australia with project bonds
being relatively new to the market. In Africa; Nigeria, South Africa and Kenya have
more examples with project bonds and a few in Ghana like the 10-year development
capital bond by their government [19]. It is with this development that this research was
conducted to verify the reason for this slow progress in adopting project bonds to
finance infrastructure.
The analysis of the results revealed that the lack of industrial expertise has brought
about a major setback in the project bond industry in Ghana. As technical as the project
bond market is, a lot of expertise is needed for the structuring and administration of
project to be effective for yielded returns. The industry has over the years been crippled
with this major setback of lack of industrial expertise as agreed by [34]. The results
further went to identify currency risk as another challenge of project bond initiatives in
infrastructure. The issues surrounding the currency in which a bond is issued especially
with project bonds can never be overlooked as the research pointed out from the
analysis of the results. This is due to recurring depreciation of the local currency in the
events of the issuance of bonds in the US dollar which is the most preferred interna-
tional currency for issuing bonds. The constant depreciation of the Ghanaian Cedi to
the dollar has been one the greatest barriers the project bond industry has been facing
over the years. It makes servicing bonds costlier to the issuers and sponsors. This tend
to discourage most investors due to the uncertainty surrounding the local currency, the
Ghanaian Cedi. The above challenges discussed are among the many reasons leading to
the next major barrier of project bond development in Ghana, availability of project
bond investors. Results from the data analysis revealed that there is deficient pool of
project bond investors in Ghana. This has not really helped the project bond industry
and its development in Ghana.
6 Conclusion
This study delved into understanding the barriers of project bond initiatives in
infrastructure financing in Ghana. Project bonds throughout extant literature were seen
to be the new mode of financing infrastructure in most developed worlds. Although the
infrastructure deficit in Africa is still lingering and worsening, literature revealed that
Africa and Ghana in particular have not assimilated the idea of project bonds to finance
infrastructure. The study revealed some of the barriers of project bonds in Ghana.
Prevalent among them were lack of industrial expertise on project bonds, weak cur-
rency issues, non-availability of project bond investors, delayed revenue generations or
repayments, limiting government policies. Also, risk to investors in a new market like
Ghana, poor structuring of bonds issued, construction risk, economic instability,
fluctuations and instability in the bond market as well as ratings of project bonds in
Ghana by rating agencies were some of the barriers identified to be impeding the use of
project bonds in Ghana.
These findings on the barriers of project bond initiatives in infrastructure in Ghana
will help us comprehend how far project bonds have travelled over the years globally
with the factors supporting such steady growth. This will help both investors and bond
issuers to understand the factors surrounding project bonds in infrastructure better for
an informed decision in both the structuring and administration. Moreover, the results
obtained from this revealed some of the challenges project bonds have been facing over
the years which would help both investors and sponsors to know forehand what is
ahead of them so they could develop strategic solutions in meeting such barriers. The
Ghanaian government and Africa in general must do well to promote innovation in the
bond markets to promote development. In discovering an alternate to bank financing
and diversifying sources of funding, local powers that be can tap into the bond market.
The research was non-empirical but purely exploratory and can therefore not be
generalized. It was discovered throughout the research that studies had not covered
some areas under project bond. A further researcher to delve more into innovations in
project bonds like green bonds in Ghana, how to manage expectations in project bond
and the Ghanaian project bond market is encouraged as there is little information in this
area particularly. This would help improve the understanding of the adoption of project
bonds in Ghana and largely Africa.
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Factors Influencing the Cost Performance
of Traditional and Public-Private Partnership
Procured Housing Projects in Nigeria
Olusola Festus Akinradewo(&) and Alexander Ejiro Omoraka
Department of Quantity Surveying,

Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo, Nigeria
{foakinradewo,aeeomoraka}@futa.edu.ng
Abstract. Successive administrations in Nigeria have expended several efforts

on housing delivery through either the traditional (TRD), or public-private part-
nership (PPP) procurement route among others. Considering the relationship
between housing demand and supply, there is no record of meaningful achieve-
ments due to several factors. This study explored the factors affecting the cost
performance of TRD and PPP with a view to enhance their performance. Eighty
questionnaires retrieved from two sets of respondents were analysed on housing
project at Suleja, Niger State, Nigeria. Mean score and Mann-Whitney test were
used to assess the influence of these factors, and test the significance of the dif-
ference between the views of both set of respondents. The study revealed that
economic conditions, unforeseen ground conditions and cash flow/finance as the
key factors influencing TRD, while fluctuation in prices of materials, late delivery
of materials, and economic conditions are the key factors influencing PPP.
Keywords: Cost performance Housing project Nigeria

Public-private partnership Traditional Procurement Route
1 Introduction
The need to improve construction project performance in relation to time, budget and
project completion has given birth to various procurement routes [1]. Ogunsanmi [2]
defined procurement in construction as a process through which a facility is acquire
through leasing, design and construction; or outright buying to fulfil a peculiar need.
While, procurement route is posited as a system that involves the management of the
entire process required to fulfil the delivery of a construction project [3, 4].
Ojo, Adeyemi, and Fagbenle [5] adjudged TRD as a prominent procurement method
in the world and according to Sanni [6], the use of PPP to deliver infrastructure and
services are on the increase in both the developed and developing countries; and Nigeria
is not an exception. Irrespective of the procurement method adopted, the construction
industry as a key part in determining the fate of the economy has been attributed with
under-performance in comparison to other industries [7]. The low performance has been
associated with the influence of certain factors on the procurement methods. Therefore,
this study examined the factors affecting the cost performance of TRD and PPP with a

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_3
Factors Influencing the Cost Performance 23
view to enhance the performance of these two procurement routes in Nigeria. The study
provided an insight into the factors having the most influence on the cost performance of
TRD and PPP projects. It also equips stakeholders with requisite knowledge on the key
factors to focus their efforts on with a view to enhance the cost performance of both TRD
and PPP procured projects. The study also contributes to the cost performance literature
and will benefit the society; because its findings provide a reasonable basis for action to
ameliorate the cost performance of TRD and PPP procured projects.
2 The Traditional Procurement Route (TRD)
The Traditional Procurement Route (TRD) according to Ojo, Adeyemi, and Fagbenle
[5] is a prominent method of procurement employed in construction. This is in con-
sonant with Ogunsanmi [2], which posited that most projects in Great Britain, Nigeria
and other Commonwealth countries were procured via the TRD. This position is
strengthen by the literature [1, 8], which opined TRD as the most commonly employed
method of procurement in Nigeria. Turner [9] asserted that TRD has been in use for
centuries with the function of design been provided directly to the client. The study
explained further that TRD is a procurement method in which the designer doubles as
the one to manage the construction process. The study concluded that, TRD involves
the client appointing consultants for design and cost control; and when the design has
attained a certain milestone, the main contractor is employed to carry out the con-
struction work.
One key shortcoming of the TRD identified by Dada [10] is that it creates a
contractual and organisational dichotomy between design and construction. Ojo et al.
[5] opined that there is need to eliminate this dichotomy and integrate the aspects of
design and construction as construction projects are becoming more complex. This is
because separation of construction projects into two different entities created a gap for
effective coordination and communication [5]. The need to integrate design and con-
struction; and the low performance of the TRD in the timely delivery of projects in the
United Kingdom, led to the emergence of several alternative procurement routes, and
one of these routes is the PPP.
3 Public Private Partnership (PPP)
PPP is an arrangement between the government and the private sector, with the aim to
provide community facilities, public infrastructure, and relevant services [11, 12]. The
basic aim of involving the private sector is to mitigate infrastructural deficit without the
financial burden on the government through the provision of public facilities through
partnerships [13]. Globally, Government have increasingly turned to the private sector
to provide infrastructure services in area of energy and power; communication,
transport and water sectors which were once delivered by the public sector. One of the
main reasons behind such growing involvement of the private sector is hinged on the
need to provide sustainable development in infrastructural facilities and services; and to
increase efficiency in project delivery and operation. This however, is due to the
24 O. F. Akinradewo and A. E. Omoraka
availability of additional resources to meet the increasing needs of investment in

infrastructure services and access to advanced technology. In Nigeria, the government
awards public projects through various methods and one of these methods is the
PPP. Oyewobi, Ibrahim, and Ibrahim [14] indicated that PPP is the panacea for
inability of governments to finance the construction of major infrastructures. According
to Ogunsanmi [15], PPP arrangements have been made by several countries for their
infrastructure provisions; and Nigeria is trailing this path for her infrastructural
development. Thus, there is a need to investigate the factors affecting the cost
accomplishment of PPP projects in Nigeria.
4 Cost Performance
Cost performance is evaluated through the comparison of final cost of a completed

project and the initial or budgeted cost; it has been adjudged as a major criterion of
project success over the years [20]. This conforms to Memon et al. [22], which asserted
construction cost as the most crucial measure of project success. From a study con-
ducted in Malaysia on 51 private projects and 308 public projects, Endut, Akintoye and
Kelly [23] discovered that only 37.2% and 46.8% of private and public sector projects
were completed within budgeted cost respectively. In Nigeria, Omoregie and Radford
[21] reported that the minimum average project cost overrun was 14%. Therefore, it is
not oblivious to assert that the occurrence of cost overruns exceeds the completion of
projects within budgeted cost, this thus necessitates the identification of factors
influencing project cost performance from the inception; because proper handling of
these will mitigate the occurrence of cost overruns and improve the cost performance of
projects [20].
5 Methodology
The study explored the factors affecting the cost performance of TRD and PPP with a
view to enhance the performance of these two procurement routes. In other to obtain
the opinion of respondents using a uniform basis, a well-structured questionnaire was
the instrument used for data collection from two sets of respondents. These included
the in-house construction professionals within the Federal Ministry of Power, Works
and Housing (FMPW&H), and the Contractors at Suleja, Niger State. The choice of
restricting the target professionals in FMPW&H is because these are involved in the
key projects constructed in the state and work with elite contractors. This is because
most of the major projects in the State are done by the government and are handled by
the ministry. The questionnaire has two sections. Section A dwelt on the background
information of respondents, while, section B assessed the factors affecting the cost
performance of TRD and PPP procured housing projects in Suleja, Niger State. The
5-point Likert scale was used to rate the factors, with five being the highest and one
being the lowest. Due to the manageable population size, census, a variant of the non-
probability sampling technique was used for the distribution of questionnaire. The
respondents included Architects, Builders, Quantity Surveyors, Urban and Regional
Planners, Land Surveyors, Estate Surveyors, and Engineers working as in-house

construction professionals within the Federal Ministry of Power, Works and Housing
(FMPW&H), or as Contractors at Suleja, Niger State, Nigeria. A total number of 82
questionnaires were distributed but only 80 questionnaires were completed, returned
and good for analysis. In analysing the data, mean item score (MIS) was computed to
identify the factors that had the highest influence on the cost performance of TRD and
PPP procured housing projects respectively. While Mann-Whitney U Test (MWT) was
done to test the significance of the difference between the views of both set of
respondents.
6 Results
The background information indicated in Table 1 shows that the in-house professionals
of the FMPW&H constituted a greater percentage of the respondents in comparison to
the contractors. The Table also indicates that most of the respondents are Builders,
Engineers and Architects, which constituted 25%, 22.5% and 21.3% of the population
respectively. The least represented professionals are the Urban and Regional Planners
and Land Surveyors with 3.8% each. Furthermore, about 79% of the respondents had a
Higher National Diploma and Bachelor degree, while the remaining 21% had Master’s
degree. This implies that they are educated enough to provide reasonable input to the
study. In addition, the average year of experience is 9 years. Thus implies that they
possess sufficient experience to attend to the questionnaire. In addition, the average
number of projects executed using the TRD and the PPP procurement route are 12 and
7 projects respectively. This connotes that they have sufficient exposure to rate the
factors affecting the cost performance of TRD and PPP procured housing projects.
6.1 Factors Influencing the Cost Performance of TRD Procured Housing

Projects (PHP)
The 45 identified factors affecting cost performance of both procurement methods were
grouped into seven (7) groupings [16]. Result in Table 2, shows that under the client
related factors, the overall MIS revealed cash flow/Finance and payment for work; and
financial difficulties of client, as the two key elements responsible for the cost
accomplishment of traditionally procured housing projects with an overall MIS of 4.28
and 4.08 respectively. Mann-Whitney U Test conducted shows that at 95% confidence
level, a significant p-value of above 0.05 was generated for both factors. This implies
that there is no significant difference in the opinion of the two categories of respondents
on the level of influence of these elements have on the cost accomplishment of tra-
ditionally procured housing projects.
From Table 2, the overall mean item score under the contractor related elements,
consultants related factors and materials related factors as the key factors influencing
the cost performance of traditionally procured housing projects with a mean score of
3.71. The overall assessment also indicate the incomplete design at the time of tender
with a mean score of 3.86 and fluctuation of prices of materials with a mean score of
Table 1. Background of respondents

Category Classification Frequency Percentage
Category of respondents FMPW&H 57 71.30
Contractor 23 28.80
Total 80 100.00
Professions Architect 17 21.25
Builder 20 25.00
Quantity surveying 14 17.50
Urban and regional planner 3 3.75
Land surveyor 3 3.75
Estate surveyor 5 6.25
Engineers 18 22.50
Total 80 100.00
Level of qualification Higher national diploma 26 32.50
B.Sc./B.Tech. 37 46.25
M.Sc./M.Tech. 17 21.25
Total 80 100.00
Years of experience 0–5 years 18 22.50
6–10 years 38 47.50
11–15 years 13 16.25
16–20 years 7 8.75
21 years and above 4 5.00
Total 80 100.00
Average 9
Number of projects executed using TRD 1–10 42 52.50
11–20 21 26.25
21–30 9 11.25
31–40 5 6.25
41 and above 3 3.75
Total 80 100.00
Average 13
Number of projects executed using PPP 1–10 62 77.50
11–20 18 22.50
Total 80 100.00
Average 7
3.79 respectively. The Mann-Whitney U Test also for these three groups of factors
revealed that there is no significant difference in the opinion of both categories of
respondents as a significant p-value of above 0.05 was established for all the assessed
factors.
Table 2. Factors Influencing the Performance of TRD PHP

Factors In-house Contractor Overall MWT
MIS Rk MIS Rk MIS Rk P-Value
Client factors
Cash flow/Finance and payment for 4.32 1 4.17 1 4.28 1 0.664
work
Financial difficulties of client 4.05 2 4.13 2 4.08 2 0.635
Slow decision-making by clients 3.79 3 3.61 4 3.74 3 0.330
Client interference 3.74 4 3.65 3 3.71 4 0.890
Unrealistic imposed contract duration 3.60 5 3.57 5 3.59 5 0.921
3.88
Contractor factors
Construction methods 3.68 4 3.78 1 3.71 1 0.842
Poor contractor’s estimation 3.70 1 3.70 3 3.70 2 0.920
Mistakes during construction 3.68 4 3.74 2 3.70 2 0.752
Schedule delay 3.70 1 3.65 4 3.69 4 0.916
Inadequate monitoring and control 3.70 1 3.61 6 3.68 5 0.956
Inadequate contractor experience 3.68 4 3.65 4 3.68 5 0.934
Poor site management and supervision 3.63 7 3.57 8 3.61 7 0.795
Poor financial control on site 3.61 8 3.61 6 3.61 7 0.869
Incompetence of Subcontractors 3.51 9 3.39 9 3.48 9 0.700
3.65
Consultant factors
Incomplete design at the time of tender 3.84 2 3.91 1 3.86 1 0.619
Contractual claims, i.e. cost claims 3.86 1 3.82 5 3.85 2 0.804
Inaccurate cost estimate 3.81 3 3.91 1 3.84 3 0.570
Change in the scope of the project 3.74 4 3.91 1 3.79 4 0.374
Quality assurance/control 3.74 4 3.77 6 3.75 5 0.964
Delays in decisions making 3.67 6 3.91 1 3.74 6 0.284
Frequent design changes 3.63 7 3.61 9 3.63 7 0.925
Approval of test and inspections 3.60 8 3.64 8 3.61 8 0.852
duration
Poor contract management 3.54 9 3.70 7 3.59 9 0.648
Delay preparation and approval of 3.39 10 3.39 10 3.39 10 0.965
drawings
3.70
Material factors
Fluctuation of prices of materials 3.74 2 3.91 1 3.79 1 0.475
Shortage in material 3.75 1 3.83 4 3.78 2 0.820
Late delivery of material 3.67 3 3.91 1 3.74 3 0.356
Quality of material 3.63 4 3.87 3 3.70 4 0.463
3.75
(continued)
Table 2. (continued)
Factors In-house Contractor Overall MWT
Labour and equipment factors
Shortage of technical personnel 4.00 1 4.26 1 4.08 1 0.459
(skilled labour)
High cost of labour 3.96 2 4.13 2 4.01 2 0.479
Equipment availability and failure 3.93 3 4.04 4 3.96 3 0.545
Labour productivity 3.91 4 4.04 4 3.95 4 0.585
Shortage of site workers 3.88 5 4.09 3 3.94 5 0.459
Late delivery of equipment 3.70 6 4.00 6 3.79 6 0.258
Labour absenteeism 3.11 7 3.30 7 3.16 7 0.371
3.84
Contractual relationships factors
Lack of coordination between parties 3.47 1 3.35 1 3.44 1 0.523
Lack of communication between 3.44 2 3.22 3 3.38 2 0.452
parties
Inappropriate organizational structure 3.19 3 3.30 2 3.23 3 0.530
linking parties
Slow information flow between parties 2.96 5 3.22 3 3.04 4 0.148
Major disputes and negotiations 3.00 4 3.13 5 3.04 4 0.467
3.22
External factors
Economic conditions 3.93 2 4.17 1 4.00 1 0.155
Unforeseen ground conditions 3.98 1 3.96 3 3.98 2 0.919
Regulatory changes and building code 3.87 4 3.98 2 3.93 3 0.622
Political conditions 3.93 2 3.83 4 3.90 4 0.933
Weather condition 3.63 5 3.65 5 3.64 5 0.939
3.89
6.2 Factors Influencing the Cost Performance of PPP PHP

Assessing the influence of the factors assessed in Table 2 on the cost accomplishment
of PPP procured housing projects, Table 3 shows that under the client related factors,
the overall mean score revealed that client’s interference and slow decision-making by
clients are the major factors influencing the cost performance of PPP procured housing
projects. These two factors had a MIS of 3.54 and 3.41 with a significant p-value of
0.166 and 0.262 respectively. This implies that there is no significant disagreement in
the view of both set of respondents as regards the significance of these factors.
Table 3. Factors influencing the cost performance of PPP PHP

Factors Client Contractor Overall MWT
Client factors
Client interference 3.63 1 3.30 2 3.54 1 0.166
Slow decision-making by clients 3.33 2 3.61 1 3.41 2 0.262
Unrealistic imposed contract duration 3.02 3 3.26 3 3.09 3 0.547
Cash flow/Finance and payment for 2.86 4 2.91 4 2.88 4 0.890
work
Financial difficulties of client 2.82 5 2.87 5 2.84 5 0.922
3.15
Contractor factors
Poor contractor’s estimation 3.40 1 3.61 1 3.46 1 0.517
Inadequate monitoring and control 3.21 2 3.35 3 3.25 2 0.715
Poor site management and supervision 3.19 3 3.30 6 3.23 3 0.746
Incompetence of Subcontractors 3.07 7 3.57 2 3.21 4 0.064
Inadequate contractor experience 3.11 5 3.35 3 3.18 5 0.291
Poor financial control on site 3.19 3 3.30 6 3.15 6 0.460
Construction methods 3.09 6 3.26 9 3.14 7 0.537
MIS value takes during construction 3.04 8 3.30 6 3.11 8 0.285
Schedule delay 2.98 9 3.35 3 3.09 9 0.200
3.20
Consultant factors
Incomplete design at the time of tender 3.84 1 4.09 1 3.91 1 0.419
Poor contract management 3.74 3 3.96 2 3.80 2 0.488
Frequent design changes 3.77 2 3.52 6 3.70 3 0.346
Inaccurate quantity take-off 3.54 4 3.91 4 3.65 4 0.251
Delays in decisions making 3.19 6 3.91 4 3.40 5 0.016**
Change in the scope of the project 3.14 9 3.96 2 3.38 6 0.010**
Quality assurance/control 3.19 6 3.48 7 3.28 7 0.305
Delay in preparation and approval of 3.21 5 3.39 8 3.26 8 0.367
drawings
Waiting time for approval of test and 3.18 8 3.26 9 3.20 9 0.692
inspections
Contractual claims, i.e. cost claims 2.96 10 3.17 10 3.03 10 0.550
3.46
Material factors
Fluctuation of prices of materials 3.93 1 3.61 2 3.84 1 0.194
Late delivery of material 3.56 2 3.87 1 3.65 2 0.351
Quality of material 3.54 3 3.52 3 3.54 3 0.877
Shortage in material 3.44 4 3.43 4 3.44 4 0.877
3.62
(continued)
Factors Client Contractor Overall MWT
Labour and equipment factors
High cost of labour 3.91 1 3.61 2 3.83 1 0.195
Shortage of technical personnel (skilled 3.70 2 3.78 1 3.73 2 0.754
labour)
Shortage of site workers 3.49 3 3.48 3 3.49 3 0.938
Equipment availability and failure 3.44 4 3.22 6 3.38 4 0.452
Late delivery of equipment 3.19 5 3.30 4 3.23 5 0.530
Labour productivity 3.05 6 3.26 5 3.11 6 0.463
Labour absenteeism 3.00 7 3.13 7 3.04 7 0.467
3.40
Contractual relationships factors
Slow information flow between parties 3.86 1 3.48 1 3.75 1 0.069
Lack of communication between 3.54 2 3.39 3 3.50 2 0.494
parties
Major disputes and negotiations 3.47 4 3.35 4 3.44 3 0.523
Lack of coordination between parties 3.51 3 3.17 5 3.41 4 0.307
Inappropriate organizational structure 3.25 5 3.43 2 3.30 5 0.391
linking parties
3.48
External factors
Economic conditions 3.93 1 3.87 1 3.91 1 0.790
Unforeseen ground conditions 3.75 2 3.52 2 3.69 2 0.261
Political conditions 3.79 3 3.39 4 3.68 3 0.174
Regulatory changes and building code 3.40 4 3.48 3 3.43 4 0.939
Weather condition 3.42 5 3.17 5 3.35 5 0.194
3.61
**Significant at 0.05
Table 3 further revealed poor contractor’s estimation with a MIS of 3.46, incom-
plete design at the time of tender with a MIS of 3.91; and fluctuation of prices of
materials with a MIS of 3.84 as the top factors affecting the cost performance of PPP
procured housing projects under the factors relating to contractors, consultants and
materials respectively. The Mann-Whitney U Test shows that there is no significant
disagreement in opinion of both set of respondents on most of the factors under these
groups except for “delays in decisions making” and “change in the scope of the
project” which had a p-value of 0.016 and 0.010 respectively.
In addition, under the labour and equipment related elements, contractual rela-
tionship factors and external related factors; the key factors influencing the cost per-
formance of PPP procured housing projects included high cost of labour (overall MIS
of 3.83), slow information flow between parties (overall MIS of 3.75), and economic
conditions (overall MIS of 3.91) respectively. The Mann-Whitney U Test posited no
significant difference in the view of both set of respondents, as a significant p-value of
above 0.05 was derived for all assessed factors.
The Findings revealed that the main element influencing the cost performance of TRD
procured housing projects could be categorised under the external factors, client fac-
tors, and labour and equipment factors. Key factors under these groups include; eco-
nomic conditions, unforeseen ground conditions, cash flow/finance and payment for
work, financial difficulties of client, shortage of skilled labour, and high cost of labour.
For housing projects procured through PPP, the key factors are under the material
factors, and external factors. Key factors under these groups include; unstable prices of
materials, late delivery of materials, economic conditions, unforeseen ground condi-
tions and political conditions.
Thus from the findings, it can be deduced that issues relating to external factors
such as economic conditions, political conditions and unforeseen ground conditions are
key factors that affects the cost performance of housing projects delivered through the
traditional and PPP procurement systems. According to Ubani, Okorocha, and Emeribe
[16], external factors are frequently perceived as reflex factors, which make their
control difficult. Furthermore, the economic situation such as instability within the
country has crucial effect on the cost delivery of projects. The political condition is also
an important circumstance that could influence the cost performance of housing pro-
jects. This is in agreement with Sanni [6], which posited political support as one of the
two key elements influencing the performance of projects delivered via the PPP. This is
not alien because, if the political leader do not formulate policies that are mutually
beneficial for the private sector to collaborate with the government, PPP procured
projects will be difficult to attain. This is because no private entity is willing to make an
investment that is not profitable. These findings are in line with Iyer and Jha [17] and
Oyedele [18], which states that the economic and political condition within an envi-
ronment tends to influence the cost of projects within such areas.
Another crucial factor identified is cash flow, which is in resonance with Memon
et al. [19], as cash flow and payment for finished jobs were the major factors that
influence the cost performance of projects. This is because; any delay in payment to
contractors can lead to suspension of activities on site, which might give rise to time
overrun and ultimately cost overrun. The issue of price fluctuation, which influences
the cost performance of PPP delivered through housing projects, has become a com-
mon phenomenon in the Nigeria construction industry. Aje, Omoraka and Ariyo [20]
posited price fluctuation as the factor with the greatest effect on cost overrun. Omoregie
and Radford [21]; Memon, Rahman, Abdullah and Azis [22] strengthened this position;
they identified fluctuating prices as the major cause of project cost increase in
construction projects. This was linked to the limitation in exchange rate, which in turn
influences the prices of construction materials and the general level of price.
8 Conclusion and Recommendations
The study revealed that economic conditions, unforeseen ground conditions, cash
flow/finance and payment for work, financial difficulties of client, shortage of skilled
labour, and costly labour as the key factors influencing TRD. In addition, fluctuation in
prices of materials, delay in materials delivery, economic conditions, unforeseen
ground conditions and political conditions are the key factors influencing the cost
performance of PPP. The MWT on the factors influencing TRD revealed that there is
no significant difference in the views of the respondents on cost performance. The test
was repeated for the PPP, the same results were obtained except for these factors:
delays in decisions making, and change in the scope of the project. The study thus
recommends that adequate pre-cautionary measures such as proper site investigation
before the commencement of projects, proper feasibility and viability studies, should be
put in place to check these external factors and cushion their effect on the cost per-
formance of housing projects. In addition, in the case of the traditional procurement
option, clients should ensure that finance to cover a proposed housing project is in
available before the award of such contract. In the same vein, developers seeking to
execute housing projects via the PPP route should ensure that they have the financial
capability to handle such projects. Furthermore, fluctuation in the price of materials
should be adequately predicted, and included in the initial estimate to avoid cost
overrun or even shortage of funds. Although, the study focused on Niger State, it also
provides useful insights on the factors influencing the cost performance of TRD and
PPP in other states of the country. This is based on the premise that most professionals
and contractors are not restricted by state boundary; and the wealth of experience
gathered from different states influenced their responses to the questionnaire. However,
this research can be replicated in other states and comparison made. Future studies can
also assess the factors influencing the time performance of TRD and PPP.
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Assessment on the Influence of Stakeholders
on Sustainable Building Construction
in Ondo State, Nigeria
Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke, Diekolola Abiola-Ogedengbe(&),

and Ainlolu Akinseli
Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Akure,

Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
emayok@gmail.com, abyolardieko@gmail.com
Abstract. Stakeholders’ influence on construction project is of great impor-

tance in any sustainable construction development. This study presents the
assessment of the influence of stakeholder’s contribution on sustainable building
construction, with a view to ascertaining the respective role of stakeholders on
construction projects. Data obtained for the study were, through well-structured
questionnaires distributed to professionals in construction industry. Out of the
eighty-six (86) questionnaires that was administered, seventy-three (73) ques-
tionnaires were collected and analysed using Mean Item Score (MIS). The data
were analysed and presented with tables, considering the influences of different
stakeholders at different stages of construction stages, Mean Item Scores
(MIS) was used to rank the divers’ influences that stakeholders can have on a
project. The results show that Government authorities were highly ranked for the
pre-construction stage. For the construction stage, stakeholders have the highest
dominant role in the construction stage. It was therefore concluded that the
general public ranked the highest influence in the post construction stage.
Keywords: Construction professionals Project success

Project stakeholders Sustainable construction
1 Introduction
Stakeholder’s influence on construction project is of great importance in any con-

struction development. Traditionally, the bedrock of any construction project coalition
are the architect, the client and the contractor [1]. To decipher and comprehend the
perception of stakeholders in construction, this study helps to establish the theoretical
backgrounds of contribution of stakeholder to sustainable construction. However, the
secondary business goal is utilizing values/profits because of three reasons: Firstly, the
dominant factor is the good accomplishment for society rather than value added to
stakeholders only. Secondly, existence of other sustainability construction objectives is
important. Thirdly, a new managerial way to handle and manage stakeholders is needed
due to the construction dynamics [2]. Similarly in developing economy, construction
projects are the major investment that create avenue for profit or loss. The complexities

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_4
Assessment on the Influence of Stakeholders on Sustainable Building Construction 35
of projects among several parties are hugely committed to closely interact with others
endeavours to achieve its own comforts [3].
The increasing form of fragmentation in construction projects, have also con-
tributed to its intricacies; annexing the importance of firm coherence, that guarantees
high form of incorporation among stakeholders (demand and supply sides), whether the
project is to be concluded properly and effectively. Also, when there is a flow in
communication among suppliers, co-operation, openness and transparency will be
upheld. However, in developing economy, sustainable construction needs certain level
of improvement as the entire construction industry requires a cognisant and managed
process to advance the efficiency and efficacy of the construction industry to reach
same standard with the national economic requirement for building and civil engi-
neering products, to upkeep social development objectives and sustained national
economic [4]. This improvement of the industry can be achieved by refining on
products that are used in buildings as well as processes of construction of a sustainable
development and buildings design [5]. However, the traditional project’s success
measures, which are cost, time, and quality are not adequate to measure project success,
as powerful stakeholders influence policymaking at various facet of the entire project
life span for well-defined sustainable construction.
2 Types of Stakeholders
Generally, in sustainable construction stakeholders are divided into internal stake-

holders and external stakeholders. The internal stakeholders are directly involved in
making decision in an organization (e.g. customers, supplies, employees, and owners)
while the external stakeholders affect the organisation in a crucial way (e.g. General
public, local authorities and neighbours). There has been a resilient emphasis in the
relationship of internal stakeholder such as site management in construction and pro-
curement, while external stakeholder relationships at certain level are emphasised as
goal for public officials through the legislation and rules that regard facility develop-
ment [6]. Newcombe [7] has a similar classification as inside stakeholders and outside
stakeholder while direct and indirect stakeholders was used by Smith and Love [8].
Primary stakeholders’ vs secondary stakeholders were considered by delineation
according to Carroll and Buchholtz [9]. To demarcate between the various types of
stakeholders, we can say that primary stakeholder group, is one whose participation in
the corporation are temporal whereas, secondary stakeholders are characterized by the
firm. Stakeholders could also be challenged between those contracted to provide ser-
vices (e.g. Consultant, subcontractors, contractors and engineers) that is, in a direct or
primary relationship with an organization; in opposition to those that have no con-
tracted duties or formal redress, but are in a secondary or indirect relationship with an
organisation [10]. Based on the above explanations, examples of construction project
stakeholders are listed in Table 1.
36 A. E. Oke et al.
Table 1. Example of project stakeholders in construction

Stakeholders Objectives and role
Client Depending on the role, the client can act in public
construction project in private construction project.
The main difference between the two is that the
client and the benefactor act in like manner in
private project and in the public project the ideal
starter is the government and benefit is geared
towards the affected community
Contractor/subcontractors They act in construction based on specifications,
designs, contract documents verbalized by the
applicable parties
Funding body/donor E.g. IDB, UN, ICRC. Address humanitarian issues,
they provide liquid to the community project. They
also ensure liquids are utilized for the purpose to
which it was assigned. E.g. if a precondition is
issued to spend the liquid on certain activity, the
donor must ensure that the liquids are exhausted for
same activity
International non-governmental They act as the intermediaries of the liquidity body
organization/non-governmental and the government. They help assist in molding
organization numerous temporary shelters and permanent homes
Government The government helps in the formulation and
maintenance of regulations, rules, policies and also
monitors the adherence. Creating the standards
relating to the delivery of housing projects
General public They are involve in the construction phase for the
provision of labour and clearing the debris.
Land owners/neighbourhood They ensure that their interests will not be
jeopardized by the project
Source; Salah [10]
3 Methodology
This study adopted a well-structured closed-ended research questionnaire approach as

the data collection instrument. This approach is suitable for the study because it por-
trayed the objective and precise collection of each respondent’s opinion and knowledge
on the influence of stakeholders on sustainable construction project, out of the eighty-
six (86) questionnaire administered seventy-three (73) was retrieved. Nevertheless, to
facilitate the objectives of the study, 5-point Liker scales was used (1 = very low;
2 = low; 3 = medium; 4 = High; and 5 = Very High). A purposive sampling tech-
niques was adopted, to focus more on those with professional membership qualifica-
tion. As a result, mean item score MIS, descriptive statistics of percentage), significant
important index (SII) and ranking system were used to analyse the findings.
The study was conducted in Ondo State of Nigeria. Furthermore, data were col-
lected from engineers in telecommunication, quantity surveyors, builders, and archi-
tects currently involved in construction practices.
4 Data Analysis
The category of Firms/Organisation visited includes 39.70% contracting firms and

60.30% consulting firms. Their years of involvement in a project reveals that 17.80% of
the respondent have handled less than 5 project, while 19.20% have handled between
6–11 projects, 26% have handled between 11–15 project, respondent that have handled
between 16–20 are of 6.80%, 2.70% have handled between 21–25 projects project.
16.40% have been involved in project between 26–30 while, 11.00% have been
involved in more than 31 projects.
Years of experience reveals that, 1–10 and 11–20 years of experience falls on the
same percentage of 21.90%, which holds the highest percentage, 13.70% falls between
21–30 years of experience, 11.00% falls between 31–40 years of experience. 8.20% are
between 51–60 years of experience. 6.80% are between 41–50 which are the lesser of
all the percentage (6.80%) in the years of experience.
Also, statistics for professionals’ reveals that 16% of the respondent were quantity
surveyors while 18% are Architect, 17% are builder, 22% are Engineer while, they also
belong to their professional membership.
Table 2. Influence of stakeholders on sustainable construction

Influence on sustainability SII Rank
Life-cycle costs such as construction, operations, and maintenance to be used 90.96 1
more efficiently into project design
Innovative methods of project delivery 88.77 2
Strategic, concept planning, project programming and needs of each 88.49 3
construction stages
Control of the total project cost 86.3 4
Specifications that go beyond best practice, and specify construction 85.48 5
Quality-based selection in design-build 84.93 6
Contracting methods best suited for the physical construction 84.93 7
Targeted support for selected technologies and for taking risks on innovative 81.1 8
Financing alternatives, leading to say certain levels of cash flow 81.1 8
Table 2 above shows that life-cycle cost such as construction, operations, and
maintenance to be used more efficiently into project design is ranked the highest with
the significant importance index 90.96, similarly Innovative method of project delivery
and Strategic, concept planning, project programming and needs of each construction
stages ranked directly below as 2nd and 3rd with significant importance index 88.77 and
88.49 respectively.
38 A. E. Oke et al.
Table 3. Influences of stake holders on sustainable building construction during pre-

construction, construction and post-construction
Professionals Stages N Mean rank
Project manager Pre-construction stage 73 4.11
Construction stage 73 4.57
Post construction stage 73 3.67
Total 219
Architect Pre-construction stage 73 3.98
Total 219
Client Pre-construction stage 73 4.32
Total 219
Contractor Pre-construction stage 73 3.57
Total 219
Quantity surveyor Pre-construction stage 73 3.98
Total 219
Engineers Pre-construction stage 73
Total 219
Builder Pre-construction stage 73 4.21
Total 219
Funders Pre-construction stage 73 2.78
Total 219
Property advisors Pre-construction stage 73 4.29
Total 216
Consultants planner Pre-construction stage 73 4.51
Total 219
(continued)
Professionals Stages N Mean rank
Local community Pre-construction stage 73 3.47
Total 219
Sub-contractors Pre-construction stage 73 4.53
post construction stage 73 4.58
Total 219
Supplier Pre-construction stage 73 2.12
Total 219
Financial firms (banks) Pre-construction stage 73 3.41
Total 219
Trade associations Pre-construction stage 73 3.12
Total 219
Government authorities Pre-construction stage 73 4.67
Total 219
Investors Pre-construction stage 73 4.49
Total 219
Labour Pre-construction stage 73 3.29
Total 219
General public Pre-construction stage 73 4.50
Total 219
Table 3 Shows the influences of different stake holders, at different stages of pre-
construction stages, Government authorities have the highest ranking, having the mean
rank of 4.67, also mean rank of 4.51 for consultant planner, while the 3rd place with the
mean ranking 4.50 for general public, investors also have the 4th mean ranking of 4.49,
followed by the client and the property advisers, mean rank of 4.32 and 4.29 respectively.
40 A. E. Oke et al.
While for the construction stage, the stakeholder that has the highest dominant role
in the construction stage is the Labourers, mean ranking of 4.71, followed by the
Engineers with mean rank of 4.68, also the 3rd place with the mean ranking 4.62 for
Builder. The project manager was ranked 4th having the mean rank of 4.57, the 5th and
6th place according to their level of influence on construction stage were selected for
the sub-contractor and the architect mean rank of 4.53 and 4.50 respectively. The 7th
place goes for the client mean rank of 4.47.
The post construction stage, General public was selected to hold the highest
influence in the post construction stage with the mean ranking of 4.69, while property
advisors with mean rank of 4.64 rated 2nd highest influence on post building con-
struction. The local community was ranked 3rd with mean rank of 4.63, also mean rank
of 4.58 for sub-contractor. The 5th and 6th rank goes for the suppler and the client with
mean rank 4.54 and 4.51 respectively.
Table 4. Test statistic on the level of influence of stake holder’s on the sustainable building
construction project
Test statatistic A, B Chi-square DF Asymp sig
(A) Kruskal wallis test
(B) Grouping variable;
stages
Project manager 31.95 2 .000
Architect 38.83 2 .000
Client 8.228 2 .016
Contractor 10.500 2 .005
Quantity surveyor 5.861 2 .053
Engineers 57.930 2 .000
Builder 58.030 2 .000
Funders 3.78 2 .151
Property advisors 6.892 2 0.32
Consultants planner 10.846 2 0.004
Local community 1.933 2 0.380
Sub-contractors 50.605 2 0.00
Supplier 54.311 2 0.00
Financial firms (banks) 5.945 2 .051
Trade associations 4.886 2 .081
Government authorities 13.753 2 .001
Investors 11.753 2 .003
Labour 76.529 2 .000
General public 22.066 2 .000
Table 4 according to the decision rule any Asymptotic significant (Asymp).

Sig 0.05 has a significant influence. The table shows that the project manager,
Architect, Contractor, Engineer, builder, sub-contractors, Supplier, Labour, General
public, Government authorities, Quantity Surveyor, Financial bank, Investors,
consultant planner, Client, all falls below to the Asymp sig of Sig 0.05 has more
significant influence of sustainable construction while those that falls on ˃0.05 has
lesser significant influence, which are Trade associate, Local community, property
advisers, Funders.
Marthur, Price and Austin [5] determined the essence of allotting different stakeholders
in the quest for the assessment of sustainability. The study highlighted the benefits of
stakeholder allotment for showcasing social learning and by implication, increasing the
sustainability dispositions of professional in the construction industry. This paper
further the study on stakeholder’s influence on sustainable construction projects, by
assessing their influences on each construction phase. Korkmaz, Riley and Horman
[11] also conducted a survey to develop a kind of metrics that can basically be
employed to assess high-performance sustainable building projects, commencing from
contract structure to owner’s attitude about sustainable building projects. The survey
took a slight view, asking indeptly about the role of the general contractor in delivering
sustainable projects. Korkmaz et al. [11] gave a clear assertion that when a contractor
becomes involved in the post contract stage of construction work is panacea to
achieving sustainable building goals, and these work supports this finding. Tan, Shen
and Yao [12] studied further on evaluating sustainable project delivery and discuss the
role of sustainable construction practices, by improving the competitiveness of the
contractor in the marketplace. That work focuses on those practices entirely within the
contractor’s purview, e.g., waste management on site, while this research seeks the
influences of stakeholders like the government authorities, general public, contractors
and the likes has on each phase of construction work.
6 Conclusions and Recommendation
Results of the questionnaire survey of construction professionals as well as; other

stakeholders involved in construction process and data analysis indicate that, most of
the respondent have long years of experience, which did influence the nature of the
answers obtained. From the analysis, government authorities have the highest
authorities and influence on sustainable construction at the pre-construction stage of the
project. For the construction stage, the study indicated that the labour(s) has the
dominant role among other stakeholder at this stage. The post construction stage,
general public was selected to hold the highest influence in the post construction stage.
This study also indicate that life-cycle cost such as construction, operations, and
maintenance to be used more efficiently into project design as the most important area
of influence of the stakeholders. Therefore, government authorities, labour, general
public as stakeholders, should work manageably for the sustainable project
actualization.
42 A. E. Oke et al.
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Investigating a Male-Dominated Space: Female
Students’ Perceptions of Gendered Cultures
in Construction Workplaces
Mariam Akinlolu1(&) and Theo C. Haupt2

1
School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
akinlolumariam@gmail.com
2
Faculty of Engineering, Mangosuthu University of Technology,
Durban, South Africa
theo.haupt@mut.ac.za
Abstract. Despite its significant contribution regarding employment in South

Africa, women remain severely underrepresented in the construction industry.
Men have become the primary beneficiaries of these job opportunities and the
determinants of the construction industry’s culture. This extreme gender strati-
fication and macho nature of construction work has been identified as one of the
main obstacles influencing women’s career decisions and forms the basis for
their significantly low participation in the construction industry. This study
explores female students’ perceptions and experiences of gendered cultures in
male-dominated spaces, such as the construction workplace. The study adopted
a quantitative descriptive survey design. Thirty-five purposively sampled female
students, across different levels of study, completed a questionnaire with closed-
ended questions. The samples were drawn from student cohorts enrolled in the
construction studies; civil engineering, property development, land surveying
and civil engineering program. Responses were that a majority of the students
experienced consistent masculine gendered cultures or practices at their work-
places. The experiences presented in the study could be adapted to promote and
enhance the inclusiveness of all genders. The study is a reflection of female
students’ memoirs of experiences at the workplace. The sample is drawn from
only one university in South Africa and is not confirmed as a representation of
women employed in the construction profession in South Africa.
Keywords: Construction workplace cultures Gender

Male-dominated work Retention Women in construction
1 Introduction
Numerous studies have reported that despite an extensive range of global legislation
developed to promote women’s growth in the economy, women are still underrepre-
sented in the construction industry and more so among construction students [1–4].
Although both first and third world countries share the problem of inadequate repre-
sentation of women, women are present in the construction workforce of some
developing countries compared to European countries [5]. Findings from studies

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_5
44 M. Akinlolu and T. C. Haupt
conducted in the European Union and America revealed a low representation of women
in the professions with a review of women in construction in these countries [6–8].
Studies revealed percentages as low as 3.3% per annum, somewhat below the overall
average employment growth rate of 3.4% [6]. While women in some developing
countries outnumber men, their involvement in skilled labour is particularly low [8–
10]. The Engineering Council of South Africa reported that out of their 11% female
registered members, only 4% were professionally active [11].
Of the total employed South African population in 2017, 44% were women, and
only 13% of these women were employed in the construction industry [12]. No
changes have occurred over the years, as it has been 44% since September 2002.
Furthermore, sectors of the economy such as mining and transportation had low
concentrations of female employees [12]. Out of the total female workforce which is
estimated at ten million and two hundred thousand, the construction industry has only
one hundred and seventy-four thousand [12].
Although women are more successful than their male counterparts as students [6],
women leave the construction profession at higher rates than men [1]. The masculine
culture of the workplace, where interactions marginalizes the identities of female
engineers has been identified as a prevalent contributor towards women’s refusal to
take up careers in the construction industry [13]. Gender divisions in the workplace are
established by vertical segregation and gender stereotyping [2]. More specifically in the
construction industry with a low number of women, there is an indication of gender
segregation and a shortage of skilled females in the workforce [2].
Although significant for both genders, the culture of the industry was found to be
principally a significant barrier for women. Women have to circumnavigate common
issues such as discriminatory attitudes perpetrated by the dominant white male man-
agement and adversarial business relationships [14].
Numerous studies have shown that women who look to pursue careers in the
construction industry either have to behave like men to be successful, leave if they
cannot adapt to the masculine culture or maintain their feminine attitudes to occupy
minor positions. [10, 15, 16].
Worldwide, the construction industry is currently facing skill shortages, and
diversity-based levels are inadequate in meeting the skill gap [17]. Encouraging the
participation of women would enable the untapped resources, promote inclusivity and
improve the skill gap in the industry [1, 10, 17].
Numerous initiatives targeted to increase the representation of women within the
construction industry have been established [17, 18]. Initially, these programmes were
designed to create awareness and familiarise female engineering students with engi-
neering courses, and eventually incorporated initiatives focused on improving cur-
riculum, in light of recommendation from studies that concentrate on gender inclusivity
in engineering curricula [6, 19, 20].
Emphasis has been placed on the applications of engineering science and project-
based learning [21]. The role of the curriculum is to educate engineering students on
how to manage and respond to social challenges at the workplace and should be part of
the engineering curriculum [6]. Comprehensive and inclusive curricula should prepare
students for the engineering workplace culture [22]. However, suitability of the cur-
riculum as an instrument to engage students on social issues in the industry has not
Investigating a Male-Dominated Space 45
received much attention, which is disturbing, as engineering students experience

workplace cultures even before they are out of school [4]. At most universities and
higher learning institutions offering engineering degree programmes in South Africa,
students are required to undergo at least 12 months of relevant work experience.
A few studies have investigated the experience of gendered cultures, and gender
inclusivity of students in male-dominated workplaces [2, 4, 6, 15, 23]. In Australia,
nine female and four male students from three universities were interviewed about their
experiences and responses to gendered cultures during their workplace learning
placements [4]. All students reported experiences consistent with gendered cultures.
The study identified marginalization of women or stereotypically feminine practices or
privilege of stereotypically masculine practices or traits.
In the United Kingdom, an investigation of the perception and responses of female
students to the construction industry’s masculine culture during their industry place-
ments through interview sessions for 26 female engineering students [23]. The study
highlighted the experiences of female students as being assigned to fill in co-water
position and execute supporting activities. The students further reported that regularly
work twice as hard as their male colleagues to prove themselves.
In South Africa, 17 female students were interviewed about their perceptions and
preparedness for male-dominated workplaces, such as the construction industry [6].
Findings showed that the students perceived that they need to act their male counter-
parts to be able to prove their worth and continually accept discrimination from male
colleagues. Responses from the study are similar to findings from a study investigating
how women in engineering professions in the United States of America created their
professional identities and how their interpersonal interactions at the workplace
influenced their sense of belonging at the workplace [13]. Using data from interviews
with 52 female engineers, the study identified women proving themselves and con-
tinuously striving to achieve a reputation. Also, the study found that women responded
to these masculine cultures by rejecting gendered expectations.
A survey of 1435 industry practitioners, 141 first and final year construction stu-
dents and 17 professional women revealed experiences of gender-based discrimination
and sexual harassment [2]. In summary, numerous studies in Europe, America,
Australia and Africa have revealed attitudes and experiences consistent with gendered
cultures in male-dominated workspaces.
In comparison of existing literature concerning women’s employment, retention
and career progression in the construction industry, similar challenges are encountered.
These are antagonistic business relationships, poor working practices and working
conditions [21], Lack of training and education, lack of role models, lack of promotion
or the glass ceiling [10, 16].
1.1 Theoretical Framework

In the feminist theory, the issue of gender is emphasised, and the differences in the
experiences of men and women are acknowledged [24]. Feminism recognises that the
oppressions and injustices women encounter have developed over time and has ema-
nated from structural problems embedded in the society [25]. The study is conceptu-
alized from an understanding of masculine cultures in male-dominated workplaces that
relegate women and stereotypical feminine traits while promoting men and appreci-
ating stereotypical masculine traits.
Specifically, the study relies on the feminist theory for an in-depth understanding of
the influence of social and structural issues on gender and how it relates to the aca-
demic and workplace experiences of female students in construction. The feminist
theory creates knowledge by reflecting critically on the experiences and perceptions of
women [26].
Construction has a deficient female representation at all levels including manage-
ment. Most times women find themselves in situations where they are the only female
engineers in a workplace, and their needs are often neglected. Physical strength,
technical skills and knowledge of construction support stereotypically masculine
practices, which are considered as significant in the industry. Unlike professions like
medicine, dentistry and law, in the construction industry, the majority of the engineers
engage with people in stereotypically masculine domains such as technicians and
tradespeople rather than those occupying administrative positions [27, 28].
For a better understanding of the workplace experiences and perceptions of women in
male-dominated spaces, the study sought to identify exhibitions of gendered cultures as
experienced by female students and the coping mechanisms adopted by the students.
A study by [13] identified imposed gendered expectations, demeaning women and
making requests based on gender as types of personal interactions reported by female
students that diminish the professional identity of women in male-dominated workspaces.
1.2 Aim
The overarching aim of the study is to identify the perceptions, experiences and
responses and coping mechanisms to gendered cultures in the workplace by female
students in construction-related disciplines. The objectives were to make recommen-
dations for the improvement and promotion of immediate and long-term inclusivity in
the workplace interactions and experiences of female students.
2 Methodology
The study implemented a descriptive survey design adopting a quantitative research

approach. Quantitative research is the systematic and objective process of using
numerical data from a selected subject of the population to carry out a study [29]. Data
was obtained through self - administration of a questionnaire with close-ended ques-
tions. SPSS version 25.0 was used to capture and compute the data. The descriptive
analysis consisting of means, percentage and the standard deviation were used to
analyse the data.
Female students were purposively sampled as the criteria for inclusion in the study
was gender, which was female and were majoring in Property development, land
surveying, civil engineering and construction studies. Students at this stage were first to
third-year students enrolled at a university in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South
Africa. Demographic information of respondents and details about their most signifi-
cant work placements are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Participant demographics

Characteristics Description No of participants %
Discipline Property development 18 51.4
Construction studies 6 17.1
Land surveying 7 20.0
Civil engineering 4 11.4
Level of study 1st year 2 5.7
2nd year 16 45.7
3rd year 14 48.6
Degree completed at time placement 1st year 13 37.1
2nd year 13 37.1
3rd year 9 25.7
Ethnicity Black 21 60.0
White 4 11.4
Colored 2 5.7
Indian 8 22.9
2.1 Material
The questionnaire content used in this study was adapted from themes identified from
student’s responses to gendered cultures in studies by [13, 23]. A Five-point Likert-
type scale was used in the quantitative survey. The questionnaire included questions in
the following relevant areas:
Section A: Demographic information
Section B: Details about respondents’ placements
Section C: Experiences of interactions consistent with gendered workplaces
In Section A, participants were expected to provide details on their personal
information. In Section B and C, respondents were required to respond according to the
Likert scale provided. The first two set of questions included response options; Never,
rarely, sometimes, often, always. The second set required participants to respond to the
dichotomous scale; yes/no.
2.2 Participants
Participants in the study were confirmed to represent students in male-dominated
disciplines. 35 female undergraduate students at a University in the KwaZulu-Natal
province of South Africa were the participants in this study. Table 1 presents the
demographic information of students who participated in the study.
51.4% (18) of the respondents were enrolled in the property development program,
7.1% (6) were enrolled in construction studies, 20% (7) were enrolled in land sur-
veying, and 11.4% (4) were studying civil engineering. 5.7% (2) were 1st-year
Table 2. Details about participant’s most influential placement

Characteristics Description No of %
participants
Significant work placement Part-time work 12 34.3
Vacation 11 31.4
employment
Internship 12 34.3
Number of professional female engineers at 1 4 11.4
the workplace 2 10 28.6
3 11 31.4
4 5 14.3
5 3 8.6
6 1 2.9
7 1 2.9
students, 45.7% (16) were in their 2nd year, and 48.6% (14) were 3rd-year students.
37.1% (13) indicated that they were in their 1st year of study at the time of placement,
37.1% (13) were also in their 2nd year at the time of work placement, and 25.7%(9)
were in their 3rd year. 60% (21) were Blacks, 11.4% (4) were White, 5.7% (2) were
Coloreds, and 22.9% (8) were Indians.
Details on respondents nominated most prominent placements are represented in
Table 2 34.3% (12) respondents indicated that undertaken part-time work was their
most influential work placement. 31.4% (11) indicated vacation employment and
34.3% (12) confirmed internship as their most significant work placement.
Respondents were required to specify the number of professional female engineers
employed at their workplace. It is evident from Table 2 that the maximum number of
female engineers was 7 and was indicated by 1 student (2.9%).
3 Analysis
3.1 Frequency of Interactions with Professional Engineers

Relative to being asked about how often the respondents interacted with professional
engineers at their workplace; almost all respondents reported that they had little or no
interactions with the engineers at their place of work. 17.1% (6) indicated that they had
“Never” interacted while 8.6% (3) students reported that they “Always” had interac-
tions with professional engineers at their workplaces (Table 3).
Table 3. Frequency of interaction with professional engineers

Response N %
Never 6 17.1
Rarely 6 17.1
Sometimes 9 25.7
Often 11 31.4
Always 3 8.6
Total 35 100
3.2 Experience of Gendered Cultures

This section sought to investigate the experience and perceptions of respondents on the
occurrence of gendered cultures at their work placements. Students were required to
rate the level to which they experienced and observed a set of gendered cultures using a
Five-point Likert scale, where 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, four = Often,
and 5 = Always. Table 4 shows that belittling women or drawing attention to their
gender, making requests based on gender, marginalizing stereotypically feminine
interests and lack of respect from tradespeople and technicians were rated as the most
frequently experienced gendered interactions by the respondent. With a mean score of
(2.0), students indicated that they least experienced negative attitudes from their
superiors.
Table 4. Experience of gendered cultures

Experiences 1 2 3 4 5 T M SD R
Belittling women or drawing attention to 5.7 17.1 8.6 17.1 51.4 35 3.91 1.36 1
their gender
Making requests based on gender e.g. 5.7 11.4 17.1 51.4 14.3 35 3.57 1.07 2
asking female engineers to do secretarial
work
Marginalizing stereotypically feminine 11.4 8.6 40.0 17.1 22.9 35 3.31 1.25 3
interests
Rough culture on site e.g. swearing, sexist 14.3 20.0 22.9 25.7 17.2 35 3.29 1.86 4
comments, unwelcome body contact,
unwelcome sexual connotations
Lack of respect from tradespeople or 2.9 25.7 34.3 31.4 5.7 35 3.11 0.96 5
technicians e.g. being ignored by male team
members
Imposing gendered expectations e.g. 17.0 20.0 31.4 22.9 8.6 35 2.86 1.21 6
keeping female engineers from going site
Difficulty asking for support e.g. difficulty 14.3 28.6 40.0 5.7 11.4 35 2.71 1.15 7
seeking help due to macho expectations
Unfair judgement of women’s work 22.9 31.4 20.0 17.1 8.6 35 2.57 1.27 8
Negative attitude from superiors 45.7 25.7 14.3 11.4 2.9 35 2.00 1.16 9
3.3 Responses to Gendered Cultures

Respondents were required to indicate how they responded or coped with the gendered
cultures they experienced at their work placements. 25.7% (9) reported that they left the
job to avoid the culture while 71.4% (25) indicated that they stayed in the workplace.
68.6% of the students reported that they tolerated and adapted to the culture. In terms of
justifying the gendered interactions experienced, 34.3% (12) indicated that they made
excuses for the culture while 65.8% (23) reported otherwise. Notably, a large pro-
portion of 74.3% (25) of the respondents indicated that reported the issues of gendered
interaction they encountered (Table 5).
Table 5. Responses/coping mechanisms to gendered cultures

Responses Yes No
N % N %
Leaving the workplace 9 25.7 25 71.4
Tolerating and adapting 24 68.6 11 31.4
Justifying interactions experiences 12 34.3 23 65.8
Denying the gendered culture 15 42.9 20 57.1
Reporting 26 74.3 9 25.8
4 Findings and Discussion

4.1 Interactions Consistent with Gendered Cultures
Belittling Women or Drawing Attention to Their Gender. Findings from the data
analysis showed that students experienced interactions that were demotivating and
consistent with gendered cultures. Respondents reported that they mostly experienced
interactions that belittled women and drew attention to their gender. Interactions that
demeaned women as marginalizing the interests and identities of professional women
engineers were found in Hatmaker’s study [13]. A similar study reported discomfort
experienced by female students as a result of comments made about their gender [4,
15]. Examples were comments made by male contractors about prostitutes and com-
ments on avoiding the use swear words because a woman was present.
Making Requests Based on Gender. The survey showed that students confirmed that
during their placements, tasks were assigned to them based on their gender. Findings
from [23, 30] confirmed that students undertook feminine stereotypical work employ-
ments. Women were assigned to undertake supporting roles such as secretarial duties
which limits their opportunities and career progression [4, 6]. Although none of the
women in the study intended to leave their male-dominated occupations, they demon-
strated a reluctance to progress into the more intensely competitive male roles because
of these negative self-perceptions. Rather, they opted for those ‘softer’ roles while
remaining in male-dominated environments.
Marginalizing Stereotypically Feminine Interests. It is apparent from the study that

students experienced a gendered workplace culture where stereotypically masculine
interest where prioritised over feminine activities. Previous studies identified the
presence of multiple masculine traits and practices in male-dominated workplaces
which were mostly desired and given preference over stereotypically feminine traits [4,
31]. A past study found that predominant gender stereotypes exist in the workplace and
form the basis for discriminatory employment regulations and management strategies
exist in the workplace and form the basis for discriminatory employment regulations
and management strategies that hinder women from making progress in male-
dominated professions [32].
Rough Culture on Site. Gendered interactions consistent with a rough culture on site
were identified by [4]. The study that although the rough culture on construction site
cannot be avoided both men and women, in most cases the cultures on site are usually
gendered. In this study, respondents reported experiences of swearing, sexist com-
ments, unwelcome body contact and unwelcome sexual connotations.
Lack of Respect from Tradespeople and Technicians. In this study, students
reported that they experienced disrespect or lack of support from tradespeople and
technicians at their workplaces. There is a need to receive support and respect from
tradespeople as reported by female students [15]. [23] described a situation where the
male team members were ignoring the women as an example of such gendered
interactions. Previous studies acknowledged the fact that women had to work twice as
hard as men to build a reputation as a barrier for women in male-dominated professions
[4, 33]. It was further noted that despite efforts to recruit and retain women, they felt
unaccommodated by male colleagues at the workplace and experienced vindictive
behaviour [32]. In [6] women experienced inherent forms of discrimination in inter-
actions with their male team members in projects where their contributions were
disregarded.
4.2 Students Coping Strategies for Gendered Cultures

Findings from the study showed that students’ response to the gendered interactions
they experienced are as follows;
• Reporting
• Tolerating and Adapting
• Leaving the workplace
• Justifying gendered culture
• Denying the gendered culture
Reporting. In this study, respondents reported that they reported the gendered inter-
actions that they experienced. Reporting discriminatory incidents and harassments to
the appropriate authorities is one of the few responses that could initiate change and
provide support [4].
Tolerating and Adapting. Tolerating and adapting the interaction was one of the
coping mechanisms reported by students as a coping mechanism for gendered cultures.
Many women choose to accept the masculine culture of the industry by trying to fit in
because of the financial benefits they get from their jobs [33]. They are less concerned
with the vulgar language and discrimination they experience. Women are either forced
to ‘undo’ their gender to be able to cope with the disadvantages they encounter at their
workplaces [34]. In a previous study, it was observed that women made efforts to adopt
male practices and moderated their feminine traits and appearance to fit into the
environment [32].
Leaving the Workplace. Majority of students in this study reported that they did not
resign from their jobs because of the gendered cultures they experienced at their work
placements. Although, [32] found that despite the negative work-identity interactions
experienced, none of the women reported intentions to leave the workplace. However,
the women displayed an attitude of low self-esteem and lack of confidence.
Justifying the Gendered Culture. Findings from the study indicate that gendered
interactions experienced by the students were not justified. Contrary to findings in this
study, female engineers were found to justify and make excuses for the gendered
interactions at their workplace which discriminated against stereotypically feminine
practices and marginalised their professional identities [13]. An example of excuses
respondents made was making arguments that it was challenging for an employer to
accommodate the needs of different genders.
Denying the Gendered Culture. The study findings suggest that students were
indifferent in their response to denying gendered interactions at their workplace.
A similar study found that students did not recognise the interactions they experienced
as gendered. The studies concluded that there was uncertainty about whether the stu-
dents did not recognize these cultures or chose to deny it [23, 30]. However, other
similar studies reported responses consistent with denying the gendered culture [23,
27]. Female students were found not to notice any differences in their treatment and
that of their male counterparts. Furthermore, these that found differences were more
likely to deny or trivialize these gendered cultures [35].
The study concludes that the unique needs of women employed in male-dominated
professions are unaccommodated at the workplace as a result of rooted stereotypical
gendered cultures. The working practices in the environment are considered undesir-
able, and women are left to circumnavigate the problems they encounter in their
respective professions. The study described gendered workplace interactions that
female students experienced in engineering workplaces. Students experienced a rough
culture on site, interactions that demeaned and drew attention to their gender,
assignments based on their gender and lack of support and respect from team members.
Students also perceived discriminations against their femininity and were obligated to
conform to gendered expectations. Findings from the study highlighted prevalent
structural and sociocultural influences that hinder the progress of women at the
workplace.
Concerning the coping strategies adopted by students in response to the gendered

cultures, the responses reported in this study were consistent with findings from pre-
vious studies [4, 13, 23, 32].
Acknowledging the gendered interactions of female students in workplaces in
programmes to improve gender parity in male-dominated environments has been long
overdue. Redressing the discriminations experienced by women in terms of recruit-
ment, training and retention requires affirmative action. The gendered workplace cul-
tures and coping strategies reported shows that employers need to make efforts to
recruit women by proactively providing support and opportunities to attract them into
male-dominated professions. To promote participation and career progression of
women, employers and educators must improve workplace cultures and prepare stu-
dents for the reality of the masculine engineering culture. Employers need to review
their workplace policies and introduce solid initiatives geared towards creating a
conducive environment which provides mentorship and accommodates the needs of
women who are considering taking up careers in male-dominated fields.
The realities of gender discrimination should be addressed in the development of
curricula. Female students need to understand the layers of discrimination and the
challenges in male-dominated industries from their first contact with the occupations.
This knowledge will assist students achieve their goals effectively without experiencing
sexism at the workplace.
Acknowledgments. The authors greatly acknowledge the support of the National Research
Fund.
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Construction Transaction Costs
in a Developing Economy: The Nigerian
Construction Perspective
Matthew Osivue Ikuabe1(&) and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke2

1
Department of Quantity Surveying, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
matthew.ikuabe@uniben.edu
2
Department of Construction Management and Quantity Surveying,
emayok@gmail.com
Abstract. The execution of construction projects involves cost other than that of
production, erecting and putting in place structures; usually this is as a result of
economic exchange. Optimization of construction project transaction cost is a
much desired eventuality mostly on the part of owners of construction projects.
Hence, construction project transaction cost is a vital anchorage in the deliber-
ations of project success. This study sets out to examine the influencing factors of
construction project transaction costs with Lagos state, Nigeria as the research
area. Responses were gotten from construction professionals through the use of
questionnaire survey with three hundred and thirty-seven distributed and two
hundred and sixty-four retrieved and was fit for analysis. Mean Item Score,
ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis and Student Newman Kaul (SNK) Post-Hoc Test were
adopted for analysis of obtained data. Findings from the study revealed that the
major influencing factors of construction project transaction costs are Leadership,
Quality of decision making and Competition between bidders. Equally, factor
analysis revealed four underlying constructs which are Client’s behavioral traits,
Contractor’s behavioral traits, Managerial skills and Project characteristics. The
hypothesis of the study was subjected to a test; the result revealed that there is a
significant difference in professionals’ perceived influencing factors of con-
struction project transaction costs. The study concluded by asserting the need for
collaborators of construction project execution to as a matter of necessity ensure
that actions and inactions depicted through the course of administering con-
struction projects should be geared towards the optimization of transaction costs.
Keywords: Construction Contractors Project Transaction cost

Professionals
1 Introduction
Construction works involves huge financial outlay before and during the execution of
the project. Project owners and Investors would adopt all measures to bring about
optimization of committed funds to any given project. Contractors expend substantial
amount of time and resources to ascertain construction costs and then assessing the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_6
Construction Transaction Costs in a Developing Economy 57
price to be put to the owner. The rate at which exchange may take is then the price.
The contractor’s view of price translates to cost from the owner’s perspective [1].
There are costs incurred other than production costs, they are referred to as
transaction costs [2]. Production costs can be referred to the costs of transmuting inputs
into outputs, while transaction costs is as a result of economic exchange. Transactions
costs include costs incurred during construction activities such as preparing documents
for bidding, the act of estimating, putting in place a contract, contract administration,
and dealing with any deviation from contract conditions. Transaction costs also include
costs connected with infringement of contractual promises; the costs of acquiring and
processing information, organizational costs, legal costs, likewise costs in relation with
inefficient pricing and production behaviour makes up transaction costs [3, 4].
Transaction cost is a vital construct in the discussion of project success delivery.
Therefore this study sets out to identify and examine the factors affecting construction
projects transaction costs in a developing country using Lagos state, Nigeria as its study
area.
Factors Affecting Construction Transaction Costs
It has been established that transaction cost should be given much needed attention as
the cost of production, as it is termed to be connected with cost of economic exchange.
Construction sector is distinguishingly unique from other economic sectors. Its modus
operandi in delivering the final end product is distinct and differs in relation to economic
actors or participants and how the economic exchanges are carried out. This includes
procurement-phase costs of bidding and contract negotiation; costs related to contract
observance and renegotiation in the construction and functional stages [5]. According to
[5], the factors that affect construction project transaction cost, portraying their
descriptions as related to construction activities are: Project Uncertainty; Relationship
with other parties; Integration of design and construction; Experience in similar type of
projects; Payment on time; Organizational efficiency; Change orders; Qualifications of
the contractor; Material substitution; Frequency of claims; Incentive/Disincentive
clauses; Leadership; Bidding behavior; Quality of decision making; Quality of com-
munication; Technical competency; Conflict management; Project complexity; Fair risk
allocation; Experience in similar type of projects; Completeness of design; Relationship
with subcontractors; Competition between bidders; Relationship with previous clients;
Bonding requirement; and Early contractor involvement.
2 Research Methodology
The research utilized a quantitative research method, adopting convenience sampling

technique. A survey of registered construction professionals affiliated with their
respective professional bodies was carried out in Lagos state, Nigeria, the study area.
The professionals were namely: Architects, Quantity Surveyors, Builders and Engi-
neers. In total, three hundred and thirty-seven (337) questionnaires were distributed
while two hundred and sixty-four (264) were retrieved and suitable for analysis, while
58 M. O. Ikuabe and A. E. Oke
the others were either not retrieved or incorrectly filled. Quantity Surveyors, Architects,
Builders and Engineers were administered with 83, 86, 78 and 90 questionnaires with
respectively. The methods of data analysis deployed are Mean Item Score, ANOVA,
Kruskal-Wallis and Student Newman Kaul (SNK) Post-Hoc Test.
Data Analysis
Table 1 shows the ranking of factors that affects construction projects transaction costs
for the different professionals making up the respondents. Architects ranked ‘Com-
pleteness of design’ as the most factor that affects construction project transaction costs
with a mean score of 3.82, trailed by ‘Project complexity’ with a score of 3.77. For
Quantity Surveyors, the factors are ‘Frequency of claims’ and ‘Relationship with
subcontractors’ with mean scores of 3.73 and 3.72 respectively. Builders ranked
‘Quality of decision making’ the highest with a mean score of 3.62 followed by
‘Incentive/Disincentive clauses’ with a score of 3.42. While Engineers’ most ranked
factors are ‘Project uncertainty’ and ‘Relationship with previous clients’ with mean
scores of 3.76 and 3.58 respectively. Overall, the most ranked factor was ‘Leadership’
with a mean score of 3.52.
ANOVA test generated F-ratio and significance value so as to examine the degree of
diverging opinions of the different construction professionals with respect to each of
the identified factors. Nineteen of the twenty-five variables had p-value less than 0.05;
hence, it reveals a significant divergence between the construction professionals with
respect to the nineteen factors.
Test of Hypothesis
Kruskal-Wallis H-test was undertaken to ascertain if there is a differing stance among
the construction professionals. The analysis indicates an H value of 6.455, Asymptotic
Significance p-value of 0.038 which is less than 0.05; hence, the Null Hypothesis
stating that there is no significant difference in professionals’ perceived factors that
affects construction project transaction costs is rejected, while the Alternate
Hypothesis stating that there is a significant difference in professionals’ perceived
factors that affects construction project transaction costs accepted.
Table 2 outlines the post-hoc test (multiple comparisons) undertaken using the
Student Newman Kauls (SNK) Post-Hoc technique which was deployed to show
underlying difference in professionals’ perception of the factors affecting construction
transaction costs. Result indicates that there is a discovered difference in the factors that
affects construction project transaction costs between three groups of Respondents.
Builders having a value of 3.0130 make up the first group. Engineers with a value of
3.2446 fall under the second group while Architects Quantity Surveyors with values of
3.3983 and 3.4918 respectively makes up the third group.
Table 1. Factors that affects construction project transaction costs
Identified factors Architect QS Builder Engineer Overall F-ratio Sig. (p-value)
Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank Mean Rank
Leadership 3.55 4 3.61 10 3.38 3 3.53 3 3.52 1 3.458 0.000**
Quality of decision making 3.54 5 3.66 6 3.62 1 3.24 12 3.51 2 17.355 0.003**
Competition between bidders 3.28 20 3.46 9 2.85 18 3.24 12 3.43 3 1.409 0.142**
Incentive/disincentive clauses 3.49 7 3.62 16 3.4 2 3.23 14 3.42 4 2.345 0.034**
Frequency of claims 3.52 6 3.73 1 2.89 15 3.38 7 3.38 5 2.655 0.000**
Completeness of design 3.82 1 3.21 5 3.11 6 3.11 19 3.37 6 3.902 0.833
Payment on time 3.49 7 3.72 3 2.77 20 3.4 6 3.34 7 8.125 0.000**
Relationship with previous clients 3.46 11 3.56 13 2.72 22 3.58 2 3.33 8 0.714 0.039**
Integrating design and construction 3.49 7 3.67 8 2.86 17 3.45 5 3.33 8 0.031 0.000**
Material substitution 3.36 15 3.48 17 3.1 8 3.32 8 3.32 10 0.048 0.025**
Fair risk allocation 3.42 12 3.63 24 2.65 24 3.27 10 3.31 11 1.557 0.0614
Bonding requirement 3.37 14 3.58 7 2.94 12 3.23 14 3.3 12 7.897 0.001**
Unclear method of measurement 3.3 18 3.25 23 3.11 6 3.49 4 3.29 13 11.752 0.714
Early contractor involvement 3.26 22 3.5 11 2.71 23 3.01 21 3.28 14 19.301 0.000**
Experience in similar type of projects 3.32 17 3.55 14 3.01 10 3.23 14 3.28 14 9.762 0.001**
Bidding behavior 3.27 20 3.43 20 3.21 5 3.17 17 3.27 16 15.339 0.041**
Conflict management 3.38 13 3.57 12 3.03 9 3.12 18 3.27 16 14.721 0.004**
Relationship with parties 3.29 19 3.47 18 2.91 13 3.25 11 3.23 18 3.345 0.023**
Relationship with subcontractors 3.36 15 3.72 2 2.66 23 2.59 24 3.21 19 1.119 0.974
Project uncertainty 3.61 3 3.49 19 2.82 19 3.76 1 3.21 19 12.225 0.036**
Project complexity 3.77 2 3.66 15 2.76 21 3.02 20 3.12 21 0.179 0.000**
Quality of communication 3.12 24 3.18 25 3.27 4 2.87 22 3.11 22 4.788 0.852
Technical competency 3.15 23 3.27 22 2.9 14 2.99 21 3.08 23 1.189 0.532
Qualifications of the contractor 3.01 25 3.08 27 2.99 11 2.6 23 2.92 24 23.478 0.032**
Construction Transaction Costs in a Developing Economy
3.4 3.49 3.01 3.24 3.29

59
60 M. O. Ikuabe and A. E. Oke
Table 2. SNK post-hoc test

Groups N Subset for alpha = 0.05
1 2 3
Builders 27 3.0130
Engineers 27 3.2446
Architects 27 3.3983
Quantity surveyors 27 3.4918
Sig. 1.000 1.000 .113
Means for groups in homogeneous subsets are
displayed.
a. Uses Harmonic Mean Sample Size = 27.000.
3 Discussion of Results
The study revealed that among the identified factors that affect construction project
transaction costs, the most ranked factor was Leadership. This is in support of the study
[6], who opined that quality leadership entails projection of vision so as to align project
participants with their goals, propel their team to take cooperative actions and to attain
project set out goals, in return optimizing transaction costs. Good leadership has been
proven to be indispensable quality for successful delivery in any human endeavor. With
the right leadership in place for construction projects, transaction costs will be most
likely optimized which turn serves as a pointer to successful project delivery. Also,
‘Competition between bidders’ ranked as the next highest factor affecting construction
project transaction costs. [7] asserted that a reduction in transaction is most likely with
the involvement of low bidders which may create a low procurement process. Next
highest ranked factor was ‘Incentive/Disincentive clauses’. As noted by Broome and
Perry [8], Incentive clauses may inspire the contractor to minimize contract timing,
thereby leading to a reduction in transaction costs.
Construction transaction costs can be influenced by a whole lot of varying factors. The
study has established the factors that affect construction transaction costs thereafter
examining these factors with statistical scrutiny. Among the factors has Leadership as
the most ranked by professionals closely followed by Quality of decision taken.
Inference derived from the study equally revealed that Architects and Quantity Sur-
veyors have similar underlying notion of construction transaction costs, with both
professionals agreeing to similar factors influencing construction transaction costs. This
was proven quite different from Builders and Engineers. This goes to reveal that the
professionals in the construction sphere have differing perception of probable
influencing factors to construction transaction costs.
Construction Transaction Costs in a Developing Economy 61
It is imperative that collaborators of construction projects should as a matter of

utmost importance give credence to transaction costs during project execution as much
emphasis has been placed on production costs. Equally, stakeholders should as place
emphasis on actions that aid the optimization of transaction costs.
References
1. Hillebrandt, P.M., Hughes, W: What are the costs of procurement and who bears them? In:
Proceedings of 2nd International Conference on Construction in Developing Countries.
Botswana National Construction Industry Council and University of Botswana, Gaborone,
Botswana (2000)
2. Winch, G.M.: The construction firm and the construction project: a transaction cost approach.
3. Rahman, M.M., Kumaraswamy, M.M.: Minimising transaction costs, maximising relational
benefits and optimizing risk management—through partnering in Hong Kong projects. Int.
J. Constr. Mark. 3(2), 51–72 (2002)
4. Joskow, P.L.: Vertical integration and long-term contracts: the case of coal-burning electric
generating plants. J. Law Econ. Organ. 1(1), 33–80 (1985)
5. Li, H., Arditi, D., Wang, Z.: Transaction costs incurred by construction owners. Eng. Constr.
Archit. Manage. 21(4), 444–458 (2014)
6. De Meyer, A.: Collaborative leadership: new perspectives in leadership development.
Working Paper, Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
UK (2010)
7. Farajian, M.: Transaction cost estimation model for us infrastructure public private
partnerships. M.Sc. thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, MD (2010)
8. Broome, J., Perry, J.: How practitioners share fractions in target cost contracts. Int. J. Proj.
Manage. 20(1), 59–66 (2002)
4IR Leadership Effectiveness and Practical
Implications for Construction Business
Organisations
Kehinde Alade(&) and Abimbola Windapo
Department of Construction Economics and Management, University of Cape

Town, Upper Campus, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
Aldkeh001@myuct.ac.za, Abimbola.Windapo@uct.ac.za
Abstract. The construction industry has generally been labelled as rigid and
slow in its response to change. This is not unconnected with certain features of
construction products such as their project-based nature, multiple-stakeholders
and professionals, and lengthy processes involved in the construction supply
chain. The fourth industrial revolution (4IR) presents another moment of change
in the global business arena and is dynamically influencing different organisa-
tions and their strategic positioning. There is evidence that leadership drives the
change agenda. However, scholars also suggest that construction business
leaders are unhurried in their pace, strategic decisions and flexibility. This study
employed a systematic literature review in identifying the leadership traits, style
and intelligence required for construction leaders to lead effectively in the 4IR.
The leadership framework developed gives an indication as to the practical
implications of 4IR for construction business leaders and concludes that a
combination of factors will lead to leadership effectiveness and high levels of
4IR implementation.
Keywords: 4IR Change intelligence Construction organisations

Leadership Sustainability
1 Introduction
In a global marketplace that has presented several surprises and a high degree of
uncertainty recently, disruption and change have become a common word. It has been
widely acknowledged that the fourth industrial revolution (4IR), categorized by dis-
ruptive and rapid technological changes and digitization is new territory for the world.
The 4IR, defined as a quick and revolutionary change to the world characterized by the
fusion of technologies, blurring the lines between the physical, digital, and biological
spheres, is fast changing the way organisations function and how they provide services
[1–3]. The introduction of new business models and re-shaping of socio-economic
systems are evidence of the profound changes taking place across all industries, thus
making leadership and opportunities within 4IR more challenging [4]. As [5] and [6]
claim, leadership plays a crucial role in ensuring success in almost any change initiative
within an organization. It is the ultimate key to organisations successfully embracing a
change initiative into their daily business operations [7]. Leadership is the process of
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_7
4IR Leadership Effectiveness and Practical Implications 63
social influence that attributes causation to individual social actors [8–12]. A leader’s
job is to identify the drivers of performance and follow through to the flow of activities
at the process level [6]. This leadership process drives change in the organization, and it
involves various factors such as developing a vision for the organization; aligning
people with the idea through communication; and motivating people to action through
empowerment and basic need fulfillment [9, 11, 13–16]. Given the Fourth Industrial
Revolution’s rapid pace of change and broad impacts, business leaders are being
challenged to take advantage of the opportunities and efficiently use digital programs to
improve their efficiency and organisation performance [2]. However, a key trend also
noted by scholars is the reluctance of construction business leaders to cope or learn how
to make rapid changes that will positively impact their organisations [17–19]. According
to Ofori and Toor [20] and Suresh et al. [6] there is a greater need for effective leadership
in the construction industry than any other sector. The complexity of construction
organisations stems from the management of project-based activities, many stakeholders
involved in its process, different procurement methods, projects uncertainty, unpre-
dictable nature of the environment and a fragmented supply chain [21].
As Oosthuizen [4] argues, there are leadership challenges and opportunities peculiar
to 4IR. Likewise, the construction leader’s inability to lead change, innovation culture,
and cope with the challenges of technological changes and innovation is evident and a
different approach to leadership is required in construction organisations, to take
advantage of 4IR and the digital era [17–19]. Also, Gaultier [18] notes that most of the
CEOs in construction firms have worked in an executive role for decades and have not
been directly involved in the latest technological evolution, thereby leading to organi-
sational disconnect. These challenges establish the need to understand and investigate
the leadership change intelligence, traits, and styles that are required by the CEOs in
construction firms for an effective 4IR in construction businesses. Therefore this study
investigates the requirements for 4IR leadership effectiveness in construction organi-
sations, towards establishing a leadership framework for driving organizational change
and improving performance in construction business organisations. The paper comprises
of five sections. In Sect. 2, background information on leadership change intelligence,
traits, and styles are provided. Information on the research methodology is provided in
Sect. 3. Section 4 presents the conceptual framework for effective 4IR leadership, while
discussions, conclusions, and limitations of the study are presented in Sect. 5.
2 Theoretical Background for the Study
2.1 Leadership Change Intelligence (LCQ)

Leadership Change intelligence (LCQ) is the awareness of the leader of his or her
change leadership style, and the ability to adapt the style to be optimally effective in
leading change across a variety of people and situations [22]. In the light of disruption,
complexity and uncertainty that the 4IR conveys, [2, 4, 23] agree that a special kind of
intelligence is required for leaders to adapt, harness and maximize their potentials.
Whereas [2] propagates a 4-type intelligence for leaders in 4IR (contextual, emotional,
inspired and physical intelligence), [23] expanded on this to include entrepreneurial
64 K. Alade and A. Windapo
intelligence, to increase the potential of 4IR realisation for impact and value-creating
solutions [4] however developed a 4IR-leadership intelligence framework, shown in
Fig. 1, for leaders in general.
Contextual
Emotional Intelligence
Ethical
Intelligence
Intelligence
Socratic
Intelligence
Inspired
Intelligence
Ecosystem
Intelligence
4IR Intelligence
Physical
Intelligence
Transdisci-
plinary
Intelligence
Entrepre-
Strategic
neurial
Intelligence
Intelligence
Fig. 1. 4IR leadership intelligence framework (Source: [4])
2.2 4IR Leadership Traits (4LT)

Scholars have argued whether leaders are born or made and if some characteristics or
qualities distinguish leaders from followers. There are also debates as to whether
leadership attributes can be developed. Current leadership trait theorists suggest a
consensus is emerging around the “HEXACO” (Honesty-Humility, Emotionality,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience) per-
sonality framework and domains [24] and [25]. In relation to 4IR and leadership in
construction business organisations, [18] notes four key attributes of a digitization-
ready leader in the construction industry which include disruption-preparedness, agi-
lity, focus on talent development, and collaborative approach.
2.3 Change Leadership Styles (CLS)

While the underlying concept of leadership is the premise on having followers, scholars
submit that the relationship between a leader and follower will differ based on the style
of the leader [8, 9, 26]. As a result, many leadership styles are documented in the
literature. Leaders have been classified as autocratic, democratic, transactional, trans-
formational, charismatic and strategic. Among these leadership styles, the change
leadership styles developed by Trautlein and Trowbridge [22] appears to be the most
appealing since it reveals the attitude of leaders to change for effectiveness in different
situations. assume that leaders’ function as a coach, champion, visionary, driver,
executor, facilitator, and adapter when leading change in an organisation. Trautlein and
Trowbridge [22] also note that each leader has a unique change leadership style shown
in Fig. 2 below, depending on how strong the leader is at heart (people-oriented), head
(purpose-oriented) or hands (process-oriented). It is believed that by combining these
functions, leaders will effectively drive 4IR.
Fig. 2. Change leadership styles (Source: [22]
3 Research Method
A systematic literature review approach is used for this study. The relevant literature on
4IR, change leadership, leadership style and traits for effectiveness in construction
organizations were examined based on the objective of the study employing journal
articles, conference proceedings, online articles and other related texts on 4IR from the
Science direct, Web of Science, Scopus and the Google scholar database. The search
process covered from year 1995–2018. Whereas the research articles in the domains of
4IR and leadership is quite broad, generating an initial output of about 19,000 articles,
the objective of this study- identifying the leadership traits, style and intelligence
required for construction leaders to lead effectively in the Fourth Industrial Revolution,
was used to narrow down the dataset to the appropriate fields of the research to an
outcome of about 300. Top journals in the field of Management and leadership were
considered. These include Harvard Business Review, Academy of management review,
Journal of Quality Progress, International Journal of Financial Research, Interna-
tional Journal of Management, Business, and Administration. Others that relates
specifically to the Engineering and Construction leadership such as the Procedia
Engineering, Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, Journal of Architec-
tural Engineering Design Management and Journal of Architectural Engineering
Technology were also included. Top Conference papers such as those from Conference
on Responsible Leadership, Leadership and management in construction (LEAD)

conference, Project Management Institute Global Congress and Southern African
Institute of Management Scientists. It is noteworthy that some duplicates were removed
from this dataset leaving a total of 58 journal articles and 12 conference proceedings.
The most relevant Journal articles and conference proceedings to the objective of the
study from these were the seventeen (17) and four (4) used respectively for the study.
Using the results of the literature review, a framework is developed, and the
implications are discussed the subsequent sections.
4 Developing 4IR Leadership Effectiveness Framework
The 4IR Leadership effectiveness framework for construction organisations is shown in

Fig. 3. Studies of [4–7, 18, 22–24, 27] provide support for this framework. These
studies concluded that leadership especially in moments of uncertainty and change is
beyond a position or title; instead it is a process of influencing others to understand and
agree on what needs to be done, how it should be done, whilst facilitating individual
and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives, thus signifying that a leader’s
job is to foresee the future and quickly identify the drivers of performance and follow
through the flow of activities at the process level.
Fig. 3. 4IR leadership effectiveness in construction business organisations
The framework shown in the Fig. 3, links effective 4IR leadership to ten-type lead-
ership intelligence, four-type leadership traits and change leadership styles. The ten
leadership intelligence featured, namely, Contextual Intelligence, Emotional Intelli-
gence, Inspired Intelligence, Physical Intelligence, Entrepreneurial Intelligence, Strategic
Intelligence, Transdisciplinary Intelligence, Ecosystem Intelligence, Socratic Intelli-

gence, and, Ethical Intelligence require leaders to develop themselves broadly in the areas
identified, to survive the 4IR. Disruption-preparedness, Agility, Focus on talent devel-
opment, and Collaborative approach was identified as the leadership traits. In the
framework, Disruption-prepared refers to the ability of the construction leader to embrace
disruption.
Some scholars have argued that the concept of disruption is threatening. However,
acknowledging its reality and putting in place a strategy for multiple futures to constant
hanges with significant impact on the organization will help cushion the effect. Agility
as a leadership trait refers to the ability of construction executives to respond quickly to
change or risk losing forward-thinking employees to new industry players with fresh
thinking. Focus on talent development is the aptitude of construction executives to look
for ways to upskill their existing workforce in line with the requirements of the 4IR. It
is important that construction executioves develop their workforce to take up jobs as
drone operators, robot resource managers and augmented reality trainers, to name a
few. The last leadership trait is a Collaborative approach, and it refers to the ability of
construction executives to network not only with their internal team members but also
with the, academia, industry players and other relevant bodies for mutual learning. This
attribute is critical for digitization-ready leaders in construction because 4IR is a new
environment that requires networking to maximize benefits.
The change leadership styles required that 4IR oblige construction CEOs to be
people-oriented, purpose-oriented, and process-oriented. The change style of leadership
demands that the CEOs function as a Visionary, Coach, Champion, Executor, Driver,
Facilitator, and Adapter in their organizations. The visionary leader uses the head, to set
a compelling vision of an exciting future. The leader here envisions the future using
head focus and sees new situations and possibilities.
Operating as a coach require the leader to engage colleagues and subordinates
whenever possible and provide support for people, thereby taking everyone in the
organization through the change process. As a champion however, the change leader
combines the strength in the heart and head to get others to change. The leader in this
case not only envisions the future, but is also able to communicate effectively and
encourage others warmly so that they consent to change.
The leader as an executer gets things done quickly often using execution approach
backed up by comprehensive, step-by-step plans of the future. Leaders who operates as
rivers are usually strong on both head and hands. Not only do they envision the future,
they also use execution abilities to drive toward the vision, laying out clear strategies
and tactics along the way. Leaders who operates as facilitators support people on a day
to day basis using their strong heart and hands capabilities. Having identified tasks that
need to be accomplished, they usually check measurable progress and succeed in
motivating others to work together on those tasks. Finally, as an adapter, a change
leader engages the head, heart, and hands. They tend to be generally flexible, politically
savvy, and willing collaborate with others.
5 Conclusion, Recommendations and Limitations

of the Study
Construction leaders driving the 4IR agenda will ideally possess a combination of
Change leadership intelligence (LCQ), Change leadership styles (CLS) and the 4IR
leadership traits (4LT) to be effective. Knowledge and understanding of the 4IR
landscape and strategic positioning will facilitate effectiveness. At the personal level,
construction executives will ideally be change intelligent (see Fig. 3) to embrace the
4IR. Construction executives will also be conversant with their change leadership style
and adopt the 4IR leadership traits for effectiveness. Besides, a firm awareness of all
other change leadership styles (CLS) identified in this study will help in adapting as
situation warrants to promote effectiveness. At the team/Group level: This second level
is concerned with how leaders impact others and drive employees through the 4IR
change. This level is also concerned with building relationships by persuading sup-
porters, detractors, and fence-sitters to get onboard with the required changes. As such,
a caring attitude and concern for developing the required 4IR skills are essential.
A disposition to engage employees and be supportive will also inspire the team
members to be 4IR driven. As earlier stated, the construction industry and organization
are a part of the larger society and the global community and does not exist in isolation.
Therefore, collaboration with other organisations such as academia, government
agencies will foster effectiveness. Also, benchmarking 4IR activities of the organiza-
tion with other organisations will promote efficiency. This is both an internal and
external role for 4IR leadership effectiveness. In practical terms, 4IR leadership
effectiveness in construction organisations will reflect all the dimensions of leadership
unraveled and discussed in the previous sections. Although there are theoretical jus-
tifications for the framework advanced in this paper, this study recommends that they
are empirically tested to prove its validity. Future studies will examine the effectiveness
of South African construction executives’ Leadership change intelligence, change
leadership style and adaptability, and 4IR leadership traits employing semi-structured
interviews for the testing. Data will be collected from Level 1 leaders: Chief Executive
Officers (CEO), Board members senior executives and business unit managers of
building and civil engineering contractors listed in Grades 7–9 on the cidb Register of
Contractors in South Africa. The data obtained will be analysed using descriptive
statistics and content analysis. This will form the foundation for testing the framework
developed for construction leaders’ effectiveness and successful deployment of 4IR
initiatives in the construction business organisations.
Acknowledgements. Funding from TETFUND, the National Research Foundation (NRF)

and UCT-ARUA Collaborative project towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions
expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the authors and are not necessarily to be
attributed to TETFUND, NRF or UCT-ARUA.
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Evaluation of Safety and Security Measures:
Preliminary Findings of a University Student
Housing Facility in South Africa
Solomon Adisa(&), Fredrick Simpeh, and Julius Fapohunda

Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Bellville Campus, Cape Town, South Africa
solomon.akinwumi@gmail.com
Abstract. Safety and security management of tertiary institutions have become

a global concern. Studies show that the safety of student housing facilities
(SHFs) are not giving the necessary attention in tertiary institutions. The neglect
of the safety aspects of SHF exposes students to several risk and dangers such as
accidents, theft, fire outbreak, sexual harassment, assault and, worse of all,
death. Consequently, the paper investigates students’ perception about the level
of provision of security and fire safety measures and their satisfaction level with
the performance/functionality of those measures in a post-graduate on-campus
SHF. The study is exploratory in nature. The methodology used for the study is
mixed method. Data was collected from students who are registered member of
the residence through a closed-ended questionnaire and personal observation
was carried out by the researchers to validate the result. Descriptive statistics
was used to analyse the data. The results obtained revealed that measures such
as: water sprinkler system, and smoke extractor were not provided in the SHF,
while measures including fire extinguisher, fire assembly point and fire alarm
were poorly provided. Other risk factors identified include: absence of CCTV,
lack of weapon detector and poor access control. It is evident that students
demonstrate a high level of dissatisfaction with the provision and performance
level of security and fire safety measures at their residence.
Keywords: Evaluation Facilities Safety Security Student housing
1 Introduction
The university education boosts world development, hence, enriches people intellectual
competence and stimulate knowledge development among young and older genera-
tions. [12] described tertiary institutions as a social system that has both input and
output cycle, the inputs of schools are comprised of human, facilities, financial and
material resources. All of these inputs are transformed to produce the desired results. In
consequence, tertiary education brings positive changes to the social and economic
development of any nation [6].
Generally, facilities that are required in universities may differ from one institution
to another depending on the nature of academic activities and population of students

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_8
72 S. Adisa et al.
[11, 13]. Some of the physical facilities required in universities include lecture theaters,
administrative buildings, laboratories, library, student housing, offices, sport fields,
roads, furniture and general infrastructure [16, 19]. [19] commented that a sustainable
student housing can be regarded as an integral component of facilities provided at any
tertiary institutions with the aim of assisting students to have a quick access to learning
facilities and lecture venues. As a matter of fact, SHFs play a crucial support role
towards a quality higher education and as well provides a fulfilling living experience
for the students.
[3] described SHFs as a unit of an en suite single room or multiple single rooms in a
shared apartment, where amenities are also shared among room and flat mates which
are often located on the campus or off campus. Additionally, [11] acknowledged the
important of SHFs in any tertiary institutions as such facilities are designed to meet the
needs of present students without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. [1, 6, 18] elaborated on the contribution of SHFs on student
academic achievement as it provides students with a sense of home away from home
and influences a desirable educational outcome.
However, in recent years, safety and security have become a major challenge in
SHFs globally. This has been a topic of interest among researchers and universities in
SA [9]. Despite a national call for the provision of accessible, decent, safe and aca-
demically conducive student accommodation, safety and security in student housing
facilities in South Africa still remains a serious challenge [4]. [7] explained that the
lapses in the issue of safety and security in the management of student housing in South
Africa has led to; increase number of murder cases in the student housing, fire out-
break, accident report, theft, poor lighting condition at night, sexual harassment and
assaults in the university SHFs.
Although quite a number of studies on SHFs in the broader scope has been con-
ducted [3, 6, 13, 18, 19], studies which primarily focuses on the evaluation of safety
and security measures in a SHFs from the perspective of students is quite lacking.
Thus, the aim of the paper is to evaluate the level of provision of security and fire safety
measures as well as students’ level of satisfaction with the performance/functionality of
those measures in an on-campus SHFs.
2 Safety and Security Measures in Student Housing Facilities
Safety and security have been a critical challenge in the students housing facilities in
both on-campus and off campus residences nationwide [6, 14]. Studies show that safety
and security is not giving adequate attention in South Africa student housing. [20]
argue that situation has arisen in tertiary institutions in SA, where facilities managers,
university health and safety unit, hostel managers and institution management ignore
the role of safety and security in the management of institution infrastructure such as
student housing.
[17] stressed that one of the few studies investigating safety and security in South
Africa on-campus SHF demonstrates that students feel unsafe at their respective
institutions with several incidences of crime and injuries. [10] revealed another security
gap/lapses in the management of SHF in South Africa tertiary institutions owing to
Evaluation of Safety and Security Measures 73
another incident that took place on 1st of May, 2018 at a particular university in Durban
a coastal city in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa where a first year Quantity
Surveying student was murdered in an undergraduate residence. [8] further revealed
that South Africa also has the highest level of recorded robbery with 149.4 incidents
recorded per 100,000 of the population both in the campus residence and off campus
accommodation.
Similarly, a study conducted by [17] identified certain security and safety risk
factors in the SHFs in South Africa tertiary institutions such as lack of CCTV, poor
access control, absence of burglar bars on the doors, inadequate lighting at night,
absence of weapon detector, lack of security patrol around the hostel, absence of
emergency help line, lack of written policy prohibiting vandalism, faulty fire alarm,
absence of smoke detector, inadequate fire assembly point, inadequate fire hydrants,
insufficient fire extinguisher, leaking showers, absence of signage, inadequate emer-
gency exit and lack of water sprinkler system.
According to [6] inadequate provision of fire safety measures in the SHF is a major
factor responsible for fire related incidences in the hostels and further stressed that a
SHF is a typical example of buildings that accommodate a large number of occupants
and such facilities are particularly vulnerable because of their high fire load which can
be described as amount of fuel within the building, thus required adequate fire safety
measures. [17] commented that fire and electrocution incidents are key risk factors in
South Africa student housing, with 93 fires incidences recorded in 2009 at educational
institutions nationwide in South Africa with 8% of these fires occurring as a result of
faulty extension cord, open flame and smoking materials such as cigarettes.
The security and fire safety measures included in the questionnaire for this study
are: Security measures such as: CCTV, security alarm, security check point, fencing
around the hostel, smart-card access control, lighting at night, weapon detectors,
security patrol around the hostel, emergency help line, written policy prohibiting
vandalism and notice board. Fire safety measures include: fire alarm, smoke detectors,
evacuation fire drills, water sprinklers, fire hose reels, fire assembly point, fire hydrants,
fire extinguishers, signage and emergency exit.
The National Building Regulation and Building Standards Act No 103 of 1977 of
South Africa highlighted safety measures that must be prioritised in buildings include:
escape door, escape route, feeder route, fire extinguisher, fire hydrant, foam inlet, fire
main, fire pump connection, fire stopping and smoke/heat detector [15].
This is an exploratory study (ongoing research project) that focuses on a post graduate
SHF. The strategy adopted for the study is a survey. Data was collected quantitatively
with the use of questionnaire. A closed-ended questionnaire was structured and
administered to students. The total number of registered students was provided by
residence manager as 75. However, for the purpose of this study, questionnaires were
distributed to the total number of students residing in one on-campus post graduate
residence. Only 31 questionnaires were duly completed by the respondents repre-
senting a response rate of 41.3% of the total population. All questionnaires were
distributed and collected in person.
74 S. Adisa et al.
During the distribution and collection period, the researchers observed and took
note of security and fire safety measures provided in the SHF. A 5-point Likert scale
was used to determine the level of provision of security and fire safety measures and
satisfaction level of students with performance/functionality of those measures pro-
vided in the SHF. The scale reads as follows, 1 = Well provided, 2 = Provided,
3 = Somewhat provided, 4 = Poorly provided, 5 = Not provided and the Unsure
option. Likewise, for the level of satisfaction, 1 = Very satisfied, 2 = Satisfied,
3 = Somewhat satisfied, 4 = Unsatisfied, 5 = Not at all satisfied and the Not applicable
option. The quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSSv25) with the use of descriptive statistic and researchers carried out
observational study to validate the result.

Profile of Respondent. Table 1 indicates that 54.8% (17) of the respondents are
female while 45.2% (14) are male. 51.6% (16) are Masters students and 48.4% (15) are
PhD students. 12.9% (4) of the respondents are Colored, 80.6% (25) are Black and
6.5% (2) represent White. 80% of the questionnaire respondents are South African and
20% are international students. 32.3% (10) of the students responded that they have
been living in the post-graduate hostel for about period of 2years, 12.9% (4) for 4years,
22.6% (7) for 3years, 19.4% (6) for 1year, and 12.9% (4) for the period of 5years.
Table 1. Profile of respondents

Profile of participants N %
Gender
Female 17 54.8
Male 14 45.2
Total 31 100
Level
Masters 16 51.6
PhD 15 48.4
Total 31 100
Race
Colored 4 12.9
Black 25 80.6
White 2 6.5
Total 31 100
Duration of stay
5 yrs 4 12.9
4 yrs 4 12.9
3 yrs 7 22.6
2 yrs 10 32.3
1 yrs 6 19.4
Total 31 100
Provision of Security and Fire Safety Measures in the SHF

Table 2 below presents students’ perceptions of the security measures in the SHF. It is
evident from the percentages recorded that the majority of the respondents are of the
opinion that; CCTV (77.4%), weapon detector (71.0%), fencing around the hostel
(48.4%), emergency help lines (61.3%), security patrol around the hostel (48.4%),
security alarm (45.2%) and emergency protocol poster (41.9%) are the security mea-
sures that are not provided in the selected on-campus post-graduate SHF.
However, no possible explanation can be provided for the few students who indi-
cated that CCTV and Weapon detector was poorly provided as no CCTV and weapon
detector could be found during the observation carried out in the selected post-graduate
SHF. Fencing around the hostel was perceived by the majority of students as not
provided, though as low as 4 respondents (12.9%) indicated that fencing was provided.
However, it was observed that there is a fencing but very low and actually meant for
demarcating campus boundary and not directly erected for the SHF which gives a free
access to both students and complete strangers to the SHF which could be of high risk
to the residents.
The findings also revealed that smart-card access control 15 respondents (48.4%),
security guard on post 12 respondents (38.7%) and security check point 11 respondents
(35.5%) responded that these measures were poorly provided in the SHF. Lighting at
night 14 respondents (45.2%) perceived that it was provided in the SHF. It is quite
surprising that as many as 7 of the respondents indicated that lighting at night was well
provided and 14 students also indicated that it was provided. However, it was observed
that lighting was poorly provided at night as surround and rear side of the hostel was
not well illuminated mostly at night. The remaining security measures ranged from
somewhat provided and poorly provided which is an indication that improvement
should be made in the provision of security measures in the SHF.
Table 2 below also presents the responses from the respondents on the level of
provision of fire safety measures. Smoke detector 11 respondents (35.5%), water
sprinkler system 12 respondents (38.7%), fire assembly point 10 respondents (32.3%)
and evacuation fire drills 10 respondents (32.3%) were ranked by the majority of the
respondents as the most fire safety measures that were not provided. However, it was
discovered during the observation that although there was no fire assembly point within
the selected SHF, there was a nearby fire assembly point within the campus field.
Furthermore, the findings show that fire alarm 10 respondents (32.3%) and fire safety
signage 10 respondents (32.3%) were indicated by the students as fire safety measures
that are poorly provided. While fire extinguisher 14 respondents (45.8%), fire hydrants
13 respondents (41.9%) and fire hose reels 10 respondents (32.3%) were perceived as
fire safety measures that are somewhat provided in the SHF.
It can be deduced from the findings that emergency exit 11 respondents (35.5%)
indicated that it was provided. Observation also revealed that some of these fire safety
measures were faulty and most students do not know how to operate fire extinguisher in
case of minor fire occurrence. More than 70% of the respondents responded in the
range of somewhat provided and poorly provided. Thus, it is evident from the analysis
that improvement is needed in the provision of fire-safety measures in the SHF.
University facilities/maintenance departments should focus their attention on security
and fire-safety measures in the SHFs.
76 S. Adisa et al.
The few studies on SHF safety revealed the lack of such measures in SA institutions,
for example the study of [17] also identified the lack of CCTV, absence of smoke
detector, poor access control, absence of burglar bars on the doors, inadequate lighting
at night, absence of weapon detector, lack of security patrol around the hostel, absence
of emergency help line, lack of written policy prohibiting vandalism, faulty fire alarm,
faulty electrical outlets, inadequate fire assembly point, inadequate fire hydrants,
insufficient fire extinguisher, absence of signage, inadequate emergency exit, and lack
of water sprinkler system were key SHF safety lapses in SA universities.
Table 2. Provision of security and fire safety measures in the SHFs.

Security measures Well Provided Somewhat Poorly Not provided Unsure Total
provided provided provided
N % N % N % N % N % N %
CCTV 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 16.1 24 77.4 2 6.5 31
Weapon detector 0 0 1 3.2 2 6.5 2 6.5 22 71.0 4 12.9 31
Fencing around 0 0 4 12.9 3 9.7 3 9.7 15 48.4 6 19.4 31
hostel
Emergency help 1 3.2 0 0 5 16.1 6 19.4 19 61.3 0 0 31
lines
Security patrol 1 3.2 2 6.5 5 16.1 8 25.8 15 48.4 0 0 31
around the hostel
Security alarm 0 0 4 12.9 6 19.4 6 19.4 14 45.2 1 3.2 31
Emergency protocol 0 0 4 12.9 4 12.9 10 32.3 13 41.9 0 0 31
poster
Policy against 5 16.1 3 9.7 5 16.1 8 25.8 8 25.8 2 6.5 31
vandalism
Smart-card access 0 0 6 19.4 8 25.8 15 48.4 2 6.5 0 0 31
control
Security on post 0 0 8 25.8 9 29.0 12 38.7 1 3.2 1 3.2 31
Security check point 2 6.5 8 25.8 5 16.1 11 35.5 5 16.1 0 0 31
Notice board 4 12.9 8 25.8 6 19.4 6 19.4 5 16.1 2 6.5 31
Safety & security 2 6.5 8 25.8 10 32.3 8 25.8 3 9.7 0 0 31
sign
Lighting at night 7 22.6 14 45.2 3 9.7 4 12.9 3 9.7 0 0 31
Fire safety measures
Smoke detector 0 0 0 0 5 16.1 12 38.7 11 35.5 3 9.7 31
Water sprinkler 0 0 7 22.6 9 29.0 1 3.2 12 38.7 1 3.2 31
Fire assembly point 0 0 6 19.4 7 22.6 5 16.1 10 32.3 3 9.7 31
Evacuation fire 1 3.2 4 12.9 8 25.8 5 16.1 10 32.3 3 9.7 31
drills
Fire alarms 0 0 7 22.6 6 19.4 10 32.3 6 19.4 2 6.5 31
Signage 0 0 6 19.4 8 25.8 10 32.3 4 12.9 3 9.7 31
Electrical outlets & 1 3.2 7 22.6 6 19.4 7 22.6 9 29.0 1 3.2 31
switches
Fire hydrants 0 0 6 19.4 13 41.9 3 9.7 8 25.8 1 3.2 31
Fire hose reels 1 3.2 7 22.6 10 32.3 7 22.6 5 16.1 1 3.2 31
Emergency exit 1 3.2 11 35.5 7 22.6 2 6.5 10 32.3 0 0 31
Fire extinguisher 2 6.5 8 25.8 14 45.8 3 9.7 4 12.9 0 0 31
Students’ Satisfaction Level with Security and Fire Safety Measures in the SHF
This section portrays the extent at which students are satisfied with different security
and fire safety measures in the SHF. Table 3 below, depicts students’ satisfaction level
with the security measures in the SHF. It can be deduced from the percentage obtained
that the majority of the respondents expressed a feeling of dissatisfaction with the
provision/performance of security measures at their residence.
The majority of respondents were either unsatisfied or not at all satisfied with
measures including: weapon detector, CCTV, emergency help line and security patrol
around the hostel. It can be established from the percentage obtained that none of the
security measures actually met the satisfactions of students in terms of their perfor-
mances except for lighting at night where 10 respondents (33.3%) students expressed a
feeling of satisfaction and 7 respondents (23.3%) revealed that they are somewhat
satisfied. At least more than 75% of the respondents indicated that they are unsatisfied
with the security measures at their residence especially with CCTV, weapon detector,
access control to the hostel, fencing around the hostel, emergency help lines and
security alarm.
It could be assumed from the percentage in the table that notice board and lighting
condition at night fell within the expectations of students as more than 60% of the
student’s responses fell within very satisfied, satisfied and somewhat satisfied which
indicate a feeling of satisfaction.
Furthermore, from Table 3 below, the response obtained indicates that electrical
outlets and emergency exit are the two fire safety measures that actually met the
satisfaction of the students in the SHF. According to the percentage of responses for
electrical outlets which range from 15 respondents (48.4%) who responded with sat-
isfied and somewhat satisfied and emergency exit 18 respondents (58.6%) responded
with satisfied and somewhat satisfied respectively which indicate a level of satisfaction.
Moreover, it is evident from the percentages recorded that the majority of the
respondents are of the opinion that smoke detector 15 respondents (48.4%), fire alarm
10 respondents (33.3%) and signage 10 respondents (33.3%) were fire safety measures
which fell within not at all satisfied. The majority of the percentage obtained for the
other fire safety measures such as: water sprinkler system, fire assembly point, evac-
uation fire drill, fire hydrant and fire hose reels fell within somewhat satisfied and
unsatisfied respectively. Students demonstrate a high level of dissatisfaction with fire
safety measures provided in the SHF, only with exception of fire extinguisher where
there is a dispersion of data around the mean. It is evident from the responses that less
than 30% of the total respondents are satisfied with fire safety measures at their resi-
dence and more than 70% are unsatisfied.
Studies on safety, security and sustainable SHFs by [2, 5, 6, 17] all support that
safety and security measures are crucial to occupants and often influences students’
choice of tertiary institution which is an important and first factor that contributes to
students’ satisfaction. In addition, students generally expressed dissatisfaction with
their SHFs if safety and security measures are lacking or not adequately provided as
learning and peaceful living experience can only take place in a safe and conducive
living environment [19].
78 S. Adisa et al.
Table 3. Students’ satisfaction level with security and fire safety measures in the SHF.
Security Very Satisfied Somewhat Unsatisfied Not at all Not Total
measures satisfied satisfied satisfied applicable
N % N % N % N % N % N %
Weapon 0 0 0 0 1 3.3 12 38.7 15 48.4 2 6.7 31
detector
CCTV 1 3.3 0 0 2 6.7 10 33.3 16 53.3 1 3.3 31
Emergency help 0 0 2 6.7 2 6.7 13 43.3 13 43.3 0 0 31
lines
Security patrol 1 3.3 0 0 2 6.7 15 50.0 8 26.7 1 3.3 31
around the
hostel
Fencing around 1 3.3 4 13.3 4 13.3 8 26.7 11 36.7 2 6.7 31
hostel
Security check 1 3.3 1 3.3 9 30.0 8 26.7 11 36.7 0 0 31
point
Security alarm 2 6.7 3 10.0 4 13.3 11 36.7 10 33.3 0 0 31
Emergency 1 3.3 5 16.7 3 10.0 13 43.3 7 23.3 1 3.3 31
protocol poster
Access control 1 3.3 2 6.7 11 36.7 8 26.7 8 26.7 0 0 31
Policy against 1 3.3 5 16.7 6 20.0 12 40.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 31
vandalism
Security signs 3 10.0 6 20.0 7 23.3 7 23.3 7 23.3 0 0 31
Notice board 3 10.0 5 16.7 9 30.0 9 30.0 3 10.0 1 3.3 31
Lighting at night 5 16.7 10 33.3 7 23.3 5 16.7 3 10.0 0 0 31
Fire safety measures
Smoke detectors 1 3.3 2 6.7 4 13.3 7 23.3 15 48.4 1 3.3 31
Water sprinklers 1 3.3 7 23.3 7 23.3 8 26.7 3 10.0 4 13.3 31
Evacuation fire 4 13.3 2 6.7 8 26.7 8 26.7 6 20.0 2 6.7 31
drill
Fire assembly 1 3.3 2 6.7 9 30.0 9 30.0 6 20.0 3 10.0 31
point
Fire alarms 2 6.7 4 13.3 5 16.7 8 26.7 10 33.3 1 3.3 31
Signage 1 3.3 4 13.3 6 20.0 7 23.3 10 33.3 2 6.7 31
Electrical outlets 1 3.3 10 33.3 5 16.7 4 13.3 8 26.7 2 6.7 31
& switches
Fire hydrants 1 3.3 5 16.7 9 30.0 4 13.3 8 26.7 3 10.0 31
Fire hose reels 1 3.3 5 16.7 9 30.0 7 23.3 6 20.0 2 6.7 31
Emergency exit 1 3.3 9 30.0 9 30.0 5 16.7 3 10.0 3 10.0 31
Fire 4 13.3 6 20.0 11 36.7 3 10.0 5 16.7 1 3.3 31
extinguishers
Unfortunately, in most SHF satisfaction studies, provision of space and amenities

was their main research focus but the few conducted such as student satisfaction in
university residence hall by [5] and performance evaluation of sustainable student
housing by [6] revealed that students feel satisfied when security and fire- safety
measures are adequately provided with other residential amenities especially when they
are in a good working condition. On the other hand, students get disappointed (dis-
satisfied) if these measures are not well provided and do not perform to their
expectation.
Therefore, it is paramount that university health and safety unit, facility managers,
university maintenance department and hostel managers make every possible effort to
ensure that security and safety measures are prioritised in the SHFs by making nec-
essary and adequate provision for these safety measures so as to eradicate security and
safety gap/lapses in the SHF. Furthermore, universities ought to accept that, safety and
security of student, staff and visitors to the campus is their legal obligation therefore it
becomes a crucial aspect of management.
5 Conclusion
Safety, security and environment are integral component of facility management e.g.
SHFs. However, studies show that it has been utterly neglected and seen as a separate
function by facility managers as they only focus on maintenance activities which has
brought huge safety problems in many residential buildings most especially SHFs in
South Africa.
SHFs are one of the most important facilities to students and is an essential facility
in the university setting. Thus, it becomes important that safety and security measures
are well provided, and ensured they are in good working condition in order to ensure
that students are safe and secured at their various residences which would consequently
increase their satisfaction level and improve their learning experience. Therefore, the
study sort to evaluate safety and security measures on sustainable student housing
facilities by investigate students’ perceptions about the level of provision of security
and fire-safety measures required in an on campus SHF.
It is evident, that students have different opinion and perception about the level of
provision of those measures and their satisfaction level varies. The majority of security
and fire-safety measures were ranked as not provided by the respondents and some of
these measures are not functioning well as established from the observation. Very few
safety measures were perceived to be well provided such as fire extinguishers.
6 Limitation
Data used for this study was obtained from one post-graduate SHF of a University in
the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Thus, this may reduce the representation of
other SHFs in the country.
7 Recommendation
SHFs should be well provided with security and fire safety measures such as CCTV,
weapon detector, security alarm, access control with smart-card, security personnel
should be on post regularly, written policy prohibiting vandalism, security patrol
around the hostel, moderately high fencing, adequate lighting at night, smoke detector,
water sprinkler system, fire safety alarm and emergency exit should be well provided.
A regular safety inspection should be carried out in the SHFs by a competent health and
safety officer/facilities manager and a written report should be prepared based on the his
or findings for an immediate action as maintenance lapses may result in safety risk.
80 S. Adisa et al.
Acknowledgement. This work is based on the research supported wholly by the National
Research Foundation of South Africa (Grant Numbers: 116844).
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Work-Life Balance Practices
in the Construction Industry of Swaziland
Bhekinkosi Dlamini, Olalekan Shamsideen Oshodi(&),

Clinton Aigbavboa, and Wellington Didibhuku Thwala
SARChl in Sustainable Construction Management and Leadership in the Built

Environment, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
os.oshodi@gmail.com
Abstract. The construction sector plays a significant role in the economy

through the provision of constructed space for productive activities. The process
of executing projects in the construction sector is labor intensive and often
workers need to work for long hours. Evidence found in literature shows that
family conflict, emotional exhaustion and job dissatisfaction are prevalent in the
construction sector. These problems have negative impact on organization and
project performance. Previous studies have shown that the adoption work-life
balance practices lead to significant improvements in organizational perfor-
mance. The purpose of this investigation is to assess the level of adoption of
work-life balance practices among construction firms in Swaziland. Question-
naire survey approach was utilized in the current study. It was revealed that a
large majority of the respondents are aware of work-life balance practices. Also,
leave (causal, parental [paternity/maternity], and study) and wellness programs
are the most commonly used work-life practices. However, work from home and
part-time work are the least used. The findings of this study shed more light on
the current work-balance practices in the construction sector of Swaziland.
Further research is required to understand the link between work-life balance
and job satisfaction.
Keywords: Systems engineering construction industry Job performance

Interpersonal relationship Turnover intention Work-life balance practices
1 Introduction
The construction industry is faced with several challenges, which affects its perfor-
mance. Shortage of workers, ageing construction workforce, poor project performance
and low productivity are examples of the problems facing the construction sector [1–3].
Inefficient use of scarce resources play a major role in poor performance of construction
projects. This outcome is due to the vast amount of financial resources used in
procuring the products of the construction sector. To improve the performance of the
construction sector, stakeholders (academics and practitioners) have recommended the
adoption and utilization of numerous innovative processes, practices and techniques.
Work-life balance is an example of such practices.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_9
Work-Life Balance Practices in the Construction Industry of Swaziland 83
Work-life balance practices has received considerable attention from researchers in

the academic field of management. A review of work-life balance literature shows that
its impacts on work outcomes seem to vary across various sectors. Bambra et al. [4]
found that the use of compressed working week does not always lead to improvements
in the health of shift workers. In contrast, Bradley et al. [5] found that work-life balance
practices has significant influence on job satisfaction among workers in the construc-
tion industry. The differences in the findings of these studies suggest that the impact of
work-life balance could vary due to differences in work environment, job schedules and
nature of the work. Despite these variances, the adoption of work-life balance practices
by construction benefits could yield beneficial outcomes.
In the field of construction management, a number of scholars have focused on
work-life balance practices. Studies have explored work-life balance practices in the
Australia [7] and US [8]. However, little is known about work-life balance practices in
the construction sector of countries in the global south. The aim of this study is to
examine the level of implementation of work-life balance practices in the construction
industry of Swaziland. To achieve this aim two objectives were investigated: (i) to
assess the level of adoption of work-life balance among construction firms in Swazi-
land, and (ii) to examine if the implementation of work-life balance practices has an
impact on job performance, quality of interpersonal relationship among employees and
job turnover.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Work-Life Balance: Understanding the Terminology
Work-life balance practices refer to various interventions targeted at creating a healthy
equilibrium between personal life and job tasks [8]. Greenhaus et al. [9] view work-life
balance as a situation when employees can achieve the right balance between work and
personal responsibilities. Research has shown that achieving this balance could lead to
higher quality of life and job satisfaction and reduction in employee turnover [5, 9, 10].
Due to the long work-hours associated with jobs in the construction sector [5], the
utilisation of work-life balance practices can lead to improved organisational outcomes.
2.2 Work-Life Balance Practices

A considerable amount of literature has been published on work-life balance practices.
A review of previous research shows that numerous work-life practices are utilised in
various companies [11, 12]. Bardoel et al. [11] identified 36 types of work-life balance
practices. In contrast, [12] identified 13 types of work-life practices implemented by
various organisations. Despite the existence of various approaches used to classify
work-life practices, there is no generally accepted approach.
The approaches used to classify work-life balance practices are numerous. Bardoel
et al. [11] classified work-balance practices into five groups, namely defendant benefits,
flexible working conditions, leave options, information and personnel policies and
organisational cultural issues. Cegarra-Leiva et al. [13] categorised work-life balances
84 B. Dlamini et al.
into four groups, namely flexible work practices, work leave, spatial flexibility and
work-life balance information. Although work-balance practices were labelled using
different nomenclature, research has shown that its adoption is beneficial to business
organisations.
Literature shows that the use of work-life balance practices yields lot of benefits to
employees, organisations and the society. The tangible benefits identified include
reduction in attrition, lower stress levels, improved job satisfaction, career advance-
ment, higher levels of productivity, better quality of life, increased commitment among
employees [6, 10, 14–16]. Improvement in employees participation in family activities
is among the advantages of using work-life balance practices [6]. Based on the findings
emanating from literature, it is evident that the implementation of work-life balance
practices in companies would improve organizational performance. Based on this
evidence, the current study seeks to assess the extent of implementation of work-life
balance practices among construction firms operating in Swaziland.
3 Research Method
To date various research methods have been developed and used to measure the extent
of usage of work-life balance practices in different companies. Although each research
method has its advantages and drawbacks, questionnaire survey remain as an appro-
priate method for collection of data from a large number of respondents [17]. These
criteria serve a justification for using questionnaire survey in the current study. The
questionnaire was used to collect data relating to the extent of usage of work-life
balance practices in construction firms operating within Swaziland.
Based on the information available on the Construction Industry Council of
Swaziland (http://www.cic.co.sz/), 566 contractors are registered in South Africa.
Questionnaires were administered to middle management employees of construction
firms operating in Swaziland between September and October 2018. The question-
naires were designed with an objective of assessing the extent of adoption of work-life
practices in the construction firms. The respondents were assured of the anonymity and
confidentiality of their response to the survey instrument. In addition, the aim of the
study was explained to the study’s respondents. Convenience sampling was utilized.
Thus, the respondent firms were drawn from the industry contact of the first author.
Respondents were asked to rate the extent of adoption of work life practice on a 5-
point Likert scale ranging from “1” (“not at all”) to “5” (“to a large extent”). Work-life
balance practices have been identified in several previous studies [11, 15]. The
respondents were asked about the level of adoption of 19 work-life balance practices.
Respondents were asked questions about the background information and firm char-
acteristics. Also, responses were sought relating to the respondents perception on the
impact of work-life balance practice on intention to quit their jobs. Five point Likert
scale ranging from “1” (“strongly disagree”) to “5” (“strongly agree”) was used to rate
the intention to quit.
Of the 100 questionnaires sent, the first author collected 58 filled questionnaires.
From the 58 questionnaires, 54 were valid for further analysis. These four questionnaires
were removed due to missing data (i.e. the respondents did not provide responses to
some questions). This yields a response rate of 54%. The overall response is higher than
those obtained in similar previous studies [12, 18]. The response rate in the previous
studies on work-life balance practices were below 40%. Thus, it is considered that the
response rate for the current study is satisfactory. In addition, the study reported in this
paper forms part of a final year research project for an undergraduate degree. The first
author would extend the study to a large population in the future. The data collected
from the survey was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
4 Results
4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents

In terms of gender, 66.7% of respondents were males and 33.3% were females. Over
half (51.9%) of respondents were either married or living with a partner. Regarding the
years of working experience, a large majority (63%) of respondents had less than 10
years of experience in the construction section and 9.3% had more than 20 years of
experience. The average work hours per day was also measure. 31.5% of respondents
indicated that they worked for more than 8 h per day.
4.2 Reliability Analysis

The reliability of the questionnaire used in the current study was assessed by estimating
internal consistency using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha. This coefficient ranges between
zero and one, and a value close to one signifies greater reliability [18]. According to
Nunnally [19], the value of Cronbach alpha coefficient should not be less than 0.7. The
Cronbach alpha coefficient was found to be 0.871 and this indicates that the scales are
reliable.
4.3 Work-Life Balance Practices

Table 1 shows descriptive statistics relating to the extent of utilisation of work-life
balance practices among construction firms operating in Swaziland. Mean score for
each practice indicates the level of adoption in the organisations that participated in the
survey. Parental leave received the highest mean score of 4.24.
This indicates that parental leave is the most commonly adopted work-life balance
practice among construction firms operating in Swaziland. In addition, maternity,
health and wellness program, study leave and organisational understanding and support
were ranked second, third, fourth and fifth with corresponding, mean scores of 4.04,
3.91, 3.85 and 3.52, respectively. In contrast, compressed week, work from home and
part-time work received the lowest rank, which indicate low level of adoption among
Swaziland’s construction firms.
Table 1. Work-life balance practices adopted by construction firms

Work-life balance practices Mean Std. deviation Rank
Parental leave or leave for other family emergencies 4.24 0.989 1
Maternity leave 4.04 1.303 2
Health and wellness program 3.91 1.336 3
Study leave 3.85 1.235 4
Organisational understanding and support 3.52 1.177 5
Job share 3.28 1.204 6
Bereavement leave 3.17 1.514 7
48/52 working year (annual hours) 3.06 1.338 8
Flexible starting and finishing times 3.04 1.453 9
Relocation assistance 2.89 1.61 10
Telecommuting 2.69 1.515 11
Shorter workdays for parents 2.65 1.556 12
Use flex days or rostered days off as half days 2.56 1.396 13
Career break 2.35 1.43 14
Childcare arrangements/benefits (crèche) 2.28 1.524 15
Non-paid extra holidays 2.24 1.516 16
Compressed week 2.2 1.25 17
Work from home on an ad hoc basis 2.19 1.402 18
Part-time work 2.17 1.397 19
4.4 Relationship Between Variables

In the current study, Spearman Rank Order correlation was used to evaluate the
strength of relationship among study’s variables. Table 2 shows the correlation
between the top five work-life balance practices, job performance, quality of inter-
personal relationship among employees and job turnover.
Table 2. Bivariate correlation between work-life balance practices and some variables
Job Interpersonal Turnover
performance relationship intention
Parental leave 0.113 0.194 −0.08
Maternity leave 0.223 0.143 −0.101
Health and wellness 0.135 0.186 −0.081
program
Study leave 0.089 −0.008 −0.024
Organisational support 0.225 0.194 −0.03
As mentioned in Pallant [18], the size of sample affects the statistical significance of
the results of a survey. It was suggested that the purpose of correlation is to evaluate the
strength of a relationship and amount of shared variance. The correlation between
work-balance practices and turnover intention was very small and negative. This
finding indicates that job turnover decreased with the adoption of work-life balance
practices. However, the value of the correlation is very small and it is difficult to
determine the direction of causality between the variables. Also, a weak positive
relationship exist among work-life balance practices, interpersonal relationship and job
performance. Except for the relationship between study leave and interpersonal rela-
tionship among workers, which is negative. This result indicates that increase in the
level of adoption of work-life balance practices is associated within an increase in job
performance and quality of interpersonal relationship among employees. The strongest
of these relationships is between organisational support and job performance.
Discussion of Results
Very little was found in literature on work-life balance practices in the construction
industry in developing countries. The current study provide insights into the extent of
usage of work-life balance practices among construction firms operating in Swaziland.
The current study found that parental leave, maternity leave and wellness program are
ranked as the most commonly implemented work-life balance practice in Swaziland’s
construction companies. Also, the implementation of work-life balance practices
contributes to improvement in job performance and interpersonal relationship. How-
ever, it reduces the employees turn-over intentions. Surprisingly, it was found that an
increase in the use of study leave has a negative relationship with interpersonal rela-
tionship. This finding may be due to unhealthy competition among employees.
The findings emanating from the current survey do not support those reported in
previous research [12, 14]. Study leave and part-time are the most predominantly used
work-life balance practices among companies operating in Australia [12]. In addition,
European business organisations have preference for implementing flextime and work
from home [14]. There are several possible explanations for this observed variance.
First, the study area for each research was different. Second, the survey instrument in
this study was administered to respondents drawn from the construction sector. In
contrast, the sample in the previous studies were selected from various organisations in
Australia [12] and Europe [14]. Research has shown that the usage of work-life balance
practices lead to an increase in the number of females working in an industry [14].
Hence, it is possible to hypothesis that the low level of adoption of work-life practices
among construction companies may be responsible for the male dominance in the sector.
The relationship among study’s variables, i.e. turnover intention, job performance,
interpersonal relationship and work-life balance practices, was assessed. Correlation
was used to address the second objective of this study and this finding was compared
with those presented in previous research. In agreement with the present study, pre-
vious studies [22, 24], have shown that reduction in employee turnover is linked to the
use of work-life balance practices. Previous research have shown that less work-life
conflict lead to improve job performance and the quality of interpersonal relationships
[20–22]. However, it must be noted that these results differ from those described
previously in literature. For example, a review of existing knowledge indicates the need
for more research into the effect of work-life balance on performance [23]. On the
overall, the use of work-life balance practices has been responsible for improved
outcomes in terms of job satisfaction, organisational commitment and quality of life,
among others [6, 24, 25]. This finding, while preliminary, suggests that construction
firms need to adopt the use of work-life balance practices in their organisations.
5 Conclusion
The current study set out to evaluate the work-life balance practices among con-
struction companies operating within Swaziland. This study has shown that parental
leave and maternity leave are the prevalent work-life practices used by construction
firms in Swaziland. Also, it was found that the use of work-life balance practices results
in reduced job turnover, increased job performance and improvements in the inter-
personal relationship among employees. Based on the results of this current study, it is
suggested that construction companies need to implement work-life balance practice to
improve the overall performance of their business operations.
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Apprenticeship: A Narrative Review of Factors
Influencing Career Choice of Young People
Olalekan Shamsideen Oshodi1(&), Clinton Aigbavboa1,

Oluwayomi Kayode Babatunde2, and Bamidele Temitope Arijeloye3
1
SARChl in Sustainable Construction Management and Leadership in the Built
os.oshodi@gmail.com, ciagbavboa@uj.ac.za
2
School of Construction Economics and Management,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
oluwayomi.babatunde@wits.ac.za
3
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
btarijeloye@futa.edu.ng
Abstract. The ageing workforce is a significant problem affecting the con-

struction sector in many countries. The increase in the average age of workers
reduces the predictability of the outcome of construction projects. Existing lit-
erature suggests that ageing construction workforce has a significant negative
impact on labor productivity and safety at construction sites and could lead to
poor outcomes of construction projects. A substantial body of knowledge indi-
cates that young people need to be attracted to the construction sector as an
effective replacement of its ageing workforce. However, a comprehensive review
of the scientific literature focused on this problem is lacking. A narrative liter-
ature review was conducted to examine the current state of knowledge on factors
influencing career choice of young people. The findings indicate that family,
salary and quality of career advice are the most common factors influencing
career choice among young people. The articles selected for review were those
published in academic journals. Based on the review, the directions for future
research were proposed.
Keywords: Apprentice Career choice Construction industry Review

Young adults
1 Introduction
The construction sector is one of the main drivers of economic growth in several
countries. Over the years, research has shown that economic growth and the volume of
activities in the construction sector are positively related [1, 2]. Despite the successes
recorded in the construction sector, productivity is still a concern to researchers and
construction professionals. Previous studies have shown that productivity is affected by
weather, project characteristics, unit weight of materials, workers benefits, and age of
construction workers, among others [3–5]. The decline in the productivity level has a

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_10
Apprenticeship: A Narrative Review of Factors Influencing Career Choice 91
negative impact on the outcome of construction projects. There is an obvious need to

address factors affecting productivity in the construction sector.
Ageing is one of the main factors influencing labour productivity in the con-
struction sector. The construction workforce in Hong Kong is constituted with about
43% of workers who are above 50 years of age [6]. Similarly, McNair and Flynn [7]
found that 40% of construction workers in the UK are above 45 years of age. The
disadvantage of utilizing ageing workforce in construction projects include: an increase
in the number of site accidents, low labour productivity and a rise in labour cost are risk
associated with ageing workforce [8–10]. These risk factors lead to uncertainties in
project cost and schedules. Given the concerns about ageing workforce, it has become
imperative to develop strategies for recruiting young people to the sector and this might
improve the outcomes of construction projects.
Several apprenticeship programs are been implemented in several countries across
the globe. Enhanced Construction Manpower Training Scheme (ECMTS) of Hong
Kong and WorldSkills. South Africa are typical examples of apprenticeship programs
for the construction sector [11]. Despite the existence of these apprenticeship programs,
a decrease in the average age of the construction workforce has not yet been achieved. In
the existing literature, review studies focused on different problems within the field of
construction management is acknowledged. For example, Darko et al. [3] summarized
studies on green buildings. However, a review study focused on factors influencing
career choices among young people is lacking. Thus, the current study addresses this
gap in current knowledge. The purpose of this study is to carry-out a narrative review of
studies on factors influencing career choice of young people. The study would make the
following contributions to literature and practice: (i) identify the factors influencing
career decisions; (ii) based on the current literature directions for future research were
suggested; and (iii) a concise report on studies focused factor influencing career deci-
sions would aid the development of strategies targeted at attracting young individuals to
the construction sector.
2 Research Method
The use of a literature review is a well-established approach in the field of construction

management. Reviews have been conducted to understand the drivers of green building
[13], factors influencing labour productivity [5], and methods for forecasting man-
power demand [14], among others. The review methods used in previous studies
include systematic review, critical review and narrative review. A narrative review was
used to describe the state of knowledge relating to a topic. According to Cronin et al.
[15], narrative reviews are useful for providing an evidence-based solution to practice
problems. In the current study, the narrative review approach was used to examine the
state of knowledge relating to factors influencing career choices among young people.
The SCOPUS database was used for the search. SCOPUS database was selected
due to the extensive number of construction journals indexed on the databases and its
adoption by similar previous studies [16], [17]. The search was conducted using the
three most appropriate keywords; (i) career choice; (ii) career selection and (iii) career
decision. The search was limited to: (i) articles published in the English language;
92 O. S. Oshodi et al.
(ii) articles published in journals; (iii) full-text availability; and (iii) focus (i.e. young
people and/or construction).
The search for the study was carried out in three distinct stages namely, database
search, filtering, and qualitative analysis. Upon completion of the initial search on the
SCOPUS database, 101 papers were found. The search results were filtered to remove
irrelevant papers (i.e. studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria). Also, articles
categorised as “book reviews”, “book chapter”, “book”, “editorial”, “editor’s notes”,
“letter to the editor” and other papers not based on empirical work were excluded. Care
was also taken to ensure that duplicates were removed. At the end of the search and
screening process, 16 relevant articles were subjected to further analysis.
3 Results
A narrative review was carried out to identify empirical evidence relating to the factors
influencing career choices among young people. The findings of this study are based on
a review of 16 empirical studies published between 1967 and 2017 (Table 1). An
overview of the selected studies is presented in Table 1. The study participants are
drawn from 5 countries, including 12 (75%) from the USA and UK. It is worth noting
that 2 previous studies have focused on the South African context. The 16 selected
studies emanated from research conducted in several countries across the globe (n = 9
USA; n = 4 Europe; 1 = Asia; 2 = Africa). The spread of the selected studies
demonstrates the global relevance of the topic. The sample for most of the studies was
drawn from a population of students, such as undergraduate and high school students.
Table 1. Summary of selected studies

S/N Author(s) Country Study participants
1 Swinhoe (1967) United Kingdom Students
2 Friedman (1977) United States of America Students
3 Haworth et al. (1986) United Kingdom Students
4 Emmett and Minor (1993) United States of America Students
5 Federle et al. (1993) United States of America Construction workers
6 Bronzini et al. (1995) United States of America Mixed
7 Borg (1996) Malta Students
8 Wilkinson (1996) United Kingdom Students
9 Greene and Stitt-Gohdes (1997) United States of America Tradespeople
10 Constantine et al. (2005) United States of America Students
11 Singaravelu et al. (2005) United States of America Students
12 Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa (2006) South Africa Students
13 Chileshe and Haupt (2010) South Africa Students
14 Ling and Ho (2012) Singapore Students
15 Escamilla et al. (2016) United States of America Students
16 Bigelow et al. (2017) United States of America Tradespeople
Note: Mixed = students, faculty and construction professionals
3.1 Factors Influencing Career Choices of Young People

The main objective of the study is to understand the factors influencing career choice
among young people. Thirty factors were identified from sixteen previous studies. The
factors were identified and summarized in Table 2. It is evident that the factors
influencing career choice of young people are numerous. An understanding of these
factors would facilitate the development of strategies for attracting young people to
apprenticeship training programs for craftspeople in the construction industry.
Table 2. Factors influencing career decisions

Label Factor References
1 Family influence [3–5, 7, 10–13, 15, 16]
2 Salary upon graduation [1, 5–8, 11, 13, 15, 16]
3 School (career advice from teachers) [3, 5, 7, 11–13, 15, 16]
4 Personal interest and ability [1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14]
5 Job prospects (career opportunities) [1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 13, 16]
6 Gender (male dominance) [2, 8–10, 14, 15]
7 Industry’s image (media) [2, 5, 13, 14, 16]
8 Peers [3, 7, 11–13]
9 Working conditions (dangerous and dirty) [1, 5, 13–15]
10 Training opportunities [7, 8, 13, 16]
11 Challenges associated with work [4, 6–8]
12 Job autonomy [1, 4, 7, 9]
13 Career advancement opportunities [5, 8, 13]
14 Opportunity to do varied work [1, 6, 8]
15 Role model within the profession [2, 3, 9]
16 Family friendly nature of work [8, 14]
17 Opportunity to help others [1, 7]
18 Opportunity to work on new projects/network [1, 8]
19 Perceived lack of professionalism [14, 15]
20 Race discrimination [10, 15]
21 Safety concerns [1, 14]
22 Travel associated with work [1, 8]
23 Academic performance [12]
24 Adversarial relationship within the sector [5]
25 Benefits (car) [8]
26 Choice of subjects taken at school [12]
27 Finance (Government/Sponsors) [11]
28 No other work opportunities [16]
29 Pension plan [8]
30 Teachers [11]
A total of 30 factors influencing career choice was identified. These factors were
categorised into manageable grouping. Based on the factors identified in the current
study, the factors were classified into five groups namely, ‘family and friends’, ‘job and
industry characteristics’, ‘benefits and job opportunities’, ‘school’, and ‘personal’. The
findings presented in Table 2 shows that the most frequently reported factors are family
influence, salary upon graduation, school, personal interest and job prospects (i.e. the
availability of jobs at the completion of studies). In this study, the factors were clas-
sified into these groupings based on (1) similarities between factors and previous
research. For example, Greene and Stitt-Gohdes [18] classified factors into personal
and external factor grouping.
3.2 Family and Friends Factor Grouping

The main reasons influencing the career choice of young people are family and peers.
The factors classified in this group include family influence (F1), peers (F8), availability
of role models within the profession (F15), and family-friendly nature of work (F16).
Out of the 16 selected studies, the family influence was reported in 10 studies. The
influence of parent vary based on the gender and characteristics of student population.
For example, Haworth et al. [19] showed that a females students’ choice of an engi-
neering profession is greatly influenced by their fathers. In addition, the family had a
significant influence on the career choice among non-Asian international students [20].
A close examination of literature seems to suggest that the impact of parents on
career choice tend to vary based on family income. Chileshe and Haupt [21] found that
the impact of family on career choice is insignificant among South African students. In
contrast, [22] reported that family members influenced career choice among South
African students. The characteristics of the respondents are the main difference between
these two studies carried out in South Africa. The respondents for Chileshe and Haupt
[21] were drawn from High School students in Western Cape, and [22] selected stu-
dents from a disadvantaged segment of the population. This suggests that the economic
status of parents could be the main reason for the contrasting findings.
3.3 Job and Industry Characteristics Factor Grouping

The job and industry characteristics factor grouping encompasses factors such as gender
(F6), industry’s image (F7), working conditions (F9), training opportunities (F10),
challenges associated with work (F11), job autonomy (F12), career advancement
opportunities (F13), opportunity to do varied work (F14), opportunity to help others
(F17), opportunity to work on new projects/network (F18), perceived lack of profes-
sionalism (F19), race discrimination (F20), safety concerns (F21), and travel associated
with work (F22). Of all the factors reported within this group, gender discrimination is
the most commonly identified factor (This factor was found in 6 of the 16 relevant
studies). It is evident that male dominance in the construction sector and gender dis-
crimination is an important factor influencing career decision among young people. In
addition, Berik and Bilginsoy [23] found that gender is one of the main reasons
responsible for apprentice attrition in training programs. Gender remains as an important
factor influencing career decision among young people.
3.4 Relationship Between Variables

The job and industry characteristics factor grouping encompasses factors such as gender
(F6), industry’s image (F7), working conditions (F9), training opportunities (F10),
challenges associated with work (F11), job autonomy (F12), career advancement
opportunities (F13), opportunity to do varied work (F14), opportunity to help others
(F17), opportunity to work on new projects/network (F18), perceived lack of profes-
sionalism (F19), race discrimination (F20), safety concerns (F21), and travel associated
with work (F22). Of all the factors reported within this group, gender discrimination is
the most commonly identified factor. This factor was found in six of the 16 relevant
studies). It is evident that male dominance in the construction sector and gender dis-
crimination is an important factor influencing career decision among young people. In
addition, Berik and Bilginsoy [23] found that gender is one of the main reasons
responsible for apprentice attrition in training programs. Gender remains as an important
factor influencing career decision among young people.
3.5 Benefits and Job Opportunities Factor Grouping

Benefit grouping consists of salary upon graduation (F2), job prospects (F5), benefits
associated with work (F25), no other work opportunities (F28) and pension plan (F29).
This grouping refers to financial benefits, non-financial benefits and job prospects (i.e.
availability of jobs upon graduation). Studies have shown that career decision among
young people is heavily influenced by benefits and its impact vary across gender [24–
27]. For instance, male students tend to be more influenced by salary [18]. The desire to
achieve financial independence and the ease of securing jobs upon graduation signif-
icantly influence career decision among young people.
3.6 School Grouping

The school grouping consists of quality of career advising (F3), choice of subjects
available to students (F26) and teachers (F30). School background has a significant
influence on the career decision among young people. The quality of career advising
received from teachers and guidance counselor influences the career decision among
young people, however, the impact tend to vary across characteristics of respondents.
For example, Chileshe and Haupt [21] found that the career decision among female
students tends to be influenced by teachers and counselors. In contrast, Bojuwoye and
Mbanjwa [22] reported that teachers do not influence career decision. This finding
demonstrated that the quality of career advising influences the choice of career and
subjects taken by students.
3.7 Personal Grouping

According to the finding of this study, personal interest (F4), academic performance
(F23), adversarial relationship (F24) and finance (F26) were categorised into personal
grouping. From the perspective of young people, personal interest is one of the most
common factors influencing career decision among young people.
4 Data Collection Method Utilised in Selected Studies
The data collected methods used in selected studies are numerous. Five data collection
methods were utilised in previous empirical studies. The data collection methods are
questionnaire survey, interview, case study, focus group and mixed. Table 3 provides
information on the data collection methods used in the relevant studies. It was found
that the questionnaire survey is the most frequently utilized method and it accounts for
62.5% of the total number of published studies. The findings agree with those reported
in previous studies, which have shown preference for the questionnaire [28].
Table 3. Data collection methods used in selected studies

Data collection methods Number of papers Percentage
Questionnaire survey 10 62.50%
Interview 3 18.75%
Case study 1 6.25%
Focus group 1 6.25%
Mixed 1 6.25%
5 Discussion of Results and Directions for Future Research
A narrative review was carried out to identify the factors influencing career decision
among young people. An understanding of these factors would provide guidance for
attracting young people to the construction sector, especially in blue-collar job posi-
tions. Shortage of construction workers has been linked to ageing construction work-
force. In addition, evidence suggests that uncertain in construction cost is largely due to
the competition to attract workers among employers. The findings of this study reveal
that family, salary upon graduation and school (quality of career advice) are the pre-
dominant factors influencing career decision among young people. In order to increase
the number of young people seeking career opportunities in the construction sector,
there is a need to address these important factors (see Table 2).
Based on the findings from the review, multiple gaps within the current knowledge
are identified. These shortfalls in the current knowledge serve as justification for further
researcher in this area. First, a large number of studies have focused on the developed
countries (i.e. USA and UK). Despite the difficulties experienced in recruiting con-
struction workers in developing countries, there has been no study focused on factors
influencing the career decision of young people. Future studies could focus on coun-
tries in Africa, South America, Asia, and Australia. The process of knowledge creation
can be classified into four phases, namely description, explanation, prediction and
control [29, 30]. Knowledge of factors influencing career decision among young people
is at the description phase. The impact of intervention strategies, for example, parent’s
exposure to career opportunities in the construction, on the career choice of young
people is unknown. The use of a longitudinal approach would provide an opportunity
of identifying effective strategies for attracting young people to the construction sector.
Finally, there has been calls for greater use of qualitative research methods in social
science research [31]. The use of qualitative methods, such as ethnography, would
provide deeper insight on factors influencing career decisions, which may not be,
emerge in quantitative studies.
6 Conclusion
Shortage of construction worker is a major problem affecting the construction sector in

several countries across the globe. The shortage of workers has been largely due to the
unattractiveness of jobs in the sector to young people. This study seeks to provide
information on factors influencing career decisions among young people. The findings
of this study provide relevant stakeholders with information for developing strategies to
attract young people to the construction sector. Sixteen relevant studies were reviewed
and 30 factors influencing career decisions were identified. Furthermore, these factors
were categorised into five groups.
The study revealed that family is the most frequently reported factor influencing
career decisions among young people. The identified factors were classified into five
groups namely, family, industry, benefits, school and personal. The findings of the
current study is a concise report on the factors influencing career decision among
young people. The findings of the current study provide guidance to researchers on the
current state of knowledge in this area and relevant stakeholders could also use this
information to develop strategies for attracting young people to the construction sector.
For example, enlightenment programs on the job opportunities and salary of con-
struction workers could be disseminated through media outlets, such as television and
social media. These programs could be televised during weekends and after office
hours to gain the attention of parents and other family members. Three main gaps in the
current knowledge were identified namely, state of knowledge creation, low usage of
qualitative research methods and study area. Researchers should focus on addressing
the gaps identified in the current knowledge on factors influencing career choice among
young people.
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Relevance of Competencies of Construction
Project Risk Managers to Quantity
Surveying Practice
Edosa Mark Osazuwa1(&) and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke2

1
Department of Quantity Surveying, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
osazuwaedosamark@gmail.com
2
emayok@gmail.com
Abstract. This paper aim to examine the relevance of construction project risk
manager’s competencies to quantity surveying practice in Nigeria and developing
countries with a view to improving the overall performance and competencies of
quantity surveyors in the construction industries. The study adopt a survey design
and construction professionals in Edo State. Nigeria were assessed using conve-
nience sampling with the aid of structure questionnaire. Frequency, percentage,
mean score, sample t-test and factor analysis were used to analyse the data gath-
ered, It was revealed that the knowledge of risk management by construction
professionals and their involvement in risk management program were quite high,
findings reveals that the areas of competencies of project risk managers were
found to be highly relevant to quantity surveying practice. Among these areas,
include the ability to draft contract agreement, effective human resource man-
agement, organization of financial operation, ability to present and write report,
preparation of claims and litigation.
Keywords: Quantity surveyors Construction industry

Competency project risk manager Risk management
1 Introduction
The construction industries are seen as a key driver in the socio economic development
of nations [1]. It contributes between 5 to 10% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in a
country and employ about 10% of a country working population, which is accountable
for half of the gross fixed capital formation [2]. The development of the industry is
therefore the goal of many developing countries in order to stop companies from col-
lapsing. Its development requires knowledge of risk management policies. It has been
establish that at every stage of the construction process from initial investment appraisal,
the built environment is subject to risk for all the parties involved. Project success
requires effective risk management where it identifies risks and create plans to deal with
the threats. Although, very few project risk managers have the competencies to manage
them within their initiatives. Roggema-van Heusden opined that competencies is the
capacity to perform task in a proficient state which involve the success of a certain duty

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_11
Relevance of Competencies of Construction Project Risk Managers 101
or mission in a manner that can be judged by others [3]. Hassal, Dunlop and Lewis
asserted that competent quantity surveyors must have variety of skills and knowledge
that can be used in any kind of situation and establishment [4]. Hore, O’Kelly, and
Scully noted that the provision of advice on risk analysis and management are one of the
functions of a quantity surveyor [5]. This collaborated Dada and Jagboro study that
quantity surveyors in Nigeria construction industry and in developing countries have
over the years gained significant competencies in risk management [6]. Rahman and
Kumaraswamy highlighted that a competent quantity surveyor can effectively carryout
the roles of project risk managers [7]. The study therefore brings to light that the
competencies of project risk manager are not just peculiar to construction project risk
managers but are also very relevant to other construction professionals such as Quantity
surveyors.
2 Literature Review
2.1 The Concept of Competency
Entrepreneurs, administrative practitioners and researchers alike have deliberated the
concept of competencies since the 1960s. However, the rational on competencies
remained undeveloped during the 1970s and early 1980s, the reason being that man-
agement consultants and scholars paid more attention to other methods of strategy [8].
In the late 1990 s, the idea of competence had gained greater weight and was widely
used by businesses. Rankin reported that a significant number of companies in the UK
are using competencies to increase individual and commercial performance [9]. Baker,
Mapes, New, and Szwejczewski observed that companies were starting to look into
staffs’ competencies when they recognised that providing a structure, which brings
greater clarity to the idea of competence, operation and technology management in the
industry in general, would lead to competitive improvement within their organisation
[10]. Competency has been linked with individual performance and job performance; it
is therefore the knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviours needed for a particular task
[11]. It is the state of being qualified as well as having the ability to perform a specific
role [12]. It can also be seen as being capable, possessing certain skills and the
knowledge to do what one is supposed to do.
2.2 Competences of Project Risk Manager

Project risk managers are professionals who are responsible for identifying, analysing
and responding to risk in other to achieve the objectives of the project [13]. A com-
petent project risk manager is vital to the success of a project. To manage the project
successfully, there is need for project risk manager to acquire the required compe-
tencies [14]. Successful project focusses on ensuring that project risk managers possess
the important competencies needed to be successful in their project. For this reason,
construction project risk manager must retain the required competency in term of skills,
behaviour and knowledge [15]. They therefore must ensure that individual who works
on construction site must have the necessary competencies to function effectively on
102 E. M. Osazuwa and A. E. Oke
their assigned roles. Some of the basic functions of project risk managers include;
documenting, evaluating, managing, monitoring, reporting and scheduling. Compe-
tencies of project risk managers were grouped into primary and secondary compe-
tencies to include managerial, communication, technical and financial [16].
2.3 Quantity Surveyors Competence

The functions of quantity surveyors in the construction industry “is to ensure that the
resources of the industry are utilized to the best advantage of society by providing
financial management for project and cost consultancy services to the client and
designers during the whole construction process [17]. This role provides the basis for
proper cost management function of quantity surveyors in the construction industry
within the context of forecasting, analysis, planning, controlling and accounting. With
improvements in education, advancement in technology and increase in affluence of
society, clients have become more discerning as well as demanding on the quality and
timeliness of the service they received. There are several options in quantity surveying
field for a quantity surveyor. A qualified quantity surveyor can be gainfully employed
with quantity surveying firms, construction firms, or property developers. Some large
public or private organisations that deal with a significant amount of building or
construction procurement as part of their activities normally employ quantity surveyors
among other construction professionals to become their project managers [18].
Quantity surveyors may work as a consultant in a private practice, for a developer or in
the development arm of a major organisation or a multinational organisation (e.g.
retailer, manufacturer, utility company or airport) and a public sector body. On the
contracting side, quantity surveyors can work for a major national or international
contractor, a local or regional general contractor, for a specialist contractor or sub-
contractor, or for a management style contractor.
According to Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, some of the competencies
of a quantity surveyor may include the following, Preparing feasibility studies or
development appraisals, assessing capital and revenue expenditure over the whole life
of a facility. Others may include advising clients on ways of procuring the project,
advising on the setting of budgets, monitoring design development against planned
expenditure conducting value management and engineering exercises managing and
analysing risk and managing the tendering process. In addition, there are; preparing
contractual documentations, controlling cost during the construction process, managing
the commercial success of a project for a contractor, valuing construction work for
interim payments, valuing change, assessing or compiling claims for loss of expense
and agreeing final accounts, negotiating with interested parties and giving advice on the
avoidance and settlement of disputes [11].
This study set out to assess the relevance of construction project risks manager’s
competencies to quantity surveying practices in Nigeria. The target population com-
prises of registered construction professionals in Edo state, Nigeria, namely: Architects,
Quantity Surveyors, Builders and Engineers as obtained from their various professional
body. The research instrument used was structured questionnaire designed based on
information gathered from the review of related literatures. The questionnaires was
designed in sections with the first section designed to gather information on the
respondent background and level of knowledge on project risk management. Respon-
dent were provided with the competencies of project risk managers in the second
section, and were ask to rate the level of their relevance to quantity surveying practice
using a 5-point Likert scale, with 5 being very high, 4 being high, 3 being average, 2
being low and 1 being very low. The questionnaire were self-administered through the
help of field assistance and through the aid of electronic questionnaire. One hundred and
ninety seven (197) questionnaires were distributed while one hundred and sixty
(160) were returned and deemed fit for analysis, while the others were either not
retrieved or incorrectly filled. Cronbach’s alpha test was used to test the reliability of the
research instrument. This method is used to measure the reliability of the questionnaire
between each field and the mean of the whole fields of the questionnaire. The closer the
reliability coefficient is to 1.0, the better the reliability of the measure. This research
study therefore adopted Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.7. The data gathered was analysed
using frequency and percentage for analysing the background information while Mean
Item score was used in ranking the relevance of competencies and one sample t-test was
used to determine the importance attached to each of the identified competencies and
their associated level of significance.

4.1 Characteristics of Respondents
Result in Table 1 shows the information elicited with respect to the background
information of respondents, which shows that 33.8% are Engineers, 29.4% are Archi-
tects, and 23.8% of the respondents are Quantity surveyors, while 13.1% are Builders. In
terms of experience, 37.5% of the respondents have less than 6 years working experi-
ence, 23.8% have between 6 to 10 years’ experience, 16.9% have above 20 years’
experience, 14.4% have 16 to 20 years’ experience while 7.5% have 11 to 15 years’
experience.
Table 2 shows that the respondents are of the opinion that they possess vast
knowledge in construction risk management for whatever form of project that can be
embarked upon. The mean value of 4.78 indicates that out of a maximum 5.00, the
majority of the professionals are well educated as to the existence of risk management
in construction project; this implies that the reliability of the responses as to the validity
of the research can be relied on for this study.
Table 3 reveals that 64.4% have been involved in construction project risks man-
agement program while 35.6% indicated that they have not been involved in any of
such.
Table 1. Background information of respondents

Respondents characteristics Frequency Percentage
Designation
Quantity surveyor 38 23.8
Architect 47 29.4
Engineer 54 33.8
Builder 21 13.1
Total 160 100
Years of experience
0–5 60 37.5
06–10 38 23.8
11–15 12 7.5
16–20 23 14.4
Above 20 27 16.9
Total 160 100
Table 2. Respondents level of knowledge of construction project risks management

Responses Very high High Average Low Very low Mean
(5) (4) (3) (2) (1) value
Level of 129 27 4 0 0 4.78
knowledge
Table 3. Respondents involvement in construction project risks management program

Response Frequency Percentage
Yes 103 64.4
No 57 35.6
Total 160 100.0
4.2 Relevance of Construction Project Risk Managers Competencies

to Quantity Surveying Practice
In determining the relevance of construction project risk manager’s competencies to
quantity surveying practice, respondents were given certain competencies of project risk
managers identified from literatures and were asked to rank them based on their relevance
to quantity surveying practice. One sample t-test was then used to ascertain the signifi-
cance of each of the identified competence including their associated standard deviation
and standard error. The mean item score for each of the items in the table is 3.00.
Based on a 5 point Likert scale, a 2.50 score is usually considered as average but a score
tending towards 3.00 is thus indicating that the 17 items in the Table 4 are important to
project risk management.
Table 4. Relevance of project risk managers’ competencies to quantity surveyors

Variables Mean Std. T Mean Sig.
Dev difference p-value
(test value = 3)
Ability to draft contract agreement (CP14) 4.63 .874 23.514 1.625 .000
Effective human resources management 4.56 .759 25.950 1.556 .000
(CP17)
Ability to present and write report (CP12) 4.52 .945 20.332 1.519 .000
Adequate planning and resources allocation 4.45 .716 25.602 1.450 .000
(CP4)
Conversant with the use of information 4.44 .829 21.923 1.438 .000
technology and its application (CP5)
Preparation of claims and litigation (CP15) 4.42 .928 19.337 1.419 .000
Good public and human relations (CP16) 4.41 .961 18.596 1.419 .000
Effective organizational financial operation 4.39 .824 21.298 1.388 .000
(CP11)
Knowledge of project SWOT (strength, 4.32 .667 25.008 1.319 .000
weakness, opportunities and threat) analysis
(CP6)
Possess legal qualities (CP13) 4.21 1.111 13.736 1.206 .000
Protecting the employee against project 4.07 1.016 13.301 1.069 .000
hazard (CP10)
Understand the impact of demand and 4.01 .735 17.417 1.013 .000
supply on project delivery (CP2)
Effective management of organizational risk 3.93 .714 16.383 .925 .000
(CP3)
Understanding project quality control (CP7) 3.87 .880 12.130 .884 .000
Understand data collection in project 3.80 .830 12.118 .800 .000
management (CP8)
Understand the legal components of the risk 3.70 .460 19.261 .700 .000
management industry (CP1)
Securing the physical assets of the enterprise 3.50 .673 9.399 .500 .000
(CP9)
Average Mean 4.19 0.338
4.3 Factor Analysis

Factor analysis is necessary for the reduction of the competencies into smaller number
of logical subscales. For factor analysis to be carried out, the data must be analysed to
determine its suitability for analysis. Pallant recommended the use of larger samples for
factor analysis. Hence, the 17 variables used in this study coupled with 160-sample size
are considered adequate for factor analysis.
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (KMO) and Bartlett’s test of
sphericity were also employed to test the factorability of the data. This was done using
the SPSS version 21 software. KMO index ranges from 0 to 1, with 0.6 suggested as
the minimum value for a good factor analysis [19]. Bartlett’s test of sphericity shows
whether the correlation matrix is an identity matrix. Pallant suggested that the Bartlett’s
test of sphericity should be significant (p < 0.05) for the factor analysis to be considered
appropriate [20]. The KMO measure of sampling adequacy achieved a value of 0.611,
exceeding the recommended minimum value of 0.6 and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity
was also statistically significant at 0.000 (less than 0.05), thus supporting the use of
factor analysis for the data gathered which was appropriate (Table 5).
Table 5. KMO and Bartlett’s test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling .611
adequacy
Bartlett’s test of sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 4262.652
Df 136
Sig. .000
Factor analysis was therefore conducted for the relevance of construction project
risk managers’ competencies to quantity surveying practice in Nigeria using principal
component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation. Table 6 shows that 2 component
with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were extracted using the factor loading of 0.30 as the
cut-off point as suggested by [20]. Hence, two competency factors with Eigen values
exceeding 1 were retained, resulting in 9.195 and 2.386 selected which explains 54.087
and 14.035% of the variance respectively. This infers that the first cluster of compe-
tency factors accounted for 54.087% while the second cluster of competency factors
accounted for 14.035%. These two clusters of competency factors together have a total
cumulative percentage of 68.122% of the total importance, which highlights their
significance from the seventeen competency factors shown.
Table 6. Total variance explained

Factor Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared Rotation sums of squared
loadings loadings
Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
Variance % Variance % Variance %
1 9.195 54.087 54.087 9.195 54.087 54.087 9.065 53.321 53.321
2 2.386 14.035 68.122 2.386 14.035 68.122 2.516 14.801 68.122
3 1.506 8.861 76.984
4 1.086 6.387 83.370
5 .810 4.762 88.132
6 .564 3.317 91.449
7 .473 2.781 94.231
8 .314 1.849 96.079
9 .211 1.241 97.320
(continued)
Factor Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared Rotation sums of squared
loadings loadings
Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative Total % of Cumulative
Variance % Variance % Variance %
10 .142 .834 98.154
11 .125 .733 98.886
12 .065 .381 99.267
13 .059 .347 99.615
14 .035 .206 99.821
15 .017 .100 99.921
16 .010 .058 99.979
17 .004 .021 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
The scree plot and component matrix were observed in other to determine the
factors to be retained as suggested by, [20]. In analysing the scree plot, a change (or
elbow) in the shape of the plot is identified and only components above this point are
retained. An inspection of the scree plot on Fig. 1 reveals a break after the second
factor (Understand the impact of demand and supply on project delivery (CP2)). The
two large cluster factors, which are positioned on the steep slope, were retained. To aid
the interpretation of these two factors, varimax rotation was performed which gave rise
to the pattern matrix as shown in Table 7.
Fig. 1. Scree plot for relevance of competencies of project risk managers’ to QS
Table 7 shows the factor analysis reporting the two cluster relevance factors of
competence. It shows the summary of cluster relevance factor groupings for project risk
managers’ competence:
Table 7. Pattern matrix

Factor
1 2
CP1 0.824
CP2 0.619
CP3 0.545
CP4 0.85
CP5 0.761
CP6 −0.745
CP7 0.638
CP8 0.636
CP9 0.548
CP10 0.802
CP11 0.805
CP12 0.909
CP13 0.927
CP14 0.869
CP15 0.829
CP16 0.922
CP17 0.869
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
FACTOR 1 – Competences in Project Management and Its Legal Aspects

i. Understand the legal components of the risk management industry
ii. Effective management of organizational risk
iii. Adequate planning and resources allocation
iv. Conversant with the use of information technology and its application
v. Understanding project quality control
vi. Understand data collection in project management
vii. Protecting the employee against project hazard
viii. Effective organizational financial operation
ix. Ability to present and write report
x. Possess legal qualities
xi. Ability to draft contract agreement
xii. Preparation of claims and litigation
xiii. Good public and human relations
xiv. Effective human resources management
FACTOR 2 – Competences in Business Aspect of Project Risk Management

i. Understand the impact of demand and supply on project delivery
ii. Knowledge of project SWOT (Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threat)
analysis
iii. Securing the physical assets of the enterprise
4.4 Discussion of Findings

The competencies of project risk managers were ranked to find if the competencies are
relevant to quantity surveying practice and findings reveals that the identified com-
petencies of project risk managers were highly important and significantly relevant to
quantity surveying practice. This findings agrees with Dada and Jagboro study that
quantity surveyor competencies include; financial management, contract administra-
tion, contract documentation, project management and communication [6]. This
implies that the competencies identified through the literature, which are performed by
construction project risk managers, are of great relevance to quantity surveyors. The
findings from Sabana concluded that accounting principles and procedure and project
evaluation are the most relevant to quantity surveyors, which is not in agreement with
this study [21]. The reason for this is that the study looks at the perceived quality of
procurement officers in Uganda while this study looks at the capability of quantity
surveyors in Edo state Nigeria.
FACTOR 1 – Competences in Project Management and Its Legal Aspects
Factor 1 has fourteen (14) competencies of project risk managers, which were found to
be highly relevant and significant to quantity surveying practice. These competencies
include; Understand the legal components of the risk management industry, Effective
management of organizational risk, Adequate planning and resources allocation,
Conversant with the use of information technology and its application. Others are;
Understanding project quality control, Understand data collection in project man-
agement, Protecting the employee against project hazard, Effective organizational
financial operation, Ability to present and write report, Possess legal qualities, Ability
to draft contract agreement, Preparation of claims and litigation, Good public and
human relations, Effective human resources management. Therefore, this set of com-
petencies was labelled “Competencies in project management and its legal aspects” and
has a total variance of 54.087. This is in tandem with Dada and Jagboro study, which
opined that one of the competencies of construction project risks managers, which is
relevant to quantity surveying profession, is project management [6].
FACTOR 2 – Competences in Business Aspect of Project Risk Management
Factor 2 has three (3) competencies of project risk managers, which were found to be
highly relevant to quantity surveying practice. These competencies include; understand
the impact of demand and supply on project delivery, Knowledge of project SWOT
(Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threat) analysis, securing the physical assets of
the enterprise. Therefore, this set of competencies was labelled “Competencies in
business aspect of project risk management” and has a total variance of 14.035.
Fotwe and McCaffer collaborated this finding that one of the competencies of project risk
managers, which is highly relevant in quantity surveying profession, is in technical and
business or financial competencies [16]. This can be seen in the three competencies found
in this category.
5 Conclusion
The study assessed the relevance of construction project risks manager’s competencies
to quantity surveying practice in Nigeria and developing countries in order to find out if
the competencies of project risk managers are important and relevant in quantity sur-
veying practice in construction industries using survey design. The study revealed the
professionals have a high level of knowledge on risks with a mean value of 4.78 out of
a maximum of 5 mean value and 64.4% of the professionals were said to have been
involved in construction project risk management program. From the competencies of
project risk managers, the research reveals that these competencies are highly relevant
to quantity surveying practice. Among these areas, include the ability to draft contract
agreement, effective human resource management, organization of financial operation,
ability to present and write report, preparation of claims and litigation.
It was observed that the least competencies of project risk managers, which are
relevant to quantity surveying practice, are Effective management of organizational risk,
understanding project quality control, understand data collection in project manage-
ment, understand the legal components of risk management industry and securing the
physical assets of the enterprise. The study therefore recommend that quantity surveying
practitioners should pay more attention to these areas of competencies in other to be
successful in delivering the overall projects. Awareness of project risk among practi-
tioners will help aid professionals in discharging their duties to curb risk in the industry.
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Killing What We Intend to Grow: The
Challenges of the Local Construction Industry
with the Public Procurement Systems in Ghana
Christopher Amoah1 and Winston Shakantu2(&)

1
Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management,
University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
amoahc@ufs.ac.za
2
Department of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela University,
Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Winston.Shakantu@mandela.ac.za
Abstract. Countries have used their public procurement systems, as a policy

tool to grow their indigene construction industry by reviewing sections that are
not favourable to the local construction firms. Ghanaian public procurement
systems have gone through various reforms to date. This study, therefore,
investigated the challenges faced by the local construction industry concerning
the public procurement systems in Ghana. The qualitative research approach
was used for this study. A structured survey questionnaire made up of closed
and open-ended were distributed to randomly selected 65 construction firms
registered and operating from Accra; of which 36 of them responded. Data
received were analyzed by using content analysis method whereby similar
responses were grouped together and sorted in terms of their frequencies and
magnitude. The findings indicate that the local construction firms have major
issues with the public procurement systems, some of which include; funding,
bribery and corruption, foreign competition, lack of capacity to tender for some
project, payment delays, cumbersome tender process, sole sourcing, and polit-
ical influence. The implication is that the procurement systems in Ghana are still
having major challenges in addressing issues faced by the local construction
thereby limiting their growth. The limitation of this study is that primary data
were solicited from only construction firms operating from Accra. It is therefore
recommended that government of Ghana should institute measures such as local
content policy, prompt payment, skill development and encourage joint venture
to address these concerns in order to achieve the domestication and Ghana
without aid policy in the near future.
Keywords: Construction industry Government Local Public procurement
1 Introduction
The importance of public procurement for developing countries is progressively been

cherished by development agencies globally, knowing that the social and economic
costs [1] of the flaws in public procurement governance increases the risk for foreign

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_12
Killing What We Intend to Grow 113
investment. Public procurement is naturally a politically delicate activity, as it involves

momentous amounts of public money of a country’s economy.
The OECD Development Assistance Committee puts the size of global public
sector procurement at 8% (US$3.2 trillion) of the worldwide GDP of US$40 trillion
[2], while others put the figure at 15% of GDP for developing countries [3]. Public
procurement in Ghana is estimated at 24% of total imports and aside from personal
remunerations; public procurement is valued at 50–70% of the national budget and
14% of GDP [4]. Studies done by the World Bank shows that in Ghana, the public
procurement for goods, works, and consultancy services is valued at US$600 million,
representing about 14% of GDP [5]. The bulk of this expenditure according to the
World Bank was spent on procurement for works, goods, technical and consultancy
services by Ministries, Departments, Agencies (MDAs) and District Assemblies
(DAs) as well as Public Hospitals, Universities, Schools and Colleges [5]. The public
procurement system has major implications on the local construction industry as a
viable local construction industry would be able to execute government projects and
therefore impact substantially on the economy of Ghana as government expenditure on
construction projects would stay in the country, thereby creating wealth and boosting
the country GDP and reduce poverty.
Ghana, since independence, has tried to address the shortcomings in its public
procurement procedure through the passage of financial regulations such as the Con-
tracts Act, 1960 (Act 25); Ghana Supply Commission Act; the Ghana National Pro-
curement Agency Decree, 1976 (SMCD 55); and the Financial Administration Decree
(SMCD 221) passed in 1976 [6]. All these regulations were instituted in the public
sector to provide an extensive framework of administrative powers to standardize
procurement activities. However, continuous reviews of the public procurement
management in Ghana reveals considerable inadequacies, fraud and opaqueness in the
procurement practices within the government agencies due to the absence of clear legal
framework, coherent procedures and guidelines as well as unclear institutional and
organizational provisions needed to administer the public procurement process [7].
This, therefore, prevented the attainment of value for money in procurement financed
by the government and donor agencies [7].
It, therefore, became necessary to re-examine the public sector procurement systems
to safeguard the effectiveness and capability of institutions in addressing the procure-
ment related problems. The Ghana government following substantial appraisal of its
public expenditure system in 1993, therefore resolved to institute an all-inclusive reform
in its Public Financial Management System. This process gave birth to the Public
Financial Management Reform Programme (PUFMARP), which was effective from
1995. The main goal of PUFMARP was to boost efficiency, transparency, and
answerability in the management of public finances [7]. To achieve this, PUFMARP
suggested the evaluation of the Public Procurement system and subsequently, instituted
Public Procurement Oversight Group (PPOG) in 1999 to help formulate an all-
embracing public procurement reform policy [7]. The PPOG drafted the public pro-
curement bill in September 2002, which was passed into law as the Public Procurement
Act, 2003 (Act 663) by the Ghana government. The ultimate goal of Act 663 is to
address the flaws in the public procurement of goods, works, and services, to
114 C. Amoah and W. Shakantu
operationalize the concept of good governance, and to drive the notion of “zero toler-
ance” for corruption in the public procurement process.
With all these reforms to make public procurement more successful and achieve the
objectives of government, the local construction industry is not benefiting from these
reforms. Challenges facing the local contractors in Ghana have been identified as
(1) delayed payments for works completed; (2) contractor’s managerial and technical
incapability to generate profit from their projects; (3) inability to secure more profitable
contracts; (4) inability to get contracts; and (5) inability of obtain funds and to repay
loans [8]. Therefore, more and effective funding arrangements for local contractors
should be encouraged [8]. This study, therefore, investigated the challenges of the local
construction industry with the public procurement systems in Ghana.
2 What Is Public Procurement?
Public procurement originated from the fiduciary responsibility of government

administrations to provide services and infrastructure, such as education, health care,
harbours and roads to the public or people in a particular area, town or city [9]. Public
procurement can also be defined as any government action aimed at acquiring services
and goods required to execute government functions [10]. Public procurement is
generally described as the acquisition of goods, construction works and services by the
public sector through a contract [9]. It also involves the acquisition of construction
works and services if state or local authority uses its budgets, domestic loans, foreign
aid and revenue for such acquisitions.
Public procurement can also be referred to as the government’s activity of
procuring goods and services, which are needed for the government to function
effectively [10]. Public procurement is a practice whereby public sector organizations
purchase goods, services, and works from third parties, including the provision of key
services such as education, social care, health care, and welfare, to the citizens by
private sectors. In some instances, the public sector directly provides these services
directly or provides them through procurement mechanisms.
2.1 Objectives of Public Procurement Systems and Regulatory Rules

There are numerous purposes of public procurement that can be acknowledged, which
are also common to public procurement systems in many countries. These objectives
are implemented through various legal and regulatory rules of conducting the pro-
curement procedures. The effective implementation of the public procurement objec-
tives can be effected through consistent and comprehensive procedures based on the
fundamental principles, and where compliance with the procedures is appraised and
enforced. Different countries have different objectives for regulating their public pro-
curement procedures. For examples, it is believed that, with the procedures prescribed
in the national legislation, an enacting country will create an environment in which the
public is assured that the government will expend public funds with responsibility and
answerability, and thus attain value for money [10].
Different analysts also embrace different categorizations. For example, the

advancement of social and political goals, economic efficiency, trade objectives as the
most distinguishable strategic goals are recognized and decreasing corruption are
considered as part of efficiency objective [11]. Generally eight common objectives in
public procurement systems are identified, which include; value for money in acquiring
services, works, and goods; truthfulness; accountability; same treatment for suppliers;
efficiency implementation of industrial, social and environmental objectives; making
public markets accessible to international trade; and effectiveness in the procurement
practices [10].
It is vital to note that there exist different objectives within different procurement
systems and the weight devoted to the numerous objectives varies quite remarkably.
For example as Arrowsmith et al. put it, “some systems attach much more important
than others to policies of fair and actual treatment of providers to the use of pro-
curement to promote social objectives or accountability with the result that the gov-
ernment may be willing to pay higher prices for goods or services or to accept greater
process cost to implement these values” [10]. The variances in the objectives among
different public procurement systems, private and public organizations explain to some
degree the variances in the method to procurement and the rulebooks that administer it
[11]. For example, a system that dwells heavily on accountability is more likely to offer
a comprehensive rule which permits for excessive public scrutiny of the procurement
practices than one that does not [11].
In Ghana, however, the objectives of reforming the public procurement systems are
to ensure professionalism; transparency, competitiveness, and fairness; value for
money in the procurement systems; efficiency in the procurement systems; ethical
approach in procurement processes, and introduction of technology in the procurement
systems [6, 7].
2.2 The Public Procurement Act, 2003 (Act 663 of 2003)

The Public Procurement Law, 2003 (Act 663 of 2003) [12] is an all-inclusive regu-
lation formulated to eradicate the inadequacies and administrative flaws which were
evident in Ghanaian public procurement. The government of Ghana, having discussed
with other development partners, recognized that the public procurement system nee-
ded critical consideration in view of the prevalent public perception of corrupt practices
and inadequacies in the procurement system.
A study by the World Bank [13] estimated the national budget for public pro-
curement to be about 50–70%. Therefore, an effective public procurement system could
guarantee value for money in government spending, which is indispensable to a
country experiencing massive challenges in its developmental agenda. To safeguard
saneness and value for money in the public procurement arena, the government of
Ghana through PUFMARP and Public Procurement Oversight Group in 1999, drafted
public procurement bill in September 2002. In 2003, the Parliament of Ghana enacted
the Public Procurement Act to help in procurement activities in Ghana. Act 663 has
contributed some level of sanity into the construction sector [7].
2.3 Criticism of the Public Procurement Law (PPL) of Ghana (Act 663)
Among the findings of the research are that there are still various shortcomings that
need improvement in the PPL. There are a number of criticisms enumerated against the
PPL [14], which include the following:
• The PPL allows sole sourcing and restricted tendering which is not ideal in public
procurement as it may promote system abuse and corrupt practices despite the laws
regulating their use, including preceding approvals by the PPA.
• The PPL gives excessive prominence to events primary to contract award to the
detriment of happenings after the contract is awarded.
• The PPL does not give appropriate weight on ethical practices and conflict of
interest policy in public procurement and nose-dives to provide comprehensive
ethical standards for defining the difference between private and public interests.
• There are contradictions in the guidelines governing the advertisement time and
methods for the National Competitive Tendering solicitation documents.
• The PPL does not make adequate room for civil society and the media to participate
in the public procurement process. This restricts their significance in scrutinizing
public activities to ensure fairness, transparency, and non-discrimination.
• The margin of preference provided under section 60 of PPL for domestic bidders,
when approved by PPA, gives advantage to domestic suppliers and contractors,
which could perpetuate inefficiency and increased cost and compromise on fair
competition principles and value-for-money.
• The PPL is mute on evolving public procurement models such as Public Private
Partnership and Framework Agreement.
A study examining the influence of the public procurement law on the Ghanaian
educational sector revealed that out of 35 respondents interviewed, 33 representing
94% agreed that they experience many challenges [15]. Some of the challenges
respondents stated were; burdensome process thus delaying contract award; lack of
space for negotiating contract price; and postponements in funds allocations thus
leading to purchase price fluctuations. These holdups hamper the effective operation of
their school’s procurement systems [15]. It is further stated that the foremost causes for
these holdups are unavailability of supplier’s database; inadequately experienced staffs
and cumbersome approval processes [15]. In addition to unavailability of suppliers
database, the respondents criticized the difficulty in adhering to the procurement pro-
cesses, because, in most cases, they had to provide three (3) quotations from different
suppliers for textbooks and appoint the supplier that provides them with quality text-
books at a reduced cost and in some instances some of the suppliers were legally
incapable to enter into a contract [15].
2.4 Problem of the Construction Industry in Ghana

Studies demonstrate that many developing countries construction industries, including
that in Ghana, encounter many difficulties [16]. There are three central reasons for these
challenges [16]. First, the economic weaknesses experienced by these countries ulti-
mately affect the adequacy of resources earmarked for improving the industry thereby
stifling job opportunities as well as the market forces which support innovation. Sec-
ondly, many of these countries governments do not recognise the significance of the
construction industry, and therefore do not institute and implement programmes for
improving the industries. Finally, as a result of these countries inherent underdeveloped
construction industries, they are powerless in dealing with their flaws, make a robust
argument for assistance or contribute to the efforts making by the government to
improve the industries.
Due to these difficulties highlighted, the performance of developing countries,
including Ghana, construction industries on projects, is perceived to be unsatisfactory
in many aspects including quality, cost, and output [16]. It has been established that
developing countries miss the target set by themselves for most construction projects
executed in relation to schedules (time), budgets (cost) and specifications (quality) [16].
Again the construction output in these countries is believed to be substandard in terms
of their sustainability and resilience. As constructed objects are major investments, they
are projected to last for years and their durability and maintainability, therefore, has
momentous social and economic significance. Furthermore, the construction industries
performance in these developing countries looks unsatisfactory when compared to their
counterparts in industrialised nations.
The features of the construction industry in Ghana resemble the features of the
construction industries in developing countries stated above. Whereas governments
have a propensity to control the economy through the use of the investment in the
construction industry, hold-ups in the public-sector projects management often lead to
abysmal performance than the targets forecasted, hence restraining the effect of the
government’s unrelenting determinations [16]. If a country wants to derive a supreme
benefit from its construction activities, then it is important that these activities do not
lead to an increment in importation or transfer of incomes by foreign firms, but must
rather engender activity in other sectors of the local economy including the indigenous
construction industry. Ghana must, therefore, institute policies to address the chal-
lenges facing its domestic construction industry to realise the benefits of the con-
struction sector in its GDP growth.
Studies have revealed many challenges faced by contractors in Ghana [17]. Among
these challenges are the presence of foreign contractors and the lack of contractor’s
capacity [17]. It has been identified that foreign contractors in Ghana are awarded most
major government projects and this necessitated a suggestion from the Ghana Asso-
ciation of Road Contractors that 25% of the contracts awarded to foreign construction
firms by the government be sublet to the local contractors with recognized capability
[17]. The Association of Road Contractors argued that most of the works executed by
personnel of the oversea contractors could be equally done by local contractors and
professionals. However, the call has not been heeded by the government [17]. Findings
from studies indicate that some contractors protested that foreigners engaged to work
for foreign construction firms in some cases do not have suitable experiences in con-
struction works [17]. Among challenges faced by local contractors in building and road
industry are the presence of foreign contractors and low capacity of indigenous
Ghanaian contractors and that local contractors do not oppose competition; however,
the inadequate capacity of the local contractors makes it more challenging for them to
compete [17].
A systematic and synchronized method in the administration improvement of the

construction industry in Ghana is thus necessary for the country, and the current
administrative system for this objective should be supported and the required resources
be made available on a sustainable basis [16]. It has been identified that the preferential
policy in the current public procurement law is inadequate in facilitating capacity
growth of the local construction industry and hence the government should institute
policies to address these deficiencies in the procurement law [18].
In order to attain the purpose of this study, a combination of an in-depth literature

review and semi-structured survey questionnaire were adopted. The qualitative research
approach was therefore adopted for this study. The random sampling method was
adopted to select respondents from the lists of contractors and consultants operating
from Accra, Ghana. In this type of sampling, [19] state that every member of the target
population has the same probability of being involved in the sample and can be chosen.
Also, two steps that are essential for drawing a random sample are suggested: Firstly,
all the units of analysis in the sampling frame should be identified and be given
numbers and secondly, the method used to select the units of analysis should ensure
that every number has the same chance of being selected [19]. The researcher first
obtained the addresses of contractors and consultants operating from Accra, Ghana
from the Ghana Telkom directory. The researcher then randomly selected the firms to
be included in the study by taking into account the location of the company. The
location of the companies was taken into account in order to prevent the selection of
more firms operating from the same locality. A prior arrangement with the respondents
(firm owners or representatives) was then done via telephone. The techniques adopted
for this study was the use of a semi-structured survey questionnaire made up of both
closed and open-ended questions.
Ambiguity is reduced when answer choices are provided in the instrument and
respondents are more likely to answer the question that is needed by the researcher and
closed-ended questions are conclusive in nature as they are intended to generate data
that is easily measurable [20]. Again, it is suggested that researchers should make
response choices exhaustive, offering at least one possibility with no room for
vagueness and if respondents do not find a response option that matches their answer to
the question, they may avoid the question entirely or select a response option that does
not represent what they are thinking about [21]. Open questions are generally used
when there is insufficient understanding about a particular topic, and you want to learn
as much as possible without limiting the responses and also open-ended questions
allow for rich qualitative data as they provide the researcher with an opportunity to gain
understanding of all the opinions on a topic they are unfamiliar with [20]. The
researcher personally visited each of the respondent’s firm, delivered the questionnaire
and waited for the respondents to fill in the questionnaire and hence the researcher was
able to clarify issues with the respondents where needed. In order instances, the
researcher left the questionnaire with the respondents and collected it at a later date.
This technique was adopted to reduce the non-responsive rate and come-backs.
The questionnaire was distributed to 68 construction firms and consultants of which

36 were successfully received. In qualitative research, by the time you reach a sample
size of 30 participants, the research would have reached the theoretical capacity point,
where minimal or no fresh information can be added [22]. Considering these views
[22], the 36 responses received is enough for descriptive statistical analysis. The Public
Relation Officer of the Ghana Public Procurement Authority was also interviewed.
Descriptive statistical analysis tools such as excel were used to analyse the data through
the use of contents analysis where similar responses were grouped together and their
frequencies determined.
Out of 36 respondents, 30% were managing directors of the company, 24% were
project managers, 3% were Architects, 22% were Quantity surveyors, 16% projected
Engineers and 5% were Operation managers for their respective organizations. The
analysis of the respondent’s industry profile indicates that 69% of the respondents are
in the building construction industry, 19% are professional consultants in the con-
struction industry and 12% are in the road construction sector. Forty-one percent (41%)
of the respondents organizations have been in business for 1 to 5 years; 35% have been
operating for 6 to 10 years; 11% for 16 to 20 years; 8% has been in business for 11 to
15 years and 5% have been in operation for 21 to 25 years. This indicates that most of
the firms selected for the interview have been in business for quite a long time. Fifty-
seven percent (57%) of the respondents have worked between 6 to 10 years, 22% of
them have worked for 11 to 15 years, 14% have worked in the construction industry for
1 to 5 years, 5% have worked for 16 to 20 years and 3% has worked for 21 to 25 years.
Thus a substantial number of the respondents have experience of working in the
construction industry for quite a long time and hence are well placed to know the
challenges of the procurement systems.
4 Findings and Discussions
4.1 The Challenges the Local Construction Industry Has

with the Current Public Procurement System
Respondents were asked to mention the challenges they have with the current public
procurement systems. The challenges reported by respondents during the interviews are
as shown in Table 1. The responses were tallied to show how often that particular
challenge was mentioned by the respondents and then ranked to show the seriousness
of the challenge.
From Table 1, it is clear that the main challenges of the local construction industry
with respect to the public procurement practices in Ghana was funding issues (ranked
1). This was followed by lack of capacity to tender (ranked 2), bribery and corruption
(ranked 3), high-interest rate and foreign competition (ranked 4 respectively). The next
issues are payment delays, political influence, cumbersome tender processes and lack
of transparency (ranked 5 respectively). This is followed by sole sourcing, non-
enforcement of local content law, and high taxes (ranked 6 respectively). The major
challenges facing the players in the construction and consulting industry are funding
issues, lack of capacity, bribery and corruption, high-interest rate, foreign competition,
Table 1. Respondent’s challenges with the current procurement systems

Challenges Frequency Percentages Rank
Funding issues 16 30.77% 1
Lack of capacity to tender for some projects 12 23.08% 2
Bribery and corruption 7 13.46% 3
Foreign competition 3 5.77% 4
High interest rates 3 5.77% 4
Payment delays 2 3.85% 5
Cumbersome tender processes 2 3.85% 5
Political influence 2 3.85% 5
Lack of transparency 2 3.85% 5
Sole sourcing 1 1.92% 6
No law to enforce local content 1 1.92% 6
High taxes 1 1.92% 6
political influence, payment delays and lack of transparency. If the government and
procurement authorities address these issues, it would be of tremendous help to the
local construction industry. This finding validates the findings of [8, 17, 15, 23] with
respect to the difficulties confronting Ghanaian contractors as stated in Sect. 2.4. The
minor concerns of the local construction industry in Ghana about the current pro-
curement system are no law to enforce local contents, sole sourcing, cumbersome
tender processes, and high taxes. This also supports the findings of Laryea [17].
4.2 Respondent’s Suggestions on What Government Should Do

in the Public Procurement Process to Help Grow the Local
Construction Industry
Respondents were asked to suggest what the government should do about the current
public procurement systems to help grow the local construction industry. The responses
of the interviewees are shown in Table 2.
From Table 2, the players in the construction industry would be happy if the
government would take measures to address their challenges with respect to the current
public procurement processes. The following are the suggestions to the government;
financial support and strict compliance with the procurement law (ranked 1 respec-
tively), followed by local content policies, tax reduction on materials and account-
ability in the procurement system (ranked 2 respectively), lower interest rate (ranked 3).
This is followed by an incentive package to local industry (ranked 4), Create pools of
construction equipment for local contractors, prompt payment for work done and set
aside policies in the procurement law (ranked 5 respectively), discourage sole sourcing,
skills development from foreign to local contractors, equal treatment to all bidders and
encouragement of joint ventures (ranked 6 respectively). The findings of the study,
therefore, show that contractors and consultants in the construction industry mainly
want the government to tackle the same problems they have with the public procure-
ment systems.
Table 2. Respondent’s suggestions to the government on the current public procurement

systems
Respondent’s suggestions Frequency Percentages Ranking
Financial support to local contractors 7 13.73% 1
Strict compliance to the law 7 13.73% 1
Local content policies in the procurement 6 11.76% 2
Tax reduction on construction materials 6 11.76% 2
Accountability in procurement system 6 11.76% 2
Lower interest rate on loans 5 9.80% 3
Incentive package to local industry 4 7.84% 4
Prompt payment for work done 2 3.92% 5
Create a pool of construction equipment for local 2 3.92% 5
contractors
Set aside policies in the procurement law 2 3.92% 5
Discourage sole sourcing 1 1.96% 6
Skills development from foreign to local contractors 1 1.96% 6
Equal treatment to all bidders 1 1.96% 6
Encourage joint ventures 1 1.96% 6
4.3 An Interview with Ghana Public Procurement Authority

An interview with the Ghana procurement authority revealed that local contractors and
consultants and their foreign counterpart have the same chance of winning a govern-
ment contract if all of them are tendering for the first time. This buttresses the concerns
of the local construction industry regarding unrestricted foreign competition and lack of
enforcement of local contents law in the procurement systems. In public procurement
systems where the growth of the local construction industry is paramount, local con-
tractors should have upper hand over the foreign contractors and consultants and the
government should institute measures in the procurement process to restrict foreign
competition [24, 25].
In Malawi, for example, the government instituted measures in the public pro-
curement system to safeguard profit to the local firms, by only accepting bids that were
within a certain percentage of the projected price and bonus clauses were also introduced
for completing on schedule. The end result of this policy in favour of the local con-
struction industry was the 40% cost savings realised over the use of international
contractors and the improvement of the local construction industry that enabled other
clients to use [25].
It was revealed through data analysis that, the challenges the local construction industry
is facing currently are the same challenges they faced before the public procurement
reforms. The major challenges are funding issues, lack of capacity, bribery and cor-
ruption, high-interest rate, foreign competition, political influence, payment delays, and
lack of transparency. Other concerns identified are no law to enforce local content, sole
sourcing, cumbersome tender processes, and high taxes. It can, therefore, be concluded
that public procurement reforms in Ghana have failed to address the challenges of the
local construction industry.
The Ghanaian government should therefore emulate the examples of countries such
as Malawi, Singapore and South Africa by instituting measures such as financial
support to local contractors, enforcement of local content policies in the procurement,
tax reduction on imported construction materials, lower interest rate on loans, incentive
package to local construction industry, creation of construction equipment pool for
local contractors, set aside policies in the procurement law, prompt payment for work
done, discouragement of sole sourcing, skills development from foreign to local con-
tractors and equal treatment of all bidders in the public procurement processes to
address concerns of the local construction industry.
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Mentoring Practices in Construction
Professional Firms in Nigeria
Osamudiamen Kenneth Otasowie(&) and Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke

otasowiekenneth@gmail.com, emayok@gmail.com
Abstract. The paper assessed the exhibited mentoring practices in construction

consulting firms with a view to maintaining high skill work force that can
sustain the competitive advantage of these firms in the construction industry.
The involvement and role of professionals in mentoring relationships, as well as
the exhibited mentoring practices in professional firms within the built envi-
ronment were assessed through a survey design. Structured questionnaire was
used to survey quantity surveying firms from Abuja, the capital of Nigeria.
Percentage, Mean Item Score and one-sample t-test were used in the analysis of
the gathered data. The study reveals a good level of involvement in mentoring
practices among construction professionals in the firms. However, some con-
struction professionals are not sure of their participation in mentoring rela-
tionships. The study also revealed the mentoring practices exhibited in
construction professional firms and the practices that are not exhibited. The
findings show the exhibited mentoring practices in construction professional
firms as well as recommendations for maintaining high skill work force and
sustain the competitive advantage of the construction professional firms within
the country. This paper highlights the exhibited mentoring practices in profes-
sional firms in the Nigerian construction industry and made known the practices
that are not exhibited. This practices when exhibited will help in the proper
psychosocial and career development of protégées in the industry.
Keywords: Mentoring relationship Mentoring practices

Construction professional firms Quantity surveying Consultancy firms
1 Introduction
The building construction industry over the last few decades has witnessed both insti-
tutional and organizational shift across the world that has resulted in the continuous
complex nature of professional services within the built environment. [1] opined that
professional firms in the construction industry must maintain high skill work force to
sustain competitive advantage in a manner that will speed up the work. This is because
they depend on their experience and knowledge rather than plant and equipment to meet
the ever-changing needs of clients. According to [2], professional firms can maintain
high skilled work force, sustained performance by engaging some performance inter-
vention programs, and further identified mentoring as one of such programs that can
sustain both performance and competitive advantage of these professional firms.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_13
Mentoring Practices in Construction Professional Firms in Nigeria 125
Mentoring has become fundamental in performance improvement of employees

and promotion of organization efficiency and productivity thereby placing the orga-
nization in a more competitive and advantageous position. [3] opined that mentoring
has developed into a critical service for professional support and still developing into
an intervention for business adversary. [4] posited that mentoring can be used as a tool
of communication to those employees in terms of their performance that are not open,
to break down the ice in an employee. [5] opined that mentoring practices are supported
by firms for the purpose of increasing the knowledge and productivity of its employees
and thereby improving the performance of the firm.
However, despite the successes of mentoring practices recorded in various firms
and on individuals in other industries, such as checking youth behavior which is seen as
a threat, helping graduate students develop personal and professional relationships with
their academic advisors [6], the review of literature shows that there are no adequate
research studies that focused on the concept in Nigerian construction industry. [2]
corroborated this by revealing that insufficient attention has been given to the concept
of mentoring in the nation’s built environment. Another significant disclosure from
such findings is that researches have basically concentrated on knowledge management
and human resource management in Nigerian construction professional firms without
particular attention to mentoring practices, which is core to improving competitiveness,
driving performance and ensuring sustainability. It is therefore disturbing that there has
not been sufficient research in this vital strategy, as it is evident that we live in a world
where the construction industry plays a vital role in the development of any nation and
as such, the need for mentoring in the construction industry cannot be overemphasized.
This lack of study is a motivator to this study, which is to assess the mentoring
practices in construction professional firms in Nigeria. The presence of several con-
struction sites in Abuja, the nation’s capital means the availability of various con-
struction professional firms for the study to be conducted. The findings of the study can
therefore be inferred for Nigeria and other Africa nations. The later parts of this paper
include the review of literature, the methodology, and the findings of the study. Fur-
thermore, conclusions drawn and necessary recommendations made from the findings.
2 Concept of Mentoring and Mentoring Practices
According to [7], central to the concept of mentoring and the word “mentor” is the
Greek mythology, when Telemachus, Odysseus son, was entrusted to a close friend of
his father, in other to not only oversee his professional development but also his social
and personal growth.
[8] posited that the preponderance of mentoring in several settings and issues of
wide range has seen scholars struggle to formulate a general definition of the term.
A prove to this can be noticed in that over 50 different definitions have emanated from
the social science literatures [9]; however, despite the various definitions from several
studies, there exists a common feature of mentoring which includes a learning rela-
tionship between an experienced and a novice or better still a less experienced indi-
vidual, a process that involves emotional and instrumental functions and that becomes
more impactful over time.
126 O. K. Otasowie and A. E. Oke
The need for human capital sustainability for the purpose of economic growth and
social development as noted by [10] has given importance to the concept of mentoring.
Mentoring has gained some ground positively and has been linked with many successful
careers particularly for the argument as opined by [11], that undergraduate programs
continuously fail to produce graduates who possess the right professional and lifelong
learning skills it takes to have a successful career. Learning from the experience of
others is the purpose of mentoring and to this end, a way of offering training that can suit
entrepreneurs’ penchant for just-in-time, experiential and applied learning [12].
[13] identified role modelling, acceptance/confirmation, counselling, and friendship
as mentoring practices that help in the psychosocial development of a mentee. He
forwarded that the confidence, effectiveness, and competence of one involved in
mentoring could be improved upon through these practices. [14] opined that role
modelling help guide individuals on the required behaviours for success, while [15],
posited that when the skills and knowledge of a mentee have been validated by the
mentor, it shows in the support and acceptance shown to the mentee. Furthermore,
counselling according to [16] avails an individual the opportunity to explore a difficult
situation and dissatisfaction of another and thereafter render help that addresses the
issue, while [17] opined that friendship, that is to say friends of virtue as categorised by
Aristotle aims at achieving goals.
In addition to psychosocial development, mentoring can also aid in the develop-
ment of the careers of individuals through practices such as sponsorship, coaching,
protection, exposure/visibility, and challenging work assignments [13]. [15] opined
that professionals and even the firms they are attached to witness advancement in the
level of service delivery through sponsorship, while [18] sees sponsorship as a rela-
tionship that benefits parties involve and helps in professional development. Coaching
which aims at improving competency in work place helps parties involve in mentoring
particularly mentees according to [19, 20] attain their potentials. [15] argued that
protection which is meant to shield a protégée from damaging contacts is the most
overlooked and neglected practice of the available mentoring practices. This is despite
its necessity in the development of young professionals. Furthermore, [21] put forward
that protégées advance when they are exposed and visible to developmental relation-
ships which in turn leads to the advancement of the firms they work with, while [22]
posited that protégées are pushed outside their comfort zone to development through
challenging work assignments which increases their skills and ability.
This study assessed the exhibited mentoring practices in construction professional firms
in Nigeria; hence survey research was employed and a quantitative approach in data
gathering from respondents therefore used through questionnaires for the purpose of
objectivity. The entire practicing Quantity Surveying consultancy firms resident in
Abuja, Nigeria were targeted for the population of this research. The Information gath-
ered from related literature review informed the design of the research instrument used
which was structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed in sections with the
preliminary section of the questionnaire focusing on the background information of the
respondents such as involvement in mentoring and role in mentoring. Respondents were

invited and provided with the mentoring practices obtained from literature and were
asked to indicate the degree of exhibition of each of the practices based on a five-point
Likert rating scale (very high = 5, high = 4, average = 3, low = 2 and little or none = 1).
The questionnaires were administered through personal delivery. A total of 149 ques-
tionnaires were distributed to Quantity Surveying Consultancy firms in Abuja. 142 us-
able questionnaires were retrieved indicating 95.30% effective response rate.
In the analyses of the gathered data, frequency and percentage were used for the
background information, Mean Item Score for ranking the practices, and one samples
t-test for determining the relative level of exhibition of each of the identified practices
and their significance level.
3.1 Background Information of Respondents

Table 1 presents the distribution of the ranks, working experience, professional
membership, mentoring involvement and mentoring relationship role of respondents.
Base on the result, Principal Partners of the surveyed firms make up 9.9% of the
respondents while 18.3% are Partners in the firms surveyed. Analysis also indicated
that Senior Quantity Surveyors makes up 32.4% of the respondent whereas (39.4%)
were Quantity Surveyors in their respective firms. 36.60% of the respondents have 0 to
5 years of experience, while 2.10% have 6 to 10 years. 18.30% of the respondents have
between 11 to 15 years, while 9.20% are within 16 to 20 years of experience and 17 out
of the total number of respondents indicating (33.80%) have over 20 years of expe-
rience. On Registration with the Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors of respon-
dents, 54.9% of the respondents had Corporate membership with the Institute and
(12.7%) were Fellow members. furthermore, (32.4%) were Probationer members in the
Institute. Relating to the involvement in mentoring relationship by respondents, boxes
were presented to the respondents to tick “Yes” if they have participated in a mentoring
relationship, “No” if they have not, and “Not sure” if they are not certain they have
participated. Result shows that 78.2% of these respondents have been involved in
mentoring relationships, while 21.8% of the respondents are yet to participate in
mentoring relationships. On role in mentoring relationships, Results shows that 19% of
the respondents played the role of a mentor in the mentoring relationships they have
been involved in, while 21.1% played the role of a protégée in the mentoring rela-
tionships. 38% of the respondents have been opportune to play both the role of a
mentor and a protégée in the mentoring relationships involved in, while 21.8% were
not sure.
3.2 Mentoring Practices in Construction Professional Firms

Pertaining to the mentoring practices exhibited in construction professional firms,
respondents were presented with mentoring practices identified from literature so as to
rank them based on their level of exhibition. A scale of between 0–30% was set for
very low, 31–50% for low, 51–70% for average, 71–90% for high while 91–100% for
very high. A one sample t-test was then performed to ascertain whether the respondents
regarded a particular mentoring practice to be exhibited or otherwise. The ranked mean
Table 1. Background information

Respondents information Frequency Percentage
Ranks
Principal 14 9.9
Partner 26 18.3
Senior QS 46 32.4
QS 56 39.4
Total 142 100
Years of Experience
1–5 years 52 36.6
6–10 years 3 2.1
11–15 years 26 18.3
16–20 years 13 9.2
21 years & above 48 33.8
Total 142 100
Professional Membership
Probationer 46 32.4
Corporate 78 54.9
Fellow 18 12.7
Total 142 100
Mentoring Involvement
Yes 111 78.2
No 31 21.8
Not Sure 0 0
Total 142 100
Mentoring Relationship Role
Mentor 27 19
Mentee 30 21.1
Both 54 38
Not Sure 31 21.8
Total 142 100
of each practice was tabulated to offer a clear picture of the response of the respondents.
The significance level was set at 95% in compliance with conventional level of risk and
based on the five-point Likert rating scale, a mentoring practice was deemed exhibited
if it had a mean of 3.5 or more. In the situation where there are two or more practices
with the same mean, the mean with the lowest standard deviation was assigned the
highest ranking of exhibition [23]. The normality test was not carried out as according
to the central limit theorem, the sampling distribution tends to be normal in large
samples of hundreds irrespective of the data shape [24, 25]. Table 2 shows the mean of
each of the identified practice together with their associate standard deviation and
standard error.
Table 2. T-test showing one sample statistics for exhibited mentoring practices
Mentoring practices N Mean Std. deviation Std. error mean
Sponsorship 142 3.176 .708 .059
Coaching 142 3.507 .788 .066
Protection 142 3.711 .637 .053
Exposure/Visibility 142 3.683 .811 .068
Role modelling 142 4.268 .798 .067
Challenging assignments 142 3.817 .847 .071
Acceptance 142 3.824 .765 .064
Counselling 142 3.599 .817 .069
Friendship 142 3.810 .662 .056
The result in Table 2 shows that the standard error of the respective means was
relatively close to zero which indicates that the population is accurately reflected in the
chosen sample. This is due to the fact that a small standard error between the sampled
mean and the population mean as opined by [23], represents a true reflection of the
population while large standard error suggest otherwise. Also, the standard deviations
are all less than 1.0 which intimates there exist a little difference in the data and
respondents consistency in agreement [23].
Table 3 reveals the p-values which represent the significance of each identified
mentoring practices. The p-values which show the significance for a two-tailed test was
half as shown in Table 4 so as to get the significance for a one-tailed test. The null
hypothesis for each practice was that the it is not exhibited (H0:U = U0) and the
alternative hypothesis was that the practice is exhibited (Ha:U > U0), where U0 is the
population mean which was set at 3.5.
Table 3. One sample test for exhibited mentoring practices

Mentoring practices Test Value = 3.5
T df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean difference 95%
confidence
interval of the
difference
Lower Upper
Sponsorship −5.455 141 .000 −.324 −.441 −.207
Coaching .107 141 .915 .007 −.124 .138
Protection 3.954 141 .000 .211 .106 .320
Exposure/Visibility 2.690 141 .008 .183 .049 .318
Role modelling 11.460 141 .000 .768 .635 .900
Challenging assignments 4.457 141 .000 .317 .176 .458
Acceptance 5.044 141 .000 .324 .197 .451
Counselling 1.438 141 .153 .099 −.037 .234
Friendship 5.574 141 .000 .310 .200 .420
Table 4. Mentoring practices exhibited in QS firms showing rankings

Mentoring practices Mean Std. deviation Ranking Sig. (1-tailed)
Role modelling 4.268 .798 1 0.000
Acceptance 3.824 .765 2 0.000
Challenging assignments 3.817 .847 3 0.000
Friendship 3.810 .662 4 0.000
Protection 3.711 .637 5 0.000
Exposure/Visibility 3.683 .811 6 0.004
Counselling 3.599 .817 7 0.077
Coaching 3.507 .788 8 0.458
Sponsorship 3.176 .708 9 0.000
The ranks, years of experience, and professional membership of respondents shows the
cogent nature of this research. It is evident from findings that a good number of the
respondents have participated in mentoring relationships. This indicates that despite the
lack of attention given to the concept of mentoring in construction industry both in the
Nigeria and in Africa in general according to [2], respondents have been involved in
mentoring relationships either as a mentor, a mentee or as both. However, there still
exist those that are yet to or not sure of their participation.
Considering how the respondents rated the mentoring practices exhibited in Nige-
rian QS firms, the top three ranked practices by the quantity surveyors are role modelling
(4.268), acceptance (3.824) and challenging assignments (3.817) while sponsorship
(3.176) was ranked as the lowest exhibited mentoring practice. However, according to the
hypothesis (Ha:U > U0 and U0 = 3.5), it can be said that only first six practices are
exhibited in the quantity surveying firms. These include role modelling (p-value = 0.000),
acceptance (p-value = 0.000), challenging assignments (p-value = 0.000), friendship
(p-value = 0.000), protection (p-value = 0.000), and exposure/visibility (p-value = 0.004).
Role modelling is the most exhibited mentoring practice in Nigerian QS firms and
followed by acceptance. According to [13] these practices will help in the psychosocial
development of the protégées in these firms. Role modelling as opined by [14] will help
guide these young professionals on the required behaviours for success. Furthermore,
among the six identified mentoring practices exhibited in the QS firms are challenging
assignments, protection, and exposure/visibility which according to [13] aid in the
development of the career of protégées.
5 Conclusion
The need to assess the exhibited mentoring practices in construction professional firms
has become necessary as a result of the need to maintain high skill work force that will
sustain competitive advantage in these firms. The study determined the involvement of
construction professionals in mentoring relationship and the role they played in the
relationship in their respective firms through the survey research carried out. Further-
more, the study has been able to ascertain the exhibited mentoring practices in the
respective firms that will help maintain high skill work force and sustain competitive
advantage of these firms in the Nigerian construction industry. Base on finding, the
study can conclude that most construction professionals have been involved in men-
toring relationships either as a mentor, a mentee or even as both. Nevertheless, there are
still some construction professionals who for one reason or the other have not been
involved in any mentoring relationship neither were they sure of their role. Mentoring
practices such as role modelling, acceptance, challenging assignments, friendship,
protection, and exposure and visibility are exhibited in these construction professional
firms whereas counselling, coaching, and sponsorship are not exhibited as such.
Exhibiting these practices in the firms will help maintain high skill work force. The
study therefore recommends that construction firms pay maximum attention to coun-
selling, coaching, and sponsorship the same way attention is being given to role
modelling, acceptance, challenging assignments, friendship, protection, and exposure
and visibility. In addition, the various professional bodies of construction professionals
should ensure maximum implementation of the mentoring practices not exhibited in the
firms. This will guarantee that necessary skills and knowledge is sustained in the firm
and the profession in general. Furthermore, despite this study was confined to quantity
surveying firms, studies on the involvement and role in mentoring relationships, and
the exhibited mentoring practices should be extended to other professional firms in the
construction industry where such study is yet to be carried out.
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surveying graduates in Malaysia: employers’ views and expectations. Int. J. Built Environ.
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role models? Psychol. Women Q. 30, 36–46 (2006)
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16. Aldridge, S.: A Short Introduction to Counselling. Sage Publications, London (2014)
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(2016)
23. Field, A.: Discovering Statistics, Using SPSS for Windows. Sage Publications, London
(2005)
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London (2009)
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A Model of Network Communication
in Building Information Modelling
Supply Chain
Oluseye Olugboyega(&) and Abimbola Windapo
Department of Construction Economics and Management,

University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
OLGOLU005@myuct.ac.za, oolugboyega@yahoo.com,
abimbola.windapo@uct.ac.za
Abstract. The exact nature of communication among the BIM supply chain
members and the significant influence of BIM process requirements on the nature
of communication among the BIM supply chain members is yet to be understood.
This study explores the influences of BIM process requirements on the nature of
the communication process among the BIM supply chain members. The study
employed a Meta-Analysis methodology for interpreting the concepts of network
communication in BIM supply chain, and for developing the conceptual model.
Results indicated that the two dimensions of network communication (mixed
communication and structured communication) showed consistent relations with
network communication. The findings provide empirical insights into the nature
of network communication and highlight the importance of communication
channels, communication protocols and platforms, and structured e-meeting in
BIM supply chain within collaborative working processes among the supply
chain stakeholders.
Keywords: BIM BIM supply chain Communication in BIM

Network Communication Mixed Communication
Structured Communication Communication theory
1 Introduction
Communication refers to the transmission of resources from one party to another using
shared symbols and media [9]. Communication is essential to the efficient performance of
the project participants because of the difference in their skills, competence, interests, and
organization structure [35]. [4] build on this conclusion, stating that communication is
crucial for problem-solving, decision-making, integration and collaboration, under-
standing, dispute-resolution, project objectives determination, and efficient coordination.
Traditionally in the construction industry, communication among the project par-
ticipants has been about the transmission of project information only; while other
important resources such as data and knowledge (opinions, ideas, skills, technology,
and feedback) were not given adequate consideration for transmission. This was
because of the organizational fragmentation and lack collaborative work processes in
the construction industry [33]. Non-communication of data and knowledge alongside

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_14
134 O. Olugboyega and A. Windapo
information was responsible for ineffective communication practices, which has

manifested in the inefficiency of project participants and poor performance of projects
[3]. Additionally, the multi-disciplinary nature of project participants is also a challenge
to the communication process and practice.
According to [12, 15], the solution to these challenges is to adopt Building
Information Modeling (BIM) on construction projects. BIM provides structure and
control for communication processes and practice; thereby ensuring communication
effectiveness [12]. BIM also turns multi-disciplinary project participants into a BIM
supply chain by subjecting the participants to BIM processes and principles [23, 34].
Thus, this study describes the BIM supply chain as short-term or long-term networks of
clients, subcontractors, main contractors, suppliers, and consultants participating in a
BIM-based project [16, 25, 31].
Pieces of evidence abound for the effectiveness of communication in BIM-based
projects [8, 12, 17]. Nevertheless, the true nature of communication among the BIM
supply chain and the significant influence of BIM process requirements on the nature of
communication among the BIM supply chain members (BIM-SCM) is yet to be
understood [15, 38]. As a result, this study aims to understand the nature of commu-
nication among the BIM-SCM and establish whether the requirements of the BIM
process influence this form of communication. This paper is presented in four sections.
Section 2: theoretical background on the nature of communication among the BIM-
SCM. Section 3: research methodology for the study. Section 4: findings and discus-
sion of the findings and Sect. 5: conclusions and limitations of the study.
2 Nature of Communication Among the BIM-SCM

and the Influence of BIM Process Requirements
2.1 Network Communication
Communication theory is required to provide insight into the nature of the commu-
nication process. Until now, communication theory has provided explanations for the
nature and pattern of communications that emerged in the construction project supply
chain [6, 13, 22, 32, 36, 37]. However, recent studies on communication process
among the BIM supply chain have shown that the existing communication theories
provide little or no insight into the nature of communication among the BIM supply
chain [10, 15, 26–28, 30]. For example, [15] assessed the relevance of communication
theories and media in the construction industry following the introduction of BIM in
the sector. The study concluded that BIM has a significant impact on communication
plans. [26] theorized that BIM improves the communication process among the BIM
supply chain by enhancing the interoperability of information between the various
software applications deployed by the supply chain members.
BIM process requires the communication of resources such as data, information,
and knowledge [35]. This requirement complicates the communication process and
alters the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM [12]. Thus, ensuring effective
communication of resources among the BIM-SCM means that the members must be
interconnected in all directions of the chain (network) [14]. This interconnection is
A Model of Network Communication 135
achieved in the BIM process with an electronic collaborative network (e-mail, tele-
conferencing, mobile phones, internet, multimedia, virtual reality, and intranet) and
network structures (contractual relationships, coordination, integration and collabora-
tion requirements) [8, 9]. The above descriptions indicate a unique form of commu-
nication (that is, an organized and controlled communication among the BIM-SCM that
takes place via an electronic collaborative network and network structures). This study
describes this form of communication as Network Communication. The following sub-
sections identify the features and dimensions of Network Communication.
2.1.1 Mixed Communication

For communication to be effective among the BIM-SCM, it must take place across the
project lifecycle, across different communication facets, and must compose of different
methods of transmitting resources among members of the BIM supply chain [5]. [2]
inferred that communication across facets such as interpersonal, inter-group, intra-
group, inter-professional, intra-organization, inter-organizational, and among team
members is essential to integration. Communication across different facets becomes
essential among the BIM-SCM owing to the need for integration and collaboration in
BIM processes and because groups and teams are generally formed from several
specialist organizations in BIM supply chain to undertake BIM-related tasks. [9] found
that communication across different facets among the supply chain members is
essential to carrying out of the normal practices of individual organizations such as
information generation and management, planning and control, and decision-making.
According to [11], cross-functional and cross-organizational communication are some
of the ways by which the BIM process alters the nature of communication among the
BIM-SCM. Also, [21] established that the BIM process requires the BIM-SCM to keep
open communication and described open communication as a form of communication
that permits a multi-directional flow of resources. [29] observed that in BIM, the multi-
directional flow of resources among the BIM-SCM means that each member grants the
other members a non-exclusive license to reproduce, distribute, display, or otherwise
use that member’s contributions for the needs of the project.
Based on the above discussion, Mixed Communication emerged as a term to
describe a dimension of the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM. Mixed
Communication implies a pattern of communication among the BIM-SCM that consists
of different communication facets, takes place across the project life-cycle, contains a
mixed methods approach to transmitting resources, occurs at different places at the
same time or same place at different times, as well as demonstrates the collaboration
and integration requirements of BIM processes [5, 8].
2.1.2 Structured Communication

BIM process requires the planning for communication channels, communication plat-
forms, communication protocols, structured e-meeting, real-time communication, and
joint problem-solving techniques among the BIM-SCM [5, 7, 9, 19]. This serves as a
manifestation of a clearly defined communication process. According to [9], the use of
communication channels such as meetings, discussion, and communication technolo-
gies enhance communication flow and promote better understanding among the BIM-
SCM. Communication process becomes effective when the flow and understanding of
resources are enhanced among the members [2]. In the BIM process, the effectiveness of
the communication process is made possible by the BIM process requirements such as
usage of communication protocols, which gives structure and consistency to the com-
munication process [8]. A case study of communication among the BIM-SCM by [1]
confirmed that BIM process requirements ensure the occurrence of overlapping inter-
action, flexible formalities, and transparency in the communication process. In the
traditional work process, conflicting interests and lack of cooperation occur because of
the lack of requirements for the establishment of a secured line of communication and
the use of a formal communication channel [33]. However, in BIM, the requirements for
the communication process ensures cooperation among the BIM-SCM. Studies by [19,
20] confirm this claim. [20] demonstrated how the use of wireless network and col-
laborative platforms for real-time communication support cooperation among the BIM-
SCM. [19] confirmed the flexibility of formalities among the BIM-SCM through real-
time communication and structured e-meetings as enabled by the use of Wireless
Fidelity, cameras, laptops, mobile phones, and web-based communication tools.
The above explanation induced a pattern of the communication process and this
communication pattern is termed Structured Communication. The term Structured
Communication can, therefore, be described as a form of communication that takes
place across clearly defined channels, platforms, protocols, time-space, and objectives.
3 Method
3.1 Concept Formulation

This study sought to understand the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM
and establish whether the requirements of the BIM process precipitate the nature of
communication. The study described the nature of communication among the BIM-
SCM as Network Communication based on the influence that the BIM process has on
communication among the BIM-SCM. Network Communication was developed into a
conceptual model comprising two dimensions and twenty-one components. These
dimensions were termed Mixed Communication and Structured Communication. The
dimensions in the model and the related components are shown in Fig. 1. The model
integrated BIM process requirements with communication processes among the BIM-
SCM. The model also gives an adequate representation of the nature of communication
among the BIM-SCM as influenced by the BIM process requirements. This gives an
appropriate communication process in BIM-based projects. The model explains the
various mechanisms that differentiate communication among the BIM-SCM from other
forms of communication among the construction supply chain. These differences are
captured as Network Communication (Mixed Communication and Structured Com-
munication). Section 2 has elaborated on Mixed Communication and Structured
Communication. A meta-analysis of the database developed was also conducted to
provide further support for these dimensions and their components.
Fig. 1. A model of Network Communication in BIM supply chain.
3.2 Database
To understand the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM; a literature database
was compiled from Scopus, Engineering Village, Ebsco, Google Scholar, and Web of
Science. The search was limited to peer-reviewed articles that were published from
1992–2019. The search was done using keywords such as communication among BIM
project team, communication among BIM stakeholders, communication among BIM
supply chain, communication in BIM process, communication tools and methods in
BIM, effective communication and BIM, and effective communication among the pro-
ject team. These efforts resulted in 617 articles after the elimination of articles that were
not published in the English Language and not construction-related. The database for
the meta-analysis review was created using these articles.
3.3 Meta-analytic Procedures

The study used the meta-analytic procedures of [18]. Meta-analytic estimates such as
correlation coefficients, relative weight, effect size, variance, credibility interval, and
confidence interval were carried out in this study. The study reported both the confi-
dence interval and credibility interval around the estimated population correlation in
order to get detailed information about the nature of the correlation coefficients. While
credibility intervals provide an estimate of the variability of individual correlations
across the meta-analytic database; confidence intervals provide an estimate of the
variability around the estimated population mean and correlation coefficient that is due
to sampling error. Besides, the standard error of the mean was estimated. This was done
in order to measure the accuracy with which a sample represents a population.

4.1 Nature of Communication Among the BIM-SCM
To understand the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM, the characteristics
(components) of the type of communication that normally takes place among the BIM-
SCM were identified from the literature (as presented in Sects. 2 and 3.1). The results
of the meta-analysis estimate for the components of the type of communication taking
place among the BIM-SCM are presented in Table 1. Real-time communication with
an effect size of 3.114 has the highest validity among the components. Components
with moderate validity include reciprocal flow of resources (d = 1.151), multi-
directional flow of resources (d = 1.177), regular interpersonal communication (1.126),
regular team communication (d = 1.087), communication across the stages in the
project lifecycle (d = 1.164), problem-solving structured e-meeting (d = 1.190),
feedback communication (d = 0.802), and regular inter-organizational communication
(d = 0.880).
Table 1. Meta-analysis estimate of the validities of the components of network communication.

Components of network communication Frequency Relative Effect size
(f) weight (w) (d)
Mixed communication
Problem-solving structured e-meeting 16 0.014 1.190
A multi-directional flow of resources 17 0.015 1.177
information
Communication across the stages in the 18 0.016 1.164
project life-cycle
Reciprocal flow of resources information 19 0.017 1.151
Regular inter-personal communication 195 0.180 1.126
Regular team communication 192 0.177 1.087
Regular inter-organizational communication 176 0.162 0.880
Feedback communication 170 0.157 0.802
Regular inter-group communication 170 0.157 0.802
Positive corporate communication 109 0.100 0.012
Structured communication
Real-time communication 210 0.507 3.114
Establishment of a secured line of 6 0.014 0.579
communication
Documentation of communication 15 0.036 0.416
Formation of open and formal 16 0.038 0.398
communication channels
Usage of communication protocols 17 0.041 0.380
Adoption of common electronic 18 0.043 0.362
communication platforms
(continued)
Components of network communication Frequency Relative Effect size
(f) weight (w) (d)
Adoption of joint problem-solving 18 0.043 0.362
techniques
Open-ending structured e-meeting 23 0.055 0.271
Flexibility of formalities 23 0.055 0.271
Agenda-driven structured e-meeting 24 0.057 0.253
Timely communication 44 0.106 0.108
In general, the relative weight and effect size values show a piece of overwhelming
evidence in support of the components of Network Communication. These findings
suggest the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM through the dominating
components. The nature of communication among the BIM-SCM relates to Network
Communication, and it is characterized by regular communication among the team and
groups within the supply chain organizations; as well as across the stages in the project
lifecycle. This regular communication must be reciprocated, allow feedback, be multi-
dimensional, and happen in real time.
4.2 Influence of BIM Process Requirements on the Nature

of Communication
The analysis of the theoretical background in Sect. 2 yields a conceptual model, but the
model was further synthesized using meta-analysis. The results of the meta-analytic
estimates were used to establish the dimensions and components of the model. The use
of meta-analytic estimates to validate the model was necessitated by the need to
evaluate how well the model represents communication among the BIM-SCM in the
real world. As presented in Table 2, the two dimensions of the model of Network
Communication in BIM supply chain [Mixed Communication (r = 0.489) and Struc-
tured Communication (r = 0.105)] were significant predictions of the nature of com-
munication among the BIM-SCM as influenced by BIM process requirements. The
findings of this study show that the form of communication among the BIM-SCM has
collaborative attributes and that these attributes can be explained or summarized as
Mixed communication and Structured communication.
Table 2. Meta-analysis estimate of the validities of the dimensions of network communication.

Meta-analytic estimates Dimensions of network communication
Mixed Structured
communication communication
Correlation coefficient (r) 0.489 0.105
Population mean (M) 108.2 37.6
Sample standard deviation (s) 81.44 57.91
(continued)
Meta-analytic estimates Dimensions of network communication
Mixed Structured
communication communication
Variance (sample standard deviation) (s2) 6633.73 3354.25
Population standard deviation (µ) 77.26 55.22
Variance (population standard 5990.36 3049.32
deviation) (µ2)
Total population (N) 10 11
The standard error of the mean (SEx) 25.76 17.46
95% Confidence Interval 0.011 −0.354
• Lower 0.785 0.524
• Upper
Fisher’s Zr 0.535 0.105
95% Credibility Interval 0.011 −0.370
• Lower 1.060 0.582
• Upper
The findings of this study corroborate the conclusions of [14, 38] who indicated
that the influence of BIM process requirements on the nature of communication among
the BIM-SCM is reflected in need to communicate data and knowledge apart from
information. The communication of information characterizes the traditional form of
communication among the CPSC. The communication of data, knowledge, together
with information among the BIM-SCM is due to the BIM process requirements. This
becomes necessary because of the need to overcome the problems of disorganized and
uncontrolled communication as found in the traditional form of communication. For
example, [17, 21] concluded that the traditional form of communication among the
CPSC is not usually open and lack protocols.
5 Conclusions, Practical Implications, and Limitations
The purpose of this study was to understand the nature of communication among the
BIM-SCM towards establishing the influence of BIM process requirements on this
form of communication. The collaborative attributes of BIM are responsible for net-
work communication among the BIM-SCM. This was presented as a two-dimensional
model. These two dimensions were termed as mixed communication and structured
communication. Mixed communication consisted of nine components, while structured
communication consisted of ten components. The study leveraged theoretical
grounding to conceptualize the model; while meta-analysis was used to validate the
dimensions and components of the model. The findings of this study provide infor-
mation that can guide the understanding of how BIM process requirements have
changed the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM.
Additionally, the information provided in this study is useful for the effective
coordination of the communication process in BIM-based projects. An empirical case
study of the nature of communication among the BIM-SCM will benefit significantly
from the insights provided in this study. Understanding the nature of communication
among the BIM-SCM will enable the understanding of the communication process in
BIM and enable BIM managers to establish expectations in the communication process
to set the foundation for a truly collaborative BIM project. The insight will also provide
a sufficient framework and depth to support the development of a generally applicable
model.
The study was unable to produce vigorous quantitative findings because of a lack of
robust analysis and primary data. The studies used as the database for this study did not
have the same research questions. These incompatibilities serve as limitations for the
findings of this study. Nevertheless, this study has presented a conceptual model that
can be validated in an in-depth and rigorous future study. Also, for future research, it is
essential to validate the components of network communication among the BIM-SCM.
Acknowledgment. The financial assistance of the University of Cape Town (UCT), TETFUND
and the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. The
opinions expressed, and conclusions arrived at, are those of the authors and are not necessarily to
be attributed to UCT, TETFUND or NRF.
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A Building Information Modelling-Integrated
Model of Construction Project Performance
Indicators
Oluseye Olugboyega(&) and Abimbola Windapo

University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
OLGOLU005@myuct.ac.za, oolugboyega@yahoo.com
Abstract. The traditional construction project performance indicators are no

longer the sole determinant of the performance of construction projects, firms,
and actors because other construction performance indicators and factors such as
Building Information Modelling are increasingly becoming important and rel-
evant. This paper identifies a comprehensive set of construction project per-
formance indicators, and it establishes a new, integrated, model for evaluating
construction performance. The model uses ten types of performance indicators
and four types of performance factors for Building Information Modelling-based
construction projects. The result of the study is a set of comprehensive con-
struction project performance indicators that are useful in enhancing the per-
formance of construction firms, projects, and actors. The paper concludes with
recommendations for the development of relative weightings and measurement
models for the indicators and the development of measurement models for the
various components of construction project performance indicators and Building
Information Modelling performance indicators in future studies.
Keywords: Construction industry indicators

Construction project performance indicators Project success criteria
Key performance index Building Information Modelling
Construction performance BIM performance
Construction performance evaluation
1 Introduction
Construction project performance indicators (CPPIs) are measures of construction

project success and systems of measuring construction performance [4]. Different
terminologies such as construction industry indicators (CIIs), key performance indi-
cators (KPIs), and project success criteria (PSC) have been used to describe CPPIs. For
this study and clarity of discussion, the term CPPIs will be adopted in this paper.
According to [11], CPPIs are useful for the decision-making process and promoting
changes in organizations. Besides, [2] reported that CPPIs are useful for promoting best
practices and establishing business objectives in the construction industry. Another
notable importance of CPPIs is their usefulness in improving the application of con-
struction management techniques and identifying the strengths and weaknesses in the

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_15
A Building Information Modelling-Integrated Model of CPPIs 145
performance of the various sub-sections of the construction industry [26]. There are
emerging pieces of evidence to suggest that the existing models of CPPIs are inade-
quate [15, 19, 33]. [15] concluded that the existing models of CPPIs do not represent
the various aspects of construction project performance. [33] maintained that the
dynamic nature of the construction industry requires regular updating of the CPPIs. In
the opinion of [19], construction performance evaluation systems do not reflect the
effect of increased globalization, improvement in competition and efficiency of con-
struction firms, technological evolution, and increased regulation. These evidences
prove that the existing CPPIs models are not comprehensive and do not incorporate the
impact of performance factors (project success factors) such as innovative construction
project management systems (sustainable construction system, lean construction sys-
tem, concurrent construction system), Building Information Modelling (BIM), and
other Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies [31].
Construction project performance is a multifaceted concept, and a comprehensive
model of its indicators must address a unique dimension of project performance and
reflect the impact of performance factors on the indicators [3, 13]. This is important
because a small change in any of the performance factors will result in a significant
effect on the indicators and the estimated construction project performance. This affirms
the conclusion of [34] that the level of performance of construction projects depends
mainly on the obtainable value of performance factors as indicated by the quality of the
construction project management system. BIM is a construction project management
system with ample performance factors that are capable of improving the processes of
project design and construction as well as increasing the level of competence of
construction firms, workers and professionals [14]. Hence, there is a need to extend the
dimensions of the existing models of CPPIs in order to safeguard their adequacy for
ensuring superior performance, priorities of each of the indicators, and integration of
the indicators of common performance factors.
There are justifications for a BIM-integrated model of CPPIs. First, a BIM-
integrated model of CPPIs will enhance construction project management and enable a
more comprehensive explanation of construction performance. Second, a BIM-
integrated model of CPPIs will provide a clear and unambiguous evaluation system for
construction performance. The purpose of this study is to identify a comprehensive set
of CPPIs in order to establish a BIM-integrated evaluation system for construction
project performance.
To achieve the aim of this study, the study developed a theoretical background in
Sect. 2 to identify a comprehensive set of CPPIs and performance indicators for BIM.
In Sect. 3, the study categorized the CPPIs into dimensions and components, integrated
the CPPIs with BIM’s performance indicators, and then used meta-analytic techniques
to test the validities of the dimensions and components empirically. In this way, the
study strived to synthesize the literature on CPPIs and BIM’s performance indicators.
The findings from the meta-analytic estimate are presented in Sect. 4; while Sect. 5
was used to present conclusions, limitations of the study, and directions for future
research.
2 Theoretical Background
2.1 Existing Models of CPPIs
Table 1 shows the various models of CPPIs that are available globally. As distinct as
these models appear to be, they also share some similarities such as productivity (time
and cost performance), quality, health and safety, functionality, profitability, and client
satisfaction. Also, there are emerging CPPIs that are targeted towards technological
advancement and the continuous improvement of the construction industry. Examples
of the emerging CPPIs are employees’ satisfaction, innovation, the rate of employees
trained, sustainability, growth, technological capability, impact on environment and
biodiversity, energy use, water use, and waste. Collectively, these CPPIs address
industry satisfaction [11, 23, 25]. The emerging CPPIs are derivatives of lessons
learned from the performance of past projects and the industry. The best practice is to
update the model of CPPIs with the emerging CPPIs owing to the dynamics of con-
struction projects and industry. However, only a few models are being updated regu-
larly. The United Kingdom model of CPPIs represents the best form of CPPIs as it is
updated annually [29], while the South African model of CPPIs developed in 2003 is
among the redundant models. Its development has enabled the South African gov-
ernment to evaluate the impact of contemporary interventions for timely and pro-active
execution of revised legislation, strategies and development agendas to act as an
updated roadmap for the future wellbeing and growth of the South African construction
industry every year [22].
Table 1. Models of CPPIs.

CPPIs model by Dimensions References
country
United Kingdom Productivity (time and cost performance), profits, quality, safety, client [8]
satisfaction with the product, client satisfaction with service, cost and time
predictability, health and safety, business performance
United State of Cost, time, value, effectiveness, safety, change, rework [1]
America Project cost growth, project budget factor, project schedule growth, project [9]
schedule factor, total project duration, change cost factor, recordable
incident rate, lost workday case incident rate, total field rework factor
phase cost, factor phase cost growth, phase duration factor, construction
phase duration
Croatia Quality, cost, number of investor interferences, changes in project support, [26]
time increases, client satisfaction, employees’ satisfaction, innovation and
learning, time and identification of client’s interest
Malaysia Revenue and profits, the benefit to stakeholder, cost, time, quality, safety, [16]
achieving scope, customer satisfaction, technical specifications, functional
requirements, market share, competitive advantage, reputation
Brazil Cost deviation, time deviation, degree of client satisfaction (user and [11]
owner), average time for selling unit, contracting index, ratio between the
number of accidents and total man-hour input, non-conformity index in the
unit delivery, percentage of plan completed, construction site best practice,
supplier performance, number of non-conformity in audits, degree of
employee satisfaction, rate of training courses, rate of employees trained
(continued)
CPPIs model by Dimensions References
country
Scotland Product, service, quality, time, cost, safety, environment, people, business [32]
Chile Safety, productivity, quality, the efficiency of labor, rework, training, [27]
planning effectiveness, cost variation, schedule variation
Productivity, planning, effectiveness, urgent orders, risk rate, accident rate, [10]
the efficiency of direct labor, subcontracting rate, cost client, change in
amount contracted, deviation of construction due date, cost deviation by
project
South Africa Client satisfaction, contractor satisfaction, procurement indicators, health [22]
and safety
Saudi Arabia Client satisfaction, communication, safety, closeness to budget, [19]
profitability, payment, claims, staff experience, the planning period
India The benefit, risk, project status, decision effectiveness, production, cost- [24]
effectiveness, customer commitment, stakeholders, project management
China People, cost, time, quality, safety, client satisfaction, communication, [7]
environment
Canada Cost, time, quality, safety, scope, innovation, sustainability, client [6, 28]
satisfaction
Vietnam Construction cost and time, client satisfaction, quality management, team [21]
performance, change management, material management, safety
Thailand On time, under budget, specifications, efficiency, effectiveness, safety, [35]
defects, stakeholders, disputes
Korea Profitability, growth, stability, customer satisfaction, market share, [38]
development, technological capability, business efficiency, information,
organizational competency
Portugal Productivity, profitability, growth, safety, customer satisfaction, [25]
predictability (cost and time), rework index, direct labor efficiency,
employee satisfaction, defects, impact on environment and biodiversity,
energy use, water use, waste
Ghana Client satisfaction, cost, time, quality, health and safety, business [23]
performance, productivity, people, environment
Denmark Time, defects remediation, number of defects during handing-over, [5]
accident frequency, contribution ratio, work intensity, labor productivity,
change in project price during construction, square meter price, customer
satisfaction
Even though the model of CPPIs is expected to be unique in terms of the national
context and vision for the construction industry; the model must also reflect the
international best practices and advances in the construction industry [31]. Many
models of CPPIs do not measure up in this regard [7, 9, 16, 21, 23–25, 27, 38]. For
instance, most of the existing models employed a single indicator to measure the
satisfaction of all agents and did not consider the functionality of construction projects.
Additionally, the time and cost performance of the project was not considered in some
of the existing models of CPPIs. Other drawbacks of the existing models of CPPIs are
the use of percentage satisfaction level for evaluation, the lack of components to
capture the exact reasons for all the problems experienced by project stakeholders, the
lack of indicator for monitoring and evaluating project impact on the industry, non-
separation of project functionality from project quality, and the use of a single indicator
to measure the satisfaction of project stakeholders. A comprehensive model of CPPIs is
therefore required to address these drawbacks.
2.2 BIM and Construction Project Performance

Construction project performance is determined by the performance indicators of the
construction project management system employed for the project and the effectiveness
of the project stakeholders (denoted by the construction project performance indicators)
[36]. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a significant construction project
management system that provides efficient integration and collaboration tools and
platforms for construction management [14]. The performance indicators of BIM on
construction projects are signified by the level of network communication, knowledge
sharing and transfer, information sharing and exchange, and trust-based relationships
among the project stakeholders [17]. According to [30], BIM has a multiplier effect on
CPPIs through its performance indicators. Thus, there is a need for a new model of
CPPIs that will incorporate BIM performance indicators (BIM-PIs) [20, 37].
3 Method
3.1 Concept Formulation

A conceptual model of integrated construction project performance indicators (CPPIs)
and BIM performance indicators (BIM-PIs) was developed in this study based on the
theoretical background presented in Sect. 2. The model integrated two sets of perfor-
mance indicators (a comprehensive set of CPPIs and BIM-PIs) to conceptualize an
effective, systematic, and comprehensive method of evaluating BIM-based construction
projects. The model uses sixty-three components across ten dimensions of CPPIs and
four dimensions of BIM-PIs. The components and dimensions for the model were
identified by a critical examination of global best practices and by addressing the
contextual limitations of the industry-specific performance measurement practices.
As shown in Fig. 1, the dimensions of CPPIs include contractor satisfaction, client
satisfaction, consultants’ satisfaction, subcontractors’ satisfaction, suppliers’ satisfac-
tion, health and safety performance, time performance, cost performance, industry
satisfaction, and quality performance. The dimensions for BIM-PIs are network com-
munication, knowledge sharing, and transfer, information sharing and exchange, and
trust-based relationships among the project stakeholders. The level of application of the
model corresponds to whether a project to be evaluated was delivered using BIM or
conventional project delivery systems (CPDS). As presented in Fig. 1, the performance
of BIM-based construction projects must be evaluated using the ten dimensions of
CPPIs and the four dimensions of BIM-PIs. This is necessitated by the need to evaluate
the performance of the construction projects and the performance of BIM on the
construction projects. it is Expected that the BIM-PIs will indirectly boost the per-
formance of the construction projects through their direct effects on the CPPIs.
[30] describes this phenomenon as the multiplier effect of BIM on construction pro-
jects. Also, the model applies to projects delivered using CPDS. For such projects, the
performance evaluation must be done using the ten dimensions of CPPIs.
Fig. 1. A BIM-integrated model of CPPIs.
Although, the selection of appropriate performance indicators depends on the

objectives and expectations of project stakeholders or industry regulators. However,
[12] acknowledges that it is usually best to evaluate projects using a wide, project
delivery system-based and globally relevant performance indicators.
3.2 Database
Databases such as Scopus, Engineering Village, Ebsco, Google Scholar, and Web of
Science were searched for peer-reviewed articles from 1962 to 2019. The terms that
were used to identify the articles include project success, project performance, con-
struction industry indicators, construction key performance indicators, and BIM per-
formance indicators. The search results were restricted by language (English
Language), document type (abstract of published items), timespan, and exclusion of
patents and citations. The search efforts resulted in the identification of 1,331 abstracts.
Employing electronic search engines, articles that are not construction project specific
and that are not useful for meta-analysis (that is, articles containing information needed
to calculate correlation coefficient) were eliminated. Articles that mentioned the
dimensions of CPPIs and BIM-PIs, as well as their components, were selected for
inclusion in the database for the meta-analysis. Finally, a total of thirty-one (31) articles
were identified for the database.
3.3 Meta-analytic Procedure

Meta-analytic procedures defined by [18] was used in this study. Meta-analysis was
employed to estimate the validities of the dimensions and components of CPPIs. The
sample means, weight and effect size was computed for the components identified for
each of the dimensions of CPPIs; while population means, standard deviation, com-
bined sample size, correlation coefficient, variance, 95% credibility interval and con-
fidence interval, and Fisher’s Z were computed for the dimensions of the CPPIs. In
order to ensure the confidence and reliability of these meta-analytical estimates, the
variance of the observed individual estimates for the effects of both sampling and
measurement error was corrected. Credibility intervals (95%) and confidence intervals
(95%) were estimated and reported for the correlation coefficients because both cred-
ibility and confidence intervals convey unique information about the nature of the
precise estimates.
The sample weight was estimated to ensure that correlations ensuing from studies
with larger sample sizes have greater weight. The effect size for the components was
estimated using Cohen’s d effect size. The Fisher’s Z transformation was estimated in
order to transform all effect size estimates and to moderate the effects of non-normality
of the sampling distribution.
4.1 Comprehensive Sets of Construction Project Performance Indicators

To achieve the objective of this study, a conceptual model of BIM-integrated CPPIs
was developed from a meta-analysis study of literature. The validities of the CPPIs
were determined using meta-analytical estimates as discussed in Sect. 3. The meta-
analysis results presented in Table 2 show that all the dimensions are valid indicators of
construction project performance. Health and safety performance shows the highest
overall validity (r = 0.594) but is directly followed by suppliers’ satisfaction
(r = 0.375). Time performance (r = 0.335), client satisfaction (r = 0.302), contractor
satisfaction (r = 0.261), and industry satisfaction (r = 0.261) show moderately strong
validities. The dimensions with averagely strong validities are quality performance
(r = 0.152), consultants’ satisfaction (r = 0.135), cost performance (r = 0.073), and
subcontractors’ satisfaction (r = 0.043). None of the dimensions has a 95% credibility
and confidence interval of 0. This shows that more than 95% of the individual cor-
relation coefficient for CPPIs dimensions are greater than zero. The findings of this
study imply that all ten dimensions of CPPI are relevant in evaluating the performance
of construction projects.
Table 2. Meta-analysis estimate of the validities of the dimensions of CPPIs.

Dimension M SD N r 95% Fisher’s 95% v
C.I Zr C.I
Health and safety 379.80 370.62 5 0.594 0.22 0.683 0.215 0.057
performance 0.818 1.152
Suppliers’ satisfaction 105.75 13.62 4 0.375 −0.049 0.394 −0.049 0.051
0.685 0.838
Time performance 168.60 218.93 5 0.335 −0.082 0.348 −0.082 0.048
0.652 0.779
Industry’s satisfaction 113.45 82.73 11 0.261 −0.109 0.267 −0.109 0.037
0.568 0.644
Quality performance 9.14 22.00 5 0.152 −0.261 0.153 −0.267 0.046
0.518 0.573
Consultants’ satisfaction 90.20 17.24 5 0.135 −0.276 0.136 −0.284 0.046
0.505 0.556
Cost performance 87.00 10.23 4 0.073 −0.341 0.073 −0.355 0.048
0.463 0.502
Subcontractors’ 85.67 16.44 3 0.043 −0.376 0.040 −0.395 0.050
satisfaction 0.448 0.482
Contractor’s satisfaction 82.91 23.97 16 −0.261 −0.568 −0.267 −0.644 0.037
0.109 0.109
Client’s satisfaction 103.00 38.17 6 −0.302 −0.106 0.312 −0.106 0.045
0.623 0.730
Note: M = population mean, SD = Standard deviation, n = combined sample size,
r = correlation coefficient, v = variance, 95% credibility and confidence interval.
4.2 BIM-Integrated Model for Construction Project Performance

The results of the meta-analysis for the components of the ten CPPIs dimensions are
presented in Table 3. The meta-analysis was done in order to validate further the
conceptual model of BIM-integrated CPPIs that was developed in Sect. 3. As the
results in Table 2 indicate, Cohen’s effect size values suggest a small (d = 0.2) to large
(d = 0.8 and above) practical significance for most of the components. Only eight
components (satisfaction with return on capital (d = 0.170), satisfaction with prof-
itability (d = 0.121), satisfaction with project delivery system (d = 0.000), satisfaction
with return on investment (d = 0.130), satisfaction with claim reduction (d = 0.091),
reduction in accident cost (d = 0.078), satisfaction with staff turnover (d = 0.102), and
reduction in the number of complaints from community (d = 0.079) have low practical
significance. However, these components were not eliminated from their respective
dimensions in the model owing to the high relative weights they exhibited (Table 3).
The established BIM-integrated model of CPPIs was formulated mathematically in
Eqs. 1–4 to show the multiplier effect of BIM-PIs on the CPPIs.
Table 3. Meta-analysis estimate of the validities of the components of CPPIs.

Components of CPPIs Frequency Relative Cohen’s
(n) weight (w) effect size (d)
Contractor satisfaction
Satisfaction with growth 5 0.003 3.438
Satisfaction with stability (debt ratio) 68 0.051 0.622
Satisfaction with impact on society 97 0.072 0.587
Satisfaction with corporate strategy 96 0.072 0.546
Satisfaction with business process 94 0.070 0.462
Satisfaction with technological capability 94 0.070 0.462
Satisfaction with efficiency 93 0.069 0.420
Satisfaction with business efficiency 92 0.069 0.379
Satisfaction with return on capital 87 0.065 0.170
Satisfaction with profitability 80 0.060 0.121
Satisfaction with human resources development 98 0.073 0.629
Satisfaction with the payment system 95 0.071 0.504
Satisfaction with competency 72 0.054 0.455
Satisfaction with learning and knowledge 93 0.069 0.420
management
Satisfaction with return on value added 93 0.069 0.420
Satisfaction with legal claims and litigation reduction 74 0.055 0.371
Client satisfaction
Satisfaction with the project team 178 0.288 1.964
Satisfaction with value for money 79 0.127 0.628
Satisfaction with the functionality of the project 79 0.127 0.628
Satisfaction with project document quality 81 0.131 0.576
Satisfaction with return on investment 98 0.158 0.130
Satisfaction with project delivery system 103 0.166 0.000
Consultants’ satisfaction
Satisfaction with the reliability of service 64 0.141 1.519
Satisfaction with claim reduction 108 0.239 1.032
Satisfaction with job condition 102 0.226 0.684
Satisfaction with the ability to innovate 84 0.186 0.359
Satisfaction with the speed of service 93 0.206 0.162
Subcontractors’ satisfaction
Satisfaction with job condition 67 0.260 1.134
Satisfaction with the ability to innovate 92 0.357 0.384
Suppliers’ satisfaction
Satisfaction with return on capital investment 124 0.293 1.338
Satisfaction with return on time investment 92 0.217 1.008
Satisfaction with payment terms 100 0.236 0.421
(continued)
Health and safety performance
Reduction in fatalities (number of heavy accidents 1000 0.526 1.673
and death injuries)
Reduction in the accident rate 82 0.043 0.803
Reduction in sickness absence 122 0.064 0.695
Reduction in pollution 286 0.150 0.253
Reduction in accident cost 409 0.215 0.078
Time performance
Reduction in project duration (Speed of construction) 560 0.664 1.787
Reduction in time variation due to change order 63 0.074 0.482
Reduction in time variation due to lack of labor 63 0.074 0.482
Reduction in time variation due to material supply 78 0.092 0.413
delay
Reduction in time variation due to lack of equipment 79 0.093 0.409
Cost performance
Reduction in cost variation due to redesign 102 0.293 1.466
Reduction in cost variation due to safety 79 0.227 0.782
management
Reduction in cost variation due to reworks 83 0.238 0.391
Reduction in cost variation due to compensation for 84 0.241 0.293
accidents
Industry satisfaction
Satisfaction with the green rating 351 0.281 2.871
Satisfaction with the impact on the economy (i.e. job 64 0.051 0.597
creation, GDP growth)
Satisfaction with a ratio value of contracts awarded 65 0.052 0.585
to indigenous contractors
Reduction in the ratio of the work stoppage by 71 0.056 0.513
regulating bodies
Satisfaction with an impact on the national image 78 0.062 0.428
Satisfaction with research and development 79 0.063 0.416
Satisfaction with human capital development 147 0.0117 0.405
Satisfaction with EIA rating 83 0.066 0.368
Satisfaction with innovation 85 0.068 0.344
Satisfaction with staff turnover 105 0.084 0.102
Reduction in the number of complaints from the 120 0.096 0.079
community
Quality performance
Reduction in rework (Rework index) 119 0.260 1.254
Reduction in the number of defects during 70 0.153 0.972
construction (defects remediation)
(continued)
Reduction in the number of outstanding defects (i.e., 111 0.242 0.890
defects at the end of the defect liability period)
Reduction in the number of defects during handing- 78 0.170 0.609
over
Reduction in non-compliance with specifications 79 0.172 0.563
Z ¼ ½u ½c ð1Þ

Xn¼4
u ¼ b1 þ b2 þ b3 þ b4 ¼ i¼1
b ð2Þ
Pn¼16 P P P P
c¼ x1 þ n¼6 x2 þ n¼5 x3 þ n¼3 x4 þ n¼4
i¼1 x5
Pn¼5
i¼1 Pn¼5
i¼1 Pn¼4
i¼1 Pn¼11
i¼1 P ð3Þ
þ i¼1 x6 þ i¼1 x7 þ i¼1 x8 þ i¼1 x9 þ n¼5 i¼1 x10
hXn¼4 i hXn¼16 Xn¼6 Xn¼5
Z¼ i¼1
b i¼1
x1 þ i¼1
x2 þ i¼1
x3
Xn¼3 Xn¼4 Xn¼5 Xn¼5
þ x4 þ x5 þ x6 þ x7 ð4Þ
i¼1
Xn¼4
i¼1
Xn¼11
i¼1
Xn¼5 i i¼1
þ i¼1
x8 þ i¼1
x9 þ i¼1
x10
where Z = Performance Score for a BIM-based Construction Project; u = Total

Performance Score for BIM on the Construction Project; c = Total Performance Score
for CPPIs; b1 = Performance Score for Network Communication; b2 = Performance
Score for knowledge sharing and transfer; b3 = Performance Score for Information
Sharing and Exchange; b4 = Performance Score for Trust-based Relationships;
x1 = Performance Score for Contractor Satisfaction; x2 = Performance Score for
Client Satisfaction; x3 = Performance Score for Consultants’ Satisfaction;
x4 = Performance Score for Subcontractors’ Satisfaction; x5 = Performance Score
for Suppliers’ Satisfaction; x6 = Performance Score for Health and Safety Perfor-
mance; x7 = Performance Score for Time Performance; x8 = Performance Score for
Cost Performance; x9 = Performance Score for Industry Satisfaction; x10 = Perfor-
mance Score for Quality Performance.
5 Conclusion
This study identified a comprehensive set of CPPIs and established a BIM-integrated

evaluation system for construction project performance. In particular, the study con-
tributes to the literature on construction project performance evaluation in at least four
ways. First, it shows that there are ten distinct dimensions of CPPIs for projects that are
based on CPDS. These ten dimensions meaningfully and comprehensively explain the
concept of construction project performance. This finding has weighty practical

implications in that the model is useful in ensuring organizational productivity and
projects’ physical output. Second, the findings provide further support for the extension
of CPPIs dimensions. Third, the findings show the relative importance and components
of industry satisfaction such as satisfaction with a green rating, satisfaction with
innovation, satisfaction with impact on the national image, and satisfaction with the
impact on the economy. This contribution is of great consequence in that the literature
has not previously identified the full components of industry satisfaction with con-
struction project performance. Fourth, the findings (as depicted in Eq. 4) speak to the
relative contribution of BIM in evaluating the performance of construction projects.
In sum, this meta-analytic review has helped to identify and synthesize the
dimensions and components of CPPIs across studies and countries. Given the evidence
put forward in this study, future research should concentrate on the following gaps:
empirical investigation of the significance and relationships of the dimensions and
components of the BIM-integrated model of CPPIs, development of software tech-
nology to simplify the application of the model, and development of standardized
formulas and measurement models for the components of the model.
6 Limitations of the Study
Considering that the study is meta-analytic research, it contains the limitations of the
studies on which the database for the study was built. The study could not test the
correlation coefficients of the BIM-PIs dimensions and components identified for
CPPIs dimensions, owing to a lack of research on them. A final limitation of this study
is that the study was not able to investigate boundary conditions that might apply to the
BIM-integrated model of CPPIs. The study recognizes that components are moderating
the dimensions of BIM-PI, but these were not covered in this study.
Acknowledgments. The financial assistance of the University of Cape Town (UCT), TET-
FUND and the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowl-
edged. The opinions expressed, and conclusions arrived at, are those of the authors and are not
necessarily to be attributed to UCT, TETFUND or NRF.
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Graduating Female Students’ Long-Term
Career Decisions and Underrepresentation
of Women in South Africa’s
Construction Industry
Yolanda Moraba(&) and Oluwayomi Babatunde
School of Construction, Economics, and Management,

Wits University, Johannesburg, South Africa
mmanoko.moraba@students.wits.ac.za
Abstract. The underrepresentation of women in South Africa’s construction

industry has not improved over the past decade despite the increase of the
graduation of females in the university’s faculty of the built environment. This
study investigates the career decisions made by graduating female students based
on their perceptions of the construction industry, and how their long-term career
decision affects the underrepresentation of women therein. This pilot study used
an online questionnaire distributed to female students registered for BSc Honours
in Quantity Surveying at a university in South Africa. The pilot study was
extended with interviews conducted with recent QS graduates. The findings from
the study report on the factors that motivated female students and recent grad-
uates to study a QS degree, the challenges experienced during their studies, and
how the experienced challenges influence their long-term career decisions. To
sustain the industry’s business development and growth, graduating female
students need to be attracted and retained by the construction industry.
Keywords: Barriers Career decisions Construction education Factors

Female postgraduates
1 Introduction
For years, the persistent underrepresentation of women in South Africa’s construction

industry has been a critical area of concern [21]. The general characteristic of the
construction industry is that it is male favoured with the lack of presence of females,
especially in top influential positions [15]. The traditions, organizational cultures and
the sexist attitudes that exist within the industry play a vital role when employing
females in the industry [14, 21]. As a result, females currently employed in the con-
struction industry are found more in administrative roles than in technical roles [2, 21].
In universities, the faculty of the built environment has experienced a steady
increase in the number of female students registering and graduating from construction-
related programmes [8, 9]. This increase, however, is not reflected in the industry’s
workplace and women remain underrepresented [8]. The long-term career decisions of
graduating female students within construction-related degrees programmes are

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_16
Graduating Female Students’ Long-Term Career Decisions and Underrepresentation 159
reported to be influenced by the barriers found in the construction industry [13]. These
barriers include the perceived unsafe nature of construction, challenging labour
requirements and the dangerous work environment [13]. This study explores factors
that motivated graduating female student to join the construction industry and how their
long-term career decision within the industry influences the under-representation of
females in South Africa’s construction industry.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Factors Motivating Construction Education

Career paths are often decided on the final years of a person’s high school career [14].
However, Bigelow et al. [15] report that the career-decision making process is often
complicated for high school students and more than 80% of students in university
believe that they made their career decision too early, with some reporting that they
would change careers given a chance. In high school, females report that they face
gender-based career stereotyping, which makes it harder for them to choose a career in
the construction industry. There is also a sense of isolation that exists amongst young
girls in high school and universities because of the limited networking opportunity
afforded to them to meet other female professionals working in the construction
industry [14, 15].
After high school, female students have a choice to either study a construction-
related degree or a non construction-related degree. Of the students that chose to study
a construction-related degree, the factors that have been identified as influential to their
career decision making process decision include the poor image of the construction
industry [15], the impacts of family members, friends, teachers, and counselors [18].
More factors that enhance the retention of female students include, mentoring, fel-
lowships, scholarships, internships, career opportunities available to them after grad-
uation and industry experience [5].
2.2 Internal Barriers

While the number of female students registering and graduating from construction-
related degree programmes has increased over the years [1, 9, 16], underrepresentation
of women within the construction industry still perpetuates. During the construction
education process, female students face several barriers that have been identified as
internal barriers in this study. These barriers have been found to be the lack of net-
working opportunities for graduating female students to meet and interact with other
female professionals in the industry [6, 22], the male-dominated learning environments
and dominated male academic staff found in universities [6, 22]. The male-dominated
environment is argued to breed gender-based discrimination and harassment against
graduating female students by their male colleagues [10, 14]. These barriers result in
female students considering careers in other sectors such as health, commerce and IT
over the construction industry because of the barriers they have faced during con-
struction education [14]. These barriers further create perceptions of how the
160 Y. Moraba and O. Babatunde
construction industry’s work environment is like, and the contributions to the long-term
career decision of graduating female students.
2.3 External Barriers

External barriers are the perceived challenges for graduating female students face when
they enter the construction industry [13]. External barriers are the factors that have been
in the industry for many generations which graduating female students have no control
over. The nature of the construction industry, working conditions, and sexist attitudes
have been identified by [13] as external barriers found in the construction industry.
These barriers may be the primary source of the low participation rates we see of
women in South Africa’s construction industry [8].
Nature of the Construction Industry
The image that the construction industry has built over decades is that of male dom-
inance [11, 14, 21], with difficult working conditions [8]. This plays a role in gradu-
ating female students not wanting to join the industry after graduation [8, 13].
However, the industry is becoming more high-tech because of the unfolding trends of
the 4th industrial revolution, which requires more mental strength than brute physical
strength [11]. The macho image of the industry is evolving with the 4th industrial
revolution; therefore, graduating female students ought not to make their long-term
career decisions based on a macho image.
Working Conditions
The construction industry is a place which expects employees to work long hours,
neglecting their family responsibilities in the process [1]. The consequence of this
model is that women who chose to work and have a family are prejudiced against [1].
The “all boys club” created by organisations requires long working hours, competition
and isolation [8]. Females are therefore expected to adopt the male culture that exists in
organisations or leave the industry. If they do not do either, they remain in unimportant
positions [8]. This culture is a barrier to graduating female students [13] because they
will eventually be regarded as unreliable for taking time off to fulfill their family
responsibilities [21].
Sexist Attitudes
Gender stereotypes, glass ceiling, organisational cultures made from the male-
dominance of the industry and bias recruitment practices are the leading sexist barriers
found in the construction industry. The recruitment of graduates is conducted informally
[1] using unstructured interviews [8, 9]. The successful female candidates enter the
industry and start on equal footing with their male counterparts. Their career advance-
ment is however different for both because of the sexist attitudes that exist within
organisations [12]. The female graduate is often faced with a glass ceiling, preventing her
from advancing in the organisation. Females are further faced with isolation and limited
access to mentorship, which may help move up the organisation’s ladder [2].
3 Conceptual Framework
Figure 1 presents the relationship between the early days when female students start
deciding on the career path they want to pursue. After high school, female students
either register for a construction-related degree or a non construction-related degree.
For those that register for a construction-related degree, their decision is influenced by
the factors motivating construction education under the literature review Sect. 2. The
circle represents female students’ duration as undergraduate students at a university of
choice in South Africa. During their undergraduate studies, female students have
reported being faced with challenges that were identified broadly by Ling and Poh [13]
as internal and external barriers. Despite having faced barriers during their under-
graduate years, some female students decide to continue with their studies by enrolling
for a postgraduate degree. This set of students could have decided at this point to
pursue another career path or find a job because they have a bachelor’s degree. Instead,
they decided to improve their academic knowledge of the construction industry,
showing interest in the industry. A previous study by Ling and Poh [13] report that
graduating students are aware that females in the construction industry are faced with
external barriers relating to the nature of the construction industry, working conditions
found in the construction industry and sexist attitudes but they still choose to pursue a
postgraduate degree. This group’s long-term career decision is therefore of importance
which this study will explore.
4 Research Methods
The fieldwork investigated factors that motivated graduating female students to study a
construction-related degree, their experience of construction education and the con-
struction industry. Using convenience sampling, an online questionnaire was dis-
tributed to female students registered for BSc Honours (QS) at a university in South
Africa. Graduates who have been working in the construction industry for two years
were also asked about what motivated them to study a construction related degree and
their experiences of the construction industry for the two years they have been working.
The questions were adopted from a previous study by Ling and Poh [13] and the Career
Construction Theory was adopted for questions relating to career decisions and factors
influencing their decisions. A summary of the results is presented below and will is
discussed in the subsequent sections.
4.1 Results and Discussion
Factors Motivating Construction Education

The results in Table 1 show that career opportunities available (F1) to graduating
students after graduation and the prospective financial stability (F2) that comes with it
were the leading factors that motivated them to study a QS degree. People often choose
to follow in the footstep of people they look up to when deciding on a career path to
pursue [6]. As a result, the perceived image of the construction industry (F3) which was
162
Y. Moraba and O. Babatunde
Fig. 1. Conceptual Framework for construction education motivation, barriers, and retention, [17]
Table 1. Summary of results

Barriers/Factors Rankings Mean Median SD
Factors motivating construction education
F1 Career opportunities available 1.00 4.00 3.60 3.32
F2 Prospective financial stability 2.00 4.00 3.60 3.82
F3 Image of the construction industry 3.00 3.67 1.50 3.66
F4 Family, friends and teachers 4.00 3.67 1.50 3.82
F5 Mentor and high school career counselors 5.00 3.11 4.00 3.60
F6 Media 6.00 2.56 4.60 3.31
F7 Having a father in the industry 7.00 2.00 1.50 2.23
Internal barriers
I1 Male-Dominated faculty staff and lecturers 1.00 4.44 2.00 3.19
I2 Male culture exists in construction education 2.00 4.00 3.60 3.20
I3 Discrimination against female students 3.00 3.67 3.00 2.93
I4 Lack of Networking Opportunities 4.00 3.33 3.00 3.49
I5 Female students face gender-based harassment 5.00 3.33 3.00 3.31
in construction education
I6 Female students are not readily accepted by 6.00 3.11 4.00 3.31
their male counterparts
External barriers
E1 Construction jobs are masculine 1.00 4.33 1.50 3.82
E2 Construction jobs occur at the expense of 2.00 4.22 1.00 3.60
family responsibilities
E3 Gender stereotyping occurs in the construction 3.00 4.11 0.50 3.88
industry
E4 Construction jobs have long working hours 4.00 3.89 1.00 3.31
E5 Male cultures exist in construction 5.00 3.89 2.00 2.23
E6 The construction industry has a poor image of 6.00 3.89 0.50 3.66
E7 Female graduating students face glass ceiling 7.00 3.56 0.50 3.38
drawn by family members, friends, high school teachers (F4), mentors, high school
career counselors (F5) and the media (F6) played a role in the decision-making process.
No graduating female student reported to have a father in the construction industry for
this study; therefore (F7) was not a motivating factor for construction education.
In the interview female graduates were asked what the key motivating factors were
in studying a construction-related degree.
Respondent 1: “My uncle was an executive at a construction company and advised me to study
Quantity Surveying.”
Respondent 2: “When I was in grade 10, we went to a Construction and Engineering Expo.
I learned a lot about the construction industry, and I became interested in pursuing a career in
the industry. At the time, it made sense to me because I have always had an interest in houses
and architecture. I knew that I wanted to be a Quantity Surveyor after my first year because that
was my favourite module in the first year.”
This shows that the active involvement by industry professionals, directly or indirectly,
play a significant role in enhancing the construction industry as a career choice for
female students. This suggests that professionals who speak to high school girls about
the construction industry have a positive influence on the career choice of females in
high school.
Internal Barriers
The results in Table 1 suggest that the number of male faculty staff members and
lecturers (I1) is the leading barrier found in construction education. It was reported that
male culture exists in lecture halls (I2) where female students are not readily accepted
by their male counterparts (I6). This often results in discrimination against female
students (I3) and gender-based harassment (I5). This is no different from the con-
struction workplace where women are found mainly in administrative roles.
Graduating female students report that they are not given networking opportunities
(I4) with other females working in the industry for mentoring and ways to deal with the
barriers they are facing as female students. Active involvement from female industry
professionals for mentorship and an increase in the presence of female lecturers could
help boost graduating female students’ confidence in their decision to continue with a
career in the construction industry. Fielden et al. [9] suggest that it is essential for
universities to recognise women as a source of new workers, and to provide them with
appropriate training to fill the gap.
The interviews with the recent female graduates outlined barriers female graduates
have faced during construction education.
Respondent 1: “One of the internal barriers I have experienced is the lack of interaction
between female students and female professionals. The industry is dominated by males who
dictate and limits interactions for females within the profession. I have not been exposed to
females who have high positions, which is unfortunate.”
Respondent 2: “During my undergraduate and postgraduate as a Quantity Surveying student,

my class was female dominant. I, therefore, did not experience any gender-based challenges.
The only challenges I faced were the regular challenges every student face, regardless of the
degree they are enrolled in”.
The interviews suggest that female graduates do not face challenges in university that
prevents them from entering the construction industry. As noted, the number of female
students registering in and graduating from university have increased over the past
years. These results show that the problem does not lie in university.
External Barriers
Graduating female students reported that the construction industry has a poor image
(E6) which was built on the traditional model of being masculine (E1) and requires
employees to work long hours (E4), which occurs at the expense of family responsi-
bilities (E2). The industry traditionally expects employees to work overtime. The more
willing an employee is to working overtime, the more committed the employee seems
to be to their work. For a person who bears the primary role of family responsibility,
working overtime is not suitable for their family needs. However, the 4th Industrial
Revolution will enable the construction industry to be high-tech [12].
The male culture found in the construction industry (E5) is said to give rise to
gender stereotyping (E3). The culture of the industry is that of a male-dominance,
requiring brute strength and good tolerance for outdoor conditions, severe weather and
bad language. Fielden et al. [9] reported that the construction industry is characterised
as an “all-boys club” represented by “bad” language and behaviour. This macho culture
is regarded as hostile and discriminatory to women. As a result, women who seek entry
and career advancement into the male-dominated industry must adapt to the male
culture if they want to have a successful career, leave the industry, or remain in
unimportant positions within the organization. Females are also not given equal
opportunities with their male counterparts and are faced with a glass ceiling quicker
than their male counterparts (E7). Kolade and Kehinde [12] found that the above
reasons are the major contributors to women’s barriers to career advancement and the
glass ceiling. These conditions are barriers that further deter graduating female students
from entering the construction industry after graduation and deciding on having a long-
term career within the industry [13].
In the interviews with the recent female graduates, they were asked about the
barriers they faced while working in the construction industry.
Respondent 1: “I never felt safe on site. It was male dominated, and an environment that
created a persistent sense of discomfort. There was an incident where a subcontractor’s
employee invaded my personal space and touched me inappropriately. I immediately reported
him to his supervisor; I would not allow anyone to touch or be too close to me physically”.
Respondent 2: “The main challenge I face in the industry is the chauvinistic behavior from my
male colleagues. My male colleagues also always wanted to have the last say on any matter
under discussion, assuming that they know better, regardless of their level of experience.
I would sometimes follow what they say to avoid conflict, and keep projects going”.
5 Conclusion
Factors that motivated graduating female students to study a construction-related

degree include career opportunities available, perceived financial stability, the influence
of mentors, the media and family members. The lack of female lecturers was found to
be the significant barrier experienced during construction education. Graduating female
students are faced with gender-based discrimination during construction education. The
nature of the industry is seen as masculine and requiring long working hours. The male
culture and gender stereotypes that exist within the industry often subject women to a
slow career progression than their male counterparts. Despite the barriers, graduating
female students have shown interest in pursuing long-term careers within the con-
struction industry. This is a positive contribution towards the current state of under-
representation of women in South Africa’s construction industry because universities
are continuously injecting female who wants to have long-term career decisions in the
construction industry. However, graduating female students remain a wasted and
untapped resource within South Africa’s construction industry. If the industry con-
tinuously fails to attract and retain female graduates, the industry will face a labour
shortage which will result in a slow economic and infrastructural development of the
country. South Africa’s construction industry and universities, therefore, need to

transform and diversify so that it can sustain its business development and growth in
the 4th Industrial Revolution.
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Applied Systems Analysis for Analysing
Challenges in Construction Projects:
A Methodological Approach
Dillip Kumar Das(&)
Central University of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa

ddas@cut.ac.za
Abstract. Construction projects constitute a complex set of activities and

engagement of stakeholders. The activities and stakeholders are interlinked often
in a non-linear way. Therefore, it becomes difficult to comprehend and analyse
the challenges of construction projects adequately and evolve apposite policy or
strategic interventions to meet these challenges. Applied Systems Analysis
(ASA) is argued to be one of the methods by which the construction related
challenges can be comprehended and analysed. Therefore, the objective of the
paper is to provide a methodological approach of how ASA and System
Dynamics modelling approach can be employed to examine the challenges in
construction projects, and understand the mechanisms that cause construction
challenges based on the non-linear causal feedback relationships, and to evolve
policy interventions to meet the challenges in construction projects. The study
was relied on literature review and case studies on how ASA has been applied
on various aspects of construction projects. The paper is expected to contribute
to the methodological approaches to analyse the challenges in construction
projects and also assist the project and construction mangers in practice to
comprehend the challenges and take remedial actions.
Keywords: Applied Systems Analysis Causal feedback Construction

Methodological approach Project management
1 Introduction
Construction projects are complex challenges involving a multitude of activities and

stakeholders (Abd El-Razek et al. 2008; Bon Gang and Lay Peng 2013; Doloi et al.
2012). The activities and the stakeholders in construction projects are observed to be
interlinked and influence each other (Aiyetan and Das 2016; Das 2015; Das and Emuze
2017; Han et al. 2013; Love et al. 2008; Lyneis and Ford 2007). Consequently, it is
found that the non- performance of one aspect has a cascading effect on the other
aspects resulting into challenges of overrun of schedules, increase in cost, poor quality
of work, rework, etc. Although, methods such as Construction Management, Project
Management, Lean Construction, Last Planner System, Building Information Man-
agement Systems, etc., are being used largely, sometimes, the non-linearity and
dynamicity associated with the various aspects in the construction projects make it
difficult to comprehend and analyse the challenges of construction projects adequately

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_17
Applied Systems Analysis for Analysing Challenges 169
and evolve apposite policy or strategic interventions to prevent or meet the challenges.
Applied Systems Analysis (ASA) because of its ability- to comprehend the dynamicity
and nonlinearity, to elicit the causal feedback mechanisms among various relevant
variables, for flow of information and materials and to consider delay (Beck et al. 2018)
is argued to be an appropriate method to analyse and understand the construction
challenges and the mechanisms that cause such challenges in construction projects
(Han et al. 2013; and Lyneis and Ford 2007). The paper therefore offers a method-
ological approach of how ASA can be employed to examine the challenges in con-
struction projects, and understand the mechanisms that cause the construction
challenges based on the non-linear causal feedback relationships and also to emanate
policy measures to resolve the issues in construction projects. The study relied on a
number of case studies that have been carried out within the ASA framework on
various aspects of construction projects such as delay, skilled labour challenges and
health and safety in developing countries. The case studies were augmented by the
findings that are accrued from the established main stream literature. Based on the case
studies and findings from literature it is found that ASA could be a very relevant and
useful method to understand and examine the various challenges in construction pro-
jects and enable evolving of policy interventions to meet the challenges. The paper is
envisaged to contribute in two forms such as (1) it offers a methodological approach to
analyse the challenges in construction projects and also assists the project and con-
struction mangers in practice to comprehend the challenges and take remedial actions,
and (2) it provides a modelling approach for the post graduate students to deal with
research challenges in construction.
2 Approach of Investigation
This investigation is based on literature review, and case study analyses of empirical
researches. ASA and System Dynamics (SD) modelling were considered as precursors
to the case study analysis. However, prior to that the framework of ASA and SD
modelling approach was reviewed and discussed in the general context and specifically
in the context of construction. Construction challenges that includes rework, delay and
health and safety from developing countries were used for the case study analysis. The
case studies were used from the published main stream literature and unpublished
works of the author relating to construction.
3 Understanding of ASA and SD Modelling Approach
Use of model in analysis and forecasting in the applied science field is pervasive. The
reason being that the environment, ecological, economic, social and more so infras-
tructural systems are too complex to reason through the needs of policy or strategy
without models (Beck 2009). They are also likely to remain an integral part of the
process of deriving of policy interventions or strategies to shape the decision making.
According to Batty (2009), models represent the realities in a simplified form, which
represent systems in such a way that crucial features of theory and its application are
170 D. K. Das
identified and emphasized. In this context, models enable experimentation and testing
with theory in a prognostic sense. It also enhances the understanding of the situations
that have not been realized, for example, what is expected to happen in future (Das
2016). However, the challenge remains with the appropriate choice of models and their
veracity to replicate the real world to avoid any ills that may come because of the
failure of the models to predict rightly and place the trust of stakeholders in the models
(Beck 2009; Das 2016).
Applied System Analysis (ASA) is argued to be one of the such methods- mod-
elling principles that can be appropriately used to understand the behaviour of the
complex problems, that include challenges relating to construction. According to many
scholars and modellers ASA is more of quantitative in nature, that is relied on com-
putational or mathematical models. However, on the other hand, it can also be used
qualitatively to comprehend the challenge conceptually (Aiyetan and Das 2018; Beck
et al. 2018). Essentially, ASA is a modelling principle that is multidisciplinary and
cross disciplinary and has the ability to deal with the complex problems having (or
without having) causal (feedback or no feedback) relationships and provides a holistic
approach to find solutions to complex problems (Laszlo and Krippner 1998). However,
while dealing with the complex problems, the environment is considered as the system,
which might be either closed or open.
System Dynamics (SD) modelling approach is a modelling techniques that is
essentially rests on ASA. Ideas from Systems theories form the basis for the SD
modelling. Essentially, it is an outcome of the interaction of ideas that are emanated
from traditional management, cybernetics, and computer simulation. According to
Forrester (1968), it represents a theory of structure and behaviour of system, which can
be easily used. Yet, it uses sophisticated mathematical algorithms while undertaking
practical systems investigation. It has been adapted and used in understanding the
behaviour of complex systems that include but not limited to urban development,
industrial systems, construction, tourism, land use, and so on (Bon Gang and Lay Peng
2013; Coyle 1977; Forrester 1969, 1971; Shen et al. 2009). According to Sterman
(1982), it is a problem evaluation approach in which essential elements of a system are
linked in the form of a structure. It generates the behaviour of the system, and suitable
to analyse the problems that is premised upon the feedback relationships. Moreover, the
model offers the advantage of simulating the impacts of the policy interventions or
measures on both the problem under inquiry as well as the whole system.
SD has been used to understand the behaviour of different aspects of construction
such as rework, project delay, improving the effectiveness of the decision-making
process, etc. (Aiyetan and Das 2016; Das 2015; Das and Emuze 2017; Han et al. 2013;
Love et al. 2008; Lyneis and Ford 2007). Also, according to scholars such as Han et al.
(2013) and Lyneis and Ford (2007), application of SD has not been confined to analysis
of challenges of construction projects, rather moved beyond the projects to examine the
behaviours of different phenomena in construction and project management.
SD model has several elements such as stock, rate, flow (physical and materials)
and delay. In a system, there is always a stock (known as level variable). Stock is the
accumulation of the difference between input and output (Sterman 2000). The stock is
governed by the rate variables, in other words the decision rules or policies. They are
the criteria that are used to regulate flows, which try to drive the system to a preferred
state. Flows represent the movement of materials or information in the system. The
chain of causality is denoted by the feedback loops, which influence the current and
future scenarios. However, delays cause the dynamics that create disturbances, insta-
bility or oscillations in the system. The basic structure of a dynamic system is made by
the stock, rate variables and the flows (Coyle 1996; Guimarães et al. 2009).
4 Overall Procedure of ASA for Construction Challenges
Based on the premise of ASA paradigm the overall process of ASA to analyse and
comprehend construction challenges is presented below. While discussing the process,
examples from the case studies of construction challenges dealt by use of ASA linked
SD modelling principles both qualitative and quantitative have been used.
4.1 Initial Crafting of the “Problem”

The important thing is to first understand the problem and then initially craft the
problem to substantially represent the actual or real challenge. The problem belongs to
a system or environment in which the behaviours of the important variables or the
system as a whole are to be comprehended or analysed. In other words, something is to
be resolved or limited or enhanced and the behaviour of that variable is simulated or
predicted under different options of interactions (non-interactions) of related variables.
According to Beck et al. (2018), the important aspect is to craft the problem appro-
priately that should be based on the critical review of the literature combined with
probing and understandings that engender out of the experiences of others. Further, the
problem should be transformed into the specific challenges to be resolved, which may
not be unique. However, first challenge is to understand whether ASA is relevant or not
and if it is relevant then develop a coherent storyline based on the causal logic.
Case Study: Delay is pervasive in construction industry and it can happen because of
any stakeholders and any components of construction projects. For example, clients,
contractors, and consultants as stakeholders contribute to cause delay. The case study
of “A Dynamic Model of Contractor Induced Delays in India”, offers an insight of how
delay occurs because of contractor related challenges and how the project can behave
based on different policy or strategic interventions (Das and Emuze 2017). In this
respect the initial problem is that contractors essentially can influence delay because of
various challenges such as lack of funding, commitment, lack of planning, etc., which
can contribute to the overall cost and time overrun of the project. These factors might
influence each other or related factors to reinforce the causation of delay in a con-
struction project. Although contractor related factors also influence other stakeholders
and other activities in project, the system boundary is limited to contractor factors only.
172 D. K. Das
4.2 Identifying the System, Its Environment, and the Sub-systems

of the System
Usually the problem that is sought to be resolved or solved drive the choice and
definition of the system. In a system there are sub systems and each sub-system might
have its sub-systems. Also, the sub-systems could be systems in themselves. Relatively
more detailed features are implicitly essential to define or identify a sub-system;
however, some features that are not so important may be excluded. In other words,
some features or parameters of the sub-system are considered important and some are
not essential and thus can be ignored. Further, a system may be a part of a larger system
called a supra-system, and a supra-system may be contained in a supra-supra-system
(Beck et al. 2018). However, often the subjective judgement and choice of the Systems
Analyst or modeller play a vital role in delineating the various systems and sub-
systems. This choice is influenced by a mixture of the initial crafting of the problem to
be addressed (as mentioned in Step 1) and some expectation about the nature and type
of the computational analysis to follow (refer Step 4 in Sect. 4.4), in particular.
However, the outcomes of the model will be based on the right or wrong or good or bad
choices (Beck et al. 2018).
Case Study: Occurrence of work place accidents in construction is ubiquitous. In the
case study of “Developing Safety Archetypes of Construction Industry at Project Level
Using System Dynamics” (Mohammadi et al. 2018), although accidents occur in
construction industry, a project is considered as the system (the environment). Aspects
related to design, cost, contractors and supervisors are taken as the various sub-systems
that influence the safety in a construction project (Mohammadi et al. 2018). These sub-
systems apparently influence safety independently as well as also influence other
factors such as delay, re-work, budget, safety control, etc., which accordingly either
contribute to the occurrence or reduction of accidents in construction projects. The
challenge is however the delineation of the ‘system - the project’ and the sub-systems.
4.3 Preliminary Analysis of Logic, and Conceptualization - Causal Loop

Diagrams (CLD)
Development of causal loop diagrams (CLDs) for the system generally preludes com-
putational SD modelling. Essentially CLDs are largely the visual and qualitative rep-
resentation of the behaviour of the system, in respect of the interactions among the
variables and entities, which are essential to resolve the problem (that is crafted in Step 1)
(Beck et al. 2018). The CLDs generally offer dynamic hypothesis (theory) on which the
systems are believed to work or behave and identify the leverage points on which
decisions can be made or policy interventions can be evolved. The development of CLDs
forms one of the most crucial elements for building models as the behaviour of the
system would largely depend on the way the various parameters interact and play in
mechanism. The important thing to consider is the identification of feedback loops.
When the CLDs are developed the cause effect relations should properly have com-
prehended and appropriate polarities (negative or positive) are assigned. The loops can
be reinforcing or balancing. When an increase (decrease) in a variable causes a tendency
for the variable to be increased (decreased) due to the feedback through other variables in
the loop, a reinforcing loop is created. However, when an increase (decrease), in a

variable lead to a tendency for the same variable to decrease (increase) on account of the
feedback of other variables in the loop, a balancing loop is formed (Mohammadi et al.
2018; Sterman 2000). However, before developing the CLDs, a mental map on the cause
and effects can be developed by the modeller and the one way causalities mapped. Once
one way causalities are established, the feedbacks relations are checked and established.
Also, while developing the loops only ‘nouns’ should be used and polarities are decided
based on the effect of a variable on the succeeding variable. The preceding or the
succeeding variables do not affect the polarities between the two consecutive concerned
variables. The analysis of the CLDs can enable the identification of the feedback loops,
which may govern the behaviour of the system as a whole. These feedback loops are
considered as the dynamic hypotheses, which consequently might outline the policy
measures to be tested through quantitative modelling and analysis (Step 4). The CLDs
form the base of the structure of the computational model (Step 4). Besides, it can also
identify leverage points. Moreover, while developing the loops operational thinking –
the way the variables function such as – information - decision - action – environment
may be also used (Olaya 2012).
Case Study: In the case study of ‘System Dynamics Approach to Mitigating Skilled
Labour Shortages in the Construction Industry: A South African Context’ (Olatunji and
Das 2018), as shown in Fig. 1, the CLDs relate to investment, productivity and skilled
labourer availability in the construction industry. It is hypothesized that if the invest-
ment is not adequate, it leads to poor labour wages, which influence the availability of
skilled labourers in the construction industry negatively due to either few people opt for
the profession or higher attrition rate as people leave the profession in search of better
paying jobs. This is represented by a balancing loop B1. This situation gets worse or
exacerbated as the lack of skilled labourers results to creation of challenges in the
project delivery such as delay, re-work or cost overrun leading to negative or lesser
contribution to the investment situation in the industry or projects because of poor
productivity- represented by B1A. Thus, B1A complements B1 and aggravates the
skilled labour shortage situation. There will therefore disturbances in the construction
project- ‘the system’ However, productivity remains the vital factor that is dependent
on the availability of skilled labourers. So, if the investment is increased in the labour
wage sector, it will reinforce the availability of skilled labourers, leading to higher
productivity and investment through a feedback relationship CLD R1. Higher pro-
ductivity also positively influences the labour wages leading to higher availability of
skilled labourers because of either reduction in attrition rate or more people opting for
this profession (R1A), which reinforces R1 (Olatunji and Das 2018). Thus, the CLDs in
this case created two dynamic hypotheses - one causes skilled labour shortage and the
other provides ways to alleviate the challenge.
4.4 Model Formulations for Computational Analysis

ASA linked computational models can be built based on the CLDs developed in the
previous step (Step 3). A number of mathematical, statistical or econometric models
may be built to analyse the behaviour of the system. However, care should be taken to
174 D. K. Das
Project delivery period

(because of Delay, rework
and cost)
B1A -
+ -
Inadequate B1 Skilled labour
investment -
+
-
Labour wages
+ R1A
R1
+
Productivity
Fig. 1. Example of CLD
observe if the model realistically represents the causal relations and specifically the
feedback relationships. In this particular case, a SD model was found relevant, which
can be built by using any appropriate software platform such as ‘Powersim’, ‘Stella’,
‘Vensim’, or ‘Any logic’ and so on and writing appropriate algorithms to fit to the
causal relations. However, while developing the model, the variables such as stock,
rate, flow and auxiliary variables should be appropriately identified and used, and a
stock flow (structure of the model) diagram should be built and the variables are
initialized. The stock flow diagram or the structure of the models should be built based
on the CLDs identified. The model then is initially simulated and then validated by
using relevant validation principles. There are several ways to validate the model which
include structure verification test, algorithm check, behaviour analysis, comparing with
real life scenarios, etc. The validated model is then simulated to examine the behaviour
of the system under varied simulated scenarios which can be used to develop policy
interventions.
Case Study: In the case study of ‘A Dynamic Model of Contractor Induced Delays in
India’ (Das and Emuze 2017), project period was considered as the stock variable,
which is observed to be increasing or decreasing at a variable rate under different
scenarios of finance delay, ineffective planning, and combined scenarios of finance
delay and ineffective planning in a project. The stock variable - project period is
observed to be showing an increasing trend compared to business as usual scenario
(normal scenario - when everything goes as planned) at varying degrees (Das and
Emuze 2017) (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Simulated scenarios
4.5 Screening and Analysis of Computational Model Simulated Results

The objective of the computational analysis of the model - in this case SD model is, to
examine or evaluate what could occur in the future, and policy interventions can be
evolved and implemented in the system to get the desired behaviour. The model can
generate innumerable simulated scenarios with unique or not so unique behaviour
under each scenario of questions such as “What if?”. However, it is essential to limit
the scenarios for policy analysis. Largely, it depends on the analysts’ experience and
understanding of the real system and phenomena that are occurring or might occur.
However, having generated all the responses to all the “What If?” questions related to
the identified problem in the system, the policy interventions and consequent future
outcomes should be examined or evaluated based on a set of decision criteria, in order
to arrive at appropriate and explicit interventions or how best the situation can be
resolved and desired effects are obtained (Beck et al. 2018).
Case Study: In the case study of ‘A Dynamic Model of Contractor Induced Delays in
India’ (Das and Emuze 2017), from a number of scenario analysis, it is found that a
scenario that is based on the combination of effective communication, the availability
of fund, provision for rework and appropriate use of technology and construction
methods, the project period is expected to reduce significantly. For instance, the project
period will be marginally higher (9.2%) than the project period under business as usual
scenario.
4.6 Implementing the Decision and Handling of Uncertainty

There are decisions to make and also to meet the challenges of uncertainties, which are
generally integral parts of any construction. So while simulating the model the worst
case scenarios might be evaluated and see what if such worse cases arise. In this
context, an understanding of the uncertain occurrences and ideas and experiences might
help. While making decisions, the appropriate behaviour under different scenarios
176 D. K. Das
might be considered and discussed. In this respect as a rule of thumb, the scenarios
such as the business as usual scenario, worst case scenario, optimistic scenarios and a
set of likely or perceived scenarios should be considered. Besides, the decisions might
be considered based on the leverage points that are identified in the step 3.
5 Conclusion
Construction is a complex challenge. Construction projects have a number of interre-

lated components and stakeholders which work through causal relations including
causal feedback relations. So, resolving the challenges of construction necessitate
appropriate mathematical/computational models to comprehend the behaviour of the
project under different complex and complicated scenarios of effect of individual or
combination of multiple variables. ASA is argued to be one of the such modelling
principle which can meet the challenge. Therefore, in this paper the process of
developing ASA linked SD model to understand the construction related challenges,
evolve policy interventions and take appropriate decisions is explained with case
studies. The process was explained in a linear fashion with examples drawn from the
literature and works of the author. However, while developing the model(s), it could be
very messy and it may not represent the real life scenario. So, two important things
need to be carefully considered, that are: first operational thinking as how in reality the
system works and what precisely is the problem/challenge to be solved or resolved and
second, perhaps a number of repetitions (iterations) among the different stages that are
actually required along with continual adaptation of the real life scenario. Besides, a lot
depends on the modellers and analysts, their experience and ingenuity. Besides, vali-
dation remains a crucial challenge to be resolved by the modellers before using the
model for simulation and developing policy interventions.
The paper has some limitations such as it is based on the literature review and case
studies depicted from published and unpublished works. Besides, due to paucity of
space, the detailed explanations and sub steps were not provided. However, yet it is
envisaged that ASA linked models (particularly SD model) can be a viable option to
comprehend and analyse the construction challenges. The modellers can find the
modelling process useful and can adapt to their modelling needs to analyse and
understand the challenges of construction.
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Effects of Land Administration on RDP Land
and Buildings-A Case of Alexandra Township
Gladness Makgobi1,2, Mashwama Nokulunga1,2(&), Thwala Didi1,2,

and Aigbavboa Clinton1,2
1
kelebogilemakgobi@gmail.com, {nokulungam,didibhukut,
Aigbavboa}@uj.ac.za
2
SARChI in Sustainable Construction Management and Leadership in the Built
Abstract. Land administration system plays a major role in legalising

improvements outside the formal system through legislation and other measures.
Hence, the study investigates the effects of land administration on existing RDP
houses in South Africa. A quantitative approach was adopted. Structured
questionnaires were designed and distributed to department of housing and to
RDP home owners. 60 Questionnaires were distributed and 50 came back
complete and eligible to used, this represented 83.3% of response rate. The
findings on the effects of land administration were conflict among the owners
and government, poor government planning, some of the properties are not
evaluated, poor government record keeping on change of ownership, were some
of the effects obtained from the study. Land management is a principal com-
ponent of any country’s administrative portfolios. Hence, land administration is
a crucial procedure of governing land tenure, valuation of land, rights on land
and development of land in order to formulate appropriate regulatory policies.
The study will motivate that RDP houses must be valuated and registered so that
beneficiaries could have title deeds. Also the beneficiaries would benefit from
the study by knowing the land rights so they can value and appreciate it.
Keywords: Housing Land administration Land reform Policies RDP
1 Introduction
Land management is a principal component of any country’s administrative portfolios,

which includes the administration of land tenure, land valuation, land use, and
development of land [1]. Furthermore, without a proper national land administration
foundation a country will battle to be administered systematically. [2], stated that, land
administration foundation is the strategic measure, a lawful system, an institutional
plan, and specialised method. According to Department of housing [3], RDP benefi-
ciaries are not aware of land information such as cadastral lines, rules of encroachment,
the ownership rights, invasion of public land, land registration, approval of land for

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_18
180 G. Makgobi et al.
consolidation and subdivisions, land and property value and the consequences of
erecting illegal improvements and other property bylaws.
High rate of informal land attacks restrict attempts to timeously discharge appro-
priate land for human settlement in a planned way [4]. In South Africa most residents
are obliged to secure shelter outside this formal framework [5]. Department of Land
Reform and Rural development plays an important role to manage land tenure pro-
grammes by means of legislation [6]. Lack of administrative support on land right is
seen as the main problem to management of rural land in South Africa. New systems
and approaches to land use planning and cadastral techniques require monitoring on
regular basis [7].
2 Land Reform Policies
The Department of Land Affairs [8] has developed three land reform policies namely:
Land Tenure Reform, Restitution and Land Redistribution. Land tenure reform is a
policy that acknowledges the individual’s right to own land. The Restitution process
deals with compensation of individuals who have been forcefully removed from their
land.
Redistribution is the most important part of land reform in South Africa. Land is
purchased from registered owners (willing buyer) by the government (willing pur-
chaser) and redistributed, keeping in mind the end goal to keep up open trust in the land
market. In spite of the fact that this framework has worked in different countries, in
South Africa it has ended up being exceptionally hard to execute. This is on the basis
that numerous owners don’t really observe the land they obtained because they are not
included in the essential choices made toward the purchasing and building.
3 Concept of Land Administration
The development and application of good land governance principles is necessary to

ensure transparency, accountability, consistency, participation, access to clear and
accurate information [9]. However, in South Africa there is a lack of solid national
approach to land administration. Procedures and land information are often separated
across municipalities, countries, provinces and states. The escalating theory of land
administration requires the need for national systems and the verification for this
involves more explanation [2]. Furthermore, land administration comprises a range of
framework and procedures to administer, such as land tenure; Land value; land use and
land development [10].
Effects of Land Administration on RDP Land and Buildings 181
4 Reconstruction and Development Housing Program

(RDP) Houses
The National Housing policy has an appropriate framework which provides free houses
to poor household members who earns between R0 to R3500, 00 monthly [11]. The
housing subsidy assistance is a once off capital sponsorship, which is registered in the
name of the recipient household member, yet paid out to the developers responsible for
developing (constructing), the subsidised houses (RDP). The Housing White Paper
[12] additionally expresses that housing policy must be monetarily and financially
economical in a long period.
According to the Department of Housing [3], the reconstruction and Development
Programme (RDP) conceptualizes housing delivery is based on the following
programmes:
i. Meeting basic needs;
ii. Developing human resources;
iii. Building the economy; and
iv. Democratizing the state and society.
5 Effects of Land Administration on RDP Land

and Buildings
5.1 The Requirement for Improvement in Land Rights

Housing officials, policy makers are challenged with the breaking points of land and
housing alternatives in South Africa [13]. In the past two decade the backlog in housing
delivery has reached it height, furthermore, the quantities of those people who don’t
have housing just grew over night then legislation becomes unfit to take care of the
demand [5]. There is no better time to display reasonable systems to empower
advanced improvement in land rights and tenure frameworks [14]. Land tenure is
understood to incorporate the delicate idea of view of security in land (social
authenticity and importance) notwithstanding the hard idea of rights set up and covered
in law (lawfulness) [15].
5.2 Enforcement of Policies and Support Services

[16] stated that the circumstance of the poor who live in the extra-legal or informal
township, granting fundamentally appealing and well meaning, are possible just when
certain exact conditions are available. Such as: (1) that the State is capable and willing
to make the new land administration organizations broadly open to all nationals,
including to the poorest and less literate; (2) that the dominant part of ‘poor people’
(not only a little extent of them) are capable and willing to enter effectively into the
universe of formal rights and lawful establishments; and (3) that the State is enough
staffed to go up against new frameworks of land administration, and adequately steady,
solid and devoted to the general enthusiasm to have the capacity to change the
principles of access. [6] reported that in South Africa changes in ownership are just
perceived in law in the event that they are registered. Off-register exchanges poses
serious problems for the buyer and seller, for the honesty of registration system, and for
government housing programmes.
5.3 Involvement of the Community in Decision Making Process

Residents drive and direct the establishment communal land boundary as indicated by
their own particular ability and needs [17]. The community land boundaries is best
when it is controlled by the vitality, inspiration, and endeavours of group individuals
themselves who are completely mindful of the purposes for the mapping exercise. Full
community involvement is fundamental. All residents must take part in community
land limits procedures for it to be effective. Members of the community, including
women, men, youth, older folks, customary pioneers, regular clients and individuals
from minority groups ought to be invited to all meetings and urged to raise their
concerns and or give opinion. Solid administrative program must be combined with
heart-focused initiative [6].
5.4 A Reasonable Model of Provincial Land Tenure Security

Successful land administration is the way to secure land tenure [13]. The model was
developed to embody, in a comprehensive way, the land tenure security in the rural
communities of sub-Saharan Africa. Furthermore, land tenure security is a development
of a land tenure framework, which is an element of the association of the framework’s
components in general [16]. A productive and powerful cadastral frameworks should
be minimal effort so that expenses can be recouped decently and without unduly
loading clients [7]. [18] highlighted that ICT can contribute in minimising the expenses
related to land administration in spite of the fact that this may diminish openness for
poor people. Available cadastral frameworks should be free of complex structures,
methods and controls that would back off the framework and mitigate use thereof.
5.5 Insecure Land Ownership

This segment inspects the restrictions of spatial equity and land use rights in situations
where title deeds have not been registered and additionally where responsibility for
property is insecure [18]. In the two circumstances the property holder is not allowed to
apply for building plan or land use endorsement since they don’t hold the lawful status
of ownership. In informal settlements, none of the plots are overviewed and registered
in the deeds office (aside from on account of site and administration improvements).
This instantly makes it incomprehensible for the landholder to apply for land use
building plan authorisation [4].
Owners who have procured property informally can’t lodge land use applications
without authorisation of the deed holder. As indicated by a report by [18], 1.1 to 1.4
million housing endowment recipients don’t have the title deeds to their properties.
According to [19] 44% of South African family units (likely) have a title deed, and land
use in South Africa has lost control. [9] stressed that blacks have land outside the
formal structure, yet don’t have title deeds.
5.6 Problem of Bureaucracy

Sub-Saharan Africa have a tedious and difficult management processes, which delays
the house exchanges and stimulate deception [4]. In Ghana registering land that has
been sold, includes many visits to separate government offices to receive the relevant
document, to assure that an examination has been carried out and the assessment of the
property has been undertaken. For various individuals, the procedure is tedious and it’s
very expensive, furthermore, procedure takes over a year and half even for individuals
with connection in government and legal report [14].
6 Methodology
6.1 Research Area, Approach and Design

Quantitative approach method was adopted to investigate a stakeholder’s perspective
on the impact of land administration on RDP land and building in the township of
Alexandra. The study was carried out in Gauteng Province of the Republic of South
Africa. 60 Questionnaires were distributed and 50 were brought back which were all
valid and usable and this represented 83.3% which indicates a credible study. A well-
structured questionnaire was distributed to department of housing in Gauteng and
occupants of RDP buildings in Alexandra township. The study was conducted from
reliable scholarly sources such as articles, journals, books, publications, websites and
site experience on the field.
Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS)
The quantitative data collected was analysed with Statistical Package for the Social
Science (SPSS) a computer programme which is used for analysing data concerned
with social phenomena. The software was used to generate various statistical, including
descriptive statistic, which provides a basic summary of all variables in the data [20].
The benefits of using SPSS is that it allows for scoring and analysing quantitative data
at speed and it can also be used to perform multivariate analysis. SPSS also helps to
present the data in a logical format [20] thereby reducing time spent on calculating
scores. However, accuracy in results is highly dependent on inputs, hence the need to
accurately capture data from the questionnaire.
5 Point Linkert Scale
5- point linkert scale was adopted for the study which gave a wider range of possible
scores and increase statistical analyses that are available to the researcher. The first
linkert scale read is on agreement form as follows:
1 - Strongly Disagree (SD)
2 - Disagree (D)
3 - Neutral (N)
4 - Agree (A)
5 - Strongly Agree (SA)
The second linkert scale read is on likelihood as follows:

1 - Extremely Unlikely (EU)
2 - Unlikely (U)
3 - Neutral (N)
4 - Likely (L)
5 - Extremely Likely (EL)
The 5 point scales were transformed to mean item score abbreviated as (MIS).
Computation of the Mean Item Score (MIS)
The computation of the mean item score (MIS) was calculated from the total of all
weighted responses and then relating it to the total responses on a particular aspect. The
mean item score was adopted to rank the factors from highest to lowest. The Mean Item
Score (MIS) is expressed and calculated for each item as follows:
1n1 þ 2n2 þ 3n3 þ 4n4 þ 5n5

MIS ¼ P ð1Þ
N
Where;
n1 = number of respondents for strongly disagree
n2 = number of respondents for disagree
n3 = number of respondents for neutral
n4 = number of respondents for agree
n5 = number of respondents for strongly agree
N = Total number of respondents
Descriptive analyses was used to determine the impact/effect of land administration to

RDP land and building in Gauteng; mean item scores and standard deviations were
then tabulated in a descending manner to highlight the highest and the least impact.
7 Findings
7.1 Effects of Land Administration to RDP Land and Buildings

The respondents were asked based on their experience as to which factor has an impact on
land administration regarding land on existing RDP. Conflicts among owners and gov-
ernment was ranked first with a (MIS = 4.12 & STD = 1.12); Poor government planning
was ranked second with (MIS = 4,06 & STD = 0,85); Some of the properties are not
evaluated and No government record being kept in relation to change of ownership was
ranked third with (MIS = 4,03 & STD = 0,94; 0.8 respectively); No data in regards to
government standards, approaches and land forms was ranked fourth with (MIS = 3,97 &
STD = 0,72); Little or no understanding about land rights and confinements; Poor
information about data of the land in the RDP and Most of the plots are not registered in
the deeds office (MIS = 3,94 & STD = 0,92; 0.80; 0.81 respectively); Insecure land
ownership was ranked sixth with (MIS = 3,88 & STD = 0,81); No reasonable model of
provincial land tenure security and Property holders are not allowed to apply for building
plan or land use endorsement was ranked seventh with (MIS = 3,85 & STD = 0.86;1,02
respectively); Poor tenure structure and land right; Most of the property owners don’t
have title deed and Lack of land policies and support services was ranked eighth
(MIS = 3,74 & STD = 0.83; 0.93; 1.00); Natural disaster events and Too much land
disputes among owners was ranked ninth with (MIS = 3,18 & STD = 1.03;1,17
respectively); No productive and powerful cadastral framework about the land and Lack
of community involvement was ranked tenth (MIS = 2,93 & STD = 1.04 & 0.95);
Negative strategic manoeuvre and The problem of bureaucracy was ranked eleventh with
(MIS = 1,21 & STD = 0,69; 0.66 respectively) (Table 1).
Table 1. Effects of land administration to RDP land and buildings

Effects MIS S.D Rank
Conflict among the owners and government 4,12 1,12 1
Poor government planning 4,06 0,85 2
Some of the properties are not evaluated 4,03 0,94 3
No government record being kept in relation to change in ownership 4,03 0,80 3
No data in regards to government standards, approaches and land 3,97 0,72 4
forms
Little or no understanding about land rights and confinements 3,94 0,92 5
Poor information about data of the land in the RDP 3,94 0,81 5
Most of the plots are not registered in the deeds office 3,94 0.8 5
Insecure land ownership 3,88 0,81 6
No reasonable model of provincial land tenure security 3,85 0,86 7
Property holders are not allowed to apply for building plan or land 3,85 1,02 7
use endorsement
Poor tenure structure and land rights 3,74 0,83 8
Most of the property owners don’t have title deed 3,74 0,93 8
Lack of land policies and support services 3,74 1,00 8
Natural disaster events 3,18 1,03 9
Too much land disputes among owners 3,18 1,17 9
No productive and powerful cadastral framework about the land 2,93 1,04 10
Lack of community involvement 2,93 0,95 10
Negative strategic manoeuvre 1,21 0,69 11
The problem of bureaucracy 1,21 0,66 11
8 Conclusion
The findings demonstrate that the effects of land administration on RDP land and
buildings were: conflict among the building owners and government, poor government
planning; properties not properly evaluated; poor government record on change of
ownership and poor data records to government standards, approach and land forms
were the highest ranked impacts of land administration to RDP housing and land. In
addition the best land administration requires that government standards, approaches
and forms must be made openly available, accessible to the public in general.
The researcher recommends that models and standards approaches must be
developed to control and monitor approval of construction and to manage conflicts
between government and recipients of RDP houses. Land ownership must be for-
malised to black townships and information regarding land information must be clearly
understood by recipients of RDP houses. The state must take reasonable legislative
approaches and other measures to stimulate conditions which enable beneficiaries of
RDP housing to gain access to land on just and equitable manner (application of sec 25
(5) of the Constitution). There is a need for proper establishment of new comprehensive
land use and management regulations. Land policies and legislation must be monitored,
amended and implemented. The available and newly implemented spatial management
must benefits the poor.
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20White%20Paper.pdf
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za/documents/constitution/index.htm
Awareness of Green Building Prerequisites
for Skill Development Among Built-Industry
Professionals in Nigeria
Comfort Olubunmi Ade-Ojo(&) and O. A. Awodele
Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology,

Akure, Ondo-State, Nigeria
ade-ojoco@futa.edu.ng, deledayo4christ@yahoo.com
Abstract. This paper assessed the level of awareness of the prerequisites for
green building development among built industry professionals in South-West
Nigeria. Data was collected using the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) v4. The LEED v4 Project checklist for New Construction and
Major Renovation was adapted on a 5 point Likert’s scale. The methods for the
data analysis included the Mean Item Score (MIS) and the Kruskal Wallis
H Test. The Kruskal Wallis H Test showed no statistically significant difference
in the level of awareness of the prerequisites. The paper concluded that there is
no significant difference in the level of awareness of the prerequisites for green
building development among the built industry professionals in the study area.
The study recommended the need for professional bodies to propagate the
principles of green building for adequate skill development among their
members.
Keywords: Awareness Green building LEED Prerequisites Professionals
1 Introduction
Green buildings are developed to leave lighter footprint on the environment. Devel-
oping a green building requires compliance with some prerequisites. Prerequisites are
the basic criteria to be met before a building can be considered for green building
certification. Green building certification refers to the extent to which a building
complies or performs with specific environmental goals and requirements. A certified
project is designed with the intention of reducing the impact of the built environment
on both human health and the natural environment.
The Paris agreement was enacted to combat the devastating effect of human
development on the physical environment with the attendant challenges to the socio
economic life [1]. The Paris agreement requires every nation to set its own goal hence
making it easy for everyone to effect change, to reduce greenhouse gas emission.
Hence, different countries have green building assessment or rating tools meeting the
peculiar need of the immediate community. The tools are used as a means of certifying
the greenness (level of green) of a building [2–6]. However, studies have been carried
out to assess the prospects of green building development in Nigeria by Dahiru [7].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_19
Awareness of Green Building Prerequisites for Skill Development 189
Others include Onuoha’s comparing efforts towards green building development in

Nigeria and Malaysia [8]. Waniko [9] in agreement with Dahiru and Onuoaha noted
that efforts towards green building in Nigeria is still at infancy. Therefore, the con-
struction industry in Nigeria lacks the required skill for green building development.
The construction industry is complex due to the fragmented nature of its activities
and requiring inputs from different professionals in the execution of its activities. The
fragmented nature has made it imperative for every profession to redefine sustainable
development along its professional obligation. This is to ensure that the client gets
value for his investment while the users derive maximum comfort for using the
property [10]. Therefore, the aim of the study is to evaluate the level of awareness of
construction industry professionals of the prerequisites for green building development
in Nigeria with a view to enhancing skill development and transfer. The Research
Hypotheses states that there is no significant difference in the level of awareness of
construction industry professionals of the prerequisites for green building development
in Nigeria.
2 Literature
A building designed, built, operated and disposed of in a resource-efficient manner is

referred to as green building. Green buildings are designed to minimize the overall
(negative) impact of the building on the built environment, human health and the
natural environment [11–13]. Green building practices include implementing con-
struction techniques which reduces waste and promotes efficient utilization of con-
struction resources. This also minimizes the ecological footprint of the built
environment. Developing a green building requires that all of the design professionals
work cooperatively towards a common goal from the inception of the project [14, 15].
2.1 Green Building Standards and Certification

Implementing green building development goals requires that some form of assessment
tools be established. Assessment tools are developed by considering what is to be
measured and how it is to be measured. Thus the application of rating systems to
allocate sustainable points to different area of green building development [16]. In
evaluating different tools for green roof system noted that since 1990 when the first
green building assessment tools was developed, there has been tremendous increase in
the number of sustainability assessment tools [4]. To develop these tools a weighting
system is applied to the green building parameters culminating to 100 points altogether.
Although these tools differ in concepts and principles depending on the nature and
scope of its intended implementation, the basic sustainable parameters for green
building development are the same [6].
2.2 Green Building Development in Nigeria

Construction projects are segregated along activities and professional lines. Hence,
implementing green building practices are developed along same line of professional
190 C. O. Ade-Ojo and O. A. Awodele
segregation resulting into lack of coordination of building development activities to

enhance sustainable performance. Reviewing the challenges of sustainable building
development, Salama and Alshuwaikhat [17] posits that there is need for a trans-
disciplinary approach to green building development. In line with this, Shen et al. [10]
proposed a matrix of framework of project sustainability performance factors for
assessing sustainable projects from inception to completion. The framework as pro-
posed is to provide a uniform basis for all professionals involved in the construction
project to assess the sustainability parameters across the social, economic and envi-
ronmental sustainability.
Furthermore, Dahiru, Dania, and Adejoh [7] assessed the prospects of green
building practices in Nigeria. The study identified lack of awareness, lack of enabling
policies and legislation to encourage prospective clients towards green building
development and unfavorable economic situation of the country as challenges to green
building development in Nigeria. In another vein, Onuoha et al. [8], comparing efforts
towards green building development in Nigeria and Malaysia noted that Malaysia
started towards the development of green buildings since the establishment of the 3rd
Malaysian plan of 1976–1980. The study concluded that Malaysia has a long history of
green building development policy. This has matured over the years while effort
towards green building policy and program is still at infancy in Nigeria. Another point
of note is that there has been more commitment to green building education in
Malaysia than Nigeria. The lack of sustainable construction skills was also identified as
a hindrance to green building development in Nigeria. Having considered the differ-
ences and similarities for green building development in Nigeria and Malaysia, the
conclusion is that Nigeria should develop her own rating tools. This is premised on the
basis that the use of South Africa Green Star may not have significant impact on green
building development in Nigeria.
Amasuomo, Atanda, and Baird [18], comparatively analyzed the LEED and
BREAM rating systems. The study noted that green building rating tools are developed
for specific local jurisdictions. The study believes that concerns of the local architec-
ture, socio-cultural and economic dynamics of Nigeria are important consideration in
developing a building performance assessment tool for the country. Therefore, the
LEED checklist will be adopted for the purpose of this study.
2.3 LEED Certification

The LEED is the most widely used green building rating tools due to its easy appli-
cability (Mapp, Nobe and Dunbar) [19]. Promoting a whole building approach to
sustainability, the LEED identifies five key performance areas: sustainable site
development, water savings, energy efficiency, material selection and indoor envi-
ronmental quality. The LEED scoring system comprises of three basic components
namely; the requirements, the credits and the scores [20]. The LEED like other certi-
fication systems consists of three elements; the prerequisites, the credits and the points.
LEED Prerequisites represent the minimum requirement for a building to be qualified
for LEED certification. A building does not score any point for complying with pre-
requisites but once there is compliance, the building can then be assessed to earn credits
which builds up towards earning higher levels of LEED certification. However, pre-
requisites do not earn points like credits.
3 Methodology
The study is a mixed design with cross-sectional survey of built industry professionals
in South-West Nigeria. the mixed design allows the use of qualitative research and
generalizing findings to a large population using quantitative research [21, 22]. Cross-
sectional surveys are carried out at one point in time. This is useful in getting definite
(snapshot) information about a group at a particular time [23]. Hence, the research
design consists of an exploratory survey on the built industry professionals in TEIs in
South-West Nigeria. These are the Architects, Quantity surveyors, Builders, Town
planners, Estate surveyors and Valuers, Engineers and Land Surveyors. A total number
of 69 built industry professionals employed in the Physical Panning Units of the
institutions were covered under the study.
The data collection instrument was a well-structured questionnaire adapted from the
LEED scoring system. The questionnaire was used to assess background information of
the respondents and to assess the level of awareness of the pre-requisites for green
building development among the professionals. Using the LEED v4 project checklist
for New Construction and Major Renovation developed by US Green Building Council
[24]. Respondents were required to rank their level of awareness of green building
requirements on a Likert’s scale of “5” for very much aware to “1’’ not aware. The data
collection instrument was administered on participants on one-on-one basis. To ensure
the quality and accuracy of the responses, preliminary discussions were conducted with
the respondents before going ahead to fill the questionnaire. This method allows the
respondents to clear any doubts they have while filling the questionnaire.
Quantitative and qualitative analytical tools were employed for the data analysis.
The Mean Item Score (MIS) was calculated to extract information on the level of
awareness of the professionals of the prerequisites for green building development in
the study area [25]. There are five prerequisites for the LEED certification. The mean
score formula is given by:
5n1 þ 4n2 þ 3n3 þ 2n4 þ n5

ð1Þ
5
Using 5 (five) point Likert’s scale a mean score below 3.00 is considered as not
significant, while any mean score from 3.00 and above is considered as statistically
significant [26].
4 Data Presentation and Analysis
The background information of the research population have the building industry pro-
fessionals in the physical planning units of the selected TEIBs from Engineers (26.1%) to
Quantity Surveyors (24.6%), Architects (17.4%), Town Planners (14.5%), Builders (8.8),
Estate Surveyors & Valuers (4.3) and Land Surveyors (4.3) respectively (Table 1).
Table 1. Background characteristics of the respondents

S/N Characteristics Frequency %
A. Professional background
Architects 12 17.4
Builders 6 8.7
Estate Surveyor & Valuers 3 4.3
Engineer 18 26.1
Land Surveyors 3 4.3
Quantity Surveyors 17 24.6
Town Planners 10 14.5
Total 69 100.0
In Table 2, Materials and Resources with a mean score of 3.47 ranked first on the
level of awareness of the prerequisites for green building development. Sustainable
Sites was ranked second with a MIS of 3.42 followed by Indoor Environmental Quality
(3.15), while Water Efficiency and energy atmosphere had MIS of 3.11 and 2.80
respectively. Implicitly the rate of awareness of the prerequisite for Green building by
the respondents was high with an overall mean value of 3.19. The table also reveals that
all the items on each of the prerequisite had mean values above 2.5 on a 5 point scale of
measurements. Table 2 also indicates that the Architects have the highest level of
awareness with mean value of 3.52 followed by Land Surveyors with a mean score of
3.51 and Town Planners with 3.22. The Quantity Surveyors, Estate surveyor & Valuers
and the Builders followed respectively.
Hypothesis Testing
The Kruskal-Wallis H test was applied to determine the significant difference in the
level of awareness of the prerequisites for green buildings among professionals within
the study area. The Kruskal-Wallis H test is a non-parametric statistical test of variance
between different means. It is non-parametric because there is no need to assume a
normal distribution unlike the One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The test
allows the comparison of more than two independent variables under a free distribution
[27, 28].
The Kruskal-Wallis test statistic for k samples, each of size ni is:
12 X Ti2
H¼ 3ð n þ 1Þ ð2Þ
nð n þ 1Þ ni
Where n is the total number (all ni) and Ri is the sum of the ranks (from all the samples)
for the ith sample and the null hypothesis of the test is that all k distribution functions
are equal.
Table 2. Level of awareness of prerequisite for GBD among construction industry professionals
S/N Green building prerequisite Mean within group Overall mean Rank Professional background (Mean)
ARC BLD ES&V ENG L/SV QS TPL
1 Materials and resources 3.47 1 3.58 3.42 2.83 3.5 4.12 3.35 3.5
Storage and collection of recyclables 3.48
Construction and demolition waste management plan 3.46
2 Sustainable sites 3.42 2 3.83 3.5 3 3.28 3.33 3.24 3.6
Construction activity pollution prevention 3.42
3 Indoor environmental quality 3.15 3 3.63 2.83 3.33 2.94 3.83 2.97 3.2
Minimum indoor air quality performance 3.19
Environmental tobacco smoke control 3.12
4 Water efficiency 3.11 4 3.64 2.61 3 3.2 3.44 2.8 3.04
Outdoor water use reduction 3.19
Indoor water use reduction 3.22
Building-level water metering 2.91
5 Energy and atmosphere 2.8 5 2.91 2.26 2.46 2.92 2.75 2.51 2.76
Fundamental commissioning and verification 2.67
Minimum energy performance 2.94
Building-level energy metering 2.68
Fundamental refrigerant management 2.92
3.52 2.92 2.93 3.17 3.51 2.97 3.22
Key: QS- Quantity Surveyors, ARC- Architects, BLD-Builders, TPL-Town Planners, ES&V-Estate surveyor & Valuers, L/SV- Land Surveyors, Eng-
Awareness of Green Building Prerequisites for Skill Development
Engineers.
193
The Kruskal-Wallis H test showed that there was no statistically significant dif-
ference in the level of awareness of the prerequisites for green building development
among construction industry professionals in South-West Nigeria, x2(6) = 9.888,
p = 0.129, with a mean rank of awareness score of 27.1 for Architect, 24.1 (Land
Surveyor), 19.2 (Town Planner), 17.6 (Engineer), 13.0 (Quantity Surveyor), 12.9
(Builder) and 12.1 for Estate Surveyor and Valuer. Given the confidence interval at
0.05 alpha levels, the null hypothesis was accepted. It was therefore concluded that
there is no significant difference in the level of awareness of the prerequisites for green
building development among Construction Industry Professionals in South-West
Nigeria (Table 3).
Table 3. Kruskal-Wallis H test on the level of awareness of prerequisite for green building
development among construction industry professionals
Professional (Grouping variable) Mean rank Ranking Chi-square df Asymp. Sig.
Architect 27.1 1 9.888 6 0.129
Land Surveyor 24.1 2
Town Planner 19.2 3
Engineer 17.6 4
Quantity Surveyor 13.0 5
Builder 12.9 6
Estate Surveyor 12.1 7
Discussion of Findings
The survey result shows that the professionals are statistically aware of the prerequi-
sites for green building development. This is ranked in order from Materials and
Resources (3.47), sustainable sites (3.42), Indoor Environmental Quality (3.15), Water
Efficiency (3.11) and Energy and Atmosphere (2.80) respectively. The levels of
awareness of the prerequisites were generally above average of 2.5 mean item score.
However the level of awareness of the prerequisites for Energy and Atmosphere (2.80)
was not significant falling below 3.00 decision rule. The awareness of Storage and
collection of recyclables (3.48) followed by construction and demolition waste man-
agement plan (3.46) significantly increased the awareness for Materials and Resources.
Assessing the level of awareness of the prerequisites along professional lines
showed that the professionals were generally above average with land Surveyors
ranking first, followed by Architects and Engineers and having mean item score
(MIS) of 3.45, 3.32 and 3.08 respectively. Three of the professionals namely, the
Builders, Estate surveyor & Valuers and the Quantity Surveyors ranked from the rear
with 2.92, 2.93, 2.97 respectively. The import is that the level of awareness among this
group of professionals is not statistically significant. However, the result indicates that
the professionals are not totally ignorant of the prerequisites for the green building
development as previously observed [9, 29].
Furthermore, the Kruskal –Wallis H test on the awareness of the prerequisites

showed no significant variation among the professionals. The result however corrob-
orates the study by [30] which reported an improvement on the level of awareness of
green building concepts as a greater percentage of the professionals surveyed were
familiar with the concept.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Emanating from the data analysis, the study concludes that the level of awareness for
the prerequisites is generally above average. And that some of the built industry
professionals are more aware of the prerequisites (such as Architect, Land Surveyor,
Town Planner and Engineers) than others like the Quantity Surveyor, Estate Surveyors
& valuers and Builders respectively. This is disapproves the claim that building
industry professionals are ignorant of the principles of green building. it however
shows distinctively the level of awareness of each profession. The study therefore
recommends that there is need to propagate the principles of green building develop-
ment among the Built-industry industry professionals across the country and for each
profession to develop requisite professional skills for green building development.
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and sustainability rating systems: making the case for the need of diversification. Int.
J. Sustain. Built Environ. 4(1), 1–11 (2015)
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A Review of the Advantages
and Disadvantages of the Use of Automation
and Robotics in the Construction Industry
Josephine Llale(&), Matleko Setati, Success Mavunda,

Thando Ndlovu, David Root, and Paulin Wembe
University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein,

Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
{9205371p,707344,832137,1062488,
david.root}@students.wits.ac.za,
david.root@wits.ac.za,pwembe@gmail.com
Abstract. The construction industry is hazardous and dirty. Automation and

robotics in construction (ARC) were introduced to execute tasks that are difficult
for humans and to reduce the number of incidents on construction sites. This
study discusses the advantages and the disadvantages of the use of ARC in the
South African construction industry. A narrative literature review was con-
ducted. Given that the construction industry is a wide concept, that includes
amongst others; materials, processes and site activities, the study only considers
the use of ARC as it relates to site activities in South Africa. In spite of the many
advantages that ARC has to offer the South African construction industry, ARC
is yet to be widely adopted in South Africa. ARC can potentially reduce the
number of fatalities and improve efficiency and productivity on site. However,
high costs of adoption and the loss of jobs are some of the factors that are
hindering adoption. The construction industry in South Africa needs structural
changes in order to benefit from the use of ARC. The results of the study will
benefit stakeholders in the construction industry in South Africa, particularly
construction companies and the government.
Keywords: Automation Construction industry Robotics Site activities
1 Introduction
The construction industry is known to be hazardous and dirty [1–3]. It is estimated that
“one in every six work-related fatal accidents occurs on a construction site” [4: 2].
258 accidents and 56 fatalities in the construction industry were reported in 2012 in
South Africa [5]. ARC was introduced to reduce the number of incidents on site and to
execute tasks that are difficult for humans [6]. In comparison to human labour, using
ARC on construction sites, has other advantages such as increased productivity and
efficiency, better quality, improved working environment, speed, reduced construction
cost and time, speed and construction processes that are environmentally friendly or
sustainable [7–16].
In spite of ARC’s advantages, adoption in South Africa, is slow. High cost of ARC
[11, 14] and job losses [17–20] are some of the barriers to wider adoption. [21]
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_20
198 J. Llale et al.
estimates the unemployment rate in South Africa at around 27,5%. The South African
government aims to reduce the unemployment rate to 6% by 2030 [18]. Further job
losses are therefore unwanted. Wider adoption of ARC and the South African gov-
ernment’s objective of reducing unemployment presents South African construction
industry with the challenge of; how can it enjoy the benefits of wider adoption of ARC
while creating jobs?
This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the use of automation and
robotics (ARC) in the South African construction industry. Since, the construction
industry is a wide concept that includes amongst others materials, processes and site
activities, the study is only concerned with the use of automation and robotics as it
relates to site activities in South Africa.
A narrative literature methodology was followed to review literature on the
advantages and disadvantages of the use of automation and robotics in the South
African construction industry. To search for the following main terms; robotics,
automation, construction industry, occupational health and safety, Google Scholar and
the Wits Library were used as the main database for the search. Articles that were
considered for review for this paper were those whose full text was available. The
selection of relevant articles to include in this review paper was guided by the aim of
the study.
The advantages and disadvantages of the use of ARC are discussed under the
following sections; (Sect. 2), what is automation and robotics in construction (ARC)?
(Section 3) the advantages of the use of ARC, (Sect. 4) disadvantages of the use of
ARC, and (Sect. 5) Conclusion.
The findings of this review paper are that in spite of the advantages that the use of
automation and robotics bring on site such as, safety and increased productivity, wider
adoption in South Africa is still lagging. Wider adoption of ARC should take into
consideration the South African’s government’s objective of creation of jobs. Labour
intensive projects should incorporate ARC that work with human labour such as
teleoperated machines and programmable construction machines to minimize potential
job losses and to align with South African’s government’s objective.
In spite of its benefits, ARC is expensive and can potentially lead to job losses. For
wider adoption, structural changes in the South African construction industry might be
necessary. Stakeholders in the construction industry should find ways to remove
structural barriers that may be preventing wider adoption of ARC such as how the
construction industry is arranged, composed, and organized. This will also include
(1) evaluating materials used and (2) off and on-site processes and activities. Further
research in the wider adoption of robotics and automation in developing countries is
recommended.
2 What is Automation and Robotics in Construction (ARC)?
There is no universal definition of ARC. [22] describe automation as “the use of

technology to facilitate the work of human or extend their physical and mental
capacity.” [23] in [11: 23] define ARC as “a machine-centered construction factory
technology for applying robotic systems on the construction field.” [20: 169] define
A Review of the Advantages and Disadvantages 199
automation as, “the use of control systems and information technologies to reduce the
need for human work in the production of goods and services”. [24] describe ARC as
the application of computer-controlled processes, mechanization concepts and tech-
nologies in construction. In this paper, ARC, is described as [24].
Different types of ARC are classified according to their interaction with humans
[24]. The first type, teleoperated systems, is a type of ARC where humans use a remote
control to operate the machines [24]. The second type are programmable construction
machines, this type of ARC enables humans to perform certain tasks by choosing pre-
programmed menu or function for them [24]. The third type are called intelligent
systems, these include semi-autonomous or full autonomous machines that can operate
without humans or with limited human interaction [24]. In this paper, unless otherwise
stated, no distinction is made between the different types of ARC.
3 The Advantages of Using ARC
Literature provides many advantages of the use of ARC [7–16] This paper only dis-
cusses three advantages of ARC. Advantages of ARC in, (1) improving safety,
(2) increasing productivity and (3) construction processes that are environmentally
friendly (sustainable) and their potential implication on the South African construction
industry are discussed.
3.1 Safety
The most common forms of incidence on construction site include, (1) slips and falling,
(2) falls from extreme heights, (3) electrocutions, (4) structural collapses, (5) machinery
failure, (6) welding emissions, (7) lead, (8) unguarded machinery, (9) being struck by
heavy construction equipment and moving vehicles or falling objects, (10) asphyxia-
tion and similar [25, 26]. Proponents of ARC claim that the use of ARC on con-
struction site has the potential to reduce such incidents by carrying work in
environments that are unsafe for humans to do so [7, 10, 14, 24].
In South Africa, being struck by (44%), falling on to different levels (14%) and
striking against (10%) are the three major causes of injuries on construction sites [27].
On the other hand, motor-vehicle accidents (MVAs) (47%), struck by (17%) and falls
on to different levels (17%) accounted for the most fatalities [27]. If claims from
literature about ARC’s ability to improve safety on construction sites are reliable, then
stakeholders in the South African construction industry need to adopt ARC tech-
nologies and methods that can reduce incidents identified by [27] on construction sites.
Semi-autonomous and autonomous robotics should be considered for unsafe work
environments. This might potentially reduce the number of incidences on construction
sites as machines instead of human labour will be exposed to dangerous situations.
3.2 Increased Productivity

There are bricklaying robotics that are able to build a complete house in two days as
compared to weeks and months by human labour [12, 16]. Human labour productivity
200 J. Llale et al.
can be negatively affected by tiredness, fatigue and absenteeism [22, 28, 29]. In
comparison ARC seems to be more productive than human labour. For instance, a
bricklaying robot called Hadrian 105 can work 24 h a week and lay 1000 brick per
hour in comparison to human labour at 100–200 bricks per hour [16].
[9] claims that by using contour crafting an entire house can be completed in a few
hours. Contour crafting is a 3D printing technology that is capable of printing a house
on site [16]. By using a gantry system carrying the nozzle that moves on two parallel
lanes, a 200 m2 double storey can be built in 2 days [9]. Figure 1 shows a construction
of a building using contour crafting.
Using machines such as Hadrian 105 and contour crafting, the urban infrastructure
backlog can potentially be reduced. To what extend can the South African housing
backlog, estimated at 2,1 million [30], be reduced by using bricklaying machines such
as Hadrian 105 or contour crafting which can build an entire house within 2 days?
Fig. 1. Construction of a building using contour crafting [9]
3.3 Sustainability
The construction industry is the leading consumer of raw material in the world [31].
25–40% of the world’s total carbon emissions are attributed to constructed objects [31].
[32] claim buildings in South Africa account for over a quarter of all national green-
house emissions. A potential solution to carbon and greenhouse emissions is ARC.
Contour crafting (see Fig. 2a and b) is regarded as an environmentally friendly building
alternative to traditional building [7, 9].
Contour crafting creates an environmentally friendly environment by reducing
emissions and material waste [9]. An emission free environment is created by the use of
electric contour crafting machines that are emission free [9]. Material waste is reduced
by the use of computer to determine, for example, the exact amount of concrete to be
deposited into the contour crafting machine for specific locations in the building [9].
Fig. 2. (a) The first structure to be printed, (b) 3D printing in progress [33] in [7]
Unless, South Africa embraces environmentally friendly construction materials and

processes, near zero energy buildings [32], that is buildings that contribute less
greenhouse emissions, will not be achieved.
4 The Disadvantage of Using ARC
As there are advantages of ARC, there are also disadvantages to the use of ARC on
construction site. Disadvantages include potential job losses, high capital and main-
tenance cost, unavailability of technology, constant change in technology and inflex-
ibility [7, 11–14, 24, 34]. This paper discusses the disadvantages of ARC in relation to
potential job losses and high capital cost.
4.1 Job Losses

The implementation of ARC on construction site has the potential to result in job
losses. In the manufacturing industry, jobs were lost because of automation and
robotics [17, 18]. The manufacturing and automotive industries are often cited as
examples of job losses resulting from the use of automation and technology. For
example “some 22 million manufacturing jobs were lost globally between 1995 and
2002 as industrial output soared 30%” [19]. Low skilled and low wage occupations
jobs are usually adversely affected by automation [20].
Through the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP), the South African
government aims to reduce unemployment by creating temporary employment for the
unemployed [35, 36]. EPWP creates low-skilled job opportunities through labour-
intensive projects [37]. If literature findings on the use of ARC are to be relied upon,
the use of ARC on construction sites might be at odds with the job creation aims of the
South African government. The possibility of job losses might also be one of the
reasons for the slow adoption of ARC in the South African construction industry.
202 J. Llale et al.
4.2 High Capital Cost

High capital cost of ARC is a major barrier to the wider adoption of ARC [14]. Small
and medium size companies dominate the construction industry [11]. Many of these
companies do not have the financial means to invest in ARC [11].
The Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB) grades contractors in South
Africa according to the value of construction work a contractor is deemed capable of
performing within a certain class of works [38]. In South Africa, it is compulsory for
contractors who want to participate in public construction projects to apply for a CIDB
grading [38]. Grading ranges from level 1 to level 9. A level 1 contractor, for instance,
can only undertake works whose value does not exceed R200 000 [38]. There is no
limit for a grade 9 contractor in terms of the value of work they can undertake [38].
Of the 94 792 contractors registered with the CIDB, 84 770 had a CIDB grading of
Level 1 [39]. This means that the majority of contractors in South Africa are small
contractors and may, therefore, be unable to afford to invest in ARC. How will the
South African construction industry enjoy the benefits of the wider adoption of ARC
while creating jobs? How can barriers to wider adoption such as high cost of ARC be
resolved? These are some of the questions that need to be answered if the South
African construction industry is to promote safety, increased productivity and sus-
tainability on construction sites through the wider adoption of ARC.
5 Conclusion
In this paper the advantages and disadvantages of the use of robotics and automation in
the South African construction industry were discussed. Some of the advantages
include safety, increased productivity and sustainability. The disadvantages include
possible job losses and high capital cost. Possible solutions to benefit from the
advantages of the use of robotics and automation while creating new jobs should
include structural changes in the construction industry. Wider adoption will possibly
include how the South African construction industry is structured and organized. It
might also include an evaluation of materials used and processes involved on and off
construction sites.
Even though job creation is an important imperative for the South African gov-
ernment, safety of construction workers and providing adequate infrastructure for its
citizens are also important imperatives that need consideration. Labour intensive pro-
jects can possibly incorporate the use of tele-operated or programmable construction
machines that allow for the interaction of human and machines on construction sites.
Semi- and fully autonomous machines could possibly be used in work environments
that are unsafe for human labour. The use of bricklaying machines and contour crafting
could possibly be used to reduce the urban infrastructure backlog. Unless, however,
stakeholders in the construction find a solution for reducing high cost of ARC, wider
adoption of ARC will remain a challenge.
This paper recommends further research on the wider adoption of construction
robotics and automation in developing countries such as South Africa in order to draw
comparisons.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2018.05.029
30. African News Agency: Housing backlog at 2.1 m, says Minister Sisulu. https://www.
engineeringnews.co.za/article/housing-backlog-at-21m-says-minister-sisulu-2016-04-22/
rep_id:4136
31. WEF_Shaping_the_Future_of_Construction_full_report__.pdf. http://www3.weforum.org/
docs/WEF_Shaping_the_Future_of_Construction_full_report__.pdf
32. Ampofo-Anti et al.: Potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the South African
Construction Sector. https://www.sagreenfund.org.za/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/
05/CSIR-Potential-for-reducing-GHG-emissions-in-the-South-African-construction-sector.
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33. Rudenko 3D Printer. http://www.totalkustom.com/gallery.html
34. Effects of Automation on Construction Industry Performance. https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/319199428_Effects_of_Automation_on_Construction_Industry_Performance
35. EPWP_as_a_Catalyst_for_Development-Mr_Dladla.pdf. https://www.parliament.gov.za/
storage/app/media/ProjectsAndEvents/2017_ncop_provincial_week_october/docs/EPWP_
as_a_Catalyst_for_Development-Mr_Dladla.pdf
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20Brief.pdf
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documents/Infrastructure/Infrastructure%20incentive%20manual/2015/EPWP_
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39. Greve, N.: CIDB Grade 1 offers ‘no barrier’ to industry entry, needs rehaul. http://www.
engineeringnews.co.za/article/cidb-grade-1-offers-no-barrier-to-industry-entry-needs-rehaul-
2014-04-08
Corporate Governance and REITs
Performance
Moloi Nosipho and Akinsomi Omokolade(&)
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,

0412472x@students.wits.ac.za,
Kola.akinsomi@wits.ac.za
Abstract. South African Real Estate Investment Trusts (SA REIT) is promi-
nent and favorable to other emerging markets, since inception the returns on
investments have increased with a market capitalization of R400 billion in 2018
as compared to other markets globally. South Africa (SA) has the most
advanced Corporate Governance (CG) mechanism, thus contributions to liter-
ature on CG has become vital; any collapse of South Africa’s CG mechanism
has far dire impact beyond the African continent to the rest of the world. For
analysis, the Generalised Method of Moments is in use. The data is source from
McGregor. The study period is from 2008 to 2017. Results proved that CGI has
a positive but statistically insignificant increase on SA-REIT performance.
Keywords: SA-REITs performance Corporate Governance
1 Introduction
Numerous studies have compared the performance of Real Estate Investment Trust
(REITs) with those of other financial assets and markets; these have reached various
conclusions globally, by [1–8]. The literature concentrated on the commercial REITs
and the impact of Corporate Governance (CG) on its performance, with similar out-
come that better governed corporations award investors with greater performance also
proven within the South African context by [9, 10]; on CG studies that compliance
affords promising returns to the investor.
The Problem Statement
Overall literature has proven a positive statistically noteworthy connection between
performance and decent CG practice, Rahman et al. enlightened that depending on the
context and performance measures adopted; there might be variations as this was a case
in China [11]. In contrast to other emerging economies Ntim attested that South
African corporations with good CG practice in place tend to perform better than their
counterparts, a positive link of TQ with CG [9] and Pamburai et al. found an optimistic
relationship of TQ and the portion of lower level directors [10]. In addition, Mans-
kemp et al. employed models that indicated a positive alpha for portfolios of companies
containing a high CG practice [12]. In addition, Hormark, reported a positive alpha for

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_21
206 M. Nosipho and A. Omokolade
the JSE, but the results were different for Brazil, Russia, India and China when the
CAPM was employed [13].
A comprehensive CG mechanism is mandatory is when analyzing the link between
performance and CG to capture the multifaceted concept of CG as reported by [14],
employing a comprehensive CG mechanism makes way for any interdependent multi-
facet of CG [15]. Similar to other studies the present study also adopts the CGI covers
normal CGI attributes [16]. Other non-SA studies have adopted academic indices by
[17] and or market indices by [18]. The academic indices are difficult to repeat [19],
with corporate governance mechanism for each organization, and the other indices are
westernized. The present study is some-what dissimilar to previous studies [20], as it
adopts SA setting attributes, these include non-discriminative and provisions from
stakeholders, in addition to these HIV/AIDS and Employment equity are included.
Research Questions
1 How Corporate Governance policies associate with the performance of SA-REITs?
Sub-question: How does Corporate Governance’s comprehensive index provisions

affect the performance of both an internally and externally managed SA-REITs?
Objectives of this Study
1. To assess SA REITs variation in performance and if it is related Corporate

Governance Policies.
2. To evaluate the performance of SA REITs and its relation to Corporate Gover-
nance’s 50 provisions contained in the index taken from King II report for SA listed
corporations.
The Hypothesis Formulation

Alreemy et al. utilized certain provisions contained in the CG index [21], with a
variation in results to [24] as they adopted a comprehensive CG index which proved
that corporation with a good CG in place are likely to perform better for S-REITs.
In addition, Larcker et al. contend that CG mechanism is complex, and to capture
any provisions that are interdependent may be a challenge [14], thus a comprehensive
CG index is mandatory [8], context specific attributes should be included in the proxy
[20]. H1: The performance of the internally and externally managed SA-REITs is
influence by the comprehensive CGI indices contained in the King II report.
Aim
To examine the CG policies adopted by SA-REITs with more emphases on the pro-
visions contained therein. Thus, develop a model to examine the reasons behind the
significant correlation of the performance and CG provisions.
Limitations
The sample size might require improvement, and data may not be available for all
corporations before the King III and King IV reports.
Corporate Governance and REITs Performance 207
Corporate Governance
The South Africa’s model is unique; it is in a form of King Reports that from the
Anglo-American style [9]. Similar to the UK and the US, the first CG mechanism is
from the UK framework, later improved to King II, III and IV to incorporate SA
specific context.
REITs
Much of the South African based CG studies challenges are embedded on the avail-
ability of information, some corporations types are excluded in various studies of
[9–13]. However, on REITs, not much work in the industry. The SA REIT portfolio is
smaller in proportion to other JSE portfolios, ever since inception REITs portfolio has
outperformed stocks, T-Bills and so forth [23]. The SA-REIT market capitalization in
2018 was R400 billion and are committed to good governance, reported by [24]; fur-
thermore SA-REIT is favorable compared to other emerging markets [25].
REIT is a listed property venture that consists of different corporations that obtain
their earnings through administration, operation and proprietorship of the property
investment; its inception was in the 1960s. In South Africa REIT was implemented in
2013 Prior to the introduction of REITs the Property unit trust (PUTs) and property
loan stock (PLS), these were unevenly regulated, hence the introduction of REITs that
was more flexible, transparent, simple and with tax certainty [25]. As of January 2018,
there were thirty-one (31) listed REITs corporation on JSE as reported by the [24, 25].
2 Literature Review
The literature concentrated on the performance of commercial REITs and CG, better
governed corporations award investors with greater performance as proven by [9, 10]
and also be affording promising returns to the investor. Lacomte & Ooi and Chong
et al. elaborate that CG index with all country specific provisions is mandatory to better
govern organizations and thus improve performance [22, 26].
Performance of REITs and Corporate Governance
CG and REITs performance studies in developed nations by [18, 27, 28] focused on
individual CG provisions or aggregate CG measures. Previously, normally board and
audit committee were in previous studies as variables, which gave limited analyses on
the effectiveness on CG and REITs. Emerging economies have limited information or
specific measure for CG, Asian Pacific Real Estate Association (APREA) introduced
this measure in 2010 that was originally introduced by the European Public Real Estate
Association (EPRA), hence the framework has been applied ever since. Lecomte and
Ooi adopted the APREA framework in this respect, suggested that this framework is
mandatory for other markets; they found an optimistic association between CG and
stock performance [22].
An Indian study was done to evaluate the effectiveness of the APREA framework,
Das and Thomas mentioned that even though these studies were conducted in Asian
markets this will not determine the effectiveness of the framework to measure CG and
REITs in India [29]. A study in Singapore by [26]. Conflicted the results in [22] even
though in a similar region as India, this study proved otherwise that CG has no
noteworthy effect on the performance of REITs, value of REITs, and return on asset.
Lecomte and Ooi suggested that current organization and ownership of REIT could
not bring in enough investor interest in the investment market; these devalue the
reduction of the worth of REITs this implied that REITs should reconsider redefining
their management arrangement [22]. Yung et al. focused on CEO over confidence lead
to faults and advantage and decisions made to buy back shares [40].
Chong et al. cited that REITs executives face considerable charges when they wish
to reach a balanced level to agency charges, CEO studies are important to determine
buyback decision while other focused more on shareholding and managers [26]. As
mentioned above managing a portfolio can be expensive, and achieving equilibrium
issues is still daunting with finance models.
It has been proven that better governed South African corporations is linked with
better financial performance as reported by Pamburai et al. and Ntim found a positive
link between TQ an accounting measure with CG [29, 37].
The African continent has different challenges to developed nations such as the
unstable political climate, poverty, HIV/AIDs, fluctuating economic climate and many
more, each country in Africa is experiencing the some of these or more [30–32].
CG financial data is from the Perfect Information Database (PID) to assess the con-
nection between CG and SA-REITs performance. The price rise rate, its inverse
function of exponent change of the CPI, the Treasury Bill (RTS) as its present ratio less
its annual moving average, and the interest rate factor is one to 9 years. The real estate
returns volatility is 12 months moving standard deviation, all from McGregor. The
study period spans from 2008 to 2017.
Effectiveness of Corporate Governance on REITs
Generalized method of moments was adopted by [26] similar to the present study, as it
is more robust than ordinary least squares (OLS) and panel data. Many researchers
choose board and audit committee as CG measures for performance like [33, 34].
A comprehensive CG index is prepared to provide a full picture of CG incorporating
SA context attribute [14–16].
The independent variable is the CGI to help understand the connection between CG
and SA-REIT performance. 50 provisions are taken from the King II report which
make the CGI, the 50 provisions are made from five wide-ranging sections enclosed in
the King II report; thus all corporations must comply or state reasons for non-
compliance. This study is unique but in line with previous studies, the CG mechanism
contains board of directors and ownership [16], as it adopts variables like EE,
HIV/AIDS and Affirmative Action. If a corporation has five provisions, then a value of
one is given or zero otherwise. It is mandatory to note that the scoring of a corporation
can vary in a year from zero to containing all 50 provisions.
To test effectively the impact of CG mechanism on SA-REIT, panel econometric

analysis is applied. The key ingredient in the regression models is CG provisions of the
individual SA-REITs, the below equation is from [22]:

Ri;t ¼ a þ b1 CGIi;t1 þ b2 in Size1;t þ b3 MTBi;t þ b4 D=Ei;t þ rXt þ ei;t ð1Þ
CGI index in year t-1 for SA-REIT, this was adopted by [35] furthermore Ooi and
Liow suggested that also several variables should be incorporated that could influence
returns [36]. For the present study, the variable revenue (REV) also shown in above
equation as Rit represents the returns on investment.
The size of the corporation and growth prospects are controlled by the normal log
of SA-REIT I’s commercial capitalization in year t and the ratio of SA-REIT i’s market
value of assets in year t. The D/E Ratiot,i represents the firms use leverage, the debt
asset ratio for SA-REITi yeart as a control variable.
To capture the period fluctuating effects, for instance credit availability and costs Xt
shows the series.
There are two return test for performance. Ri,t, is the constantly compounded for an
extra holding time on yield for SA-REIT i for time t. The initial calculation of the
yearly variations in the specific SA-REIT price thereafter accustomed for the con-
forming market return. The equation is as follows:
Rit þ 1 ¼ ðPit þ 1 = Rit1 Þ ðMt þ 1 =Mt1 Þ ð2Þ
Where Pi, t is the price of stock of ith REIT at time t, and the price of stock index at
time t is represented by Mt. As a robustness test, the influence of CG on the financial
advances of SA-REITs using Jensen alpha (ai), resultant from the below market model:
Rit þ 1 Rf i t ¼ ai þ bðRmt Rft Þ þ et ð3Þ
Ri,t is the annual return on SA-REIT stock. Annual returns are represented by Ri,t, Rf,t
and Rm,t. Where Ri,t is on the SA-REIT stock, and Rf,t is on non-risk Treasury bill and
Rm,t is the market portfolio. If alpha is not expressively diverse from nil, then that
particular portfolio is earning standard returns [36].
4 Results and Analysis
The Economic theory suggests that the relationships we are interested in are dynamic,
especially in panel data [37].
Descriptive Statistics
The variable REV or Rit ranges from 1.000 to 4640000. With an average of 250543.5
this indicates some form of variation of our samples data. The independent variable
REV and independent variables SIZE, MT, DE and CGI show wide variation in data,
similar to [22, 26, 29]. Basic relationship between variables is evident; and to control
highly skewed data by taking logarithms making them easier to interpret intuitively as
in this case (Table 1).
Table 1. Descriptive statistics

REV SIZE MT DE CGI
Mean 509355.4 5639184. 1271.792 1039.574 0.741667
Median 250543.5 4149080. 973.5000 1.109524 1.000000
Maximum 4640000. 45702000 9485.000 122372.6 1.000000
Minimum 1.000000 870.0000 1.000000 0.009014 0.000000
Std. dev. 787163.2 7144736. 1429.476 11170.04 0.439554
Skewness 3.098933 3.111877 3.189634 10.81464 −1.104211
Kurtosis 14.04764 14.44630 15.22695 117.9737 2.219282
Jarque-Bera 802.3191 848.7640 950.9666 68433.94 27.43325
Probability 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000001
Sum 61122650 6.77E+08 152615.0 124748.9 89.00000
Sum sq. dev. 7.37E+13 6.07E+15 2.43E+08 1.48E+10 22.99167
Observations 120 120 120 120 120
Normality Test
The variables REV, SIZE, MT, DE are not normally distributed; however, CGI is close
to 3.7, though still not normally distributed. The skewness test should be near zero
(0) if the value is positive it means that the data is tilt to the right, as shown below. The
independent variable REV and the dependent variables SIZE, MT and DE are tilt to the
right and the independent variable CGI is tilt to the left (Fig. 1).
25
Series: Standardized Residuals
Sample 2014 2017
20 Observations 120
Mean 0.016089
15 Median 0.816979
Maximum 2.887358
Minimum -11.61971
10 Std. Dev. 2.599060
Skewness -2.818960
Kurtosis 12.13074
5
Jarque-Bera 575.7831
Probability 0.000000
0
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
Fig. 1. Normality test
Unit Root Test

Non-stationarity in panel time-series is a natural extension and the concepts of inte-
gration and co-integration, thus variables that are non-stationary can lead to spurious
regression. The Levin et al. tests are employed [38]; the p-value for REV is 0,000,
which implies stationarity. When p- value is less than 10%, it means that variable is
stationary [38]. The results at first order for variables SIZE, MT and DE are 0.000,
0.0942 and 0.0684, respectively.
To test for robustness of the above results [34], the first order results show that REV,
SIZE, MT and DE are stationary, at 0.0001, 0.00038, and 0.3413 and 0.8458,
respectively. At intercept for MT the result is 0.0000 and DE 0.0525.
Correlation Matrix
The correlation matrix shows the relationship amongst variables as stipulated below.
The variable SIZE and CGI positively correlate to REV, respectively at 93% and 19%.
However, MT and DE both negatively correlate to REV at −0.02% and −0.03%. In
addition, Lecomte & Ooi proved a relationship among similar variables, with SIZE and
CG provisions.
Panel Generalize Method of Moments
Nickell attests to GMM-type estimators, which make use of the optimal number of
instruments, as variables tend to break down when they are believed to be I(1) [39].
With Instrumental Variable Techniques (IVS) to prevent serial correlation amongst the
variables, as other techniques will lead to spurious results. If the probability coefficient
value should be less than 10%, it means the variable is statistically insignificant. The
variable SIZE has optimistic impact on REV. Therefore, if SIZE were to increase by 1%
the REV will increase by 80%. However, MT has a negative impact that is statistically
insignificant; a 1% increase will lead to 11% decrease in REV. On the other hand, CGI
has an optimistic but statistically irrelevant effect on REV, which means a 1% increase
in CGI would constitute a 37% increase in REV. However, DE positively influences
REV but insignificant statistically, a 1% increase will lead to 28% increase in REV. R2
should be above 50%, however this instance it is 27%; however this is not a problem,
also note that Ooi and Liow has reported somewhat similar findings [36] even though
Ntim had adverse results [9].
Panel generalized method of moments

Variable Coefficient Std. error t-statistic Prob.
LOG (SIZE) 0.804353 0.077477 10.38187 0.0000
LOG (MT) −0.111208 0.148187 −0.750459 0.4545
CGI 0.374461 0.633442 0.591152 0.5556
LOG (DE) 0.287302 0.119026 2.413774 0.0174
R-squared 0.274436 Mean dependent var 11.43033
Adjusted R-squared 0.255671 S.D. dependent var 3.051313
S.E. of regression 2.632504 Sum squared resid 803.8892
Durbin-Watson stat 0.336493 J-statistic 0.295361
Instrument rank 5 Prob (J-statistic) 0.586806
5 Conclusions
This paper considers CG and SA-REITs performance. The literature discovered that
changes in economics affect the performance of REITs. Much literature had similar
findings with minor variations, there is substantial work done on CG and various
corporations on JSE. Literature has proved that there is statistical relationship between
CG and REITs, this proved to be the similar with empirical results, even though CGI
has a positive influence on SA-REITs, performance it does it is not significant. The
literature has proven an optimistic association with CG and performance [22], though
depending on the framework adopted and context they may be variations in results
[31]. This study employed a similar framework to [9]; however, the present results
proved otherwise.
Proven models are employed to test as to why there is a statically association with
performance and CG practice. The SA context is different, as corporation have to
comply with the SA CG mechanism that introduced in a King Reports formats. Even
though the SA REIT has proven to be of interest to foreign investors, the contextual
obligations like BEE, CSR, Affirmative Action and so forth. SA corporations are
required to comply with the CG mechanism and JSE regulations.
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Repositioning Waste Management
Architecture for Sustainable Upstream
Performance in Lagos, Nigeria
Akintade Samuel Afolayan(&)
Department of Estate Management,

University of Lagos, Akoka Yaba, Lagos 101017, Nigeria
akinafolayan@gmail.com, aafolayan@unilag.edu.ng
Abstract. The Lagos Mega City witnessed a breakdown of refuse upstream

evacuation mechanism more than ever before. New and sustainable approach
needs to be found for improvement, in the face of looming environmental health
hazards. This study examines public policy on solid waste management in Lagos
Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) enabling law, 2007 and explores
human and technological resources available for a sustainable operation. It also
utilises interviews with refuse evacuation stake holders; the waste-cart pushers
and survey on households to appraise the current state of refuse management.
The study discovers a massive displacement of grass-root mechanisms which
could have been harnessed for effective waste evacuation. It also finds that scale
of plant was underutilised and wrongly applied, resulting in inefficiency of
Private Sector Participation (PSP) refuse collectors. The study recommends a
restructuring of the evacuation mechanisms through means of the ‘refuse sale’
approach on three major levels.
Keywords: Refuse Cart Pushers Refuse sale Waste collection

Waste generation Waste management
1 Introduction
The built environment is a product of the construction industry in its old, refined and
conceptual models. The aim and a major indicator of the success of the construction
industry is the wellbeing and satisfaction of man in his basic, social, recreational and
economic uses of built environment. This is where design, construction and manage-
ment of the created structures and infrastructure become very critical. While the
technicalities of design and the construction stages determine the prospects of actual-
isation of the physical structures, the management and administration stage determine
the level at which the aims of all inputs into the creation of built environment would be
achieved. Management or/and administration was acknowledged as the ‘software’
aspect of built environment and thus styled it “humanware”, as distinct from other
physical components of the built environment which was referred to as ‘hardware’
elements [1]. The source agreed that these ‘soft issues’ constituted a key factor based
on which users make their decisions about the overall quality of structures.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_22
216 A. S. Afolayan
Management and administration occur at the post-occupancy stage of the value

chain. Most crucial at this stage is environmental maintenance for livability which, is
anchored much on performance of the structures created, as well as health and safety of
users towards achieving satisfaction therein. Environmental user satisfaction and well-
being is a composite of ratings from several domains. These include those of housing,
health and environment [2]. [3] had also earlier established positive correlations
between the well-being of man and his physical environment which, today is the focus
of upgrade in Construction 4.0 framework. Environmental factors and conditions are
very crucial in the determination of satisfaction and subjective well-being of man in
built environment [4]. One of the major determinants of user satisfaction and well-
being as a focus of construction industry is cleanliness and sustainable solid waste
management (SWM). However, urbanisation and its accompanying complexities tend
to weigh down our cities’ environment in Africa. A major sector usually affected in this
process is in maintenance of cleanliness. Lagos mega-city, Nigeria exhibits a typical
failure of SWM among African cities. Unfortunately, Nigeria as a nation, was also
attested to as witnessing a regime of refuse generation which outweighs the evacuation
rate [5]. Even the whole of the global south was acclaimed to be bedeviled with
inequitable and inconsistent solid waste collection services resulting from rapid
urbanization [6].
Lagos state had landfills and dumpsites including those of Olusosun, Solous,
Ikorodu, and Igando as well as new constructions in Epe to handle SWM. The Lagos
State Waste Management Authority (LAWMA) in conjunction with Private Sector
Participation (PSP) operators appeared working hard to rid the State of filth.
Notwithstanding these, the streets are filled with refuse, creating midstream compli-
cations. The problem, however, is not a midstream issue per se. The preponderance of
refuse on the streets exhibits the failure of the upstream (source-centre) evacuation
mechanism. The focus of this paper is thus, on the enhancement and sustainability of
upstream evacuation processes. Furthermore, only household wastes, light commercial
and institutional wastes which usually find their way, albeit illegally, onto the streets
are considered. Industrial and medical wastes which have specialised channels of
disposal are left out. Also, the efficiency or otherwise of the downstream sector are not
covered here.
2 Statement of Research Problem
The current view of refuse on the streets of Lagos mega-city is unprecedented. The
efforts of LAWMA and PSP operators among others have not yielded positive results
for residents’ satisfaction and well-being enough to justify the aim of immense
activities of the construction industry. A common feature at such refuse heaps is the
batching of components in one form of container or the other ranging from cellophane
wraps, baskets, sacks to other forms of characteristically poor bagging meant to be
disposed of, alongside the contained refuse. The implication of this is that such refuse
had been carried over a distance to be dumped there. If there had been effective
evacuation machinery at the various source-centres, the illegal spots would not have
received waste products.
Repositioning Waste Management Architecture 217
The situation had degenerated so much that it gave birth to the whims of various
schools of thought. Three of such schools could be identified here. The Public Policy
School took advocacy approach through erection of signposts canvassing against
dumping of refuse in some locations while, in the Political School, evolving effective
SWM approach had become a campaign slogan for political aspirants. In the School of
Traditions, bizarre slogans came up threatening wrath of the gods on those illegally
dumping refuse in certain locations. If all efforts of the evacuation and street cleaning
agents had failed to guarantee clean and healthy environment, big epidemics loom. The
effects of this would be felt not only in Lagos but all over Nigeria and across West
African subregion from where traders move in and out of Lagos.
3 Methodology
The research is exploratory and adopted a survey approach encompassing service of

questionnaire, interview as well as direct and indirect observations. Towards achieving its
objectives, the paper firstly perused the LAWMA enabling Law of 2007. The provisions
therein for public policy execution and management of SWM as well as enablement under
the law were identified. The in-situ operation and strategies of the SWM operatives were
explored to see both conceptual and operational lacuna which led to the Cleaner Lagos
Initiative (CLI) of 2017. The process further evaluated the current practices to identify
shortfalls in the achievement of operational visions towards an emergence of remedial
actions as well as new innovations to arrive at a truly cleaner Lagos.
Questionnaires were served on systematically sampled residents in the Lagos
Mainland local government area on the observations about SWM operatives, the
household attitudes and response as well as operational machinery of refuse evacuation.
Interviews were also held with other stakeholders along the value chain including private
sector participation (PSP) group and refuse cart pushers (RCPs). A total of 136 copies of
the retrieved questionnaire from households were coded and analysed for the study.
4 Excerpts from Lagos Waste Management Authority Law

2007
The Lagos Waste Management Authority Law 2007 is a 30-section promulgation by the
State House of Assembly [7]. The S.1 (1) of the law created Lagos Waste Management
Authority (LAWMA) as a body Corporate with perpetual succession and common seal. It
was empowered in S.1 (2) c as capable of holding, purchasing, acquiring and disposing of
movable and immovable property for the purpose of its duties. S.2 (3) a-i specified the
composition of the Board of Directors of the Authority as encompassing a broad spectrum
of officials including the Commissioner for the Environment and even a representative of
the State University’s Department of Civil Engineering. The S.4 (1) a-h earmarked duties
for the Authority. The Body was also empowered to prepare and update from time to time
the master plans for waste collection and disposal in the State. It was further to draw
agreement with, license and regulate acts of private-sector waste collectors.
The law gave the Board a somewhat blank cheque to ‘do all such acts as are
necessary or incidental to the proper discharge of its duties under this Law.’ Section 5
218 A. S. Afolayan
spelt out powers of the Board of LAWMA. Section 5(1) (j) granted the Board the
power to acquire any land for its purpose, in accordance with existing Laws of the
State. It also had powers to provide other related SWM services not mentioned in the
law. The S.9 to S.11 dealt with operation license for waste collectors. The procedures
for licensing and prescription of fees payable for same were also contained herein. The
mode of transporting and dumping of wastes were covered in S.14 and S.15 of the law.
Monitoring, enforcement and stipulation of offences as well as penalties and modes of
seeking redress under the law were spelt out in Sections 17–19 of the Law.
The following were findings from analysed data and the discussions on them.
5.1 Demographic Details of Respondents

The demographic details of respondents in the study area are as summarised in Table 1
below. From the Table, 58.8% of the respondents were female as the male took up
Table 1. Demographic details of respondents

Characteristics Frequency %
A: Gender Male 56 41.2
Female 80 58.8
Total 136 100.0
B: Education status O’,level 54 39.7
NCE/OND 31 22.8
HND/B.sc 9 6.6
Others 42 30.9
Total 136 100.0
C: Employment status Employed 42 30.9
Self employed 54 39.7
Artisan 31 22.8
Others 9 6.6
Total 136 100.0
D: Length of residency in the area Below 5 years 25 18.4
5–10 years 58 46.6
11–15 years 36 26.5
21–25 yrs 17 12.5
Total 136 100.0
E: Average number of residents in building 1–10 9 6.6
11–20 31 22.8
21–30 54 39.7
Above 30 42 30.9
Total 136 100.0
41.2%. This is particularly significant in that female members of the households were
more directly involved and thus knowledgeable in refuse disposal as an appendage of
home management.
The spread of educational attainment by the respondents endowed them to
understand the importance of environmental cleanliness. Furthermore, 87.5% of the
respondents were old residents, quite familiar with developments in refuse collection
situation therein over time. The table also shows that the building (residences) were
well populated with attendant implications for refuse generation. In line with [5],
factors including those in the table above and related household features are germane in
influencing the per capita waste generation rate in urban environment.
5.2 The Enabling Law

By provisions of S.1(2) c, the Board could acquire land within each district for primary
pooling of wastes from which PSP operators could load for onward conveyance to
landfills. The specification of membership of the Board was broad-based as given in
S.2(3) a-i. While the inclusion of the representative from Civil Engineering Department
of the State University was in order, the non-inclusion of representative from the
Department of Environmental Management appeared to be an oversight. So also, was
the silence about representation from Lagos State Environmental Protection Agency
(LASEPA). The provisions of S.4 (1) d allowing for updates on SWM masterplan have
implications for strategic management. The provisions for licensing of evacuation
operators criminalised refuse cart pusher (RCP) operators. It also provided the pedestal
for festering refuse-related corruption within the local government area. That the
criminalisation did not deter the RCPs’ actions or/and patronage by households sug-
gests an overlooked importance of their roles in upstream evacuation and general
contribution to urban economy.
5.3 Major Sources of Refuse Generation

The respondents’ perception of the major sectors contributing to refuse generation in
the neighbourhood was summarised in Table 2 below. Here, the general notion of
population size in the city ranked first with a mean value of 3.812. The population of
Lagos which was put at 22million about 2011 constitutes a formidable base for gen-
eration of wastes. [8] attested to the importance of overall population in generation of
refuse in Lagos Metropolis. Households’ lifestyle was identified as another contributor
to refuse generation here. It ranked second with a mean figure of 3.620. Household
food items were identified to include direct farm produce the consumption of which,
brings into town both edible food and its waste-coverings.
Economic and trade activities ranked next with a mean value of 3.482. By the
nature of land use planning in the study area, most neighbourhoods have mixed resi-
dential cum light commercial zonation. Small and medium Enterprises (SMEs) gen-
erate immense waste. Furthermore, roughages from outside the State come into town in
form of packages for food and commercial items. Social gatherings were highlighted
220 A. S. Afolayan
Table 2. Identified major sources of refuse generation

Source Opinion Frequency % Cum. Mean Ranking
%
Overall population activities Strongly agree 40 29.4 29.4 3.812 1st
Agree 52 38.2 67.6
Undecided 28 20.4 88.0
Disagree 11 8.4 96.3
Strongly disagree 5 3.7 100.0
Total 136 100.0
Life style of households Strongly agree 46 33.8 33.8 3.620 2nd
Agree 44 32.4 66.2
Disagree 15 11.0 94.8
Total 136 100.0
Economic/trade activities Strongly agree 70 51.5 51.5 3.482 3rd
Agree 53 39.0 90.5
disagree 00 0.0 100.0
Total 136 100.0
Social gatherings/parties Strongly agree 48 35.3 35.3 3.412 4th
Agree 49 36.0 71.3
Disagree 14 10.3 97.0
Total 136 100.0
Institutions Strongly agree 40 29.4 29.4 3.402 5th
Agree 52 38.2 67.6
Disagree 11 8.1 90.4
Missing item 8 5.9 100.0
Total 136 100.0
with mean figure of 3.412 at the fourth position. Activities which involve bringing
people together in celebrations, protests, crusades and several outdoor engagements
generate considerable refuse. Also identified were wastes from institutions such as
schools and colleges, business centres, offices and markets.
6 Assessment of Solid Waste Evacuation Practices in Lagos
The mechanisms for evacuation of wastes in the homes and streets included the direct
official pick-ups along the streets by LAWMA, the quasi-formal arrangement of PSP
operators and the informal RCPs harvesting wastes from the homes. Another approach
was in the form self-help efforts by households throwing wastes into gutters and on the
roads.
6.1 The PSP Operators, in Visiting the Homes Hardly Kept to Schedule
The system of poor pre-evacuation storage of refuse in the homes, and the unstan-
dardised nature of refuse containers and vans which, necessitated manual loading of
refuse, were further inhibitions to successful evacuation. The payment system was
through regular monthly billings on households. However, public policy came to a
head in 2017 when the status of PSP operators was changed to Waste Collection
Operators (WCO) to deal with only commercial wastes. A new WCO (Visionscape
Sanitation Company) took their place under a new Cleaner Lagos Initiative (CLI).
LAWMA was only left to regulate the operations of the WCOs. Confusion was created
in the process. Litigations came up and waste collection efficiency came to a halt.
6.2 The Unofficial Refuse Cart Pushers Were Another Set of Refuse
Evacuation Operators
These were the group referred to by [6] as informal waste pickers, the local realities
which conventional urban waste management largely ignored. They were persecuted
by public policy for their penchant for tipping collected refuse on the streets and
blocking up most drainage channels. Local governments saw them as evasive and
uncontrollable. However, the interview with a group of the RCPs showed that they
were plagued by problems, wriggling free from which would determine their economic
survival. In the interview, they admitted it was a very viable business notwithstanding
the persecution from public policy and exploitation by local government officials.
However, because of its criminalisation, RCP operations could not be captured under
government’s local tax net. They were a critical group variously perceived either as
solution providers or culprits in SWM situations in Lagos State. In fact, notwith-
standing their prominence and inputs into refuse evacuation in the urban area, the RCP
elsewhere, as in Lagos, were relegated in favour of foreign and imported technology
[9]. The payment system was direct cash from the households though as extra burden
on the households in addition to regular LAWMA bills. Based on some selected broad
criteria, the summary of ratings and perception of respondents about RCP operators are
as given in Table 3 below.
From the Table, it was agreed by 93.38% of respondents that RCP operators were
very close to the homes. They were, in most cases, more regular in patronage than PSP
operators. They could also access channels and alleys more easily than the big PSP
trucks. However, they were susceptible to exploitation by local government officials. In
order to make as many trips as possible to cover both payment to local government
touts and also earn a living, they were always illegally tipping refuse anywhere.
222 A. S. Afolayan
Table 3. Respondents’ perception of Refuse Cart Pushers (RCPs)

Characteristics n %
A: The closeness to households Agree 127 93.38
Neutral 2 1.47
Disagree 7 5.15
Total 136 100.0
B: Regularity of operations Agree 129 94.85
Neutral 7 5.15
Disagree 0 0.0
Total 136 100.0
C: Ease of access to households Agree 117 86.03
Neutral 10 7.35
Disagree 9 6.62
Total 136 100.0
D: Susceptibility to exploitation by local government officials Agree 82 60.30
Neutral 30 22.06
Disagree 24 17.64
Total 136 100
E: Contribution to illegal dumping Agree 105 77.21
Neutral 16 11.76
Disagree 15 11.03
Total 136 100.0
F: Overall prospects for improved refuse evacuation operation Agree 76 55.88
Neutral 39 15.44
Disagree 39 28.68
Total 136 100.0
77.21% agreed that the RCP operators contributed much to blocked gutters and drains
in the Metropolis. On the whole, only 28.68% of the respondents disagreed that RCPs
could, in the end, be the solution to refuse problems in the state, given strategic
handling.
7 Conclusion
The rate of refuse generation was high in Lagos because of the volume of population as
well as interpersonal actions in social, economic and institutional settings. The rate of
household refuse generation was higher than its evacuation. The performance of PSP
operators was poor. RCP’s activities were also criminalised. Refuse evacuation
mechanism ran into hitches due to policy somersault, misapplication of plant scale and
shortfalls in the application of the enabling laws. There were also inadequate zonal
refuse transfer centres. Available ones were far from what small-scale refuse collectors
could access without motorised appliances. Corruption was noticed at grassroots as
perpetrated by rent-seeking local government officials. This aided cart pushers’ resolve
to dump refuse just anywhere, in order to make marginal adjustments in earnings. The
study also noted the strong survival instinct of cart pushers as an attribute which, could
be harnessed for public good as entrepreneurial base for sale of refuse.
8 Recommendations
The LAWMA enabling Law contained several empowerment clauses which, the Board
needed to tap into. With the finding that RCPs were not deterred by public policy
persecution, and with the hindsight of trust the households had in them, they should
have been considered a ready manpower block to tackle refuse evacuation. They could
be organised, trained, registered and equipped for refuse evacuation from the homes
into neighbourhood loading centres from where PSP trucks would load. This would
curtail the waste of PSP plant time in the epileptic journey around homes.
The rewarding system for reformed RCP operations should be such that the
operators would not be paid any money by the households. They should, instead, be
reimbursed at the loading centres to the tune of weighted and recorded amount of
sourced refuse brought in. The payment period could be weekly or any stretch of time
considered equitable enough to create an atmosphere of dignified, salaried workman-
ship. The PSP operators and other WCOs too should not enjoy any blanket contract
sum but be paid based on the weighted and recorded amount of refuse they deposited at
mega landfills from the transfer zonal centres. These add up to ‘refuse for sale’
approach to mitigate upstream evacuation problems. The overall funding would come
from the normal monthly billings on the households by LAWMA.
In this approach, there would be three levels in solid waste transfer; from homes
(upstream), transfer center (Mid-stream) and unto landfills (downstream). Specific
measures could then be integrated for efficacy of each level. The oragnisation, training
and engagement of the RCPs would provide employment for teaming number of small-
scale private sector willing operators who could also form another local income tax
base for the government. The regularisation of the RCPs would eliminate the extortion
by local government officials and accord RCPs human dignity in employment. Again,
corruption in the form refuse round-tripping would have to be guarded against in the
operations.
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Regulatory Distress: Architects’ Perspective
on Enforcement of Building Regulations
in Ghana
Justice Kwame Offei-Nketiah(&), Titus Ebenezer Kwofie,

and Daniel Yaw Addai Duah
Department of Architecture,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Ghana Private Mail Bag, Kumasi, Ghana
jkoffeinketiah@gmail.com
Abstract. Building regulation is considered as a remarkable means for ensur-

ing orderly and sustainable development. Unfortunately, it has become a fault
line and an elusive tool for developing countries. In Ghana, the chronic collapse
of buildings, haphazard developments and increased number of defective
buildings are signs of weaknesses in the enforcement of building controls. Based
on the perspective of architects, the study seeks to confirm the key factors that
accounts for the laxity in enforcement process and the potential use of smart
building regulations to improve the system. Architects present during the
Annual General Meeting of architects in Ghana were purposively sampled to
answer survey questionnaires. Based on response from 86 architects, institu-
tional factors; Inefficient and Insufficient Staff, Corruption and Absence of
Public-Private Partnership were established as key factors that impacts nega-
tively on enforcement of building regulations. The study recommends the use of
smart approaches for effective building controls in Ghana.
Keywords: Building regulations Smart regulations

Sustainable development Building control Building collapse
1 Introduction
The building industry plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of every
society. The construction industry and its related sectors accounts for about 15% of the
gross domestic product of countries throughout the world [1]. About 90% of human
activities occur in and around buildings, or are either affected by buildings or connected
to buildings [2, 3]. Despite these significant gains, the industry is a formidable polluter
of the environment, source of chronic risk and disasters such as haphazard develop-
ments, rampant building collapse and building fires that destroys properties and
threatens the continuance of human life [4, 5]. Consequently, various governments
worldwide have taken up the challenge to ensure orderly and safe developments in the
built environment through strategies including the use of building regulations [6, 7].
Generally, building regulations (BR) play an important role in ensuring the safety,
public health and welfare of people in the built environment.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_23
226 J. K. Offei-Nketiah et al.
The use of BR in ensuring orderly developments is particularly important to urban

areas of Sub-Sahara African (SSA) countries where infrastructural development is not
complementary to the rapid pace of urbanization. The population of SSA countries is
increasing at a galloping rate of 2% considered as the fastest in the world [8]. This
translates into a situation where the population of individual countries is expected to
double by the year 2050. The major challenge is that 75% of the populace will live in
urban areas where currently the scale of urban growth has outpaced the capacity of
cities to provide the required services [9, 10]. As a result, there is the prevalence of
unregulated and informally constructed settlements which are prone to hazards and
vulnerable to climate and disaster risks such as flooding, building collapse, fires,
landslide etc. Despite the use of BR as powerful tools for ensuring safety, resilience and
reduction in risk by developed countries, it remains elusive to developing countries due
to the absence of matured regulatory regimes [5, 11, 12]. The incessant collapse and
increasing number of defective buildings in developing countries is evidence of gaps
between building regulations and enforcement [13]. Ghana like most countries in SSA
is not absolved from these challenges. Development of urban areas in Ghana is fraught
with challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, overcrowding, poor housing, squalid
environmental conditions, increase in slum conditions and crimes [14].
Although the enactment of building controls is very important to developments in
the building industry, it is one thing to legislate and another to ensure compliance to the
legislations [4, 15]. In Ghana, the National Building Regulation 1996 (L.I 1630) which
derives its mandate from Local Government Act 1993 (Act 462), now amended as
Local Governance Act 2016 (Act 936), has been in use for over 22 years without any
revision contrary to international best practices. Although a National Building Code
was launched in November 2018, the regulation (LI 1630) is yet to be amended to bring
it into harmony with the code. Preliminary research [16–20] shows the absence of a
robust building control regime that can guarantee the delivery of safe buildings to users
due to non-enforcement and non-compliance to building controls.
Although [16] reported on some of the major catastrophes from building collapse in
Ghana before the year 2012, the situation has not changed much from then. In 2017
alone, five years after the “Achimota disaster” in 2012 where 22 lives were lost and 78
people injured in the capital city of Accra, a number of building collapse cases were
recorded and have been indicated below;
• On 24th January 2017, a market square under construction in Haatso in Accra
collapsed. Although no fatalities were recorded, construction workers were severely
injured [21].
• Six [6] pupils aged between 4 and 5 years died and several were injured on 31st
January 2017 when a school building collapsed on over 70 pupils at Breman Jamera
Methodist School in the Odoben Brakwa District of the Central region as they
prepared to settle for studies [22].
• On 17th February 2017 a five storey building, owned by Fruit of Christ International
Church and was constructed within six months mostly at night without building
permit collapsed in Awoshie, a suburb of Accra. There were no casualties [23].
Regulatory Distress: Architects’ Perspective on Enforcement 227
• On 8th May 2017, twenty church members of The Christlike Ministries Church at
Gbawe in Accra sustained injuries when their church building collapsed on them
[24].
• On 5th June 2017, two workers died when a two-storey building under construction
collapsed on them at Okpoigonno in Accra [25].
• On 7th June 2017, a two-storey market store building collapsed at the Techiman
Market where several people were trapped. One person died and the rest were
rescued and taken to the hospital for treatment [26].
The objective of the study was in twofold: first, the study seeks to confirm the
significant factors that have resulted in the laxity in the enforcement of BR in Ghana.
Although this compares to studies by [16], who identified factors that affects the
implementation of Ghana’s BR by eliciting views from building practitioners, owners
and staff of local authorities, this study is unique as it focusses on expert views of only
architects. This is a prelude to a comparative study between various built environment
professionals and the level of compliance in the northern, middle and southern sectors
of Ghana. Second, the views of the architects about the potential use of smart regu-
lations in enhancing the building regulatory enforcement in Ghana were sought due to
the important role they play in ensuring that buildings designed and built meet the
requirement of building regulations.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Overview of Building Regulatory Regime

Building regulations sets minimum acceptable quality requirement that ensures that
buildings are safe, orderly and healthy for users and their immediate environment [27].
These standards contain provisions that apply to the design, construction, alteration,
maintenance and demolition of buildings or structures as well as the appurtenance
attached to it. It is established by [4, 28] that effective and efficient implementation of
building controls is paramount to the orderly, safe and sustainable development of the
built environment. That notwithstanding, there is a dearth of literature on building
regulations in urban planning, urban design and general regulatory studies as compared
to other regulated sectors [29].
Modern day building regulations can be traced to the 19th Century when poor
environmental, housing and sanitary conditions prompted governments especially in
developed countries to intervene in the building industry [29]. In contemporary times,
BRs have been adapted by many countries to achieve a broad range of regulatory goals
such as safety, public health, infrastructural development, sustainability and resilience.
Research works such as [5, 30] have already established a direct relationship between
an effective and efficient regulatory regime and urban sustainability. Regulations are as
effective as their enforcement [4]. Thus, regulations work effectively when they are
enforced. A robust regulatory regime is therefore a complete framework of regulations
and enforcements aimed at achieving regulatory goals [29, 31]. Although regulation by
itself may be comprehensive and fit for purpose, weak institutional framework for
implementation may render it ineffective for achieving regulatory goals.
Ghana’s building regulatory regime is made up of the LI 1630 of Act 1996 which
was mandated by the Local Government Act 462 of 1993. The regulation has its
genesis from the Town and Country Planning Ordinance (Cap 84) of 1945. The
absence of periodic reviews has resulted in a situation where certain outdated and
obsolete elements from pre-independence era are found in the legislation. Although the
regulation seeks to promote the health, safety and convenience of people in the built
environment, there is no emphasis on contemporary issues such as sustainability and
resilience [18]. The 19 parts of the regulation consist of 187 regulations and 9
schedules that focusses on planning, design and construction of buildings. The
administration of the regulation is the responsibility of Planning Authorities in the
Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) of the Ministry of Local
Government. In summary the building regulatory regime of Ghana comprises the LI
1630 together with other related regulations and their provisions for enforcement.
2.2 The State of Enforcement of Building Regulations in Ghana

There is a consensus that the traditional form of enforcement of building regulation was
a bipartite process where government through state agencies acts as the regulator and
the building developer (business) as a regulated entity [11, 29, 31, 32]. Despite the
availability and plurality of regulatory forms coupled with the fact that compliance to
regulations can be achieved through myriad strategies, enforcement of building regu-
lations in Ghana rests in the ambit of state agencies. The Ghana National Building
regulation through the decentralization policy of the Local Governance Act 462
mandates Planning Authorities of MMDAs to play an oversight role and ensure strict
compliance to building regulations in Ghana. Accordingly, this task traditionally
revolves around the assessment of building plans prior to permit acquisition, inspection
of building under construction and buildings in use [33].
After going through the necessary planning procedures of zoning and approval of
Sub-division plan as outlined by [33], assessment of building plans are carried out by
Planning Authorities. When all requirements have been scrutinized, a development
permit is issued for construction to commence. The BR stipulates ten work stages
which must be inspected by Planning Authorities. According to the LI 1630, no
construction work (work stages) shall be covered until it has been inspected and
approved by the Planning Authorities at the MMDAs. Adequate checks are to be made
during the inspections to ensure that buildings conform to the planning standards and
construction standards before certificate of habitation is granted. Beyond this, the BR
makes provision for periodic maintenance, procedures for alteration and demolition.
Preliminary studies on the BR has shown that much emphasis is placed on the
permit acquisition process than the routine inspections. It must be noted that the
granting of these permit alone is not a guarantee for safe, sustainable and orderly
developments [18]. The enforcement of building regulations in Ghana and planning
standards in general is weak (19, 20) and this has consequently resulted in increased
number of slums, poor housing conditions, congestion and poor environmental con-
ditions especially in urban areas of the country (16, 17, 34). Inadequate monitoring and
enforcement of developments beyond acquisition of permit is a threat to sustainable
and orderly development.
Based on studies by (16, 17, 20, 35), ten (10) factors were identified to be
responsible for the weakness in enforcement of Ghana’s BR. The factors shown in
Table 1 were grouped based on the classification by [35].
Table 1. Factors affecting enforcement of building regulations in Ghana

Classification Factors
Institutional Obsolete Regulations
Bureaucracy
Insufficient Staff (Planning Authority)
Inefficient Staff (Planning Authority)
Lack of Innovation (Absence of ICT)
Absence of Public-Private Partnership
Political Political Interference
Corruption
Lack of commitment by Central Government
Socio-Economic Lack of Awareness
Field survey (2018)
2.2.1 Institutional Factors

The low level of expertise of Planning Authorities and inefficiency due to the absence
of the needed resource and logistics accounts for the ineffectiveness of enforcement
mechanisms for Ghana’s building regulatory regime [35]. As indicated earlier, the BR
has never been reviewed since its enactment resulting in difficulties in responding to
contemporary demands such as sustainability and resilience [18]. The over dependence
on state agencies, bureaucratic processes and absence of innovative means for
enforcement of building regulations remains a setback for achieving regulatory goals
[36].
2.2.2 Political Factors

Lack of political will to enforce regulations as well as interference from government
and traditional leaders poses a threat to the effective implementation of regulations in
the built environment. The simmering tension between Planning Authorities and cus-
tomary land owners (Chiefs) militates against orderly development in the built envi-
ronment [34]. Again, the loose enforcement process has created avenues for extortion
and corruption by building inspectors. Without he political will and commitment of
government, it is very difficult to ensure compliance and enforcement of building
regulations especially in a traditional command and control regime [6].
2.2.3 Socio-Economic Factors

The lack of education and enlightenment of the public on building regulations is
considered a major factor that contravenes the effectiveness of building regulatory
regimes (35). People are likely to comply with regulation when they are well informed
about the regulations and the consequences of non-compliance.
2.3 Overview of Smart Building Regulatory Regime

As indicated earlier, smart regulation was presented to architects as a potential boost for
building regulatory enforcement in Ghana. Gunningham et al. (1998) made the first
advocate for smart regulations. The concept refers to a more flexible and innovative
forms of regulatory governance that harnesses both governments and third party
resources for effective and efficient implementation of regulations [2, 38]. Smart reg-
ulation is not about more or less regulations but rather, the delivery of regulatory goals
in a less burdensome way through attributes that includes a mix of actors (private sector
participation], enforcement styles, use of ICT and contemporary issues such as sus-
tainability [38].
Unlike the building regulatory regime in most SSA countries where the business of
regulatory governance is a bipartite process between the government agencies and
regulated entities, the concept of smart regulations asserts that government agencies
alone cannot shoulder the responsibilities of governance. The enforcement of regula-
tions must go beyond the state to include the participation of third parties in building
inspection, reviews, monitoring etc. The concept also embraces the use of technology
as an enabler and integrator in the enforcement of regulations.
3 Methodology
Planning Authorities in developing countries like Ghana struggle to keep up with the
demand for their services due to their limited resources and tight budgets [39]. These
together with other reasons have accounted for the ineffectiveness of building regu-
latory enforcement in developing countries. This study uniquely focusses on the per-
spective of the architect in identifying the factors that have accounted for the laxity in
the enforcement of building regulations in Ghana. Architects have been identified in
many building regulatory literature as one of the key professionals who produces the
most economically safe and functional buildings without any compromise to aesthetics
[40, 41]. As the leader of the design-construction team, the architect gets involved with
the Client first, produces designs that meets the needs and aspirations of the client and
is responsible for quality control of all aspects of the building including services
rendered by colleague professionals in the building industry [40].
The work of the architect at both the pre-contract (inception, sketch design, pro-
duction drawings, tendering) and post-contract phases (construction and commission-
ing) has traditionally been conditioned by rules, regulations, standards, and governance
practices [36, 37, 42]. Architects are prescribed or confronted with one regulation or the
other the moment they set out to design or build. Although architects are sometimes
inclined to perceive regulations as a burden on creativity and a delimitation that
undermines the capacity to design, extensive work on architects and regulations sug-
gest that regulations rather open up possibilities in the creative practice and processes
in architecture. In some developed economies, architects partner with government and
municipal authorities to develop and implement policies for the built environment and
are directly involved in the enforcement of regulations. There is an advocate for the use
of architects as intermediaries in building regulatory governance in order to meet
contemporary demands of sustainable and low-carbon built environments [41]. Con-

sidering the critical stakeholders in the building regulatory regime, the expert views of
architects in confirming the t important factors that have resulted in weak enforcement
of building regulations in Ghana is very relevant. Hence, the focus on architects.
Data for the research was obtained at the 2018 Annual General Meeting (AGM) of
the Ghana Institute of Architects (GIA) in Accra.
3.1 Population Sampling and Technique

Architects present at the 2018 GIA-AGM in Ghana formed the sample selected to
answer structured questionnaires as part of the survey. Although 59 respondents were
to be selected for the study based on a sample size calculation with 90% confidence
level, 10% margin of error and 433 architects representing the total population of
architects in Ghana as at 2018 [44], all architects present at the AGM were purposively
sampled for the study. The 90% confidence level was chosen prior to the administering
of the questionnaires because of the small number of the study population who were in
good standing, active and available to answer the questionnaire during the AGM.
However, out of the 120 questionnaires that were returned, 86 respondents which is in
excess of the anticipated number of respondents (59) were found to be responsive after
careful scrutiny for qualification, omissions, errors and completeness representing
71.6% response rate. This number is exclusive of all students and probationers present
at the meeting and represents 30.3% of architects in good standing as at the time of the
study.
3.2 Method of Data Analysis

Respondents were tasked to confirm the factors accounting for the laxity in enforce-
ment of building regulations. The Likert scale (1–5) used for the study was labelled as
1 = Not Important, 2 = Less Important, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Important, 5 = Very
Important. Respondents gave scores in accordance with their level of importance of the
factors identified in literature for non-enforcement of building regulations in Ghana.
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze nominal and interval data obtained from the
study whilst mean item score was used to rank and confirm the importance of the
factors accounting for laxity in building regulatory enforcement in Ghana.
As part of the study, Fleiss Kappa (j) was used to test for consistency and
agreement among the various respondents. Fleiss Kappa (j) is defined as follows;
Pa Pe
Kappa ðjÞ ¼
1 Pe
Where the factor 1 – Pɛ is the degree of agreement that is attainable above chance
and Pɑ – Pɛ gives the degree of agreement actually achieved above chance [43].
4 Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussions

4.1 Characteristics of Respondents
The data on the characteristics of respondents was limited to the experience level of the
respondents and their membership status within the Ghana Institute of Architects
(GIA). The purpose was to establish the fact that the more experienced respondents are,
the more they are able to provide more reliable data that can be used for making policy
decisions. From Table 2, architects with 5–10 years post qualification experience
formed 58.1% of the respondents. A total of 13 respondents had over 15 years of
experience in the profession constituting a total of 15.1% of the total respondents. Out
of this number, 6 of them were Fellows of the Institute whilst the remaining together
with those with less than 20 years’ experience formed the Chartered Membership of the
Institute as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Post-qualification experience and membership status of respondents

Age Frequency Percentage
5–10 years 50 58.1
11–15 years 23 26.8
16–20 years 5 5.8
>20 years 8 9.3
Total 86 100%
Membership status of respondents
Chartered members 80 93
Fellows 6 7
Total 86 100
Field survey (2018)
4.2 Presentation of Data and Analysis

Respondents were also asked to indicate how often they make reference to the Ghana’s
BR in their daily practice. In all, 30 respondents admitted that they do make reference
to the regulations occasionally whilst the remaining 56 representing 65% of the
Table 3. Fitness of purpose of Ghana’s building regulation

SN Fitness level Number of respondents Percentage
1 Fit for purpose 19 22
2 Not entirely fit for purpose 59 69
3 Not fit for purpose 8 9
Total 86 100.0
Field survey (2018)
respondents do so frequently. Table 4 shows the stage of works at which architects in

Ghana makes reference to the BR. From the study, majority of architects makes ref-
erence to the BR at pre-contract stage of their works (mostly inception, sketch design
and production drawings). At the tendering stage, the respondents indicated that the BR
has little provision for tendering as such reference documents such as the Public
Procurement Act and manuals are used for such purposes.
Table 4. Reference to building regulations at pre and post-contract phase of

work
SN Stage of work Number of respondents Percentage score
(Expected score = 86) (Expected % = 100%)
Pre-contract stage
1 Inception 5 6
2 Sketch design 19 22
3 Production drawings 7 8
4 Tendering 29 34
Post contract
5 Construction 44 51
6 Commissioning 52 61
Field survey (2018)
Table 5. Notification for inspection of works

SN Notification stage Number of respondents Percentage of response
(Expected score = 86) (Expected score = 100%)
1 Demarcation & siting of 31 36
building
2 Setting out of building 28 33
foundation
3 Excavated foundation and 13 15
leveling for concrete
4 Foundation concreted 12 14
5 Trenches for drainage work 9 10
excavated
6 Drains laid and joined ready 7 8
for testing
7 Steel rebar fixed in position 12 14
before concreting
8 Concrete shuttering ready 7 8
for striking
9 Walls completed to wall 7 8
plate level
10 Roof framework completed 10 12
before covering
Field survey (2018)
Out of the 86 respondents, only 34 representing less than 40% of the total number
of respondents gave notices to Planning Authorities for inspection of the various stages
of their works. Table 5 provides details on the frequency of notification to Authorities
at the various stages of construction as identified in the BR. “Demarcation & Siting of
Building” recorded the highest frequency of 31 respondents representing 36% followed
by “Setting out of Building Foundation” which recorded 32.56% representing 28 out of
86 respondents. Testing of drains and completion of walls recorded the lowest fre-
quency of 7 out of 86 respondents which corresponds to 8.14% of the expected number
of notifications.
Table 6 also shows the mean score and ranking for the various factors that have
been attributed to the weakness in enforcement of BR in Ghana. “Inefficient Staff for
Planning Authorities” was ranked first with a mean score of 4.16 (approximately 4)
followed closely by Corruption which was rather ranked 1st by the study conducted by
[16]. The staffing situation of the Authorities is worrying as their numerical strength
was ranked 4th amongst the factors by respondents. The “Absence of Private Partici-
pation” which ranked 3rd gives indication that respondents would appreciate the
involvement of third parties in the enforcement of the BR. Although “lack of com-
mitment by Government” and “Political Interference” were the least ranked factor
(10th). Approximating the mean scores to a whole number, the study concludes that all
the factors are important to the laxity of enforcement of the BR except “Lack of
Commitment by Central Government” which received a moderate score.
As part of the study, respondents were asked to indicate if strict compliance to the
existing BR will result in sustainable and resilient urban development. Out of the 86
respondents, 37 representing 43% were of the view that strict compliance and
enforcement of the current regulations will automatically result in sustainable and
Table 6. Factors contribution to the laxity in enforcement of building regulations in Ghana

P
Ordinal scale FX Mean Rank
Factors 1 2 3 4 5
Obsolete Regulations 6 8 19 24 29 320 3.72 8th
Lack of Innovation (Absence of ICT) 2 4 26 25 29 333 3.87 6th
Lack of Awareness 5 5 20 22 34 333 3.87 6th
Lack of Commitment by Central Government 8 15 20 26 17 287 3.34 10th
Bureaucracy and Inordinate Delays 2 8 18 23 35 339 3.94 5th
Absence of Public-Private Partnership 2 5 20 22 37 345 4.01 3rd
Inefficient Staff (Planning Authority) 2 3 22 22 37 358 4.16 1st
Corruption 3 3 15 25 40 352 4.09 2nd
Insufficient Staff 4 2 23 20 37 342 3.98 4th
Political Interference 6 10 18 28 24 312 3.63 9th
Total 40 63 201 237 319
1 = Not Important, 2 = Less Important, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Important, 5 = Very Important.
Field Survey (2018)
resilient urban development. Seven (7) respondents declined whilst the remaining 42
representing 48.8% of the respondents expressed the view that strict compliance to the
regulation will not necessarily achieve sustainable and resilient development citing
obsolete regulations and weak enforcement strategy as the reasons for stance.
Again, Respondents expressed their views on their knowledge about smart regu-
lations. From the study, only 22 respondents admitted awareness of the concept of
smart. The remaining 64 representing 74.4% declined knowledge about smart regu-
lations. That notwithstanding, 72 respondents representing 83.7% indicated that the use
of third parties (private sector and civil society group) will enhance the enforcement of
regulations in Ghana. Again, 96.5% of respondents agreed that the introduction of
innovative ways of governance through ICT will benefit the implementation of
building regulations in Ghana.
5 Discussion of Results
The survey on the perception of architects on enforcement of building regulations

revealed the following;
5.1 Perceived Weaknesses in Building Regulatory Regime

Generally, the study confirmed the weaknesses in Ghana’s building regulatory regime.
Although the need for inclusion of contemporary provision for sustainability, resilience
and climate adaptation became apparent, the perceived weakness was mainly attributed
to weak enforcement of regulations. The outcome of respondents’ judgement on the
fitness of purpose of the regulations was in consonance with the ranking of the factors
responsible for the laxity in enforcement of regulations. Over 70% of respondents
declined to accept that BR and its enforcement provisions were fit to achieve regulatory
goals. This is in agreement with a study by (44) where though regulations were at least
70% fit for purpose, actual score for implementation of these regulations were below
40%. The lack of institutional capacity and expertise in the implementation of the BR
as illustrated by the ranking of the factors for non-enforcement in Table 6 emphasizes
the enforcement challenges of the BR.
5.2 Overreliance on Government Agencies for Enforcement

The BR regime of Ghana have not benefited much from new approaches in regulatory
governances that addresses contemporary issues like sustainability and resilience.
Although the institutions mandated to carry out enforcement are weak (poor ranking of
institutional factors in Table 6), the framework in the LI 1630 makes no provision for
other enforcement actors although private sector participation in regulatory processes
has shown positive results in achieving regulatory goals in literature [2, 36, 45]. The
gap in enforcement of regulations has been attributed to the tight budget and resource
constraints of Municipal Authorities and the dearth of private sector participation in
regulatory regimes of developing countries like Ghana.
5.3 Absence of Proper Inspection Beyond Permit Acquisition

Building permits play an important role in ensuring that developments are in confor-
mity with planning and building regulations. In the absence of regimes to promote
voluntary compliance, the ineffective inspection of work stages beyond permit acqui-
sition by Planning Authorities undermines compliance to regulations. The study
explicitly revealed that inspections were not adequately enforced as architects who act
on behalf of their clients as consultants for projects fail to notify the Planning
Authorities to conduct inspection at the work stages as shown in Table 5. According to
the National Building Regulation 1996 (LI 1630), it is mandatory for developers to
give forty-eight hours’ notice in writing to Planning Authorities prior to commence-
ment of works and provide dates for which stages of works identified in the regulations
would be inspected. The study revealed serious violation of this provision by architects.
It was established that Planning Authorities in most instances fail to inspect building
construction unless they have been invited to do so. This undermines the crucial role
played by inspection in ensuring compliance with the BR.
5.4 Level of Awareness of Smart Regulations Amongst Professionals

Although the level of awareness of smart regulations amongst architects was low,
respondents agree that the introduction of third parties and other innovative forms of
regulatory governance into the BR regime in addition to the efforts of State Institutions
will boost enforcement of BR in Ghana.
5.5 Factors Accounting for Laxity in Enforcement of Building

Regulations in Ghana
The ranking of the factors by architects reinforces the fact that the enforcement regime
of the BR is weak. In addition to the fact that 9 out of 10 of the factors were deemed to
be important, the institutional factors (Insufficient staff, inefficient staff, obsolete reg-
ulations, bureaucracy, lack of innovation and absence of public private partnership)
were the most significant. The political and socio-economic factors cannot be over-
looked as they recorded mean score closer to that of the Institutional factors. The most
important factors agreed by architects for the poor enforcement of BR in Ghana in
order of importance are; Inefficient Staff, Insufficient Staff, Corruption, Absence of
Public-Private Partnership, Inordinate Delays and Bureaucracy, Lack of Awareness and
Lack of Innovation, Obsolete Regulations, Political Interference and Lack of Com-
mitment from Central Government
6 Inter-rate Reliability Analysis
To determine the inter rater agreement between the 86 respondents on the factors
accounting for the non-enforcement of BR in Ghana, the Fleiss Kappa (К) inter rater
reliability test was conducted. The results for the test indicated a relatively low Kappa
(К) = 0.005 (scale of –1 to 1). This is a relatively low. However, a kappa value of
0.005 according to (44) implies that there is a slight agreement between the raters and
that the rating could not be out of chance as indicated in Table 1. According to [46],
any kappa above 0 is statistically significant especially for studies with large sample
size such as this study. Hence, there is some consistency in the rank by the individual
raters.
7 Conclusion and Recommendation
It is evident from the study that the granting of permit alone will not guarantee
compliance to building regulation. Inspections are necessary to maintain standards
during construction. Weaknesses in inspection of the work stages and failure to notify
Planning Authorities for inspection by architects undermines compliance and
enforcement. It was also established that inspections were limited to the early stages of
construction (Demarcation, Setting out and Excavation of foundation).
The study also revealed that the current building regulatory regime (the regulations
and enforcement provisions) cannot ensure the achievement of regulatory goals mainly
due to lack of enforcement. The obsolete regulations (due to the absence of provisions
for sustainability and resilience and other contemporary issue) and the weakness in the
enforcement of regulations poses a threat to sustainable urban development in Ghana.
Five important factors responsible for the ineffectiveness of enforcement of
building regulations according to Architects in Ghana in order of importance are
(i) Inefficient Staff, (ii) Insufficient Staff, (iii) Corruption, (iv) Absence of Public-Private
Partnership, (v) Inordinate Delays and Bureaucracy and Lack of Awareness. It is
interesting to note that all these factors are part of the mandate of the Planning
Authorities vested with the power to enforce the BR. The Planning Authorities are
increasingly finding it difficult to ensure compliance to the BR due to their resource
constraints (funding, logistics and expertise). Even though majority of the architects
demonstrated low awareness of smart regulations, they were supportive of the intro-
duction of third parties into BE enforcement.
In summary, the study revealed weaknesses in the enforcement of the BR and
identified the potential use of smart approaches to enhance the enforcement of regu-
lations for sustainability and resilience. The following recommendations are made to
improve the enforcement gaps in the BR regime;
• There must be regular inspection of works stages by Planning Authorities
• Permit acquisition should be complemented with regular and effective monitoring
of works stages
• The expertise of the private sector (especially professionals) should be leveraged for
sustainable and resilient urban development
• There must be recruitment of qualified staff and in-service training of staff of
Planning Authorities
• The BR should be reviewed to include provisions for contemporary issues and
harmonized with the National Building Code. and
• There must be a strategic redefinition of the roles of all stakeholders in the building
regulatory regime.
The study has established that the challenges of building regulatory enforcement
can be attributed to deficiencies on the part of Planning Authorities. The absence of a
framework that will allow for third party support and involvement in building control
must be addressed. Future research must focus on the development of a robust
framework for the use of smart regulations to improve compliance to building regu-
lations in Ghana.
Acknowledgment. This paper is part of an ongoing PhD study on building regulatory regimes
for sustainable urban development in Ghana.
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Making Rental Housing in the Gap-Market
More Affordable Through Green Building
Technology
Prisca Simbanegavi, Ziev Shani(&), Justin Watkins,

and Kimera Ramruthan
Construction and Economics Management, University of the Witwatersrand,

Johannesburg, South Africa
zievshani@gmail.com
Abstract. There exists a phenomenon whereby “affordable housing” developed

by the private sector has become unaffordable. The advancements of the 4th
Industrial Revolution, namely Green Building Technology (GBT), provides a
possible solution to making rental housing in the gap market more affordable by
reducing the tenant’s utility bills. The paper uses a Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) to determine: Various GBT’s that can be used; if the Green Building
(GB) tenant benefits financially; benefits and barriers for the developer. The
findings showed that the incorporation of GBTs can indeed reduce the tenants
housing expenditure. The paper makes a strong case for the private sector to
build green affordable housing and has found many benefits that enhance the
feasibility of such development. These include: increased property value; lower
tenant turnover; tax benefits; reduced operating costs among others. The
development of Green Buildings should become standard practice as we enter
the 4th Industrial Revolution.
Keywords: Green Building Gap-Market Rental Poverty
1 Introduction
Despite numerous Governmental innovations, South Africa is still trying to solve its
decades old housing crisis [1–4]. One of the reasons for this is that most programs are
home-ownership driven, which has proven to be ineffective in closing the housing gap
[4]. The home-ownership model is particularly ineffective when it comes to the gap
housing market: Earners who bring home between R3500 to R15000 per month and are
therefore too poor to qualify for home loans, but too ‘rich’ to qualify for government
subsidy housing [2].
Dugard et al. [5] and Tipple [6], suggest that a rental market may offer a more
sustainable solution to improve the gap housing issue as owner-occupied freehold
stands are not built fast enough to meet increasing demand. However, research has
shown that Government may not be the best provider for this solution, and has con-
cluded that the key to servicing the gap-housing market lies in the private sector [7, 8].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_24
242 P. Simbanegavi et al.
Private development companies have been taking the initiative and have developed
accommodation for this low-income gap market bracket. However, this accommoda-
tion that is supplied by private companies is typically accompanied by a higher rental
rate, making this ‘affordable housing’ less affordable [9].
One way to look at housing expenditure is as the sum of ‘rent’ and ‘utility’ bills,
and so, this study explores the possibility of balancing out these high rentals by
lowering the tenant’s utility cost, resulting in a more affordable total housing expen-
diture. As Green Building Technology (GBT) is known to reduce utility bills, the
creation of green affordable housing is the ultimate solution. However, it is important to
note that the success of this solution highly depends on voluntary participation of the
private sector developers. As the private sector is motivated by profit, the only way this
solution would be viable is if the same GBTs that reduce the tenant’s utility bills offer
significant benefits that accrue to the building owner. Therefore, this study provides
value by assessing, from the perspective of the private sector, if indeed there is a
convincing case to be made in favour of building affordable rental GBs in South Africa.
This problem of unaffordable housing is a serious one. While Tissington [9] found
that much of private sector supplied housing does not meet the criteria for affordability,
the problem is made even worse through the tenant’s energy expenditure. Energy utility
costs in affordable housing add an additional 15% on rental costs, which may prevent
poor households from being able to spend money on other necessities [7].
The Objectives of this study are to: 1. Give a brief overview of the types of GBTs
that can be implemented 2. To determine if the tenant benefits financially by occupying
a green affordable unit 3. To see if there is a case for private developers to build Green
Affordable housing by assessing the benefits and barriers of doing so.
The study is limited because while the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) pro-
vides a qualitative analysis of the benefits of GBTs in affordable housing develop-
ments, it does not consider the quantitative cost savings or benefits. The focus of this
study is only on developers/owners who build affordable housing to derive rental
income and not develop-to-sell models.
2 Methodology
The methodology used by this study is that of a Systematic Literature Review (SLR).
A SLR is defined as “a review of a clearly formulated question that uses systematic and
explicit methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, and to
collect and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review” [10]. This
methodology creates a “structured protocol within which to approach a comprehensive
literature review on a given topic” however it can be prone to human error [11]. To
minimize this issue and ensure replicability the researchers conducted virtually the
entire SLR process in the same room. Thus, any inconsistencies were clarified instantly
and all participants were searching, eliminating and coding the information in the exact
same manner. The process of conducting a systematic literature review can be sum-
marized in 5 main steps (Fig. 1).
Making Rental Housing in the Gap-Market 243
1. Reveiw 2. Literature 3. CriƟcal 4. Data 5. Data

QuesƟon Search Appraisal ExtracƟon Synthesis
Fig. 1. Systematic literature review process [10]
Step 1 – Develop Review question: Based on the initial literature search, as can be
seen in the introduction, the following question was formulated. Can GBTs solve the
problem of unaffordable “affordable housing” developed by the private sector?
Step 2 – Searching the literature: A search strategy was formulated as follows:
The exclusion criteria removed articles that spoke on: Retail, office or industrial
properties; Inclusionary housing; Rural housing initiatives (RDP); Non-academic
sources; Articles that were not in English; Articles which focused on the health benefits
of GBs; Articles that focused on home ownership.
The inclusionary criteria were considered if they explicitly discussed on the fol-
lowing: Green affordable/low-income housing; GBTs (residential); Relevant grey lit-
erature as excluding some of these sources may lead to publication bias [12]; Articles
focusing on the financial/economic benefits of GBs; Articles focusing on rental tenure;
Indirect incentives for the developer to build green.
The following keywords were derived following the guidelines set out in Xiao and
Watson [12]: “green low-income housing; green affordable housing; sustainable low-
income housing; sustainable affordable housing; residential green buildings and green
buildings incentives; the split-incentive problem; green affordable housing financing;
green buildings cost premium; affordable housing and sustainability; cost savings in
green buildings; cost-benefit analysis of green buildings.”
These keywords were placed into nine multidisciplinary databases, as no one
database contains all published works [12]: “Taylor and Francis; Web of Science;
Scopus; Science Direct; ProQuest; JSTOR; EBSCOhost; Google Scholar; Wiley online
library.”
Zotero software was used to collect articles hits based on the keywords. Only
articles that were written in English and that fell in between the range of 2002–2018
were selected for download [11]. When entering search terms into the databases, non-
academic sources were excluded in the filter settings. The search obtained a total of
2749 articles.
Step 3 – Critical appraisal:

The articles captured in the ini-
tial search then underwent a
process of elimination. This
process first removed 965
duplicates. The next stage,
eliminated 1527 articles by
assessing their titles for appli-
cability based on our inclusion
and exclusion criteria. The pro-
cess was repeated looking at the
abstracts and then full-texts
eliminating 149 and 80 articles
at each stage respectively. This
cut down the number to 28.
Following the process outlined
in McCabe et al. [11] 3 addi-
tional articles, deemed neces-
sary, were added to ensure the Fig. 2. Elimination process
completeness of the dataset.
Thus, final number of articles
considered for the study was 31 (Fig. 2).
Step 4 – Data extraction: The remaining articles were analysed and coded using
NVivo software in order to extract the necessary information. Based on the themes
emerging from the literature, seven nodes were chosen, namely: “Utility costs and
rental costs in housing; GBT; Benefits and incentives for the GB developer or landlord;
Benefits to the GB tenant; Rent premiums and the split incentive problem; Reasons
why landlords don’t build green; Cost premium of GBs”. The information gathered in
the nodes was then used to create a narrative systematic literature review.
Step 5 – Data Synthesis: The information that was extracted was then summarized
and synthesized into findings that are presented in the following section. The headings
for each of the findings are based off the initial research aims as well as the themes that
emerged from the literature.
3 Findings
3.1 Green Building Technology for Affordable Housing Developments

There are various opportunities, throughout a building’s life cycle, to make a building
green. From siting, planning and designing to selecting materials and construction, to
the operational phase, maintenance and removal phases [13–16].
Types of GBTs that can be implemented in developments, at a reduced cost or no
additional cost, are: Orienting the building to maximise natural daylight, minimize
glare and heat radiation; natural ventilation; using locally available or recycled mate-
rial; minimizing heat radiation by landscaping; reducing water usage through low-flow
fixtures; optimizing the building shape through thermal modelling; using energy effi-
cient appliances and light fittings; optimising, upgrading or removing HVAC systems;
Lighting controls; harvesting rainwater; using recycled Greywater for flushing and
having efficient drainage systems. [7, 14, 17–23].
3.2 The Benefits of GBT for the “Affordable Housing” Tenant

The benefits of building green for the tenant are material and substantial in many cases,
especially in terms of energy and water utilities cost savings [13, 14, 19, 24, 25].
In EPA [26], it was found that improving energy efficiency in rented affordable housing
units can contribute to making developments more affordable for residents. These
benefits will become more pronounced over time with electricity prices increasing in
excess of rental cost increases [7, 25].
Utility costs and rental payments are important indicators in determining afford-
ability especially for low-income households, and therefore the reduction of utility
costs will allow for affordable housing to remain affordable [26]. Hands [21], high-
lighted that these cost savings allow tenants to meet their rental payments more con-
sistently, along with having additional income to use on other basic needs. This is
concurred by Geng [20] who found that a decreased housing expenditure will greatly
improve people’s living standards and have a huge effect on the economy. In addition,
GBs “positively impacts productivity, health, and welfare of human beings throughout
its entire life cycle” indicating that the improved physical wellbeing of the tenant can
bolster their ability to make a living [27]. Therefore, it seems as though the financial
benefits of GBs can improve the tenant’s economic well-being.
While most of the literature showed that the tenant will receive a positive financial
benefit when living in a GB, one study cautions against a possible ‘rebound effect’. As
discussed, green technologies can create more disposable income for the tenant.
However, a unique phenomenon may emerge that: As tenants have an increased pur-
chasing power, they may purchase new electrical appliances that will increase their
overall electricity consumption and as a result “part or all of energy saving effects
vanish” in a ‘rebound effect’ [25].
3.3 The Case for Private Developers to Build Green Affordable Housing
3.3.1 The Split Incentive Problem
The ‘split incentive’ problem describes a situation in which the landlord is responsible
for the energy efficiency expenditure while the tenant enjoys the benefit of a reduced
utility bill, and thus the landlord is not incentivised to incur such an expenditure [13,
25, 28–31]. This problem inhibits the uptake of GB development, as the stakeholders in
the position to build ‘green’ lack incentive to do so [24, 32].
One of the primary methods to alleviate this problem is for landlords to increase the
rent that they charge through a green rent premium [24, 25, 33, 34]. However, the
charging of a green rent premium should be avoided as in an environment where
tenants already struggle to meet their rental obligations, as an increase in this burden is
likely to lead to defaulting and tenant arrears [4]. This negatively affects the landlord as
it effectively cancels out the benefit of increased rental collection and lower tenant
turnover/evictions which will be discussed next.
Yet, this opportunity cost may only exist in the short-term, as the rate of utility cost
escalations exceeds the rate of rental escalations [7]. The significance of this is that
while a rent premium may keep the status quo in the short term, as time goes by and
energy costs become an increasingly significant proportion of housing expenditure, the
GB tenant will be better off than their conventional counterpart.
With regards to the purchase of assets that generate electricity or hot water through
renewable means GPF [7] describes a solution. The tenants will make use of hot water
and electricity that is generated onsite, remunerating the owner instead of the state
utility provider [7]. Therefore, the cost of the asset will be recuperated through con-
sumption charges to the building user. Once the initial investment price has been paid
back, this then provides the owner with an additional income stream.
Ultimately, any incentive or benefit that accrues to the landlord as a result of the
building being green, either financial or structural [15] serves to help solve the split
incentive issue. Therefore, all of the owner’s benefits and incentives identified in these
findings can be thought of as ways to solve this particular problem.
3.3.2 Decreased Life-Cycle Costs, Operating Expenses and Maintenance

Cost
The cost-saving ability of GBs can only be seen when it is considered from a life cycle
perspective. Life-cycle costing considers costs that are incurred during the operational
stage thereby not focusing exclusively on initial design and construction costs [13]. The
cost savings are significant, in fact, that “an incremental green investment of about two
per cent of construction costs typically [yield] life cycle savings of over ten times the
initial investment” [25].
The operating costs in GBs are lower than their conventional counterparts, besides
for rare cases where the building design has been compromised [7, 13, 14, 16, 20, 25,
35]. The decrease in operating expenditures, in many cases, is significant enough that it
covers the additional cost in the green investment [7, 13, 14, 16, 20, 21, 36]. Zhang
et al. [25] found that “on average, the aggregate operating cost (including water util-
ities, energy utilities, general maintenance, grounds maintenance, waste and recycling,
and janitorial costs) of GBs was 19% lower than the industry average.”
GBs have lower maintenance costs over their lifetime when compared to similar
conventional buildings [13, 19, 21, 25, 35, 36]. This is due to the fact that “green
design” includes more durable materials which can last for prolonged periods of time
without significant degradation [13, 19, 21]. As maintenance costs are typically the
responsibility of the building owners this benefit accrues solely to them. Geng [20],
concludes that “These advantages are particularly valuable for affordable housing
projects, where low operating costs are critical to affordability.”
3.3.3 Increased Property Value

There is enough evidence in literature which shows that in the vast majority of cases,
the ‘green features’ of a building increase the value of the property. Indeed, “sus-
tainable design, which seeks to balance environmental, social, and economic needs,
adds long-term value to development projects” [37]. Copiello [24] found that there was
an average price premium of 3.7% across A, B and C grade GBs. Ambrose [29], found
that investments in green technologies for a building increased the value of the property
by 15 000 to 42 000 lb (R285 000 to R798 000) depending on location. Geng [20],
showed that the value of a home would increase by $20 (R280) for every $1 (R14)
spent on energy efficient upgrades. The reason for this is primarily that all of the
benefits of GBs are “capitalized into the market value” [20].
The literature has shown that as ‘green features’ are integrated, property values
increase which means that energy efficient homes sell for higher than average prices [20,
33]. One explanation of this phenomenon is that Net Operating Income (NOI), a key
determinant in property valuation, increases as the building becomes more energy and
water efficient [14, 20]. An alternative hypothesis says that there is a greater willingness
to pay for GB’s, and due to this increased demand, the value is driven up [32].
Either way, it is conclusive that, “the increased asset value is an incremental benefit
for developers” [25]. These findings show that even though it may be difficult for
affordable housing projects to directly recover the invested amounts via increased
rentals or lower utility bills, they can profit if ever selling the property [34].
3.3.4 Improved Tenant Performance: Consistent Rental Payments

and Lower Tenant Turnover
In Ambrose [29], landlords agreed that high utility costs threaten a tenant’s ability to
make the rental obligations. Therefore, as GBT reduces a tenant’s utility cost, tenants
are then able to pay rent more consistently [26]. This is an incentive for landlords to
help reduce tenants’ energy costs [29]. GPF [7] concurs, saying that GBs enhance the
tenants’ resilience to pay rent and avoid defaults. Nedbank [38] shows that utility cost
is the second highest expense for the South African tenant and particularly with
“above-inflation tariff hikes,” the ability to afford rental is eroded.
Oblunmi et al. [32] found that in the commercial space, GBs see lower vacancies
and tenant turnover, which creates an uninterrupted flow of returns on the investment.
This correlates to the point made previously with regard to tenant benefits, as if tenants
have more resilience in their ability to make rental payment then they are less likely to
default [7, 29, 38]. If tenants are not defaulting, lower rate of evictions and lower tenant
turnover will result.
3.3.5 Tax Benefits

Although there was an abundance of literature on various tax benefits, the paper
restricts itself to tax benefits that affect the South African housing developer. Literature
shows how tax policy has adjusted to incentivize developers in GBT.
In South Africa, Section 12L of the Income Tax Act, (as amended in 2015), allows
for “deductions in respect of energy efficiency saving.” Every kilowatt-hour saved as a
result of energy efficient upgrades allows the owner to claim a 95-cent reduction in
their taxes [39, 40]. This provision is only for savings due to energy efficiency upgrades
i.e. insulation and shading but not for renewable energy generation [7, 40].
Section 12B of the Act provides tax incentives for assets that produce renewable
energy such as biomass, wind, solar and generation [39]. It allows the owner of the
asset to write it off at an accelerated period of 3 years, or 1 year if it’s a solar asset
generating 1 MW or more [40]. There are considerable tax benefits to the developer of
affordable housing as an incentive for green building.
3.3.6 Green Building Cost Premium

Many studies agree with the common perception that GBs cost more to produce [14,
16, 19, 33, 41]. As a result of this “green and affordability are often not perceived to be
achievable at the same time [and] green affordable housing is often not perceived as
economically feasible” [20]. However, these studies focus heavily on the initial capital
cost and fail to take into account life-cycle costing [13, 18, 37].
Sustainable construction by its very nature must incorporates life cycle costing
analysis [35, 37]. In fact, by considering life cycle periods, more sustainable and
affordable housing can be produced at the same, or sometimes even lower cost [20, 25,
35]. While initial costs of green projects may be slightly higher than for conventional
ones, savings in operating cost over the life of the building is generally offset and may
far exceed incremental initial capital costs [13, 20, 21]. Many green technologies can
pay for themselves over a short period of time through lower maintenance, operation
and utility costs [13, 16, 20, 21].
The perception of Green costing more came about when it was still new and so:
Limited technology, lack of relevant skills, knowledge and expertise leading to a
premium charged on both technology and services, meant that there was a real green
price premium [18, 33]. However, that is not always the case today: the cost of green
materials and technologies have decreased and more accessible, especially supply
chains for green materials and equipment are maturing with time; professionals such as
architects and contractors are being trained and accredited through GB forums; as the
industry improves the delivery of green design and technology [18, 20, 25].
Adopting a life-cycle approach, green affordable housing has shown to be less
costly, in terms of the net present value (NPV) of the development, in comparison to a
conventional equivalent [20]. Green affordable housing does not automatically include
a premium during construction and can, in fact, often be constructed for less than
conventional affordable housing [13]. This point is crucial as the “perceived cost
premium” is the main reason why developers don’t build green [13, 18, 20, 25, 27, 33,
37, 42].
4 Conclusion
The paper aimed to build a case on GBT and affordable housing to incentivize private
developers into seeing the benefits of building green.
In fulfilling the first objective, the paper found that GBTs do offer numerous ways
of GBT that can be used by affordable housing developers.
Addressing the second objective, it was found that tenants are very likely to benefit
financially from occupying a green affordable unit; for as long as tenants work against
the danger of the ‘rebound effect’.
In terms of the third objective, clear case was made for the private developer of
affordable housing to build green: GBs do not necessarily cost more than conventional
buildings and there are many measures that can be used to ‘green’ a building at little or
no additional cost; For GBTs that do cost more, the difference can be offset by the
reduced operating expenses and maintenance of the property or through consumption
charges to the tenant; GBs receive favourable tax treatments; GBs enjoy increased
property value; GBs tend to have better life cycle costing. They are cheaper to run and
have lower maintenance costs; GBs improve tenant resiliency and improve their ability
to make rental payments. Therefore, the landlord may enjoy more consistent rental
payments and lower tenant turnover.
The study found that building green can improve profitability and return on
investment. By highlighting financial and investment benefits, it may stimulate an
increased interest by private developers to build green in the gap market.
5 Recommendations
There are five recommendations from this study. 1. Green building should be
encouraged and incentivised as they can help make rental housing more affordable for
low income tenants; 2. Information regarding the benefits of green buildings should be
advertised in order to raise awareness of the benefits they provide to the landlord and
tenant; 3. Tenants should be taught how to use their Green Buildings in order to avoid a
potential ‘rebound effect’; 4. Property owners should elect to build green because, if
done correctly, the benefits of green buildings over the longer term will always out-
weigh the initial costs; 5. The landlord should not elect to charge a large green rent
premium on their building, and rather charge a small premium or none at all as the
increase in tenant affordability leads to huge direct and indirect benefits.
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Identification of Planning and Design Factors
Influencing Stakeholders’ Acceptance of Public
Transport Facility
Innocent Shima Azege1(&), Dilip Kumar Das1, and Bankole Awuzie2

1
Department of Civil Engineering, Central University of Technology,
Bloemfontein 9300, Free State, South Africa
azegeinnoc2012@gmail.com, ddas@cut.ac.za
2
Department of Built Environment, Central University of Technology,
Bloemfontein 9300, Free State, South Africa
bawuzie@cut.ac.za
Abstract. Adequate functionality and utilization of transportation infrastructure

is critical to national development of a country. In view of this, South Africa’s
National Development Plan is set out to ensure that all transport facilities are
functional and utilized by 2030. However, stakeholders reject some public
transportation infrastructure projects or facilities across the nation thereby
causing traffic and economic growth related problems. This paper has examined
the geometric parameters of Mangaung Intermodal Transport Facility and the
influence of planning and design factors on stakeholders’ acceptance of public
transport infrastructure. Physical observations and measurements of geometric
parameters of case study facility as well as stakeholders’ interview are used to
obtain geometric parameters and stakeholders opinions. The geometric param-
eters are analysed using relevant empirical models while content analysis is used
to understand the various interviews conducted. The results show that minimum
turning radii, driveway width, parking bays size, proximity to trip ends, com-
munity need for a transport facility and parking facility size are function of
stakeholders’ acceptance.
Keywords: Design Infrastructure Planning Public transportation

Stakeholders
1 Introduction
Resilient infrastructure is critical to achievement of Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) by motivating industrialization; induce economic growth and poverty reduction
of any country. Buhr [1] defined infrastructure as a platform that enables an agent to carry
out economic activities. Such platforms are transportation, energy, telecommunication,
water and sanitation, buildings etc. This plays important role in influencing both eco-
nomic and social development of a nation. Among these infrastructure categories, it is
worthy to note that transportation infrastructure is a catalyst to the development of
nation’s economic growth [2]. The impact of quality and adequate transportation
infrastructure assets to a city or country offers it competitive advantages over others.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_25
Identification of Planning and Design Factors 253
However, stakeholders in many parts of the world have reportedly rejected some of
these public transportation infrastructure projects/assets [3, 4]. This action has resulted to
increased cost of transportation, traffic congestion, costs associated with design change
and reconstruction, abandoned projects and unemployment. In South Africa for instance,
some public transportation facilities utilization is opposed by stakeholders as attributed to
perceived inconvenience from its operations. The rejection in various reports is associ-
ated with poor planning and design parameters. For example, a non-acceptance of
facilities such as Intermodal Transport Facility in Mangaung Central Business District
(CBD) is observed to have caused problems like congestion around the area.
Although various studies have sought to investigate the causes of societal accep-
tance or non-acceptance of infrastructure projects in respective domains, findings from
these studies have indicated the non-consideration of the influence of geometric
parameters on the acceptance of public transportation infrastructure projects [5, 6]. The
gap in the study of geometric parameters as factors influencing stakeholders’ accep-
tance of transportation infrastructure motivates this research study. The objectives of
this paper are to study the geometric parameters of Mangaung Intermodal Transport
Facility and to obtain stakeholders’ perception on various geometric parameters of a
transportation infrastructure in Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality. To achieve this
objective, the rest of the paper is structured as follows: literature review, research
methodology, presentation and discussion of findings and conclusion.
2 Literature Review
A good transportation system in a country is an engine to its increased gross domestic

product (GDP) through expansion of its productive capacity and make existing pro-
duction inputs more active [7]. Developed countries like United States of America,
United Kingdom and Canada as well as developing nations like China have paid
serious attention to investments in transportation infrastructure. This has resulted in
improved international trade and employment opportunities to citizens [8]. Despite the
importance of transportation infrastructure, a number of factors do challenge its
delivery, operations and management. Some of such factors include dwindling finances
and rapid population growth, geometric design, design standard documents, traffic
parameters, and stakeholders’ management [9]. However, some of the important factors
that largely influence planning and design of transportation infrastructure and their
higher acceptability include stakeholders’ engagement and involvement, socio-
economic factors, influencing stakeholders’ perception, geometric parameters for
transportation infrastructure, and traffic management and control factors.
2.1 Stakeholders’ Engagement and Involvement in Transportation

Projects
Recent studies have revealed poor stakeholders’ engagement and involvement in
transportation infrastructure projects as a factor that affects both its delivery and sus-
tainability. According to Bourne [10], Tengan and Aigbavboa [11], the success of
public transportation infrastructure depends on stakeholders’ acceptance. Their
254 I. S. Azege et al.
acceptance or opposition to its existence is however, influenced by the level of

information provided to them about project impacts, sense of ownership and the pro-
cess of involving and engaging relevant stakeholders [5, 6]. Woltjer [12] pointed out
that Dutch citizens are not always giving adequate information about infrastructure
projects. He added that the engagement and participatory planning and construction
process is challenged by the resistance of the public to be actively involved on the
ground of lack of professional skills or knowledge. It is also common in some situa-
tions that the integrity of the person/agency communicating and/or managing an
infrastructure project influence other stakeholders’ perception about the project. Where
such a project is seen as a manipulative attempt to take away some benefits or cause
environmental hazards in the end, the infrastructure project may face non-acceptance
by stakeholders based on trust [13].
2.2 Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Stakeholders’ Perception

According to Kumar, Amandeep and Singh [14], the charges associated with the use of
public transportation infrastructure influence stakeholders’ behaviors towards a project.
It is expected that public transportation is affordable by most people so as to enhance
effective mobility for trips demands [15]. It is further noted by Cohen, Reichl and
Schmidthaler [16] that a change in transportation technology or land use of a place is a
positive or negative motivator to acceptability of a transportation infrastructure at a
particular location. He added that some stakeholders tend to oppose the siting of a
transport facility because it might change their existing transport system or land use
benefits. In Indian transportation planning and design for instance, the roles and con-
tributions of relevant stakeholders are disregarded because of administrative or political
decisions about a transportation infrastructure projects. It is commonly found with
public transportation infrastructure projects that once the concerns of stakeholders are
neglected, it results to protest or the existing anger becomes amplified uncontrollably
[17]. Some stakeholders instead of protest decide to refrain from being part of the
project especially where quality is compromised. Besides, there may be built-up
conflict among stakeholders of the transportation infrastructure [18].
2.3 Geometric Parameters for Transportation Infrastructure

Geometric parameters define a transportation infrastructure in terms of the shape
bounded by points or lines. It therefore gives various shapes within its context. In
transportation, such geometric parameters are widths, lengths, curvature (vertical and
horizontal) as well as grade. Different parameters have different specifications for an
infrastructure. The lane width of 2.70 m to 3.65 m is recommended at straight of
carriageway [19]. This lane width can however be increased to 3.70 m at horizontal
curve [20]. Vehicles’ turning considered very important in transportation infrastructure
planning and design. The horizontal curves on highway are designed with considera-
tion of varying vehicles length. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research [21]
recommends minimum internal radius of 6.2 m for passengers’ car unit, 12.8 m for
single unit vehicles and 13.1 m for buses on highways. Roess and Prassas [22] added
some road geometric factors that are a function of design speed. Such factors include
the minimum turning radius Rmin = v2/127(e + f) where e is the angle of superele-
vation, f is the coefficient of friction and v is the design speed. Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research [20] also uses speed function for determination of stopping sight
distances (SSD) of 30 m for 30 km/hr, 50 m for 40 km/hr, 115 m for 80 km/hr and
210 m for 120 km/hr.
2.4 Traffic Management and Control

Traffic control system is designed to ensure that it is easy to understand by the users.
This is possible especially where road markings are done using a national standard. At
a signalized intersection for instance, the right of way should be given to pedestrian and
cyclists travelling in parallel direction to conflicting vehicles [23]. Timing of traffic
movement at an intersection, bus terminal or taxi rank has potential effect on human
behaviors. Due to value that human beings attach to time, the duration within which a
traffic waits at an intersection influences acceptance or non-acceptance to its utilization.
Additionally, passengers’ waiting time for vehicle arrival at a terminal or vehicle
waiting time for passengers before departure is critical design factor for stakeholders’
buy-in of a transport facility [24]. However, waiting time at a bus station is a subjective
parameter as regards events that surround it. Fan, Guthrie and Levinson [25] argues that
waiting time at bus stop or terminal without basic amenities like seats and shelter is felt
more than equivalent duration at a facility with these amenities.
3 Study Area
For the purpose of this investigation, the transportation infrastructure such as the
‘Intermodal Transport Facility’ (popularly known as the new Taxi rank) in the CBD of
Bloemfontein (a medium sized city located in Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality) has
been used as the case study. The Intermodal Transport Facility is located in CBD where it
is surrounded by public offices, shopping centers and malls. These offices and shops
motivate travel demand for people within Bloemfontein and neighboring towns. Adja-
cent to the facility is the Interstate Bus Line Terminal. Both Intermodal Transport Facility
and Interstate Bus Line Terminal are fed with traffic from a three-lane street, Hanger
Street. Harvey Street is a two-lane one-way carriageway which traffic from the facility
are expected to exit into it. The non-utilization of Intermodal Transport Facility has
caused some traffic related problems such as congestion on Hanger’s Street, St Andrew’s
Street and St George’s Street during peak hours around these public transportation nodes
as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The facility was completed in 2012 but its utility is only
piloted. Following users’ protest against its functionality, the facility is left abandoned
and locked against unauthorized access. The transport facility has three floors of parking
lots, which can accommodate about 480 vehicles. The intermodal transport facility has
one-lane entry and one-lane exit carriageways as shown in Figs. 3 and 4 respectively. It
is observed that the traffic congestion in the CBD is as the result of the temporary taxi
rank along Peet Street, Harvey Street, St Andrew Street and Douglas Street. The inter-
sections of roads with high traffic volume in the area have functional traffic signals and
appropriate road markings to guide movement of vehicles and pedestrians.
Fig. 1. Temporary taxi rank on Douglas Strt Fig. 2. Minibuses parked on Peet Strt.
Fig. 3. Entry point into the facility. Fig. 4. Exit point of the facility.
This research adopted the case study of the Mangaung Intermodal Transport Facility in
Central Business District (CBD) in Bloemfontein. In order to obtain required data, the
study used physical observation, measurement and semi-structured questionnaire. This
public transportation facility is used as case study because of the users’ protest against
its functions as transportation services facility and it is left abandoned. The study
therefore uses the case to study transportation infrastructure geometric parameters
through physical measurements and observations. It also conducted semi-structure
interview with stakeholders to get their perception on different planning and design
parameters and factors. Different empirical models were used to determine geometric
parameters while content analysis was used to understand stakeholders’ perceptions.
Different design and planning factors that influence stakeholders’ acceptance were
identified from their stakeholders’ responses.
4.1 Data Collection

This study took physical measurements of various parking lots, turning curve lengths
and driveways width within Intermodal Transport Facility. The lengths and the widths
of each parking lot was measured, the tangent lengths and horizontal curve lengths at
entry and exit points of each parking lot and driveway horizontal curves were measured
for each floor using grip wheel tape. The driveway and lane widths were also measured.
The various floors geometric structure was drawn to guide physical measurements and
data entry as shown in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. The parking lots are numbered from A1 to A21
on the first floor, B1 to B23 on the second floor but the third floor parking lots were not
numbered. Accessibility and traffic signs were observed in the facility to examine their
various functions. Nine local community members coded LC1 to LC9 and eight taxi
association members coded TA1 to TA8 were selected by convenience purposive
sampling. The choice of the sampling technique is because; users of the facility carried
out the protest to its utility. The semi-structured interview conducted sought the
opinions of users about the planning and design factors that influence stakeholders’
acceptance of public transportation infrastructure in the study area. The interview
continued with local community and taxi association members until their responses
were seemed repeated or similar with more interviews conducted. The content analysis
of the interview reports as coded for each interview was used to understand and
identify various factors that can influence stakeholders’ acceptance.
Po
int
D E
int
Po
7.5 m
32.6 m 54.1 m
7.5 m
Driveway
to second
floor
A21 A20 A19 A18 A17 A16 A15 A14 A13 A12 A11 A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1
Driveway
from
ground
Driveway floor
to ground
floor
7.5 m
2.5m
Point G
7.5 m
tF
Poin
in
tC
Po
Fig. 5. First floor parking lots and driveway.

L
int
Po
7.5 m
47.3m 49.8m
3.75m
B23 B22 B21 B20 B19 B18 B17 B16 B15 B14 B13 B12 B11 B10 B9 B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1
Driveway
to third
floor
Driveway
to first 7.5 m
floor
2.5m
Point K
7.5 m
STOP
tJ
Po
int
in
I
Po
Fig. 6. Second floor parking lots and driveways.
8.0m
52.0m 20.5m 18.5m
EXIT
6.1m
7.5 m
EXIT Driveway
7.8m from
EXIT
2.5m second
floor
22.3m
STOP
47.0m
7.5 m
Fig. 7. Third floor parking lots and driveways.
4.2 Data Analysis

The physical measurement geometric parameters such as the lengths, widths and
lengths of curves taken from Mangaung Intermodal Transport Facility were used to
determine other required unknown geometric parameters. Different empirical models
such as Eqs. 1 to 4 were used to calculate minimum turning radius, lane width, and
number of cars in a parking lot.
Rmin ¼ ð180 X CÞ= ph ð1Þ
Rmin ¼ 2C=p ð2Þ

Rmin ¼ T ð3Þ
N ¼ L=6:6 ð4Þ
Where Rmin = minimum turning radius; C = length of curve; h = angle between

two tangent lines; T = length of tangent line; N = the number of vehicles and
L = parking lot length.
This section presents the results from the preliminary data collected for the research
studies. Table 1 presents the geometric parameters of the first floor, second floor and
third floor of the Intermodal Transport Facility in CBD of Mangaung Metropolitan
Municipality in Free State of South Africa.
Table 1. Geometric parameters of intermodal transport facility floors.

Entry point Exit point
Parking Length Width Tangent Angle Turning Tangent Angle Turning
lot (m) (m) length between radius length between radius
(m) tangent (m) (m) tangent (m)
lines (°) lines (°)
First floor (21 parking lots)
A1–A21 42.0 2.6 3.6 90 3.6 0.6 90 0.6
Second floor (23 parking lots)
B1–B13 42.0 2.6 0.6 90 0.6 3.6 90 3.6
B14–B23 42.0 2.6 3.9 90 3.9 3.6 90 3.6
Third floor
CA1–28 22.4 2.4 1.0 90 1.0 0.9 90 0.9
CB1–11 22.4 2.4 1.0 90 1.0 0.9 90 0.9
CC1–26 22.4 2.4 1.0 90 1.0 0.9 90 0.9
CD1–11 22.4 2.4 1.0 90 1.0 0.9 90 0.9
The first floor has 21 parking lots of 42.0 m long each, numbered A1 to A21. Each of
these parking lot has a width of 2.6 m. This shows that the parking lot in the first floor
can accommodate passenger’s car unit (pcu) which measures 2.1 m wide without dif-
ficulties. This is similar to the second floor parking lots. The third floor parking lots are
2.4 m wide. The width of first and second floor is sufficient for passengers’ car as
recommended by South African Institute of Civil Engineers standard of 2.5 m as min-
imum. Roess and Prassas [22] also recommend a minimum parking bay width of 2.4 m.
This means that the parking bay width is adequate for all parking lots in the transport
facility. The parking lot of length 42.0 m can therefore accommodate 6 vehicles
resulting to a total of 126 vehicles on first floor and 138 vehicles on the second floor
(with 23 parking lots) as recommended by Roess and Prassas [22]. However, the South
Africa Institute of Civil Engineers gives allowable space for each vehicle in the parking
lot as 5.0 m. In this case, each parking lot can be occupied by 8 vehicles giving a total of
168 vehicles on first floor and 184 vehicles on the second floor. The third floor parking
lots CA1 to CA28, CB1 to CB11, CC1 to CC26 and CD1 to CD11 are 20.0 m each with
2.3 m pedestrian walkways through them resulting to two of 10.0 m for each parking lot.
The 5.0 m marked for vehicles on the floor is within the recommendation of South
Africa Institute of Civil Engineers.
The angles between the parking lots and the driveways at the entry or exit point of
parking lot are 90°. This makes the internal turning radius to be equivalent to the length
of tangent lines. For instance, the turning radius at entry into parking lots is 3.6 m on
the first floor for A1 to A21, 0.6 m for B1 to B13 parking lots, 3.9 m for B14 to B23
parking lots. The third floor parking lots at their entry points is 1.0 m. At the exit points
of the parking lots, the turning radius at first floor for all parking lots is 0.6 m, all
parking lots for second floor is 3.6 m while those for third floor is 0.9 m each.
According to United States Institute of Transportation Engineering and South African
Institute of Civil Engineers, the minimum turning radius for passenger cars is 2.3 m
and 1.6 m respectively. This means that the minimum turning radii at the entry points
are adequate for A1 to A21 and all B14 to B23 parking lots. The radius for B1 to B13
and all on the third floor are not adequate according to these standards. The turning
radii of all the parking lots of second floor are above the minimum recommendation at
exit points. The exit points radii for first and third floors are below the recommended
standards. This implies that drivers of vehicles can conveniently maneuver at entry
points of all parking lots of first floor, parking lots B14 to B23 and at exit points of all
parking lots of second. However, maneuverability at all exit points of first and second
floor parking lots and at entry points of B1 to B13 on the second floor is challenging to
the vehicle drivers. The maneuverability on various lanes on the driveways in the
Intermodal Transport Facility is presented in Table 2.
From Table 2, the geometric characteristics of various driveways in the facility are
shown. The driveway from ground to first floor has entry point at first floor at point F.
The width of driveway is 7.5 m with one lane of 3.75 m. The driveway that exits traffic
from first floor to ground floor has two lanes in one way with 7.5 m total width. The
driveway around the first floor is a two-lane two-way. This has internal and external
lanes that have horizontal curves at points C and D. The table shows that all lanes on
the facility have width of 3.75 m. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of
South Africa states that the minimum lane width should be 3.7 m. Each width is
therefore adequate for passenger cars. However, the minimum turning radii for internal
lanes at points C, D, H and K and exit point G at first floor are below the recommended
standard spelt out by South African Institute of Civil Engineers and US Institute of
Transportation Engineering. The results from Table 2 shows that the lane width is
sufficient for passenger cars in the facility as recommended by all standard of South
African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. The results are indication that
the turning of vehicles on internal lanes of first floor at points C, D, G and H and
internal lane at K on the second floor will be not be convenient for drivers of moving
vehicles. This is also the same with the case of internal lanes on the third floor.
Table 2. Geometric characteristics of lanes in intermodal transport facility

Point Lane Length of Tangent Angle between Minimum Width of
position curve (m) length (m) tangent lines (°) turning radius lane (m)
(m)
First floor
C External 7.0 – – 4.5 3.75
lane
C Internal – 0.8 90 0.8 3.75
lane
D External 5.0 – – 3.2 3.75
lane
D Internal – 0.6 90 0.6 3.75
lane
F 6.3 – – 4.0 3.75
G – 0.6 90 0.6 3.75
Second floor
H External – 3.6 90 3.6 3.75
lane
H Internal – 0.6 90 0.6 3.75
lane
I 8.0 – – 5.1 3.75
J External 7.2 – – 4.6 3.75
lane
J Internal – 0.7 90 0.7 3.75
lane
Table 3 presents the perception of the stakeholders who have stake in intermodal
transport facility. 65% identified proximity of transport facility to residences and
offices, 53% have considered the number of vehicles available to board passengers at
public transport facility and time spent at a transport facility to travel as critical factors,
47% of interviewees said that transport fare, economic activities provided at the facility
and community need for a transport facility are factors which influence stakeholders’
participation in operations or utility of a transport infrastructure. On the impact of
transport facility on environment, width of driveway and turning radius, 41% of
respondents demonstrate agreement to the factors that they have influence on their
perception of a transportation infrastructure. The size of parking space, passengers’
accessibility to transport facility and the quality of services associated with a facility are
motivators of their acceptance or non-acceptance as shown by 35% of them. Less
attention is however, paid to other factors like land expropriation compensation, project
ownership, project implementer and effect of weather changes. This shows that factors
such as facility proximity to trip ends, availability of vehicles at transport facility, travel
time, environmental impact as well as turning radius and driveway width should be
taken serious during planning and design of transportation infrastructure for improved
stakeholders’ buy-in.
Table 3. Information collected from interviewees

No. Information No. of occurrence
LC TA Total Percentage
(%)
1 Transportation infrastructure’s closeness to residence and 6 5 11 65
public office
2 The fare for using transport facility 5 3 8 47
3 Number of vehicles to carry passengers at all time 4 5 9 53
4 The impact of transportation facility on the environment 4 3 7 41
5 Compensation on land expropriation 1 1 2 12
6 The transportation infrastructure project ownership 0 2 2 12
7 The quality of services of a transport facility to the public 2 4 6 35
8 The quality of public transport facility 3 2 5 29
9 Transport facility need to a community 5 3 8 47
10 Economic activities provided by a transport facility 2 6 8 47
11 Transport facility project implementation party/agency 1 0 1 6
12 The width of driveway in a transport facility 0 7 7 41
13 The effect of weather changes in transport facility 0 3 3 18
14 The size of parking lot 2 4 6 35
15 The length of parking bays 0 5 5 29
16 The nature of turning curves 1 6 7 41
17 The road markings and signs 2 4 6 35
18 Similarities or differences with other similar projects 0 2 2 12
19 Accessibility of a transport facility by passengers 3 3 6 35
20 Time spent on a transport facility to travel 5 4 9 53
6 Conclusion
Sustainable infrastructure development has been a challenge in developing countries.

This challenge is commonly found with transportation, which is a critical infrastructure
for social and economic development. One of the issues affecting sustainable trans-
portation infrastructure is stakeholders’ buy-in of transportation infrastructure projects
or facilities. Different transportation infrastructures are abandoned as the result of
public rejection to its operations. This paper has examined the influence of planning
and design factors on stakeholders acceptance of this type of infrastructure. However,
this study is carryout in the context of Mangaung Intermodal Transport Facility and
Mangaung CBD. Further studies can be carried out on stakeholders rejected transport
facilities in other areas. It can also be done by extending studies on other stakeholders
of Mangaung Intermodal Transport Facilities like government transportation agencies
and contractors.
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Evaluating the Impact of Emerging
Contractors’ Failure to Secure Tenders
from the Tender Market
Sikhumbuzo Lufele(&)

Cape Peninsula University of Technology, P. O. Box 1906,
Bellville 7535, South Africa
lufeles@cput.ac.za
Abstract. Purpose - The study evaluates the impact of emerging contractors’

failure to secure contracts from the tender market as part of the Western Cape’s
Contractors Development programme (CDP). Design - The study adopted a
quantitative research method, the study targeted emerging contractors in the
Western Cape. The data was collected by using a questionnaire survey with
closed-ended questions and was distributed to the population of 16 emerging
contractors with CIDB grade 3 and 5. The descriptive and inferential statistics
were used to analyse the study. Findings - The study has found that skills
deficiency as the main reason for emerging contractors’ failure to secure con-
tracts from the tender market. The findings have further revealed among others
emerging contractors are unable to tender, interpret construction drawings, plan,
estimate and enter into negotiations. Conclusion - Emerging contractors on the
Western Cape’s CDP programme encounter difficulties to secure contracts from
the tender market owing to their skills deficiency. This situation if further
compounded by the fact that the Western Cape CDP has not set aside contracts
for training purposes. Practical implications - The Western Cape CDP should
review its policy with regards to training projects, contractors struggle to secure
tenders from the tender market. The Western Cape CDP should not maintain the
current status quo with regards to training projects otherwise it runs a risk of
contractors not able to complete the mentorship programme.
Keywords: Emerging contractors Tendering Planning Estimation

Construction drawings
1 Introduction
In South Africa, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) play a pivotal role in term of
economic growth. Moreover, SMEs also contribute in creation of jobs, income gen-
eration and output growth. The total contribution of SMEs in terms of employment is
approximately 60% and 40% of output [4, 25]. This contribution is significant in terms
of addressing socio-economic challenges such as unemployment, poverty and the
shortage of skills. SMEs in the construction sector are sometimes referred to as
emerging contractors. Emerging contractors demonstrate a potential but not yet fully

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_26
266 S. Lufele
competent in all aspects of the business. Moreover, in many instances emerging con-
tractors still require training and mentorship to enhance their technical and businesses
skills [21]. It is common knowledge that throughout the processes of running their
businesses, emerging contractors have been confronted with a number of challenges.
Consequently, some of these emerging contractors are no longer in business and some
kept their businesses were able to overcome all their challenges. These problems have
been reported on by a number of researchers [11, 15, 22]. The latter have reported that
the problems confronted by emerging contractors do not go away. Malongane [15]
highlights that these challenges confronted by emerging contractors affect their busi-
nesses both internally and externally. Thwala and Phaladi [23]; Iruka and Shakantu
[10] explains that emerging contractor businesses in south Africa do not remain in
business for a very long time. Problems relating emerging contractors were reported on
more than seven years ago but still appears to have an impact on the South African
construction sector [6].
2 Literature Review
2.1 Tendering
Securing a contract from the tender market requires a contractor to put together a sound
and competitive tender. It is therefore up to the contractor ensure compliance to tender
requirements, if a contractor fails to adhere to the tender requirements then it could lead
to disqualification or fail to secure a tender. Martin and Root [17] discuss problems
confronted emerging contractors and highlights general lack of knowledge; deficiencies
in the knowledge of pricing procedures, contractual rights and obligations, manage-
ment techniques and principles, technology, as well as general law. Despite intense
competition, that on its own does not prevent contractors from entering the market.
According to Thwala and Phaladi [23] there is fierce competition at the lower grades of
cidb who are competing against each other and that has a ripple effect on small
contractors in terms of maintaining a sustainable workflow. Iruka and Shakantu [10]
argue that it up to the emerging contractors to remain in business and still be com-
petitive and economically sustainable by developing a dynamic business strategy that
would embrace the changing trends and conditions in today’s business world. Further
Thwala and Phaladi [23] reveal that emerging contractors are confronted with
increasing competition due to the decline in demand for construction. In response to the
market conditions, contractors decide to lay off their workers.
2.2 Interpretation of Construction Drawings

Construction drawings are necessary for most spheres of the construction industry as
being the best means of transmitting detailed and often complex information from the
designer of the project to all those involved in the construction process. Ramaswamy
[20] highlights that construction drawings are used to communicate the architectural
and engineering design of a construction project. Babalola [2] states that construction
drawing is one of several diagrammatic forms used in the building design process.
Evaluating the Impact of Emerging Contractors’ Failure 267
Babalola and Eastman [1] define construction drawings as graphically complex,

depicting an assemblage of sub-assemblages and parts. Ordinarily, contractors would
be issued with two types of construction drawings namely architectural drawings and
engineering drawings. The architect together with other designers of the project should
ensure that the message communicated via the construction drawings is clear and
unambiguous so as to eliminate any possibility of misreading and misinterpretation of
the drawings. Equally so, contractors and those who work with construction drawings
should have an understanding of interpreting construction correctly. With regards to
interpreting construction drawings as part of a planning process, emerging contractors
on more occasions encounter difficulties and subsequently remain clueless. Thwala and
Phaladi [23] show that emerging contractors are unable to read and interpret con-
struction drawings due to lack of technical skills. Malongane [15] alludes that some of
the emerging contractors start their construction businesses without possessing any
technical skills. However, Chilipunde [5] maintains that one of the basic skills that
would make a successful contractor is the ability to read and interpret constructions
drawings. It is crystal clear that construction drawings in the construction industry are
important and must be used by contractors as a guide in terms of steps to be followed in
constructing a building.
2.3 Planning
De Marco [8] defines planning simply as mechanism to ascertain “What” is going to be
done, “How” things are going to be done, “Who” will be doing activities and “How
much” activities will cost. Planning is a very important step towards achieving suc-
cessful project implementation, typically the construction industry values planning very
highly as the project can never be undertaken unless planning has been done thor-
oughly. Cook and Williams [7] argue that it would be difficult to envisage a successful
project without proper planning. If planning is done properly it would then highlight
the potential of the project and not only from the clients’ perspective but also from the
contractors’ perspective [7]. In most cases, planning is closely linked to improving
construction project performance where it is possible to meet the project parameters
which are cost, quality and time [14]. In the case of emerging contractors, planning is
still a challenge as contractors often fail to undertake proper planning and imple-
mentation as the results projects are not completed on time [23, 24]. Van Vuuren et al.
[25] argue that emerging contractors are unable to plan for projects due to inadequate
management skills to deliver on the project. Thwala and Malongane [22] concur with
the latter with regards to the inadequacy of management skills among emerging con-
tracting firms. Thwala and Malongane [22] further argue that contractors need to ensure
that the job is executed in a way to make a profit.
2.4 Estimation
The cost estimate can be defined as a process of putting together an estimate in terms of
how much the project will cost. This is often done by considering various elements of
the project. An estimate should only be treated as such and never be regarded as
accurate [3]. According to Lester [13], estimation requires a structured approach and
268 S. Lufele
whatever method of estimation is chosen, the level of accuracy has to be indicated.

Estimation, therefore, is a very important part of any project as it forms the basis for
subsequent control. For this reason, estimation is crucial such that a contractor has to
ensure that an accurate and competitive estimate is prepared that would lead to contract
award. Chilipunde [5] argues the fact that contractors are unable to estimate or price,
respond to the tender document and take into consideration inflation is evident enough
to show how deep problems are in terms of emerging contractors. Thwala and Phaladi
[23] also highlight poor estimation and lack of pricing of tenders as one of the chal-
lenges faced by emerging contractors and results in contractors’ failure to secure
projects from the tender market.
2.5 Negotiations
Negotiations in the construction industry are paramount to contractors because they are
responsible in terms of procuring materials and other goods for the project from the
suppliers. Perks and Oosthuizen [19] state that negotiations are a good and powerful
tool used in concluding agreements with suppliers. Furthermore, negotiation is a first
step in having a long-term relationship with the suppliers. A good relationship between
the contractor and the supplier must exist for a successful relationship. In the absence
of a cordial relationship, then contractors would be left vulnerable and find it difficult to
carry out a construction project with a supplier as a business partner to the project. The
main objective with regards to contractors is to obtain the best possible price from the
right supplier in the right quantity, at the right time [9]. Emerging contractors are
unable to negotiate in order to make money instead of contractors lose money due to
poor preparation and poor negotiations [5].
The study has adopted a quantitative research approach. A questionnaire survey with
closed-ended questions were distributed in August 2017 to 16 CIDB grade 3 to 5
emerging contractors who have been selected to go through mentorship programme
Western Cape CDP. The questionnaire comprised of 7 point Likert scale questions to
establish the extent to which emerging contractors’ failure to secure contracts from
tender market has effected emerging contractors. The Likert scale was organised as
follows 1 = Not affected, 2 = Slightly affected, 3 = Moderately affected, 4 = Affected,
5 = Highly affected, 6 = Extremely affected, 7 = Completely affected, U = Unsure. In
addition, the questionnaire consists of two sections, namely Section A and Section B.
Section A consisted of biographical data of emerging contractors, whilst Section B
focused on questions pertaining to the emerging contractors’ skills deficiency.
Respondents were first informed of the focus and the purpose prior to the com-
mencement of the survey.
Leddy and Armrod [12] highlights that to analyse quantitative data one would use
descriptive or inferential statistics. Typically, the Statistical Package for Social Sci-
ences (SPSS) software was used to capture and analysis of descriptive data. Descriptive
analysis measures the central tendency and is divided into three categories namely
mode, mean, and median. A reliability testing was conducted by making use of
Cronbach’s alpha. According to Welman et al. [26], reliability is concerned with the
findings of the research and relates to the credibility of the results. Cronbach coefficient
alpha is a reliability test for a single occasion data collection which is an estimate of
internal consistency of responses to different scale items [24]. Reliability in terms
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient varies from 0 to 1; the closer the coefficient is to 1, the
more reliable it is.
4 Findings
4.1 Profile of the Respondents

In terms of Table 1, the study sought to establish gender distribution of the 16
respondents. From the figure below it is shown that of 81.3% (13) of respondents are
male and 18.8% (3) are female, and this suggests both genders were represented,
although females were underrepresented in the study. The age distribution of respon-
dents, where 37.5% were aged between 21 and 30 years, 12.5% were aged between 31
and 40 years, 50% were aged between 41 and 50 years. The race groups of the
respondents, 6.3% of respondents are white, 31.3% black, and the 62.5% which is the
majority comes from the coloured race group. From an educational point of view more
than 56.3% of respondents have a matric certificate while 43.8% have not completed
secondary education. It is a concern that none of the respondents has a tertiary or a
post-graduate qualification. This could be problematic with regard to having at least at
tertiary qualification that would give respondents an academic experience rather than
site experience. Furthermore, respondents could also have a challenge in understanding
the business and construction related modules on the advanced phase of the pro-
gramme. The cidb grades for groups 1, 2 and 3. It is clear that 50% of respondents are
registered for cidb grade 4, followed by 37.5% for cidb grade 5 and 12.5% for cidb
grade 2.
4.2 Reliability Testing

Table 2 below shows the Statistical Package for Sciences Software (SPSS) was used to
test the scaled questions for reliability. The testing in terms of Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient is interpreted as follows: Values that are lower than 0.60 degrees are con-
sidered unacceptable, values with 0.70 degrees are considered as having low reliability,
0.80 degrees are considered as having moderate reliability and 0.9 degrees are con-
sidered having high reliability [16]. Also, degree values tend to be low when items less
than 10 are tested.
Table 3 displays the results of the test for the normality. A non-significant result
(sig value of more than 0.05) indicates normality [18]. If the obtained significance
value of 0.00 (equal or less than 0.05), it suggests the violation of the assumption of
normality. However, the significant difference was 0.056 which is higher than 0.05
therefore, the normality was not violated, hence ANOVA was adopted.
270 S. Lufele
Table 1. Profile of sample

Gender No. %
Female 3 18.8
Male 13 81.3
Total 16 100%
Age group No. %
21–30 years 6 37.5
31–40 years 2 12.5
41–50 years 8 50.0
Total 16 100%
Race group No. %
White 1 6.3
Black 5 31.3
Coloured 10 62.5
Total 16 100
Qualification No. %
Secondary - not completed 7 43.8
Matric certificate 9 56.3
Total 16 100%
CIDB grade No. %
Grade 4 8 50%
Grade 5 6 37.5%
Grade 6 2 12.5%
Total 100%
Table 2. Reliability testing

Variables Number of times Cronbach’s alpha coefficient Rank
Tendering 6 0.85 Moderate
Interpreting drawings 4 0.99 High
Planning 5 0.96 High
Estimation 5 0.97 High
Negotiations 3 0.99 High
Table 3. Tests of normality for skills deficiency

Kolmogorov- Shapiro-Wilk
Smirnova
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.
Skills deficiency .197 16 .097 .954 16 .560
Table 4 summarises the null hypothesis test on emerging contractor skills defi-
ciencies. There was no statistically significant difference in gender (0.69), race (0.55)
and cidb grading (0.51). The acceptable statistically significance level was based on
standard value p > 0.05.
Table 4. Null hypothesis for skills deficiency

Skills deficiencies Gender (Sig) Race (Sig) CIDB grading (Sig)
Tendering 0.15 0.98 0.18
Interpretation of drawings 0.12 0.96 0.36
Estimation 0.02 0.73 0.52
Planning 0.03 0.72 0.14
Negotiations 0.01 0.56 0.52
Average 0.07 0.79 0.34
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Tendering
With respect to tendering, Table 5 shows that comply with JBCC contracts in the
building industry is ranked first with a mean score of (4.81), comply with the closing
date for tenders (4.81) followed by complying with GCC2000 contracts in the civil
engineering industry. It is therefore evident that contractors are struggling to secure
contracts from the open tender market due to contractors’ lack of understanding of the
dynamics of a tendering system. The average mean score of (4.16) demonstrates the
degree of being affected by the tendering system, this also shows that mentors need to
expose contractors to all aspects of tendering including but not limited to types of
tendering process, tender pre-qualification process and tendering procedures. Without
all these tendering aspects contractors would find it difficult to tender or secure con-
tracts from the market.
Table 5. EC’s limitations on tendering system

Statement No. Mean Std Rank
Comply with JBCC contracts in the building industry 16 4.81 2.13 1
Comply with the closing date for tenders 16 4.18 1.60 2
Comply with GCC2000 contracts in the civil engineering industry 16 4.12 1.58 3
Understand the different types of tendering 16 4.12 1.58 3
Comply with the returnable documents for a tender 16 3.93 1.43 4
Understand the construction tendering system 16 3.81 1.47 5
Average 16 4.16 1.26
272 S. Lufele
4.3.2 Interpretation of Construction Drawings

Table 6 indicates that distinguish between a drawing for tendering purposes and a
drawing for construction purposes is ranked first with a mean score of (4.06), followed
by distinguishing between architectural and engineering drawings (4.06). This reveals
that contractors on the Western Cape CDP mentorship programme are unable to read
and interpret drawings. Moreover, the failure to read drawings is a limitation as con-
tractors are expected to able to do as a requirement especially during the tendering
process. The average mean of (4.03) shows that contractors are slightly affected by the
lack of reading and interpreting construction drawings, this could subsequently exac-
erbate the situation unless Western Cape CDP address this aspect of mentorship.
Table 6. EC’s interpretation of drawings

Distinguish between a drawing for tendering purposes and 16 4.06 1.28 1
a drawing for construction purposes
Distinguish between architectural and engineering 16 4.06 1.28 1
drawings
Interpret construction drawings 16 4.00 1.26 2
Read construction drawings 16 4.00 1.26 2
Average 16 4.03 1.27
4.3.3 Planning
With respect to planning, Table 7 indicates that to prepare a Network Analysis is
ranked first with a mean score of (4.25), followed by prepare a Gantt-chart (4.25). The
findings show that contractors are negatively affected by the lack of planning for a
project, consequently, contractors are unable to plan for a construction project. Fur-
thermore, if a contractor fails to understand planning then it means that contractors do
not undertake pre-tender, pre-contract and in-contract planning and can never deliver in
a project within a given timeframe. The average mean score of (4.20) suggests that a
gap exists in terms of planning and an intervention is warranted to emphasis on
planning as it is a requirement to run any construction project successfully.
Table 7. EC’s planning for a project

Prepare a Network Analysis 16 4.25 .85 1
Prepare a Ghant-chart 16 4.25 .93 1
Prepare for pre-tender planning 16 4.25 1.39 1
Prepare for in-contract planning 16 4.12 1.20 2
Prepare for pre-contract planning 16 4.12 1.20 2
Average 16 4.20 1.05
4.3.4 Estimation
With respect to estimation, Table 8 indicates obtain rates from plant and equipment
suppliers is ranked first with a mean score of (4.31), followed by obtaining prices from
material suppliers (4.31). The respondents have shown they are struggling and not
competent in terms of preparing a sound estimate for tenders as contractors are unable
to obtain prices for both materials and plant from suppliers. The average mean score of
(4.26) reveals that any tenders submitted by contractors participating on the Western
Cape CDP mentorship programme may not be successful due to contractors not being
able to put forward a financially sound estimate.
Table 8. EC’s estimation of a project

Obtain rates from plant and equipment suppliers 16 4.31 1.25 1
Obtain prices from material suppliers 16 4.31 1.25 1
Estimate for construction projects 16 4.25 .85 2
Prepare a reasonable and acceptable estimate for a 16 4.25 1.12 2
construction project
Obtain rates from subcontractors 16 4.18 1.04 3
Average 16 4.26 1.05
4.3.5 Negotiations
With respect to negotiations, Table 9 indicates negotiate rates with suppliers of plant
and equipment is ranked first with a mean score of (4.12), followed by negotiating rates
with subcontractors (4.06). The findings reveal that contractors are not being able to
negotiate material prices and rates with suppliers and subcontractors pose a threat in
terms of making profits. The average mean score of (4.08) shows that contractors are
slightly affected by this and require mentors to make changes in this regard so as to
make more profits then loses.
Table 9. EC’s negotiations of rates and prices with suppliers

Negotiate rates with suppliers of plant and equipment 16 4.12 1.25 1
Negotiate rates with subcontractors 16 4.06 1.18 2
Negotiate prices for materials with suppliers 16 4.06 1.18 2
Average 16 4.08 1.20
The study has evaluated the impact of emerging contractors’ failure to secure tenders
from the tender market. Despite the fact that emerging contractors receive training to
address their skills deficiencies, emerging contractors are not yet fully competent whilst
274 S. Lufele
on the mentorship programme to submit competitive bids. In addition, the emerging

contractors’ situation is further compounded by the lack of training projects from the
Western cape CDP set aside for emerging contractors.
The Western Cape CDP should review its policy with regards to training projects,
contractors struggle to secure tenders from the tender market. The Western Cape CDP
should not maintain the current status quo with regards to training projects otherwise it
runs a risk of contractors not able to complete the mentorship programme.
The following gaps were identified in the study and should be addressed in the
following manner:
• To train contractors how to tender, tendering methods and tendering procedures in
the public and private sector;
• To train contractors to interpret construction drawings and able to undertake con-
struction projects according to the drawings provided to them by various
consultants;
• To train contractors to undertake planning on various stages of the project including
pre-tender, pre-contract and in-contract planning;
• To train contractors to build rates based on supplier’s prices and subcontractor’s
rates; and
• To train contractors to be able to negotiated prices and rates with material suppliers.
Further research should be done on evaluating the level training offered by service
providers to emerging contractors on the mentorship programme. With regards to the
training projects on the mentorship programme, further research is needed to establish
whether lack of funds is a constraint faced by the Western Cape CDP to set aside such
projects.
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Enhancing Financial Communication
in Quantity Surveying Practice
Rolien Terblanche(&), Obinna Ozumba, and David Root

University of Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue,
Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
{rolien.labuschagne,Obinna.Ozumba,
david.root}@wits.ac.za
Abstract. The construction industry is becoming increasingly complex,

including the aspects that deal with communication. Subsequently, financial
reports generated during the project delivery process are also becoming more
complex and thus harder to comprehend. The purpose of this study to explore
financial communication in quantity surveying practice, with a view to under-
standing their role, the financial communication emanating from them, guide-
lines for successful financial communication, and determining a reliable quality
test for such financial communication. A systematic literature review was done
on financial communication, readability tests for financial communication and
financial communication in quantity surveying practice. The main limitation of
the study is that it is based on a preliminary literature review. However results
indicate certain requirements for accurate readability tests on financial com-
munication including Plain English guidelines and the Gunning Fog Index test
for textual components, while also taking standard construction terms into
account, where there could be more than three syllables. The readability and
legibility model has four main categories for optimisation of a document, each
of which has elements that need perfecting in order to create transparent, effi-
cient and effective financial communication. The implication of this research is
that in the face of noted problems with financial communication from Quantity
Surveyors, there is need to explore the quality of such information, and to
determine the existence, if any, and the use of relevant quality assurance systems
in their communication.
Keywords: Readability Financial communication Quantity surveying

Cost reports and feasibility studies
1 Introduction
The research interest in this paper relates to construction project financial communica-
tions emanating from quantity surveyors, and the impact of its comprehensibility on
project outcomes. Laskin [1] argues that financial communication is much like other
forms of communication. Financial communication, however, is situation-specific. In the
context of the project delivery process, financial communication provides financial data
regarding the performance of the project to investor/s, developer/s and the project team.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_27
Enhancing Financial Communication in Quantity Surveying Practice 277
Xu, Fernando and Tam [7] found that investors expressed their concerns about
financial communication that is becoming more complex. Financial communication are
becoming less comprehensible to ordinary investors. Unreadable financial reports are
the outcome of firms’ desire to hide poor performance as well as the firms’ complex
operational communication systems. While between 70 and 90 percent of investors
claim that they understand what they are reading from the financial communication
provided, the comprehension tests proved otherwise [8]. Day [2] explains that con-
struction projects are growing more complex and increase in scale and that teamwork is
all the more important. It becomes more important for everyone to speak the same
language, working with the same standards and embracing new technologies. Lu et al.
[3] and He et al. [4] developed a measurement model for measuring the complexity of
construction projects. According to their studies, as projects increase in complexity, so
too does communication between project stakeholders. However, in the construction
industry, different professions and organisations have developed standards and termi-
nology, often independently of other project stakeholders. Increasing complexity of
financial communication is a generic phenomenon but is reflected on construction
projects as they also become more complex.
Complexity hinders both efficiency and productivity and reducing complexity as
well as making quality enhancements are the most likely ways to overcome this (Clark
[5]). The construction industry as a whole includes various forms of communication as
well as stakeholders. This study, however, focusses on the financial communication
from quantity surveyors. Among 33 causative factors of poor communication identified
by Gamil and Rahman [6], five relate to poor financial communication, namely; lack of
effective communication between construction parties; lack of effective communication
system and platform; poor communication skills; lack of support for advanced com-
munication technologies; and a lack of understanding among parties.
Thus, there is an emergent problem in that complex financial communication in the
construction industry, is often ineffective, partly due to the confusing and incompre-
hensible communication which in some aspects, hinder the efficiency and productivity
of construction projects and ultimately their sucess. The current study has a key
objective of understanding the role of financial communication in quantity surveying
practice. Another key objective is to determine how this financial communication can
be measured in terms of readability and successfulness. The final objective is to gather
guidelines for effective financial communication in quantity surveying practice.
2 Financial Communication
Financial communication is an important aspect of transparency and is a key feature for

investor confidence and the quality and credibility as a whole (Brendin Prat, Cliff and
Pricewaterhouse Coopers [9]). Brendin Prat, Cliff and Pricewaterhouse Coopers further
explains that consistency in financial communication is vital as inconsistent financial
communication could mislead investors. The information provided must be accurate,
fair and true. EY [10] states that financial communication is a vital link between
investors and the company. DVFA [11] compiled a structure of principles for effective
financial communication. The three dimensions for effective financial communication
278 R. Terblanche et al.
are target group orientation, transparency and continuity. Thus, poor financial com-
munication is inaccurate, inconsistent, confusing and misleading communication that
creates a lack of confidence for investors. Almaşi, Gomoi, & Cuc [12] explains that
financial communication is facing various obstacles concerning the homogenisation of
communication forms. Due to globalisation, financial communication on global capital
markets are visibly changing. People from different parts of the world still face language
barriers in the financial communication field. Davenport et al. [13] identified eight key
factors for the successful management of projects while studying 24 global companies
with 31 knowledge management projects. Amongst the key factors are culture and
processes, the development of a common purpose, and a mutual language for knowledge
identification and selection as cited in Desouza and Evaristo [13]. According to the
World Health Organisation [14], the use of standardised terminology will result in more
efficient services. Standardised information could reinforce and improve cost analysis,
statistical reporting, and expected performance reporting (financial communication).
Walker [15] stated that the relationship between language use, typographic design, how
a document is to be used and the effectiveness of its use is vital. Effective communi-
cation arise from the perfect combination of language use, typographic design while
keeping the goal of communication in mind. Refer to Fig. 1 below.
Fig. 1. The relationship between language, typographic design and the goal of communication
(adopted from Walker [15]).
Palmieri, Perrin and Whitehouse [16] investigated the pragmatics of financial

communication. They found that language skill, prior knowledge and text presentation
plays a role in understanding financial documentation. In the empirical study they
examined the extent to which contextual factors affected the ability of financial com-
munication users to process information. The results indicated that the text presentation
format dictates the level of skill needed to successfully comprehend financial docu-
ments. Successful financial communication calls for an integrated approach where
obtaining and maintaining trust with investors is vitally important [17].
The success of financial communication thus depends on accuracy, truth, consis-

tency, standardised terminology, text presentation, readability and a common language.
The better the financial communication, the higher the investor confidence. The prior
knowledge and language skill of the audience needs to be analysed in order to com-
munication on the correct level of readability. This is equally applicable to the con-
struction industry where similar concerns will apply. Financial communication needs to
produce comprehensible information that contributes to successful investments in the
fixed asset being delivered.
As the quantity surveyor is the consultant in the construction and property devel-
opment industries whom advises clients on the optimum use of funds and uses financial
communication extensively [18], it is vital to understand the how the quantity surveyor
uses financial communication and to assess the quality of their financial communica-
tions. Quality in financial communications is an important aspect, such that ‘readability
tests’ has been developed for quality assurance, which are discussed hereunder.
3 Readability Tests
Multiple readability tests have been developed in order to determine the level of
success with regards to the understandability of financial communication and it is
imperative to understand which test/s would be applicable for measuring the success of
the communication. Hochhauser [19] explains that the effective communication of a
document can be evaluated in terms of formatting, text factors, subheadings, headings
and readability strategies. Readability refers to the ease of understanding a written
document due to the style of writing, where legibility refers to the typeface and layout
of a written document. Hochhauser [19] listed several guidelines for good documents
design. These guidelines include: Work should be familiar to the reader; sentences
must be short, simple and direct; readability analysis should be done, words containing
more than three syllables should be avoided; the style of print must be easy to read; left
margins needs to be justified and right margins needs to remain ragged; lower and
upper case letters must be used; headings must be simple and close to the text; and
plain English should be used. Gray and Leary [20] created four categories for the 228
identified elements that affect readability: Style, content, format and features of orga-
nization. They found that all four categories were deemed important to the readability
of a document, however, content was deemed slightly more important, then style,
format and lastly features of organization.
Palotti, Zuccon and Hanbury [21] investigated the readability of documents as
presented to readers. They highlight that readability is an important aspect of docu-
ments. They named five of the most used readability measures: Automated Readability
Index (ARI), Coleman-Liau Index (CLI), Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level (FKGL), Gun-
ning Fog Index (GFI) and Simple Measure of Gobbledygook (SMOG). All these tools
measure the readability of documents by analysing the length of the words and sen-
tences in documents. The Gunning Fog Index is defined as a way to measure the
readability of financial statements [22]. Loughran and McDonald [22], however found
that the Gunning Fog Index lacks specifications when it is used to assess financial
documents and produce errors. The Fog Index measures the average length of
sentences in combination with the proportion of complex words. Complex words in the
Fog Index is defined as words with more than three syllables. The longer the sentences
and the greater the proportion of complex words, the harder the readability [23]. They
argue that text used in business context has a high percentage of complex words which
is easily comprehended by investors and recommend the use of the file size of 10K
(annual report) as a substitute readability test for financial documents [23]. Bonsall,
Leone and Miller [24] contradicted Loughran and McDonald and found that the file
size 10K readability test has measurement errors. The file size 10K readability test does
not separate textual and non-textual components and thus generated errors. It is sug-
gested that the Plain English readability test captures the readability quality of financial
documents better.
The problems that the Plain English Handbook [25] addresses includes: the passive
voice, hidden verbs, unnecessary words, legal and financial jargon, terms defined
numerously, abstract words, superfluous details, long sentences and an unreadable
design and layout. Plain English serve thus as a guideline for readability and legibility.
Matveeva, Moosally and Willerton [26] conducted a study on ‘plain language’ in the
twenty-first century with the aim to reintroduce the use of plain language to the pro-
fessionals. Plain language proposes an approach to language and design to produce
comprehensible and readable documents. The ‘plain language’ started to trend in several
countries in the 1970s. Recent legislation in combination with public and private sector
initiatives in the United States of America encouraged the use of ‘plain language’
greatly. The principles and guidelines for plain language include: a careful audience
analysis; logical organization of information; lists with bullets, active voice; words that
are used every day; short paragraphs and sentences; and a usability test is required.
Schriver [27] compiled the timeline of the development plain language from 1940–
2015. According to this timeline, plain language only gained momentum from 2000.
Schriver defines plain language as the following: “communication is in plain language if
its structure, wording and design are so clear that the intended audience can easily find
what they need, understand what they find, and use that information”. Campbell et al.
[28] did a study on the plain-style preferences of professionals in the United States of
America. They found an overwhelming preference for plain language amongst the
professionals, whose native tongue is English. The use of plain language helps combat
systemic inequity and is therefore vital for ethical purposes (Cheung [29]).
Given the above, and the increasing complexity of information in the construction
industry, the use of readability tests on financial communication could be used to
evaluate the current status of the quality of financial communication generated by
quantity surveyors, and the quality assurance processes for such communication, so as
to improve such communication.
4 Quantity Surveying Practice and Financial Communication
Since the quantity surveyor is a professional that acts as the financial and development
consultant to the construction and property development industries, advising clients on
the best use of their funds as well as approaches to maximise the use of human and
physical resources, the quantity surveyor is central to the generation of financial
communication on construction projects [18]. The Association of South African

Quantity Surveyors describe the responsibilities of a quantity surveyor as including
preparing budgets and feasibility studies for potential projects and overseeing costs and
reporting these to clients throughout the design and construction stages.
Feasibility studies are the evaluation of the viability of a development project. It is
used as a tool for analysing if a proposed project can function under given assumptions,
for example the technology used and the monetary aspects of the construction work
(Hoffman [30]). Feasibility studies are an analysis of the viability of a proposed project
(Hofstrand and Holtz-Clause [31]). The feasibility study helps answer the question:
“should one proceed with the proposed idea?” Feasibility studies are thus a tool used to
make decisions on capital investment. Thus, quantity surveyors fulfil a similar role to
financial advisors and financial brokers. A feasibility study is a critical factor for the
success of a project and projects can fail due to incorrect facts or assumptions
(Mukherjee and Roy [32]). Feasibility studies must be reviewed and analysed by
experts in order to enhance the quality thereof (Hyari and Kandil [33]).
The purpose of cost reporting is to advise a client in a construction development
project of the expected closing cost thereof. The estimated final cost may be expressed as
a variance against the budget or as an absolute value (Royal Institute of Chartered
Surveyors [34]). Sullivan [35] explained that cost reporting could be conducted in a
similar manner where everyone completes the same steps in a regulated and more
sophisticated manner. Feasibility studies and cost reports are thus the means of financial
communication to clients from quantity surveyors. Essentially the QS is responsible for
cost reports and feasibility studies for construction projects, which constitute financial
communication on which investment decisions are made. The readability of feasibility
and cost reports are arguably imperative for successful investment decisions. It is
important for investors and decision-makers to fully comprehend such financial infor-
mation. It is therefore important to understand this critical area with regard to QS practice.
5 Research Design
This study aims to answer the following research question: How can financial com-
munication in quantity surveying practice be improved? The research design followed
in order to answer the research question is a systematic literature review. The databases
used for this research includes Google Scholar as well as the Wits University library e-
journal database that consists of various journal databases. The following key words
were used consistently in all databases: financial communication, readability tests for
financial communication and financial communication in quantity surveying practice.
The criteria for the articles to be included in this study is the following: it must be
relevant to the topic; it must be scientific and peer reviewed journals, conference
papers, books, master and/or doctoral theses; most of the articles must not be older than
five years; data must have been collected ethically.
6 Analysis of the Literature Review
There is an appreciable amount of research on financial communication, readability and

readability tests. However, there is limited research on financial communication in the
construction industry and specifically in quantity surveying practice.
Table 1. The findings of the readability tests.

Readability test Findings
Automated Readability Top five most used test. Analyses the readability of
Index (ARI) documents by analysing the length of words and sentences in
documents
Coleman-Liau Index (CLI) Top five most used test. Analyses the readability of
documents by analysing the length of words and sentences in
documents
Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level Top five most used test. Analyses the readability of
(FKGL) documents by analysing the length of words and sentences in
documents
Simple Measure of Top five most used test. Analyses the readability of
Gobbledygook (SMOG) documents by analysing the length of words and sentences in
documents
Gunning Fog Index (GFI) Top five most used test. Analyses the readability of
documents by analysing the length of words and sentences in
documents. This test is used for financial documents, however
it produces errors as it does not take standard business words
into consideration that is more than three syllables
File size of 10K This test is used for analysing financial documents. It does not
separate textual and non-textual components and thus
generates errors
Plain English Captures the readability quality of financial documents the
best
Considering Table 1, the key result from the systematic review is that the most
accurate readability tests for financial communication in quantity surveying practice, is
the Plain English guidelines that should be followed together with the Gunning Fog
Index test for the textual components, while taking standard construction terms into
account that might be more than three syllables. The results of systematic literature
review are further analysed in Fig. 2. As illustrated in the model (Fig. 2), there are four
main categories of readability to take into consideration when aiming to achieve
readable and legible financial document: Content, style, organisation and format. In
order to get the content right, an audience analysis should be done and the goal of the
communication should be well understood.
The style of the document can be tested by readability tests and should take the
following guidelines in consideration: Use short paragraphs and sentences; use short
common words (general construction terms are acceptable even though it might be
Fig. 2. Readability and legibility model (adopted and developed from [19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26]).
more the three syllables); avoid superfluous words, jargon, abstract words, unnecessary
details, passive voice and hidden verbs. Use a common language, standardised ter-
minology and consistency. The organisation of the document should be done in a
logical order with headings and subheadings to simplify the content. Lastly, the format
of the document refers to the design and layout to the document and that contributes to
the legibility thereof. The font size should be appropriate and the font type must be
simple. White space and appropriate spacing should be used as too dense wording
becomes difficult to read. Left margins needs to be justified and the right margins needs
to remain ragged. Short lines should be used. Tables could be used to clarify infor-
mation. The contrast of the text on the background should contribute to easy legibility.
It is possible to derive a readability and legibility model from the information in Fig. 2.
However note that each of the four categories in the conceptual model has elements that
need perfecting in order to create a transparent, efficient and effective financial com-
munication that could be adopted by the quantity surveying profession.
7 Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendations
The purpose of this study to explore financial communication in quantity surveying

practice, with a set of objectives that would generate meaningful contributions which
would contribute to better financial communication in quantity surveying practice. The
following were explored; purpose of financial communication, the role of the quantity
surveyor with regards to financial communication, and guidelines for producing
readable and legible financial document that promote efficiency and successful financial
and business investment decisions. Through a systematic literature review, analysis of
findings, and synthesis of relevant elements, a conceptual model for readability and
legibility, which is applicable to quantity surveying practice has been developed.
Financial communication is understandably a key feature for investor confidence.
Therefore quality assurance such as readability tests should be performed on relevant
financial documents emanating from quantity surveyors. The current study has found
out the relevance of the Plain English guidelines and the Gunning Fog Index test, in
addition to developing the basis for a possible working readability and legibility model.
Regardless, looking at the broader picture, a common language, standard terminology,
and required consistency, would be the most probable future for financial communi-
cation, especially for quantity surveying and related fields.
Based on the main limitation, which is the lack of an empirical section, it is
suggested that future studies include empirical data analysis based on relevant pro-
fessionals in the construction industry. It would also be beneficial in future studies, to
analyse Quantity surveyors’ feasibility studies and cost reports.
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Empirical Evidence on the Measurement
of Information Asymmetry on the Pricing
of REITs on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange
Oluwaseun Damilola Ajayi(&) and Omokolade Akinsomi

1565694@students.wits.ac.za
Abstract. The no-consensus nature of literature on measuring information

asymmetry as it affects the pricing of stocks is fast becoming topical. The paper
examines the level of information asymmetry associated with the pricing of 37
real estate investment trusts (SAREITs) over the last ten (10) years (2008–
2018). Based on an exhaustive search and yield of unbalanced data from the
price section of the I-NET (BFA) McGreggor database, the daily closing and
opening price data were of 17 listed REITs were retrieved. The ordinary least
square regression (OLS) model was adopted in a bid to test the relationship
between information asymmetry other variables. These variables including
cumulative bid-ask spread, price volatility, firm size and trading volume of 17
SAREITs (due to availability of relevant data) were controlled and regressed.
Findings revealed that SAREITs have a low level of information asymmetry.
This suggests that investors are able to make optimum investment decisions.
Keywords: REITs Information asymmetry Bid-Ask spread
1 Introduction
The concerns about the performance of South African real estate investment trusts
(SAREITs) following their evolution and conversion period (2013) is indeed a moti-
vation in understanding how they are priced. Globally, there has been considerable
documentation on the issues around the pricing and performance of REITs; one is of
information asymmetry which appears to be on the front burner in the financial markets
as documented by literature. Existing body of knowledge established that the unpre-
dictable nature of trading volumes in the financial sector is fast becoming worrisome as
it has been argued back and forth that information asymmetry impacts upon investment
participation on the stock market (with particular reference to bonds, shares and other
forms of investment portfolios). Ekumah and Essel [16]; Tumwebaze, Orobia and
Kamukama [36]; and Afzal [2] who had documented that information asymmetry
(information failure) was a case wherein a party to an economic transaction possesses
greater knowledge than the other party, were amongst scholars who made this asser-
tion. Findings revealed that shareholders’ wealth maximization appear anchored on the
need to provide potential and existing investors with the most appropriate proxy in
measuring information asymmetry. Abdul-Baki [1] for instance, had documented that

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_28
288 O. D. Ajayi and O. Akinsomi
little consensus had existed among scholars of finance literature on the most appropriate
information asymmetry proxy globally. Furthermore, the validity of price formation by
both parties is fast becoming unreliable; and by implication, naivety of investment
decisions seems to be the order of the day and mainstay.
Within investment portfolios, Blazenko [7] had reported that managers in most
cases act independently without shareholders participation; by implication, trade vol-
umes are on a downward trend with optimum returns ultimately affected. The real
estate investment trusts just like other stocks are a unique and preferred investment
portfolio (perhaps because of their high percentage of contribution to their share-
holders) despite the number of risks associated. Akinsomi, Kola, Ndlovu, and Mot-
loung [4] had earlier provided evidence as to how both local and international investors
beam investment porchlights towards the REITs market. The paper which focused on
the REITs structure in South Africa documented it as the only African country rep-
resented in the FTSE EPRA/NAREIT index and the S & P Global REIT index; by
implication, this strengthens its importance and significance in the global real estate
market. Interestingly, the South African REITs market ranks as the 9th largest REIT
globally. The introduction of REITs particularly in emerging markets like South Africa
appears to have witnessed a litany of research focusing on the impact of information
asymmetry on the pricing of REITs in emerging markets in which Wei, Hsieh and
Sirmans [38] had opined that there is a greater degree of information asymmetry when
the Bid-Ask spread is larger; by implication, such REIT firms are associated with
higher levels of debt usage as against equity, all other things being equal and as
corroborated in Qu, Wongchoti, Wu and Chen [33]; and a consensus on the most
appropriate scientific proxy for information asymmetry measurement. A number of
scholarly articles had argued about different proxies for information asymmetry mea-
surement; (Glosten [18]; Easley, Kiefer, O’hara and Paperman [15]; Engle and Lange
[17]; Matoussi, Karaa and Maghraoui [27] and Vayanos and Wang [37]) had docu-
mented evidences on lack of liquidity as an indication of information asymmetry; more
so, because a potential buyer/investor would appear to be hesitant to participate in a
transaction believed to be skewed towards a shareholder/seller who possesses better
information about the stock. The Bid-Ask spread on the other hand is believed to be a
more scientific proxy towards the information asymmetry measurement. Narayan,
Mishra and Narayan [31] had in their paper opined that the Bid-Ask spread is a better
model which treats the spread persistence as a predictor of spread.
Khemraj [21]; Mossman [28]; Buckle and Beccalli [10]; Roll [34]; and Krinsky and
Lee [23] had equally argued that the Bid-Ask spread empirically documented as the
“amount by which the ask price exceeds the bid price for an asset in the market”. In
other words, the Bid-Ask spread is essentially the difference between the highest price
that a buyer is willing to pay for an asset and the lowest price that a seller is willing to
accept. In as much as there has been a topical argument in favour of the Bid-Ask spread
being a scientific information asymmetry measurement for the finance and stock sector
in most developed markets, it appears the REITs market; and in emerging markets are
yet to share in the effects of measuring information asymmetry. Without this, investors
tend to make naïve investment decisions; hence, the purpose of the article is to seek to
measure the degree of asymmetric information on the pricing of REITs stocks on the
JSE with a view to providing insights on enhanced investment decision making. The
Empirical Evidence on the Measurement of Information Asymmetry 289
research question is: Does asymmetric information have impacts on the pricing of
REITs stocks on the JSE? It was therefore hypothesized that:
• H0 - If there is a high value for the index, it indicates higher levels of information
asymmetry.
• H1 - If there is a low value for the index, it indicates lower levels of information
asymmetry.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Empirical Review on Information Asymmetry

The theory of asymmetric information which was developed in the 1970s and 1980s
had become a persuasive justification for common phenomena that mainstream general
equilibrium economics appear not to elucidate; the theory merely opines it as infor-
mation imbalance between buyers and sellers which can lead to inefficient outcomes in
certain markets. Breeden and Viswanathan [8] presented an insight on why REITs
firms hedge based on a theory of mana-gerial responses to asymmetric information.
They hinged their reasons the fact that managers who have superior abilities with
respect to some risks or uncertainties will try to ensure that their superior abilities are
quickly discovered by the market. On the other hand, managers with inferior abilities
have incentives to reduce the efficiency of the learning process. The scholars also noted
that these managers undertake risky variance-increasing activities. However, given that
superior managers undertake hedging activities, lower ability managers may or may not
hedge. This study was carried out only in a developed market; and further demonstrated
the inconclusiveness of the asymmetry theory. According to Cooper, Downs and
Patterson [12], the impact of information asymmetry was tested on whether if affects
the relationship between trading volume and expected returns of REITs firms; it was
found that predictability of real estate returns is generally more indicative of portfolio
rebalancing effects than an adverse selection problem. This suggests that information
asymmetry has been a subject of inquiry for decades; this then presents an opportunity
for further research as this would provide an empirical solution to investment timing
and ultimately expected returns. Again, this study was carried out in developed markets
and to the exclusion of emerging markets. A number of literature had established
opinions about information asymmetry. In [16], Information asymmetry is a situation
where relevant information is not known to all the parties particularly involved in a
transaction. In [2], it is noted that Information asymmetry dates back to the lemons
principle where one party knows more than the other party to the same contract.
Information asymmetry exists when there is an imbalance in knowledge of relevant
factors and details on a contract between two parties. The existence of information
asymmetry is characterized by two major problems, which are adverse selection and
moral-hazard problems [22]. By implication, what this suggests is that these parties in a
transaction possess more information than the others. Its measurement has also become
topical as some scholars have stated that Information asymmetry can be measured on
the basis of information quality and quantity. In [36], it is opined that Information
quality is inherent with some proxies including reliable, timely, complete, fair and
consistent information presented in clear, simple terms, relevant and understandable to
decision makers or users. On the other hand, [2] opined that Information quantity
indicates the amount of information available to a decision maker or user. Meanwhile
and few decades ago, Malhotra [25] also established that too little or too much
information can lead to inferior decision making. Therefore, one can only deduce that
the importance of an empirical solution to this issue is of urgency. Investors are fast
becoming more sophisticated; and are always in a bid to make maximum returns off
their investments per time. This has made them to seek information about the firm they
are investing in. Lagoarde-Segot and Lucey [24] reported that stock market informa-
tional efficiency is crucial for economic growth and, as such it is vital to persistently
measure and improve information asymmetry in capital markets.
2.2 Market-Microstructure Literature on Measuring the Impact

of Information Asymmetry on Real Estate Asset Pricing
The empirical understanding of real estate asset pricing is fast becoming an appetite for
researchers and scholars as literature on underpricing and overpricing reveal that asset
pricing ultimately influences the performance of REITs. As much as there have been
extant studies on the nature of pricing, many of these studies have only focused on
developed markets and to the exclusion of emerging markets. It is now important to
understand how specific trading mechanisms affect the price formation process of real
estate investment trusts. The market-microstructure strategy is hereby adopted from
Finance which ultimately would empirically understudy the role information asym-
metry plays in the pricing of real estate. Managers who know more about the firm as
they get private information (firm-specific information) before the market transactions
appear better advantaged than investors (Deakins and Hussain [13]; Myers and Majluf
[29]). In other words, the firm-specific information asymmetry corresponds only to a
subset of total market information asymmetry about the firm as both managers and
investors are likely to be equally well informed about market-wide determinants of firm
value. Bagehot [5] argues that adverse selection due to the presence of better informed
traders in the market affect the price-discovery process. It is only natural to believe that
informed traders in the market are those closer to the firm’s operations, such as the
managers, employees, analysts and large and/or institutional shareholders (Bharath
et al. [6]). Malkiel and Fama [26]) noted that literature on Market-microstructure
acknowledges that asset prices may not fully reflect all available information at all
times due to market frictions as hypothesized by the efficient-market hypothesis. This
study had been carried out over few decades ago but only in developed markets. This
suggests that there is need to understudy the emerging markets. Therefore the mea-
surement of information asymmetry is a worthy trial for the nature of this research as it
would seek to understand how managers and investors behave during transactions.
As identified in literature, two of the effects of information asymmetry has been
adverse selection which presents a situation where the type or quality of an asset is
unknown by one party in a transaction; while moral hazard presents a situation where
there is a hidden action that results from the transaction. Of particular concern in this
study is the adverse-selection problem. As an example, traders with better private
information about the quality of a product will selectively participate in trades that
benefit them, at the expense of the other traders. In a case where managers have inside
information about the quality of the firm, they may offer or issue equity when they
know the offer price exceeds their private assessments of the firm’s value. O’Hara [32]
extensively studied the problem of measuring information asymmetry about a firm’s
value and the returns of securities. The study noted that insiders of a firm such as
managers have superior knowledge about the firm and are therefore better informed
about the firm and its business. This study dates back as far as more than a decade ago;
indeed, it understudied the issue of information asymmetry but neglected real estate
investment. The inconsistency of the theories underpinning real estate asset price
formation resulting in underpricing and overpricing appear fragmentary in emerging
markets; hence, it would be important to examine the amount of price variability due to
firm-specific information.
3 Data and Methodology
The REITs firms’ quote and trade data from 2007 to 2017 were sourced from the price
data section of the INET-BFA (McGreggor Database). In order to measure the degree
of information asymmetry, an ordinary least square (OLS) regression was adopted with
the bid-ask spread as the dependent variable with measures of inventory cost as the
independent variables. Measures of inventory cost and information cost include price
volatility, trading volume, Age, Leverage and firm size. The spread is a proxy for
information asymmetry. This was calculated as the average rand bid-ask spread divided
by the average transaction price of the REITs stock. The bid-ask spread was calculated
as Askit − Bidit; where (Table 1):
• Bidit – The highest or best-buying price for firm i on day t
• Askit - The lowest or bestselling price for firm i on the day t.
LoGBAit ¼ a þ b1 LoGPVit þ b2 LoGVolit þ b3 LoGSizeit þ b4 LoGAgeit þ

ð1Þ
b5 LoGLeverageit þ b6 LoGIA þ eit
Table 1. Variable definition

Variable(s) Definition
Dependent Difference between the highest price that a buyer is willing to pay for an
1. LoGBAit asset and the lowest price that a seller is willing to accept on day t
Independent
1. LoGPVit Volatility is the coefficient of variation of the daily cash flow for firm
d on day t over the Year
2. LoGVolit This is the average daily trading volume of firm d on day t over the year
3. LoGSizeit This is calculated as the logarithm of total assets
4. LoGAgeit The number of years since IPO
5. LoGLeverageit Firm’s debt to assets
This methodology is consistent with [38]; and Chipeta and Mbululu [11].
Hence, an OLS regression was applied in measuring the degree of information

asymmetry which is as follows (Fig. 1):
Degree of Information
Asymmetry
Volume of Stock
Trades on Day t
Low High
Liquidity Liquidity
Stock Price
High Low
Temporary Temporary
Stock Price Stock Price
Change Change
Fig. 1. Researcher’s Conceptual Assumption on Information Asymmetry and Share Price

Volatility
From the above conceptual framework, it sought to understand the effects of

information asymmetry on the pricing of REITs. It was assumed that the degree to
which investors will be involved in a trade will be subject to information available;
and/or the nature of information; as such, it influenced the volume of trades. Again, it
was envisaged that the nature of information available to an investor will ultimately
influence how the stock of a REITs firm is priced. Volume moves prices.
4 Results
4.1 Introduction
First and chronologically, the section begins by providing some descriptive statistics
(Table 2) of the sample. Next, it addresses the objective designed in the paper. Finally,
a summary of key findings is presented, and then conclusion to the paper.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics

Statistics Bid_Ask_Sp Pr_Volty Volume Size Leverage
Mean 2040.169 2018.625 282724.8 14447822 53.35604
Maximum 2549.050 2491.450 457527.5 26212848 67.57222
Minimum 1646.538 1600.231 176741.1 7362658. 35.22250
Std. Dev. 358.1098 363.9937 101612.8 6429519. 12.25100
Skewness 0.428704 0.199385 0.973906 0.799250 −0.524847
Kurtosis 1.600954 1.451652 2.345186 2.238681 1.630175
Jarque-Bera 1.121867 1.065167 1.759479 1.306171 1.240950
Probability 0.570676 0.587086 0.414891 0.520437 0.537689
Table 3 presents the result of the OLS regression on relationship between the bid-
ask spread (dependent variable) and information asymmetry (predictors). The predic-
tors comprises the log (LG) on average of price volatility (PV), volume of the share of
SEO REIT traded (Vol.), the industry size (Siz) and leverage (Leg.) for the SEO REIT
industry. The parameters extracted from the OLS regression model include the
unstandardized beta (Un-Std. bit), standardised beta (Std. bit), Test statistics value (t-
value), standard error (Std. Error) and significant level at 5% (Sig.). The analysis of
effect of price volatility on the pricing of REITs showed a positive contribution as
indicated by the beta (.521). This implies that frequent fluctuation in SAREIT prices
especially when the volatility is resulted from increase in the stock price of the property
stocks, could induce the enhancement in the performance of the REIT sector. Similarly,
the result of the analyses on volume of share traded, size and leverage have positive
beta coefficient of .091, .640, and .190 respectively. Thus, an improvement in the
pricing of SAREITs can be explained by the healthy growth in the volume, size and
leverage of the sector. For instance, higher volume of traded REIT shares can lead to
higher dividend yield and returns. Similarly, as the total asset base of the REITs sector
increase, there is a strong tendency that this may have positive impacts on the stock
pricing and ultimately optimum returns. The interpretation therefore is supported by
[38] wherein most SAREIT firms are subject to a greater level of information asym-
metry and by implication, firm managers are subject to higher levels of debt usage; as
such, this portends naivety of investment decision making by shareholders.
Table 3. Relationship between Bid-Ask spread and information asymmetry

Parameters LoGPVit LoGVolit LoGSizit LoGLegit
Un-Std. bit .493 .052 .282 .138
Std. bit .521 .091 .640 .190
t-value 2.484 .211 1.854 .519
Std. Error .198 .248 .152 .267
Sig. @5% .068 .844 .137 .631
Dependent variable: Bid-Ask spread
Table 4 shows the summary of the OLS regression model. The analysis of the
predictors as a whole indicates that the explanatory variables contributed 87.5% to the
prediction in the variance of the pricing of SAREITs as indicated by the adjusted R-
square analysis. The implies that the collective contributions of price volatility, volume
of the traded shares, size of the industries and leverage in explaining the variance in the
pricing of SAREITs is 87.5%. However, the explanatory power of the collective
contributions of the predictors is significant as indicated by the p-value (.011) which is
less than 5% confidence level (0.05). By effects, it suggest that information asymmetry
has a significant relationship with the pricing of the SAREITs; hence indicating that the
level and the quality of information at the sector strongly determines their success or
failure.
Table 4. Model summary of the OLS regression

Statistics Result
Constant (a) .047
Residue (єit) .250
R-Square .968
Adjusted R-Square .875
Std. Error of the Estimate (SEE) .057
F-Stats 15.022
Sig. .011
5 Discussion and Conclusion
The aim of this research was to measure the degree of Information Asymmetry on the
pricing of SAREITs with a view to enhancing real estate investment decision-making.
The extent of the relationship has also been measured to provide a coefficient/Beta
value which shows that the relationship between information asymmetry and pricing
are positively correlated. As against the findings in Corroborating [33], SAREIT firms
are associated with a low degree of information asymmetry. With [10] in their findings,
it was also documented that there was the presence of a high degree of asymmetric
information; this study was carried out in a developed market. It may appear that the
South African REITs market enjoys the benefit of information asymmetry due to its
ranking on the global index of REITs; and with the fact that it is still in its incubation
having evolved just about six (6) years ago. It is recommended that managers should
continue to give more information including information in the REITs market, the
acquired information and information that has not been reflected in the stock price.
Also, investors are encouraged to buy real estate stocks as the performance is a
reflection of the high number of volumes traded owing to the limpidity of transactions.
Finally, new evidence has been provided with respect to the determination of the
presence of information asymmetry. Researchers are now able to consolidate on this
research by conducting a study on the appropriateness of proxy measurements in
testing the presence of information asymmetry.
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Barriers for the Adoption of Incorporating
RFID with Mobile Technology for Improved
Safety of Construction Professionals
Temidayo O. Osunsanmi(&), Ayodeji E. Oke,

and Clinton O. Aigbavboa

Environment, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
osunsanmidayo@gmail.com, emayok@gmail.com,
caigbavboa@uj.ac.za
Abstract. The frequent occupational hazards experienced within the construc-

tion industry is responsible for construction professionals having high exposure to
occupational hazards than other occupations. The high incidence of hazards is
related to the weak monitoring of construction activities on site. Towards
improving the construction safety this study proposes the merging of RFID (Radio
Frequency Identification) with mobile technology for monitoring construction
professionals on site. Thus, this study appraises the barriers to the adoption of
RFID and mobile technology for construction safety in South Africa. A random
sampling method was used for administering the questionnaire to construction
professionals in Gauteng Province South Africa. The data were analysed with
SPSS V 24, using, mean score and frequency distribution. The findings from the
study revealed that the adoption of RFID and mobile technology is hindered by the
cost of procuring and low technical ability. The study contributes to establishing a
proactive approach for construction safety management in South Africa.
Keywords: Fourth industrial revolution Construction safety

Mobile technology Occupational hazards
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
1 Introduction
The construction industry contributes significantly to the asset base of a nation’s

economy, as the final products of construction are recorded as investment goods [1].
Likewise, Baradan et al. [2] opined that the industry performs a significant function in
the economy of a nation through the provision of employment opportunities, housing
delivery, provision of infrastructure and many others. In support of the opinion as
mentioned earlier [3] affirmed that the economy of every nation is dependent on the
activities of the construction sector. The activities of the industry have a far-reaching
effect on the national gross domestic profit and vice versa. It can be inferred from the
above opinions that there is a correlation between the activities of the construction
industry and national economic growth [4].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_29
298 T. O. Osunsanmi et al.
The activities of the construction industry are performed by the construction pro-
fessionals responsible for the development of a construction project [5]. The profes-
sionals utilise a combination of their body and mind coupled with their skill to work on
construction sites [6]. Windapo [7] asserted that construction professional skill is a
crucial resource for the construction project. This is because the skill is used to
combines all the other resources like; materials, plant equipment, and finance to pro-
duce the various construction projects. Ho [8] posited that the skill possesses by a
construction professional is a determinant for achieving project performance. Liang and
Leung [5] further noted that construction professionals in the construction industry are
an essential asset to the construction sector. Similarly, Enshassi et al. [9] avowed that
construction workers are critical to the industry, just as construction activities are
significant to the economies of nations. The above opinions are an indication that
construction professionals contribute significantly to the growth of the construction
industry.
Despite the significant contribution of construction professionals to the industry
they are often affected by hazards on construction sites [10]. Also, Idoro [11] affirmed
that construction professionals have a higher exposure to occupational hazards than
other occupations. Hinze et al. [4] indicated that construction professionals are prone to
hazards due to the complex nature of construction sites, extensive use of sophisticated
plants and machinery. Likewise, Muhammad et al. [12] asserted that construction sites
are generally complex and unsafe therefore increasing the chances of a construction
professional been injured on site. Charehzehi and Ahankoob [13] affirmed that the
primary cause of hazards on construction sites is due to weak supervision and inade-
quate inspection of construction professionals. This implies that the safety of con-
struction professionals could be improved through the effective inspection and
monitoring of their activities.
Towards ensuring effective inspection and monitoring of construction professionals
activities on sites this study proposes the incorporation of RFID with mobile tech-
nology for improved safety of construction professionals. Radio frequency identifica-
tion (RFID) has been in existence for several decades ago, became popular after the
advent of the fourth industrial revolution [14]. The use of RFID was initially developed
for improving military warfare in Britain [15]. Ever since the adoption of RFID has
been used in different sectors and industries including the construction industry.
Authors such as; Lu et al. [16], Lindblad et al. [17] and Kasim et al. [18] have revealed
the possibility for using RFID in the construction industry. They appraised its potential
in the usage of construction project management, material handling process and con-
struction material trackings. However, few studies have been conducted on the prospect
of incorporating RFID with mobile technology. Although Osunsanmi conducted a
Osunsanmi et al. [19] the study failed to evaluate the barriers to the adoption of RFID
and mobile technology. Thus, this study aims to fill the gap in the literature and also
contributes to improving the safety of construction professionals.
Barriers for the Adoption of Incorporating RFID 299
2 Construction Industry Safety and RFID

2.1 Safety in the South African Construction Industry
The construction industry in South African contributes enormously to the development
of the country [20, 21]. It adds to the economy through the delivery of infrastructures
and employment provision. Balogun et al. [22] opined that the country GDP rose by
6% due to the infrastructure provided by the construction industry. Concerning the
employment capacity, the industry was responsible for employing over 3 million
people in the formal and informal sector [23]. Therefore, it is reasonable to envisage
that the construction industry in South Africa contributes to the growth of the economy.
Despite the industry contribution to the growth of the economy, it is confronted
with numerous challenges. In support of this assertion [24] indicated that the con-
struction industry is confronted with multiple problems. Windapo [7] concluded that
one of the challenges facing the South African construction industry is the shortage of
skilled construction professionals. The lack is experienced among construction pro-
fessionals that require technical and formal training like electricians, welders, car-
penters and many others. Windapo [7] discovered the shortage is due to the mandatory
requirement that the construction worker must be certified before been employed.
Erasmus and Breier [25] related the deficiency of skilled construction professional in
South Africa to the state of the economy, ageing workforce and poor primary education
for construction workers. Aside from construction professional shortage literature has
shown that the South African construction industry is confronted with the health and
safety of construction professionals [26, 27].
Towards reducing the occupational hazard experienced in the construction industry
the Government of South Africa has established various act and policies [28]. The act
includes; occupational health and safety act (OHSA) act no 85 of 1993 and compen-
sation for occupational accidents, injuries, and diseases of 1993 that substituted the
machinery and occupational safety act. The construction regulation act of 2003 as
stipulated by section 43 of the occupational health and safety act of 1993. Among all
this safety act the construction regulation was explicitly developed for the construction
industry with the intention of reducing the occupational health and hazards experienced
in the industry. Despite, the enactment of the construction regulation act the health and
safety records in the industry has not improved significantly [29]. Likewise, Ayessaki
and Smallwood [26] reported that the South African construction industry contributes
to a large proportion of occupational injuries when compared to other sectors and is
ranked the third highest death rate industry. This, therefore, calls for the need for a
modern form of managing health and safety on the construction site.
2.2 Adopting RFID and Mobile Technology for Construction Monitoring

Xiao et al. [15], submitted that the RFID was initially designed for usage in improving
warfare technology in Britain. Tulla, et al. [30] indicated Radio frequency identification
(RFID) is a generic term for technologies that adopt radio waves for automatic iden-
tification of people and objects. Similarly, Lu et al. [16] asserted that RFID is a
technology that provides automatic identification of an object using radio frequencies
to capture and convey data from a tag, or transponder. It works through using radio
waves to transmit data from a sender called a tag to a receiver or reader to perform a
specific task or identify the location of an object depending on the reason the tag was
installed [18]. It can be inferred that the major component of RFID is the tag and
reader.
The RFID tags can be classified into four categories which are; passive, active,
semi-passive and semi-active tags [31]. The passive tags operate without a battery; a
battery powers active tags. Whereas the semi-passive and semi-active are in the middle
because they both use a small battery. The semi-passive uses the small battery to power
their chips and semi-active use the battery to power their antenna. Sardroud [32]
reported that the most crucial component of the RFID is the tag which is followed by
the reader also referred as the scanner or interrogator used for communicating with the
tag made possible by the radio waves sent by the tag’s antenna. The reader then
converts the received radio waves into digital information that is passed to the backend
system. The back-end system is referred to as the database for storing the information
collected from the reader.
This study proposed the use of the Mobile phone as the RFID reader while the tag
will be fixed on the protective equipment of the construction professionals. The use of
mobile phones as RFID reader has been possible due to the growth of the industry 4.0
providing the opportunity to run various software’s on the phone [33]. Venkataramani
and Gopalan [34] affirmed that mobile technology has developed to the extent of
attributing integrated RFID reader software on telephones. The use of Mobile phones
as RFID tags will provide a fast and easy way for monitoring and construction workers
activity remotely on site. Unfortunately, the construction industry has not tapped into
the advantage of using RFID tags and mobile devices. This, therefore, leads to
examining the barriers of incorporating mobile technology and RFID for monitoring
construction safety.
3 Methodology
The study was conducted in Johannesburg Gauteng province, South Africa. Random
sampling technique was adopted for selecting the respondents within the study area.
Creswell and Creswell [35] reported that random sampling works on the concept of
obtaining a comprehensive list of a larger population and select individuals randomly to
be adopted for the sample. The idea behind random sampling makes it suitable for this
study because they are numerous construction professionals within Johannesburg.
Therefore, professionals with proximity to the researcher that are registered with their
respective professional bodies are selected randomly. A total of 40 construction pro-
fessionals were chosen randomly with the selection based on their involvement of
health and safety on the construction site. Out of the selected construction profes-
sionals, 34 responded effectively, and their response was analysed. The study adopted a
statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 24 using descriptive statistics such
as; mean item score and frequencies.
4.1 Background Information
The background information of the respondents is summarised in Table 1 below;
Table 1. Summary of background information

Frequency Percent (%)
Category of respondents
Consulting base 17 50.0
Contracting organisation 17 50.0
Total 34 100
Highest academic qualification
ND/Diploma 11 32.4
B.Sc/B.Tech 15 44.1
M.sc/MBA/MPM 5 14.7
PhD 3 8.8
Total 34 100
Table 1 shows that an equal proportion of response was received from respondents
working with consulting and contracting organisation. Regarding the academic quali-
fication of the respondents, Table showed that they are all educated thereby confirming
their eligibility to answer the question posed by the research instrument. However,
44.1% of construction professionals are B.Sc/B. Tech degree holders, 32.4% of the
respondents, are ND/Diploma holders, while 14.7% have obtained MSc/MBA/MPM
degree and few (8.8%) have studied up to PhD level.
4.2 Barriers to the Use of RFID and Mobile Technology

The respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement to the factors that could
hinder their adoption of RFID and mobile technology. Their response was acquired
using a five-point Likert scale from not agree denoted by 1 to very agree represented by
5, and the outcome is presented by Table 2.
Table 2. Barriers to the use of RFID and mobile technology

Mean Rank
Cost 4.53 1
Low technical ability 4.50 2
Security of data 4.29 3
Communication range 4.24 4
Storage of data 4.12 5
The additional weight of the sensor on the PPE 4.06 6
Power availability 3.62 7
Table 2 showed that the major hindrance to the adoption of RFID and mobile
technology for construction safety is cost and low technical ability of construction
professionals with a mean score of 4.50 above. This finding coincides with studies
conducted by Nasr et al. [33] and Venkataramani and Gopalan [34]. These studies
recognised that the need to save cost by construction professionals and clients prevents
the adoption of ICT for construction works. Also, Lu et al. [16] opined that most
construction clients perceive that the use of ICT such as RFID will increase the overall
cost of construction and thus avoid any form of modern construction technologies.
Osunsanmi, et al. [19] reported that low research and poor awareness of construction
professional’s bodies reduced the technical ability of most construction professionals.
Other factors that hinder construction professionals towards the adoption of RFID
include; data security, communication range, data storage and adding weight to the
PPE. Whereas, the respondents rated power availability has a less significant hindrance
to the adoption of RFID. This finding did not correspond with a study conducted by
Oladapo [36] in other developing countries like Nigeria. They conclude that the erratic
power supply in the country affects the use of ICT on construction sites. This suggests
that the location of a construction project determines the form of technology adopted.
5 Conclusion
The South African construction industry contributes to the nation’s economy through
the development of infrastructures employment opportunities. The construction pro-
fessionals are responsible for developing, managing and maintaining the infrastructures
within the country. Therefore, this makes the professionals crucial for industry growth
and indirectly to the growth of the economy. Unfortunately, the construction profes-
sional in the South African construction industry is confronted with occupational
hazards during the delivery of resources. Towards reducing the occupational hazards
affecting the construction professionals, the Government of South Africa has enacted
different safety policies and regulations. Regardless of the policy and rules promulgated
by the Government on constructional health and safety, the professionals are still
confronted with hazards on construction sites.
Towards reducing the occupational hazards confronting the construction workers
this study propose incorporating RFID with mobile technology for improved safety of
construction professionals. The study recognised that RFID comprises of a tag, reader
and a backend system. The study proposed that the tag should be attached to the
protective equipment of the construction professionals while the mobile phone will
serve as the reader. It is expected that this will provide the opportunity for easy and
effective monitoring of construction professionals on site. Thus, this study examined
the barriers to the incorporation of RFID with mobile technology. It discovered that the
cost of maintaining, procuring and low technical ability. The study contributes to
establishing a proactive approach for construction safety management in South Africa.
Thus, this study recommends that construction professional bodies should create more
awareness regarding the use of RFID for construction safety. Also, RFID should be
subsidised by the government for the construction industry.
Acknowledgements. The authors like to appreciate everybody that has contributed to this
article directly or indirectly.
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Organizational Culture for Construction
Enterprises in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
Oluwayomi Babatunde1(&) and Olalekan S. Oshodi2

1
oluwayomi.babatunde@wits.ac.za
2
oshodilekan2002@yahoo.com
Abstract. Construction industry is slow to innovate and adopt new technology.

Construction innovation can be disruptive or enabling, depending on the orga-
nizational culture of construction enterprises. Since organizational culture
shapes business practices, there is the need to understand the implications of
organizational culture on innovation adoption. The aim of this conceptual study
is to recommend the organizational culture type for construction innovation
adoption in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Industry 4.0). The methodology
includes the interpretivism research philosophy, inductive research approach,
and qualitative research methodological choice. Using the integrative literature
review, qualitative/textual data were gathered on the dimensions of Industry 4.0,
organizational culture types, and the dominant organizational culture types
among construction enterprises in eleven countries. The findings include the
need to manage change in the digitalization of processes and products involved
in construction activities’ value co-creation. The adhocracy culture is recom-
mended as best supporting innovation adoption in the rapidly diffusing era of
Industry 4.0. This could be subjective; hence, a limitation and theoretical
implication for a future empirical study to validate.
Keywords: Construction enterprises Industry 4.0 Innovation

Interpretivism Organizational culture
1 Introduction
Organizational culture and organizational climate are, often, confused. However,

organizational culture adopts qualitative research methods and is contextualized while
organizational climate uses quantitative methods and is generalized [1]. Organizational
culture is about shared basic assumptions, values, and beliefs while organizational
climate is about shared perceptions of policies, practices, and procedures [2]. Orga-
nizational culture is characterized by a nuanced view to truly understand and change
organizations [3]. Resistance to change is rooted in the anxiety of uncertainty and
stimulus overload surrounding a paradigm shift from the familiar to the unfamiliar
practices [4]. This conundrum characterizes most construction enterprises to the extent
that innovation is seen as a threat to their stability. However, innovation is inevitable
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_30
306 O. Babatunde and O. S. Oshodi
because, by nature, it is any idea, conduct, or mechanism that is novel. It is, often,
uniquely different from the existing practices and, as a result, influences cultural change
in people, processes, and products through diffusion [5].
This means diffusion and adoption of innovation can either disrupt an organiza-
tional culture or enables it to flourish. The Fourth Industry Revolution (Industry 4.0) is
a smart factory characterized by decentralized decision making or social innovations
for new practices to tackle social challenges [6]. Industry 4.0 is characterized by smart
work geared at transforming the labor market through digitalization [7]. Industry 4.0
allows for sustainable manufacturing because it supports decentralization, virtualiza-
tion, and interoperability [8]. Industry 4.0 allows for open innovation by facilitating
combinations of technology, market and society [9]. With the unique nature of the
construction industry, unlike the manufacturing industry, the primary research question
is what are the implications of Industry 4.0 for construction enterprises in terms of
organizational culture for innovation? Following, this study aims to investigate the
organizational culture type for construction innovation adoption in Industry 4.0. Its
three objectives include to: (1) establish the different dimensions of Industry 4.0 that
can affect construction innovation; (2) describe the characteristics of the different
organizational culture types and; and (3) propose the organizational culture type that
best supports construction innovation adoption for Industry 4.0.
1.1 Research Question Mode

The mode of this study’s research question (see the previous section) is gap-spotting;
particularly, under-researched area [10]. This is because Industry 4 is yet to be fully-
understood and fully-explored. It is an emerging concept that is yet to be investigated in
relation to the other existing concepts. This leaves other areas such as implications for
organizational culture under-researched.
1.2 Conceptual Paper Justification

A conceptual paper does not have numerical data due to its focus on integrating the
existing relationships among concepts to advance alternative relationships [11]. As
such, this study uses the integrative literature review to collect qualitative data to
achieve its three objectives. The integrative literature distils representative literature on
a topic to generate new perspectives [12].
1.3 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework situates a new study in the pertinent existing body of
knowledge and is made up of the relevant theoretical and empirical works aimed at
developing new knowledge about the existing associated concepts [13]. This study
adopts the conceptual framework of the system view of construction innovation, which
argues for rigorous interactions and partnerships [14]. Organizational culture affects
innovation [15], which, in turn, influences adopter categories [16].
Organizational Culture for Construction Enterprises in the Fourth Industrial Revolution 307
2 Methodology
Research methodology encompasses methods and techniques to systematically answer

research question [17]. The research onion model offers an operative sequence to
systematically design a research methodology [18]. This study is based on the inter-
pretive phenomenology research philosophy. Phenomenology allows for subjective
interpretations as a starting point in understanding a social phenomenon [19]. The
research approach is inductive, which is often operationalized by collecting data to
study a phenomenon under consideration to develop a theory [18]. This separates it
from the deductive approach that is about testing a hypothesis.
Stemming from the research philosophy and approach, the methodological choice
is qualitative, which centers around texts and observations to depict reality by studying
and describing people in their actual contexts [20]. Integrative literature review was
used following the checklist provided by [21].
The literature reviewed and discussed subsequently were selected via the Google
Scholar search engine for a wider spread across the main and the alternative publication
routes. The following five keywords that are central to this study were used: (i) Con-
struction Enterprises, (ii) Fourth Industrial Revolution, (iii) Innovation, (iv) Interpre-
tivism, and (v) Organizational Culture. Peer-reviewed authoritative/seminal conceptual
and empirical journal articles and conference proceedings were retained for further
analyses. The abstract, methodology, and conclusion sections of the papers retained
were critically analyzed to judge significance using the seven criteria provided by [22].
More importantly, judging the validity and reliability of the papers retained the nine
using the nine strategies recommended by [23].
2.1 Dimensions of Industry 4.0

The first objective was about the dimensions of Industry 4.0. The study by [24] was
based on a brainstorming research method technique among eleven experts drawn from
across the world. [24] analyzed Industry 4.0 in terms of institutions, technology as well
as firm innovation and start-up strategy. Subject expertise boosts creativity [25] and,
increasingly, experts’ brainstorming session is being digitalized for ease of data
management during the ideation process [26]. The strengths of subject expert brain-
storming technique makes the analysis provided by [24], arguably, more authoritative
and reliable in understanding the different dimensions of Industry 4.0. The four main
dimensions of Industry 4.0 are discussed, in brief, subsequently.
The emerging definitions, in the forms of common phrases/terminologies used to
refer to Industry 4.0, underscore that continuous and future transformational change in
all industries is premised on digitalization of processes and products.
The transformational change necessitates institutional response at the macro and
micro levels to nurture and boost creativity of the different organizations and depart-
ments that are involved in the co-creation of processes and products.
Consequently, since “smart work” characterizes Industry 4.0, technological
response is inevitable. The design and fabrication of the different technologies must
allow for flexibility in the forms of inter-connectedness and -operability.
Similarly, digitalization of processes and products does not have to negatively

impact on the organizations. Equal attention should be paid to organizational start-up
strategy and innovation to sustain value co-creation in the supply chain.
From the preceding discussions, it can be reasoned that there are benefits and,
admittedly, challenges associated with Industry 4.0 Revolution. As a result, smart
organizations are being strategically-positioned through digitalized and transforma-
tional changes for the people, processes and products involved in their value co-
creation activities. Industry 4.0 is about integration, which could be disruptive to some
construction organizations depending on their organizational culture types.
2.2 Organizational Culture Types

The Competing Values Framework (CVF) is an influential and extensively used model
in the study of organizational culture [27]. CVF was initially used to define predictors
of organizational effectiveness [28]. CVF is based on two dimensions of: (i) flexibility
and discretion versus stability and control, and (ii) external focus and differentiation
versus internal focus and integration [29]. The two dimensions describe four models of
CVF including: (i) human relations model, (ii) open system model, (iii) rational goal
model, and (iv) internal process model [29]. These four CVF models morphed into the
four organizational culture types including: (i) Clan, (ii) Adhocracy, (iii) Market, and
(iv) Hierarchy [30] as shown in Fig. 1 and discussed subsequently.
Fig. 1. The four culture-archetypes of CVF, Source [31]
Clan culture stresses flexibility plus discretion/change and concentrates on the

internal organization. Clan-type organizations are characterized by teamwork,
employee involvement, and corporate commitment. Clan-type organizations have
shared values and common goals developed over a long period of time, steady asso-
ciation, non-existence of rigid options, and closely-guarded member interaction.
Adhocracy culture accentuates flexibility and change but it is externally oriented.

Adhocracy-type organizations are characterized by creativity, entrepreneurship and risk
taking. Consequently, adhocracy culture typifies a temporary institution that is inevi-
tably terminated once the demand-driven organizational tasks have been completed
and, later, reconstituted as soon as new tasks arise.
Market culture is externally focused and control oriented. Market culture-type
organizations are characterized by productivity and competitiveness. The term market
has been used figuratively to depict the organizational management’s focus on the
fundamental principle of maximizing profit and optimizing cost of production. The
organizational goal is profit maximization through market competitiveness.
Hierarchy culture also favors control but focuses on the internal organization.
Hierarchy-type organizations are characterized by productivity, synchronization, and
close observance of rules and regulations. Rooted in the management concept of
“bureaucracy”, the hierarchy culture has a distinct organizational structure, uniform
rules and procedures, stringent control, and clearly-defined responsibilities.
By and large, [32] distilled that while there are these four distinctive cultural
categories, organizations are, in reality, unlikely to reflect only one cultural type
because, to be effective, the adoption of some elements of each of the four organiza-
tional culture types is necessary. The common organizational culture types among
construction enterprises are discussed in the subsequent section.
2.3 Organizational Culture Types Among Construction Enterprises

In relation to the second objective of this study, some empirical studies have estab-
lished common organizational culture types among construction enterprises in different
parts of the world using the organizational culture assessment instrument (OCAI).
The OCAI diagnoses six aspects or dimensions of organizational cultures or “cultural
subsystems” for organizations to assess their current and preferred culture types [31].
The six dimensions include: (i) dominant organizational characteristics, (ii) leadership
style, (iii) employee management, (iv) organizational glue, (v) strategic emphasis, and
(vi) success criteria. The subsequent OCAI-based empirical studies can, as a result,
serve as a basis to identify the most prevalent organizational culture type among
construction enterprises for suitability or otherwise for innovation adoption.
[33] conducted a time-constrained online survey to gain overall picture of the
values in international and sub-units of international construction companies in Fin-
land. 200 “white-collar workers” (33.3% response rate) were selected from construc-
tion sub-services and company size of less than 100 to 500 employees. Market culture
was dominant with a preference for clan culture.
[34] steered a preliminary study on culture profiles of 159 senior managers (34.3%
response rate) in five construction enterprises. The selection was based on (i) enroll-
ment in the Chinese first-class construction enterprises, (ii) involvement in building
construction and similar organization size, and (iii) regional diversity. Hierarchy cul-
ture was dominant with a growing preference for market culture.
[35] undertook an empirical study involving 826 managerial and non-managerial
professionals from 134 contracting and architectural firms (38.2% response rate) in
Turkey. The selection for participation was based on (i) origin of the firms as being
local, (ii) medium- and large employee-sized firms, and (iii) industry position measured
by market share. Hierarchy and clan cultures were dominant.
[32] conducted an exploratory study among 56 managers of different levels across
56 contracting firms (38.6% response rate) in Singapore. The selection for participation
was based on (i) local origin of the firms for cultural uniformity, and (ii) medium- to
large-sized contractors measured by tendering limit and minimum paid-up capital and
net worth. Hierarchy and clan cultures were found to be dominant.
[36] interviewed 139 local and expatriate project managers (71.6% response rate) in
Hong Kong contracting firms. The selection was from a self-generated list of project
managers. Clan culture was dominant at both project and organization levels while
hierarchy culture was the least favored at both levels. The result for the hierarchy
culture could be due to the expatriate project managers.
[37] conducted a pilot study among 15 high-, middle-, and low-managers across
five private construction firms in Indonesia. Purposive selection criterion based on
market position as leading contracting firms was used. The results showed an incon-
gruent organizational culture profiles within the five Indonesian construction firms with
the hierarchy culture still being be the most dominant.
[38] examined 71 small, medium, and large quantity surveying (QS) and building
construction firms (19.3% response rate) in South Africa. Systematic sampling method
based on company registrations with the relevant national bodies was used. Market
culture was the dominant with a growing preference for clan culture, both among the
QS and building construction firms.
[39] studied 59 project managers across four large project-based organizations in
Australia, selected based on employee size, operating in heavy engineering, and a
strong matrix structure of management. Hierarchy structure was dominant for knowl-
edge sharing, combined with market culture or clan culture, depending on preference
for competition or collaboration, respectively.
[40] assessed 61 senior managers (42% response rate) across three contracting firms
in Botswana. Stratified sampling method based on registration with the Public Pro-
curement and Asset Disposal Board was used. The market culture was found to be
dominant across the three firms. The medium large firms preferred the clan culture
while the small firms preferred the hierarchy culture.
[41] undertook a questionnaire-based descriptive study. It involved 74 construction
companies (55.2% response rate) in Gaza Strip, selected based on classification by the
Palestinian Contractors Union. The clan culture was the dominant current and desired
organizational culture type. Small and medium organizations were predominantly
market culture and clan culture, respectively.
Lastly, [42] investigated the links between organizational culture, innovation and
performance. It involved 446 CEOs of Spanish organizations (27.9% response rate).
Selection was based on having more than 15 employees and being located in southeast
Spain. The results include: (i) adhocracy culture has a positive effect on innovation and
performance, (ii) clan culture has no significant result on innovation but a positive
effect on performance, (iii) hierarchy culture has a negative impact on innovation and
performance, and (iv) market culture has no significant result on innovation and,
paradoxically, has a negative effect on performance.
Most notably for construction innovation, [14] concluded that the configurations of
innovation in the construction industry differ in diverse ways because the construction
industry is project-oriented and, as a result, disjointed. This set-up makes construction
innovation to remain unseen as it is jointly-developed at the project level.
2.4 Innovation Diffusion and Adopter Categories

As opposed to merely re-inventing the wheel, it is possible to plan innovation because
it is “a process” whereby a novel idea, conduct, or mechanism is conceived of and
brought into reality. This delineation of what truly qualifies as an innovation has
influenced conceptualizing the innovation diffusion process as a normal curve of dis-
tribution as shown in Fig. 2. What this means is that innovation as a “finite product”
cannot be planned or programmed. If the process or product of innovation is finite, it
becomes what [43] has construed as “preventive innovations”. Figure 2 should, as a
result, be viewed as a way of classifying the active players in the social system based
on their innovativeness [44], which also applies to construction enterprises.
Fig. 2. Adopter categorization, Source [44]
Innovators embrace new ideas and are able to manage uncertain or unsuccessful
innovations. They are trail blazers importing innovation from other allied systems. As
such, innovators are frowned upon by the their own members because of their
adventurousness and valuable external networks. Innovators should possess intricate
technical know-how to be able to sustain their creativity and invention.
Early Adopters occupy leadership roles in the social system to distill an innovation
for other members. Early adopters carry innovations forward. Their opinion leadership
in adopting the innovation decreases other members’ uncertainty about the innovation
and this helps the innovation process to diffuse appreciably. They are, desirably, more
discrete about their adoption choices than the innovators.
Early Majority also possess wholesome communication with external members;
however, the absence of opinion leadership like the early adopters means that they are
not as quick in adopting innovation. They adopt the innovation just before the other
half because of their above average social status and contact with the early adopters.
They are influenced by the competitive pressures from a “bandwagon” effect.
Late Majority are different from the early majority because they wait until most of
their peers adopt the innovation. They are considered late because they adopt an
innovation after the average member of the society. They adopt an innovation only
after it “snowballs” from the early majority. This is due to their skepticism, below
average social status, little to no financial lucidity, and opinion leadership.
Laggards are the most localized group of the social system. Their long decision-
making process, due to their need for practical and safe innovation, means they are
pathologically late to adopt. This is also due to their weak networks that mainly
consists other members from the same category, absence of opinion leadership, limited
resources and, lastly, the lack of awareness-knowledge innovations.
Related to the research question, this study aimed to ascertain the most appropriate
organizational culture type for construction innovation adoption in Industry 4.0. Fol-
lowing from the integrative review of the literature as a methodological choice, for
Objective 1, the multifaceted dimensions of Industry 4.0 necessitate diverse institu-
tional and technological responses for the necessary innovation and start-up strategy by
construction enterprises. This calls for a paradigm shift towards an open innovation
culture to maximize the gains from Industry 4.0’s collaboration, integration, and inter-
operability. For Objective 2, the hierarchy culture is the most dominant organizational
culture type among construction enterprises, which can be attributed to the need to
maintain control and focus on the internal organization. Moreover, since most con-
struction enterprises have more than one organizational culture type [32], it was
unsurprising to also find that the clan culture type and the market culture type were
common among construction enterprises. The clan culture type emphasizes flexibility
while the market culture is externally focused. For Objective 3, since the adhocracy
organizational culture has been found to have a positive effect on innovation and
performance [42], it is, therefore, proposed as the organizational culture type that best
supports construction innovation adoption for Industry 4.0. This is a deviant propo-
sition and a foundation for a future empirical study. More so, since the dominant
culture type among construction enterprises is the hierarchy culture, combined with
either clan culture, where collaboration is favored at project and organization levels or
market culture, where competition is favored at project and organization levels.
4 Conclusion
Industry 4.0 is an emerging concept with opportunities and challenges. Construction

enterprises should ensure that the people, processes and products involved in their
value co-creation activities are open to the accompanying changes. As a managerial
implication, the adhocracy culture best supports change and should be adopted by
construction enterprises. It should be noted that this recommendation has stemmed
from a conceptual study. A theoretical implication is the need for a future empirical
study to test if this claim in favor of the adhocracy culture is valid or otherwise.
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Construction Education’s Simulation Study
in the Fourth Industrial Revolution
Oluwayomi Babatunde(&)

Oluwayomi.Babatunde@wits.ac.za
Abstract. The increasing gap between academia and industry is of concern. In

engineering, universities are introducing simulation studies into their construc-
tion management (CM) curricula for context-based simulated experience for
graduating candidates. Consequently, this study investigated the important CM
graduate skills and attributes as a basis for CM simulation course design. The
methodology adopted a longitudinal study of two cohorts of CM graduates using
semi-structured online questionnaire, consisting of 30 literature-informed CM
graduate skills and attributes. The average response rate was 78%. Descriptive
data analysis was used to categorize the CM graduate skills and attributes into
criticality zones based on mean scores (minor = 0 to 2.50; moderate = > 2.50 to
3.75; and major = > 3.75 to 5.00). Wilcoxon rank sum test proved that the two
cohorts were equal. Planning and controlling, time management, communication
and leadership skills were ranked highest while environmental awareness,
research and statistical analysis as well as marketing and entrepreneurship skills
were ranked lowest by both cohorts. While the increasing need for soft or non-
technical skills is supported, implications for CM education include the need for
more problem-oriented nested learning activities, creating the opportunities to
test solutions much more practically, and industry-academia collaboration in the
design and assessment of simulated tasks.
Keywords: Capstone Competence Graduates Simulation

Longitudinal study
1 Introduction
A gap exists between the skills acquired through university education and the graduate
skills required to tackle real-world practical problems in general [1] and specifically for
construction graduates [2] including in South Africa [3]. One of the interventions is
simulation-based learning in construction engineering and management capstone
courses [4]. Capstone is the word used as an allegory to refer to a milestone accom-
plishment from some preceding progressive or cumulative projects [5]. Consequently,
engineering capstone course design is an aspect of undergraduate engineering program
receiving considerable scrutiny [6]. Capstone course design is based on simulation
exercises to bring situated learning experiences to the classroom [7], with the purpose
of the capstone course being to integrate the prior disparate knowledge and skills from
the preceding learning activities [8].
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_31
Construction Education’s Simulation Study in the Fourth Industrial Revolution 317
A well-designed engineering capstone course facilitates authentic learning by being

able to simulate the real working environment to develop the necessary construction
management (CM) competence in the graduating CM students [9] to be more com-
petent graduate CM students. Simulation-based exercises are rooted in the construc-
tivist approach [10], which is aimed at creating high challenge and support for the
students [11]. A research question arises of what are the most important entry-level CM
graduate skills and attributes to be simulated for students? This study aims to inves-
tigate the important CM graduate skills and attributes for the simulation course design.
Its three objectives include: (1) identifying the important CM graduate skills and
attributes (2) establishing if there is a significant difference in the CM graduate skills
and attributes; and (3) recommending the process for a CM simulation course design.
2 Literature Review
The mode of the preceding research question is empirical need gap-spotting [12]. There
are studies theoretically supporting the design of a CM capstone course. However,
there is an empirical lack of support for the actual design of a CM capstone. Since
theories lay the foundation for further progress [13], this empirical study uses inte-
grative literature review to identify the different CM graduate skills and attributes.
Integrative literature review critically analyses representative literature to generate new
perspectives [14]. It is unique in how it studies the existing body of knowledge for a
deeper understanding of the phenomenon under investigation [15].
2.1 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework situates a study in the existing empirical and theoretical
bodies of knowledge to offer alternative insights on the concepts and associated
thoughts [16]. The conceptual framework adopted in this study is the reflective practice
of CM graduate students based on their real-life working experience vis-à-vis the
simulated experience on the CM capstone course in their final year.
Students are central to education reform because they are co-creators of academic
development initiatives [17], and are, as a result, a viable guide for curriculum
improvements in culturally responsive contexts [18].
2.2 Construction Management Capstone Course Design

Engineering projects are, inherently, problem-based [19]. This unique feature makes
engineering projects well-suited for a capstone course design. A capstone course is
geared towards simulating problem-based learning experience to teach self-efficacy to
be able to navigate in the dynamic real world [20].
The five shared features of engineering capstone projects among the world’s top-
ranked universities include: problem-oriented-pre-requisite courses, strong emphasis on
group-based projects, develop and test program to gauge practicality, dynamic
industry-academia collaboration, and, lastly, nested or progressive tasks for better
sense-making [5]. These features support the idea of outcomes-based education model
318 O. Babatunde
to curriculum design, based on the five philosophical orientations including: discipline-

based, professional and academic, personal relevance, social relevance, and, lastly,
systems design [21].
2.3 Construction Management Skills and Attributes

Different aspects of engineering capstone course have been investigated, including the
teaching and learning activities [7] and the assessment thereof [6]. This present study
takes a step back to map the requisite CM graduate skills and attributes that should be
embedded in the design of a CM capstone course. CM graduate skills and attributes
have been established both in an emerging country like South Africa [3] and [22] and
beyond in the more advanced countries [23] and [24].
Following a mapping exercise of the CM graduate skills and attributes from the
four immediate preceding studies, to eliminate overlaps and gaps, Appendix A presents
30 integrative-literature-review-informed CM graduate skills and attributes, arranged in
an alphabetical order and coded for subsequent reference.
3 Methodology
This study adopted the positivism research philosophy, which is a philosophical

standpoint of the physical scientist that entails working with a perceptible shared
certainty to construct generalizations [25]. The research approach is deductive, which
has the advantage of theory- or hypothesis- testing to confirm validity [26]. The
research methodological choice used in this study is the quantitative method, based on
numeric data collection as social facts for human behavior [27].
3.1 Research Design

Longitudinal survey design was adopted to produce data that represent quantitative
descriptions about pre-selected characteristics of the population under investigation
[28]. Objective 2 is premised on detecting a trend in the form of either a change or
development [29] in the CM graduate skills and attributes. The advantages of the
survey research strategy include: ample data within the limited time and cost, collecting
data from a more representative sample, and producing empirical data based on real-
world observations [30].
3.2 Research Method

A closed-ended structured online questionnaire was adopted to retrieve quantitative
ordinal data from the target population. A researcher has the most control using the
questionnaire as compared to other types of research instrument [31]. A closed-ended
questionnaire has the advantage of providing the inquirer with quantitate or numerical
data [32] while the online mode of administering the questionnaire allows for anon-
ymity, flexibility, and ease of data management [33].
The questionnaire design has two main sections. Section A focused on the profile of
the respondents while Section B focused on 5-point Likert scale rating of the level of
importance (1 = not at all important and 5 = extremely important) of the 30 CM
graduate skills and attributes.
3.3 Population and Sample

A population is an entire group about which some information is required to be
ascertained. The population for this study was the CM graduate students in South
Africa, which was, understandably, large and impractical to reach. Following, the target
population or subset of the population used were two cohorts of CM honors graduate
students from a university in South Africa. The sampling frame was the list of the
consented private email addresses of the CM graduate students.
Purposive sampling of the 29 graduate students in Cohort A (Class of 2016) and 30
graduate students in Cohort B (Class of 2014) was adopted. Both cohorts have
undertaken the simulated CM capstone course in the final semester of their CM honors
program. Hence, additional stratified sampling technique used with the purposive
sampling technique. The response rate for Cohort A was 72.41% and 83.33% for
Cohort B; thus, giving an average response rate of 78%.
4 Data Analysis
Data collected through Section A of the questionnaire were analyzed descriptively. The
analysis revealed that the post-graduation average work experience of both Cohorts A
and B was 19 months each. Two graduate students from Cohort A were in non-
construction sectors. More than 80% of the graduate students in both cohorts were
working with private employers. Majority (>40%) in both cohorts were office- and site-
based. Cohort B had a higher percentage (40%) of graduate students that were solely
site-based. The job positions of Cohort A extended beyond CM to include one Senior
Specialist Claims and a four quantity surveyors. Respectively, about 50% and 40% of
Cohort A and Cohort B had changed jobs within their first two years.
A three-level data analysis was performed on the quantitative data collected
through Section B of the questionnaire for Objectives 1 and 2. The first-level analysis,
which served as the basis for achieving Objectives 1 and 2, entailed computing the
mean scores of the level of importance of each of the 30 CM graduate skills and
attributes. The values of the standard deviation (SD) were used as a tie breaker but the
tie was maintained where the values of the mean scores and SD are, nonetheless, the
same as presented in Appendix B.
The second-level analysis, for Objective 1, entailed using the mean scores to cat-
egorize the CM graduate skills and attributes into three criticality zones including
minor (0 to 2.50), moderate (>2.50 to 3.75), and major (>3.75 to 5.00) based on the
study by [31] as also shown in Appendix B.
Lastly, the third-level analysis, for Objective 2, entailed performing the non-
parametric or distribution-free test Wilcoxon rank sum test on the re-ranked mean
ratings/scores across the two cohorts still using the SD as the tie breaker as presented in
320 O. Babatunde
Appendix C then adding the total rank of all the items under each cohort. The Wil-
coxon rank sum statistic W is defined as the total rank of the smaller sample. In this
case, the samples have the same size (nA= nB= 30), so W = 871.
The five common steps involved in a non-parametric test includes: (i) setting up a
hypothesis and deciding on the significance level, (ii) choosing a suitable statistical test,
(iii) establishing the decision criterion, (iv) performing the statistical test, and
(v) concluding based on the decision criterion [34]. The null and alternative hypotheses
for this two-sided/tailed nonparametric test at 95% confidence interval include:
H0 : The two populations are different

H1 : The two populations are not different
From [35], for nA, nB 8, it can be shown that, under H0 that the two populations
are equal, W N(nA(nA + nB + 1)/2, s2), where
p
s¼ ½nA nB ðnA þ nB þ 1Þ=12: ð1Þ
Using this normal approximation for the sample size of 30, W has mean 30(61)/2 =
915 and s = √[900(61)/12 = 67.64. Hence, the test statistic, Z = 871 − 915/67.64 =
−0.65 which is lower than the critical value of 1.96 or −1.96 at 95% or 0.05 confidence
interval. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected.
As shown in Appendix B for Objective 1, both cohorts ranked the following four CM
graduate skills and attributes above the third quartile (i.e., among the top 25%):
Planning, scheduling and controlling; Time management; Active listening and verbal
communication skills; and, lastly, Leadership skills. Three of these four top-ranked CM
graduate skills and attributes are mostly non-technical in nature (i.e., soft or generic
skills). This result validates the increasing need for generic skills [36] or, more aptly,
engineering soft skills [37]. Both cohorts ranked the following six CM graduate skills
and attributes below the first quartile (i.e., among the bottom 25%): Environmental
awareness; Measurement, costing and estimating; Knowledge of the complex nature of
the industry; Aptitude for conducting research (including performing statistical anal-
ysis; Know-how of surveying and levelling (or any other similar filed) apparatus; and,
lastly, Marketing skills and entrepreneurship. In terms of criticality, Cohort A iden-
tified 27 of the 30 CM graduate skills and attributes as “major” while Cohort B
identified 23 as “major”. None of the 30 skills and attributes was considered to be of
minor criticality.
As shown in the preceding section’s Wilcoxon rank sum test, based on Appendix C
for Objective 2, there is a statistically significant evidence at the 95% confidence level
to show that the two populations of CM graduate cohorts are not different in their
rankings of the level of importance of the CM graduate skills and attributes. This being
the case and all the 30 CM skills and attributes being either of moderate or major
criticality validates the contextual-relevance [18] of the result of the mapping exercise
presented as Appendix A. In the same vein, the mapping exercise is supportive of the
idea of the outcomes-based education model to curriculum design [21]. More so,
during the Fourth Industrial Revolution that self-efficacy based on a rich curriculum
design for construction education is important.
Lastly, for Objective 3, the preceding results of Objectives 1 and 2 suggest that the
successful design of a simulated CM capstone course is premised on practicality,
authenticity and field experience of the teachers to truly minimize the cultural shock
experienced by graduates new to the real world of construction. As supported by [5],
CM simulation course design process should involve (i) problem-oriented-pre-requisite
courses, (ii) strong emphasis on group-based projects, (iii) develop and test program to
gauge practicality, (iv) dynamic industry-academia collaboration, and, (v) nested or
progressive tasks for better sense-making.
6 Conclusion
Simulating a real-life experience is difficult but pedagogically-rewarding. The design

process of the CM simulation course must be driven by the five common elements of
engineering capstone projects emphasized in this study. The practical implication is a
more unconventional pedagogical approach that nonetheless achieves the prescribed
learning objectives. The theoretical implication is a program-level-constructive align-
ment design approach to make construction education’s simulation study a worthwhile
endeavor in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The limitation of this study has been
restricted to the minimal working experience of the respondents.
Appendix A. CM Skills and Attributes
CM skill and attribute Code CM skill and attribute Code

Ability to conduct research SKA1 Leadership capability SKA16
Ability to exercise professional SKA2 Managerial knowledge SKA17
judgment
Conflict and dispute resolution SKA3 Marketing skills and SKA18
skills entrepreneurship
Know-how of surveying and SKA4 Measurement, costing and SKA19
leveling apparatus estimating
Ability to work autonomously SKA5 Numeracy/quantitative analytics SKA20
Academic achievement SKA6 Planning, scheduling and SKA21
controlling
Acceptance of responsibility SKA7 Practical building knowledge SKA22
Active listening and verbal SKA8 Problem solving skills, creativity SKA23
communication and innovation
(continued)
322 O. Babatunde
(continued)
CM skill and attribute Code CM skill and attribute Code
Malleability to dynamic work SKA9 Supervisory skills and ability to SKA24
situation train others
Computer literacy SKA10 Systems development ability SKA25
Environmental knowledge SKA11 Team building capability, trust SKA26
and honesty
Familiarity with construction SKA12 Time management SKA27
quality management
Knowledge of the complex nature SKA13 Up-to-date professional SKA28
of the industry knowledge
Financial management SKA14 Work study SKA29
Interpersonal skills SKA15 Worker safety and health SKA30
awareness
Appendix B. CM Graduate Skills and Attributes: Ranking

and Criticality
CM Cohort A Cohort B
Graduate Mean SD Rank Criticality Mean SD Rank Criticality
Skillsa
SKA1 3.65 0.91 28 Moderate 3.52 1.20 28 Moderate
SKA2 4.42 0.82 7 Major 4.00 1.13 19 Major
SKA3 4.42 0.75 6 Major 4.16 1.16 16 Major
SKA5 4.42 0.67 5 Major 4.12 0.82 17 Major
SKA6 3.95 0.94 22 Major 3.92 0.89 20.5 Major
SKA7 4.35 0.79 9 Major 4.54 0.76 4 Major
SKA8 4.55 0.67 3 Major 4.60 0.57 2 Major
SKA9 4.21 0.83 14 Major 4.44 0.80 5 Major
SKA10 4.26 0.71 12 Major 4.04 1.08 18 Major
SKA11 3.94 1.08 24 Major 3.64 0.93 25 Moderate
SKA12 4.35 0.65 8 Major 4.32 0.84 10 Major
SKA15 4.15 0.85 18 Major 4.60 0.75 3 Major
SKA16 4.47 0.60 4 Major 4.40 0.57 6 Major
SKA17 4.00 0.92 20 Major 4.16 0.97 15 Major
(continued)
(continued)
CM Cohort A Cohort B
Graduate Mean SD Rank Criticality Mean SD Rank Criticality
Skillsa
SKA20 4.20 1.03 15 Major 3.76 1.42 23 Major
SKA21 4.60 0.73 1 Major 4.40 0.85 7 Major
SKA22 4.20 1.08 16 Major 4.24 0.76 11.5 Major
SKA23 4.30 0.71 11 Major 4.32 0.55 8 Major
SKA24 3.95 1.10 23 Major 4.32 0.68 9 Major
SKA25 4.00 0.84 19 Major 4.24 0.76 11.5 Major
SKA26 4.16 0.81 17 Major 4.16 0.83 14 Major
SKA27 4.56 0.68 2 Major 4.76 0.43 1 Major
SKA28 3.95 0.92 21 Major 3.92 1.16 22 Major
SKA29 3.90 0.99 25 Major 3.92 0.89 20.5 Major
SKA30 4.25 0.99 13 Major 4.20 0.85 13 Major
a
Please refer to Appendix A for the full description of the CM graduate skills and attributes.
Appendix C. Ordered Data for Null Hypothesis
Code Cohort A Cohort B

Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank
SKA1 3.65 0.91 9 3.52 1.20 6
SKA2 4.42 0.82 51 4.00 1.13 24
SKA3 4.42 0.75 50 4.16 1.16 31
SKA4 3.45 1.02 4 3.44 1.24 3
SKA5 4.42 0.67 49 4.12 0.82 26
SKA6 3.95 0.94 20 3.92 0.89 15.5
SKA7 4.35 0.79 45 4.54 0.76 54
SKA8 4.55 0.67 55 4.60 0.57 57
SKA9 4.21 0.83 35 4.44 0.80 52
SKA10 4.26 0.71 39 4.04 1.08 25
SKA11 3.94 1.08 18 3.64 0.93 7
SKA12 4.35 0.65 44 4.32 0.84 43
SKA13 3.84 0.87 12 3.52 1.06 5
SKA14 4.35 0.85 46 3.64 1.20 8
SKA15 4.15 0.85 27 4.60 0.75 59
SKA16 4.47 0.60 53 4.40 0.57 47
SKA17 4.00 0.92 23 4.16 0.97 30
SKA18 3.39 1.16 2 3.20 1.33 1
SKA19 3.85 1.01 13 3.68 1.26 10
(continued)
324 O. Babatunde
(continued)
Code Cohort A Cohort B
Mean SD Rank Mean SD Rank
SKA20 4.20 1.03 33 3.76 1.42 11
SKA21 4.60 0.73 58 4.40 0.85 48
SKA22 4.20 1.08 34 4.24 0.76 36.5
SKA23 4.30 0.71 40 4.32 0.55 41
SKA24 3.95 1.10 21 4.32 0.68 42
SKA25 4.00 0.84 22 4.24 0.76 36.5
SKA26 4.16 0.81 28 4.16 0.83 28
SKA27 4.56 0.68 56 4.76 0.43 60
SKA28 3.95 0.92 19 3.92 1.16 17
SKA29 3.90 0.99 14 3.92 0.89 15.5
SKA30 4.25 0.99 38 4.20 0.85 32
Total 958 871
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Sustainable Project Delivery
of Public Procurement Projects:
Contractor Selection Procedure
James Akanmu1, Oluwaseyi Ajayi2(&), and Olusegun Akinsiku2

1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
2
Department of Quantity Surveying, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria
seyiajayi71@yahoo.com
Abstract. Selecting a competent contractor is a yardstick for sustainable pro-

ject delivery. It ensures the project is completed within time, cost and quality
standard. This study assesses the procedure of Nigeria’s public procurement Act
of 2007 and identifies the frequency of use of prequalification criteria. The
research is both exploratory and quantitative in nature. The population for the
quantitative study was public clients and consulting organization. Stratified
random sampling technique was used. The sample size was calculated using
Cochran formula. A total of 300 questionnaires were distributed using Cochran
formula to generate the sample size. From the sample size calculated, 196 were
from consulting firms and 31 from public clients’ organization. Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) 21st version was used to analyse the data
using frequency, percentage, relative importance index (RII) and t-test. There
was an agreement between public clients’ and consultant organisation on the
frequency of use of contractors’ prequalification criteria. In conclusion, it is
important to consider the method of procurement, size of the project and
complexity of the project to ensure the optimum balance of experience, positive
references, working chemistry and teamwork.
Keywords: Contractors Prequalification Project delivery

Public Procurement Tendering
1 Introduction
Public Procurement Projects system entails organizing, processing and procedure of

actualizing construction project [1]. The process begins from the design stage to the
completion of the project. However, the decision taken at the design stage has a direct
effect on the construction stage and the performance of the project. One of the unique
decisions taken by the client and his representatives at the design stage is the selection
of the appropriate contractor for the project. The selection of a competent contractor for
the proposed project influences the performance of construction activities on site.
However, if an incompetent contractor was selected, it will leads to time and cost
overruns, poor workmanship, rework, disputes and litigation [2]. Thus, it becomes
necessary for a coherent approach is use to ensure a competent and suitable contractor
is chosen for a project.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_32
328 J. Akanmu et al.
The Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) established the Public Procurement Act
(PPA) of 2007 to ensure that all government projects go through “Due Process” in order
to ensure fairness, transparency, and accountability [3] and proper value procurement
system. Similar Procurement Act had been developed in many other countries to
guarantee efficient procurement system [4, 5]. In Egypt, where a Procurement Act of 9
was used for public projects, the Act failed to mandate point system for contractor
evaluation. There is no appropriate criteria given to the project managers. However,
evaluation of contractor was on price criterion [5]. In Ghana, the Public Procurement
Act, 2003 (Act 663) was also enacted with the same purpose with that of Nigeria PPA of
2007 [6]. The main objective of the Public Procurement Board in these countries were to
synchronize public procurement process in the public service in order to secure a
transparent and objective judgment in the management of the use of the country
resources in public procurement. It will helps to prevent fraudulent and unhealthy
practices in the discharged of public procurement projects. For instance, in Nigeria PPA
of 2007, the criteria were stated in the Act but the procedures for evaluation were not
given. Thus, the stakeholders used different yardstick for evaluating contractors data.
Due to the risk involved, several researchers, [7, 8] have developed models to aid
decision makers in choosing the appropriate contractor. Such model includes Analyt-
ical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Cluster analysis,
Multi-criteria decision model (MCDM), Data-Base Management system (DBMs) and
Multi-attribute analysis (MAA). However, these models have their weaknesses. The
DBMs fails to address existing problems of prequalification and it increases subjec-
tivity by restricting the range of decision criteria, thus, it does not reflect clients’ goals
and objectives [11].
Contractor selection method entails competitive and non – competitive [6]. Com-
petitive contractor selection methods comprise of open and selective methods. While,
nominated/negotiated method is known as the non - competitive contractor selection
methods. In adopting the competitive contractor selection method, the criterion for
selecting the contractor is on the lowest bidder. However, lowest bid selection criteria
could sometimes result in delay, cost overrun, poor quality and disputes [12]. This
suggests the need for a critical evaluation of contractor selection criteria in construction
project procurement [10–13].
Many researchers have proffered solution in form of the use of multi-criteria
approach in the selection of contractors [7–10]. Multi- criteria selection includes the use
of price related and non- price related criteria. The non- price related criteria used at the
prequalification stage of the contractor selection. Contractor’s financial ability, experi-
ence, managerial capability, health and safety compliance, experience as well as con-
tractors’ reputation and image have been included in the non-price related criteria [14].
This study intends to provide an insight into how the prequalification of contractors
are carried out in accordance with the provision of the PPA of 2007 as required by the
provision of section 16 (6) of PPA, 2007. In addition, to compare the criteria listed in
the PPA with criteria in literature in order to identify the frequency of prequalification
criteria use. The project entail the construction of a reinforced concrete framed struc-
tured with an aesthetically appealing façade modern high-rise building on pile foun-
dation in Lagos State, Nigeria. The scope of work includes amongst others: excavation
and filling; earthwork support; preparing concrete pile and installation of 450 mm
Sustainable Project Delivery of Public Procurement Projects 329
diameter bored piles; 43 m depth below pile cut of level including steel reinforcement
with grade 30 grout mix; developing minimum 30 N/mm2 work strength; fittings and
fixtures; electrical and mechanical installations among others.
For this study, to evaluate the contractor’s suitability in order to realize the con-
struction of a multi-floor building. Criteria stipulated in the advertisement based on the
provisions of Public Procurement Act, 2007 (PPA, 2007) as stipulated in section 16
sub-section 6, Sections 31 and 32 respectively were used. This was coupled with the
provisions of the public procurement procedure manual on evaluation published by the
Bureau of Public Procurement (BPP). The criteria stipulated are mandatory in com-
pliance with section 16 (6) of PPA, 2007. This study also intends to seek the opinion of
the Decision Makers (DMs) on the frequency of prequalification criteria according to
the PPA.
2 Procedure of Procurement Process for Construction

Projects
Development of criteria for prequalification and bidding documents was done before
the advertisement of the project. Contractors interested in the advertisement collect the
tender document with non – refundable fee and submitted as specified in the adver-
tisement. Advertisements are usually done in the National Newspapers, official website,
Federal Tender Journal (FTJ) and on the notice board of the procuring entity in line
with the provision of section 25 of PPA, 2007. Following the advertisements for the
Multi Floor Project, these following eight bidders responded. They are: Ax Project
Limited, Bx Company Limited, Fl Construction Limited, Mf Nigeria Limited, Nd
Nigeria Limited, Sg Limited, Ui Construction Ltd, and Vi Construction Limited. The
prequalification documents were opened in line with section 30 of PPA, 2007.
2.1 Criteria for Pre-qualification

In accordance with the provisions of Section 16 (6) of PPA, 2007 the criteria for the
selection of bidders as advertised were based on the following:
i. Evidence of Certificate of Incorporation with Corporate Affairs Commission
(CAC)
ii. Evidence of Company Audited Account (2012, 2013, 2014)
iii. Evidence of Tax Clearance Certificate (201, 2013, 2014)
iv. Pension Clearance Certificate PENCOM
v. Evidence of compliance with ITF
vi. Two (2) registered structural engineers with COREN not less than ten years post
registration with COREN
vii. Three (3) registered civil engineering technologist with not less than five years
post registration with COREN
viii. Two (2) registered builders with not less than five years post registration with
CORBON
ix. Two (2) registered Quantity Surveyors with not less than five years post reg-
istration with QSRBN
x. Two registered Architects with not less than five years post registration with
Architect Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON)
xi. Financial capability & Banking support
xii. Company’s Technical staff experience & qualification
xiii. Performance on previous construction work of not less than five-storey building
xiv. Equipment and Technology capacity
xv. Annual turnover not less than five hundred million naira (#500M).
2.2 Prequalification Evaluation

The evaluation was carried out based on the provisions of PPA, 2007 using the
advertised criteria as stipulated in section 16 sub-sections 15, Sections 31 and 32
respectively coupled with the provisions of the public procurement procedure manual
on evaluation published by the Bureau of Public Procurement. The criteria stipulated
are mandatory in compliance with section 16 (6) of PPA, 2007. The Evaluation of
compliance of bidders indicates the level of compliance of the bidders to the criteria
specified in the solicitation document.
3 Research Method
The study was both exploratory and quantitative in nature. The exploratory aspect
illustrated how contractor selection practice in Public Procurement Project was carried
out. While the quantitative entails sampling the opinion of public clients’ and con-
struction professionals on the procedure based on the frequency of prequalification
criteria use. Thus, the construction professional entails Architects, Builders, Engineers
and Quantity Surveyors. The study area was Lagos State because Lagos is a state with
population of over twenty-three (23) million [15], making it 12% of Nigeria population
(195 million) by the National Population Commission. Lagos has a land area of
3,577 sqkm, thus it the sixth most populous city in the world and the second largest
city in Nigeria. It is one of the most populous cities in Africa [16] and the new biggest
city in Africa [17]. Being the industrial as well as commercial centre of the country, the
city had experienced an increased in population and abundant economic opportunities.
It had led to over utilization of available utilities with attractive resources. The
increasing rate of urbanization had resulted in pressure on land use; hence, it involves a
lot of construction activities [18] to meet the expectation of its populace. The sampling
frame was obtained from the professional bodies of the construction professionals as
shown in Table 1.
Stratified random sampling technique was used to select the respondents. The
sample size was calculated using Cochran formula as displayed in Table 2. It gives a
sample size of 227. From the sample size calculated, 196 were from construction
professionals in consulting firms and 31 were from public clients’ organization.
Table 1. Sampling frame of respondents in Lagos

Respondents Lagos State
1. Architects 250
2. Quantity Surveyors 345
3. Builders 220
4. Engineers 294
5. Public clients 108
Total 1217
Source: Institute of the respective
professional bodies (Consulting
firms) and www.Lagosstategov.ng/
pagement (Lagos public clients)
Table 2. Sample size

Respondents Research area (Lagos State)
1. Consulting Architect 44
2. Consulting Quantity Surveyors 61
3. Consulting Builders 39
4. Consulting Engineers 52
5. Public clients 31
Total 227
t 2 s2
Cochran formula ðno Þ ¼
d2
Where: n0 = sample size; t = t value for the acceptable margin of error (t = 1.96);
s = estimate of variance in the population distribution (standard deviation (SD2);
d = acceptable margin of error (0.05).
300 questionnaires were distributed and 210 were collected giving a response rate
of 70%. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the analysis.
Frequency, percentage, t-test for proportion and Spearman Rank Correlation statistical
tools were used to generate the result from the data. This study was subjected to a
reliability test using pre - test method. The reliability of the scale for the questionnaires
was tested using Cronbach’s alpha method, which was found to be 0.79. The result
suggested that the questionnaires are highly reliable and there was an internal con-
sistency. This was judged from the fact that, 0.79 was greater than 0.70 minimum
reliability level [19, 20].
4 Data Analysis and Result of Findings

4.1 List for Prequalification
Table 3 displays the characteristic of consulting firms and public clients’ organisation
on ways they obtained list of contractors for prequalification. 81% of Architects, 89%
of Builders, 63% of Quantity surveyors, 89% of Engineers and 80% of public clients’
obtained their list of contractors through standing list of certain types and sizes. 19% of
Architects, 11% of Builders, 22% of Quantity surveyors, 11% of Engineers and 20% of
public clients used an ad-hoc list for a particular project to obtain list for prequalifi-
cation. It shows that all the respondents from public clients’ and consulting organi-
sations agreed that the list of prequalified contractors were obtained from standing list
based on the type of projects. Thus, such contractors must have registered with that
organisation.
Table 3. List for prequalification

Prequalification list Consulting % Clients’ %
organisation (Freq.) organisation (Freq.)
Standing list for project of certain 151 80 65 76
types and sizes
An ad-hoc list for a particular project 39 20 21 24
Total 190 100 86 100
Freq. = Frequency; % = Percentage
4.2 Review of Contractors’ Information on Standing List

Table 4 presents the review of contractors’ information on standing list for consulting
and public clients’ organisations. Due to the technicality involved in prequalification
and tender evaluation procedure for purpose of selecting appropriate contractor for a
proposed project, it shows that the information submitted by the contractors needs to be
reviewed. Hence from the table, 48% of Architects, 42% of Builders, 40% of Quantity
surveyors, 38% of Engineers and 38% of public clients’ review contractors’ infor-
mation annually.
Table 4. Review of contractors’ information on standing list

Review of contractors Consulting % Clients’ organisation %
information organisation (Freq.) (Freq.)
Never 4 2 3 3
Annually 81 42 41 47
Once in a while 62 32 27 31
Bi-annually 25 13 5 6
Half-yearly 22 11 11 13
Total 194 100 87 100
Freq. = Frequency; % = Percentage
4.3 Frequency of Prequalification on Type of Projects

Analysis of descriptive data of frequency of prequalification on type of projects was
presented in Table 5. From the table, it reveals that the most ranked project by
Architect (MIS = 0.82), Builders (MIS = 0.85), Quantity Surveyors (MIS = 0.84),
Engineers (MIS = 0.79) and Pubic clients’ organisations (MIS = 0.86) were com-
mercial projects in comparison with other type of projects such as residential, indus-
trial, religion and transport projects. The least ranked project by Architects
(MIS = 0.53), Engineers (MIS = 0.54) and Public clients’ (MIS = 0.62) were transport
projects. While for Quantity surveyors, the least ranked were religion (MIS = 0.72) and
transport projects (MIS = 0.72). It could be as a result of the value of the project and
their functionality. In the study of [5] in Egypt, they concluded that prequalification
should be carried out no matter how complex the project. They however, prequalified
electro - mechanical, industrial and utility projects than building projects.
Table 5. Frequency of prequalification on type of projects

Type of projects Consulting Clients’ Overall
organisation organisation
MIS R MIS R MIS R
Commercial 0.83 1 0.84 1 0.83 1
Residential 0.79 2 0.83 2 0.80 2
Industrial 0.72 3 0.75 3 0.73 3
Religion 0.64 4 0.69 4 0.64 4
Transport 0.61 5 0.66 5 0.63 5
Very often = 4; often = 3; rarely = 2; never = 1; MIS = Mean Item Score; R = Rank
4.4 Frequency of Use Prequalification Criteria

Table 6 shows the frequency of use prequalification criteria. The overall most fre-
quently used financial criteria were current fixed asset (87%), subcontractor (78%),
balance sheet statement (76%) and annual turnover (74%). The least overall frequently
used financial criteria were short term borrowing (55%), medium term borrowing
(54%) and profitability (24%). For overall experience criteria, the most frequently used
were skill including professional technical expertise such as qualification with expe-
rience expertise (97%), technical skills (97%), type of projects (96%), ability to handle
projects (96%), ability to meet target dates (95%) and size of past projects completed
(94%). The least overall experience criteria were the ability to efficiently integrate
contract (85%) and national or local catchment (56%).
Frequently used overall managerial capability criteria were past performance
(97%), quality control programme and quality of works on past projects (95%), quality
workmanship (88%) and possession of quality assurance certificate (77%). For overall
health and safety criteria, the top frequently used were provision of health and safety
regulation (90%), company safety policy (88%), and level of adherence to health and
safety regulation (87%) and the least ranked were accident book (62%) and experience
in noise control (43%).
Table 6. Agreement between public clients’ and consulting organisation on frequency of use
prequalification criteria
Prequalification criteria Spearman rank Spearman rank tcal. ttab. Sig. Remark
correlation correlation
Public clients’ Consultants
(r1) (r2)
Financial 0.95 0.95 9.13 2.262 S H1
accepted
Experience 0.97 0.97 13.98 2.179 S H1
accepted
Managerial capability 0.00 0.97 6.99 3.182 S H1
accepted
Health and safety 0.96 0.96 5.9 3.182 S H1
accepted
Contractors’ reputation 0.98 0.98 9.80 2.776 S H1
and image accepted
a = 0.05; tcal. = t-test calculated; ttab. = t-test tabulated; Sig. = Significant; H1 = Alternate
hypothesis
Contractors’ reputation and image criteria overall top ranked frequently used were
capacity of work handled presently (93%) the amount of projects executed in the past 5
years (89%), permanent place of business (78%), and financial penalties previously
levied in respect of failures to perform the terms of contract (68%) and the least was
litigation tendency (53%).
The result of this study shows that organisation prequalified contractors but no
particular prequalification criteria been used because clients’ goals and objectives
differs on projects. Thus clients’ organisations advertise for contractors using open
method of tendering and attached an expression of interest, which stated the prequal-
ification criteria for the projects. Different prequalification criteria were been used
depending on the type of projects or procurement method for the project.
Hypothesis 1
The null hypothesis that there is no agreement between public clients’ and consulting
organisation on frequency of use of contractors’ prequalification criteria was tested
using t-test for proportion to compare two proportions.
There was an agreement between public clients’ and consultant organisation on
frequency of use of contractors’ prequalification criteria because, t-test calculated (tcal.)
for financial, experience, managerial capability, health and safety and contractors’
reputation and image (tcal. = 9.13, 13.98, 6.99, 5.93, 9.80) is greater than t-test tabu-
lated (ttab.). Thus, the alternate hypothesis (H1) is accepted. The Spearman rank cor-
relation (r) from public clients’ and consulting organisations as indicated in Table 6
shows a positive correlation among the variables.
From this study, it shows that prequalification criteria requirements for any con-
struction projects were according to the clients’ objectives/goal. [20] study on decision
criteria for periodic prequalification in the UK found that there was no significant
difference between the frequency of use of periodic prequalification criteria among
client and contractor using chi-square. This study opposed that of [20] probably
because the methodology differs.
This study provides an insight into how the prequalification of contractors are carried
out in accordance with the provision of the Public Procurement Acts (PPA) 2007 as
required by the provision of section 16 (6) of PPA, 2007 of the construction of multi –
floor building. A quantitative study was also done to identify the frequency of use
prequalification criteria. It was realized that prequalification criteria requirements for
any construction projects were according to the clients’ objectives/goal. Contractor
selection in public sector has been a much-debated issue over the past years. It could be
deduced that the tender submitted by the tenderers should be evaluated to check for
arithmetical, basic rate and consistency of rate to ensure the appropriate contractor is
given the project. It is also in support of other researchers [7-10-17] that, the lowest
tender price, should not be the main criterion for selecting the appropriate contractor,
hence, the argument of multi-criteria is supported by this study. However, the study of
[5] placed more value on choosing contractors on lowest bidder even against the bye-
law (Act 1989/1998) of the study research area (Egypt) that combines the result of the
technical and financial evaluation. This study default the used of the lowest bidder as
proposed by the Public Procurement Act (2007) of Nigeria due to the shortcoming of the
criterion. [21] argued the used of multi-criteria procedure rather than mono-criterion.
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Challenges to Lean Construction
Implementation in South Africa
Thabiso Monyane1,2(&), Fidelis Emuze1, Bankole Awuzie1,

and Gerrit Crafford2
1
Department of Built Environment, Central University of Technology, FS,
Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
2
Department of Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela University,
tmonyane@cut.ac.za,gerrit.crafford@mandela.ac.za
Abstract. Efforts of the lean construction could prove to be highly worthwhile

for the South African construction sector. Evidently exposed continuous poor
performance of projects exhibit that the concept of lean thinking would push the
construction industry’s pursuit to advance quality and efficiency. While numer-
ous countries internationally gained large benefits by adopting Lean Construction
(LC) concepts, there still seems to be inadequate application of lean in South
African construction industry, over the last two decades. A number of structural
and cultural barriers appear to be militating against the successful implementation
of lean construction. By not recognizing the factors that contribute to the suc-
cessful application of LC, organizations will not be able to know what
improvement efforts need to be made, where these efforts should be focused, or
which efforts could obtain best results. For this reason, this study sought to
identify and assess the possible barriers to the successful implementation of LC in
South Africa. Grounded on a systematic literature review, followed by semi-
structured interviews with Lean experts in the country, a number of barriers were
acknowledged as significant barriers. Further investigation discovered that policy
changes and cultural change are some of the barriers exposed as significant. The
results of this study could be employed to help researchers, practitioners and
companies in South African construction industry to focus their attention and
resources on the significant issues, crucial to support the successful implemen-
tation of LC.
Keywords: Lean Challenges Barriers Implementation
1 Introduction
The construction industry is considered an important sector in an economy of any

country; hence, 73% of the people across the world agree to investment in infrastructure
for the country’s future economic growth [36]. Moreover, [36] predict that around US
$5.25 trillion dollars is likely to be spent a year on infrastructure globally by the year
2030. Lean construction (LC) has been hailed as one of the innovative construction
method ever created since the 1990s [32]. Due to the poor performance recorded con-
tinuously on construction projects, lean concepts have been recommended as a way to

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_33
338 T. Monyane et al.
improve efficiency and effectiveness of project’s execution. Several studies has exten-
sively research the benefits of lean and the achievements for over 27 years since its
inception of the International Group for Lean Construction. The benefits derived by
numerous studies include, improved productivity and reliability, better quality and
customer satisfaction, improved forecasting, shortened schedules, waste minimization,
cost effective and improved safety with the application of lean principles [8–12, 25, 32,
36, 40]. However, despite all these achievements, South Africa has not adopted the lean
concepts for the construction industry’s performance improvement. [16] realized that to
integrate LC completely in a construction organization, the recommendation is to com-
prehend and anticipate the barriers that might be opposed to a proper implementation.
A barrier in this case is a step or an action that prevents the attainment of the desired
objective. Comprehension of such barriers is vital to propose remedies, mitigate their
impact, or forewarn their occurrence and strengthen the identified conditions that con-
tribute to the successful implementation of lean construction [16]. Based on this argument
the main objectives of this study is to identify the barriers that may hinder successful
implementation of lean construction initiatives. The study will first look at the back-
ground of lean construction in Sect. 2 of the paper, while Sect. 3 of the paper illustrate the
structure of the research approach adopted in this study and Sect. 4 pronounce the SLR
examination conducted to identify the barriers that may hinder the successful imple-
mentation of lean construction. The study focused only on barriers applicable to con-
struction to limit the amount of information out there related to barriers of lean.
2 Background to Lean Construction
To define the word “lean construction” has been a controversial issue due to the lack of
consensus Mossman [29, 36] including the International Group for Lean construction
(IGLC) and Lean Construction Institute (LCI) communities. The machine that changed
the world [48] presents a sketch picture of lean production [36]. Moreover, [36] imply
that the term “Lean construction” emerged two years later through the contribution of
[32] owing to lean production ideas in construction; however, [39] contrast this idea to
have emanated from the term being coined by the International Group for lean con-
struction in 1993. Lean production was coined by [34] to differentiate the Toyota
production system from the western mass production system and subsequently popu-
larized through the book the machine that changed the world [48]. However, [24] assert
to the rich literature in case studies unfolding the worthwhile implementation of LC on
real projects, while [33, 36] recite numerous benefits such as reduction of construction
cost and shortened construction period witnessed when implementing LC in con-
struction projects. There are several studies undertaken in various countries of lean
implementation in the construction industry. Studies found in the literature are from
developing and developed countries such as Chile [2], Uganda [3], Ghana Ayarkwa
[6], Nigeria [41], Saudi Arabia [4], Australia [45], Germany [27], Singapore [21], The
Netherlands [27], the UK [36], the USA [38], Turkey [47]. It is notable that none of the
studies are from South Africa, and despite the benefits already cited the level of
adoption is still non-existent to very low not only in South Africa but worldwide owing
to barriers that may hinder successful implementation [36].
Challenges to Lean Construction Implementation in South Africa 339
3 Research Approach
Figure 1 display a conceptual map of the overall structure of the research followed in
this study to address the research objective formulated and stated in Sect. 1, and the
sections of the article where the components of the research (i.e. research objectives,
method and stages) are presented. As demonstrated in Fig. 1, the barriers to the
effective implementation of Lean Construction (i.e. research objective) were identified
and established by following a research method based on a systematic review of the
academic literature.
Section 3
1. Objective / Questions
formulation
2. Locating Studies
Section 1 Section 2
Identify the barriers in

Systematic Literature review
the implementation of 3. Study Selection and Evaluation
(SLR) Analysis
Lean construction
4. Analysis and Synthesis
5. Reporting and Using Results
Fig. 1. Conceptual illustration structure of this study (Adapted from [17])
4 Identification of Barriers - SLR
As previously outlined a barriers in the context of this study is a challenge, a hurdle or

obstacle, which does not assist, or restricts, progress to achieve a successful integration
and implementation of lean [17]. To address the research questions and objectives [31]
opines identification of barriers through an adoption of systematic review of the existing
literature owing to its detailed, replicable, clear and meticulous approach [31]. More-
over, [20] suggests following the five sequential phases of SLR. These five phases
entailed the following: (1) objective/question formulation, (2) locating studies, (3) study
selection and evaluations, (4) analysis and synthesis and (5) reporting and using the
results. Phase one is reported in Sect. 1 of this paper. The subsequent phases are
addressed in the following sections beneath.
4.1 Locating and Selecting the Studies

The phenomenon under investigation guided the location of articles through usage of
search strings linked to the main topic. According to [20], to facilitate an exclusion/
inclusion criterion of the search strings a Context –intervention-mechanism-outcome
(CIMO) can be followed, hence such was carried out in this study. Further relevant
papers were identified using a combination of search strings such as Barriers, Chal-
lenges, failures, Obstacles, pitfalls, and Boolean operators (i.e. AND & OR). A specific
search could be focused upon and this allowed the exclusion of irrelevant articles.
When the same articles continued to re-appear a saturation point was considered to
have been reached as a result. Input of search strings were done from various academic
journals and proceedings in Emerald, ASCE, Scopus and Science Direct databases
from 1990–2018. Academic books, google scholar and credible proceedings website of
the IGLC on the topic are also included because of their impact on the advance of the
field. Focus of the systematic literature included only lean implementation in con-
struction and excluded implementation of lean in other sectors completely. The search
criteria, a final sample of 177 articles that relates to lean implementation was identified.
Conversely, only 86 of these discussed implementation barriers, and hence were further
considered appropriate in this study. Figure 1 beneath is an illustration of the structure
of this study.
4.2 Analysis and Synthesis

The qualitative data was synthesised using thematic analysis. There are various
methods that can be employed to synthesize qualitative data, however, for this study
thematic analysis proved most efficient and most appropriate due to its ability and
structured way in recognizing important frequent themes [13]. Data obtained from the
thematic analysis of the articles reviewed provided 30 barriers to lean implementation
in construction. However, the authors would like to admit that due to length of a
conference paper data could only be gathered from 46 articles at this stage. Data will be
analysed further perhaps for a Journal article publication. Input from industry expert
outlined the following barriers applicable to a South African context: Cultural barriers,
financial issues, extensive use of subcontractors, lengthy approval process, and lack of
training, lack of support by management as barriers that could hinder successful
implementation of lean in the public sector. Table 1 beneath display a list of barriers
identified from SLR.
Findings form the semi-structured interviews were similar to the ones identified
from the literature. Policy changes was one of the critical barrier identified by six of the
seven interviewers conducted. Although lean construction principles had to be
explained to some of the interviewees, after comprehension from the respondents more
barriers were identified as a result. Cultural change was also one of the key barrier
outlined as a big factor in transforming the construction industry as a whole. Since most
of the interviewees were consultants with more than 25 years’ experience it would
explain the culture change as a barrier. It would appear that senior consultant are
comfortable with the experience they have gained all these years, and would not want
to commence with new ways. However, they believed that lean stands a chance if
Table 1. Identification of barriers to lean construction implementation.

No Barriers References
1 Lack of technical capabilities [3, 5, 6, 14, 23, 41, 44]
2 Heavy reliance on poorly skilled foreign [21]
workers
3 Non related work background to [21]
construction
4 Language and education barrier [5, 14, 15, 21, 26, 36, 37, 41, 43]
5 Extensive use of subcontractors [1, 7, 18, 21–23, 27, 30, 35–37, 41–43,
46]
6 Lack of long term commitment to change [1, 3, 21, 29, 37, 41, 43]
and Innovation
7 Price oriented tendering system [21, 23]
9 Long term relationships with suppliers for [2, 3, 23, 29, 30]
fear of complacency
10 Limited communication via contract [30]
11 Lack of quality management [30]
12 Too many meetings and too much [19]
information
13 Lean beneficial to large projects not small [30]
projects
14 Extra resources required specific to deal [6, 41]
with lean issues
15 Difficult to tracks tasks from all planning [21, 27, 43]
forms
16 Lack of understanding of the concepts [1, 2, 6, 7, 14, 15, 18, 20, 22, 28, 29,
36, 37, 41, 46, 47]
17 Lack of training [2, 6, 14, 36, 37, 41, 43]
18 Lack of support from Management [36]
19 Inflexible Legislation [36]
20 Lean not part of University curriculum [1, 36]
21 Inability to deal with change management [26, 28, 36]
22 Lengthy approval process by client [36, 43]
23 Culture and social issues [1, 4, 14, 17, 29, 36, 37, 41, 43, 45]
24 Transparency [2, 29]
25 Active client, user stakeholder involvement [2, 5, 6, 29, 43]
26 Financial Issues [2, 29, 36, 41, 43]
27 Lack of time for implementing new [2]
practices in the Projects
28 Challenge to create organizational elements [2]
29 Lack of self-criticism to learn from errors [2]
30 Resistance to change [7, 10]
younger entrants begin with such ideas early on. Resistance to change would also be
identified as a barrier as all seven of the interviewees identified culture change and not
willing to commence with a new way for doing construction and a new mindset.
5 Conclusion
The study investigates the barriers that may hinder successful implementation of lean in
the construction sector. This was attained by employing a systematic literature review
[20, 31] was conducted as a methodology to identify the barriers that may hinder
effectively adopting Lean in the construction sector. Employment of this method, 30
barriers were identified and analysed. Lean construction is still a novel approach in
South Africa and the knowledge gained from identification of barriers will assist in
promoting the drivers of implementing lean in future. Moreover, the contribution
emanating from this study is advancing the knowledge of assisting the construction
industry and forewarn on the possible pitfalls when lean gains momentum in the country.
Knowledge attained from other industry will go a long way in guiding the South African
construction sector not to make the same mistake already identified in other construction
context. Moreover, lack of training about the new concept was highlighted by all seven
of the interviewees as a key barrier. This was explained as time is always not on the side
of execution of projects. This means most consultant are not willing to spend time
learning and training to execute project using lean thinking. However, as the author
asserts to the interviewees how they can embed lean in their daily lives, they showed
interest and thought is an easier way of introducing lean construction.
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Barriers to Construction Procurement Change
in Higher Education Institutions
Xebiso Kamudyariwa(&) and David Root

University of the Witwatersrand,
1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Braamfontein 2000, South Africa
{Xebiso.Kamudyariwa,David.Root}@wits.ac.za
Abstract. This research looked at the barriers Higher Education Institutions

face in changing their procurement practices. Since the South African Con-
struction Industry tends to be laggard in terms of any change, the research
assumed that barriers to procurement change would be linked to the barriers faced
in the adoption of I4.0. These barriers would help determine the preparedness for
I4.0 adoption. Qualitative research using semi-structured interviews was con-
ducted with senior management in Facilities Management Departments in HEIs.
Using thematic analysis, findings suggest that the identified barriers to I4.0
preparedness include lack of management buy in, slow pace of change, big data
and human capital. It was concluded that a best value approach is a necessary
prerequisite to any possible changes. A more proactive approach to change and a
willingness to put learning and effort into understanding what change
means/entails will result in a smoother change process for HEIs.
Keywords: Higher Education Institutions Collaboration Procurement

Culture Technology
1 Introduction
The concept of change in procurement has been widely discussed within the con-
struction industry. The Latham report puts this discussion at almost 25 years [1].
Change has been slow in its adoption, especially in an industry that tends to com-
fortable with its state regardless of its shortcomings [2].
There is global anticipation of changes expected with the 4th Industrial Revolution
or Industry 4.0 (I4.0) as it is commonly known. These changes are not expected to be
tied to a single industry, rather they “relate to all fields of life” [3].
Change tends to be inevitable, yet the global construction industry managed to
remain embedded in century old practices [4]; South Africa was not exempt. Countries
like the UK have adopted current best practices by a shift to more collaborative
practices implemented through public procurement legislation [5, 6] which constituted
clients driving change. The South African Construction Industry (SACI) on the other
hand has largely ignored any shift to more collaborative procurement preferring instead
to remain steeped in the industry-wide acceptance of the predominant use of more
traditional procurement. Clients have also largely left all procurement to professionals

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_34
346 X. Kamudyariwa and D. Root
in the project team. Discussions around this tend to emphasize the fact that clients
understand and accept that there will be problems; in essence challenges in terms of
delays, cost overruns and quality, adversarial relationships and fragmentation [6–10]
are bywords of the industry.
This condition of the industry is worrying especially considering the rapid changes
occurring in various industries due to I4.0. It is expected that at some point, all
industries will bow to the pressure of using technology to accomplish their work. This
is of great concern in a construction industry like that of South Africa where change
even to just more collaborative working has met resistance. One major question
becomes whether the industry can adjust to applying I4.0.
Adjusting to I4.0 is about more than just using technology, the workforce needs to
understand its purpose and how to actually utilize it in a manner that benefits their
work. As pointed out, the SACI already struggles with the concept of working cordially
together, it utilizes not so modern technology and has a focus on lowest cost pro-
curement. These challenges are a red flag concerning the preparedness of the industry
to apply I4.0.
The industry needs to adapt and in a timely manner. As with all change, a change
leader/champion is needed to drive the process especially when it comes to technology
[11]. Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are expected by their very nature to be
centers and creators of knowledge. With the South African government prioritizing
funding for Science and Technology research and also major capital projects in HEIs
[12, 13], it is to be expected that they (HEIs) would be disseminators of best practice
and as an influential client, assist in implementing procurement change as a precursor
to I4.0.
Unfortunately, public HEIs are not in a strong position to be drivers of change.
While they espouse collaborative values, these have fallen short especially in con-
struction procurement. It is of importance to determine what barriers HEIs experience
as they try to adopt more collaborative ways of working which would in turn better
prepare them for I4.0 application. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the barriers
to more collaborative working and link these to the lack of preparedness the CI faces in
adopting I4.0.
2 Literature Review
The concept of I4.0 was first introduced in Germany in 2011 and referred to as Industre
4.0. The term has varied definitions, with the common thread encapsulated in this
definition by Hozdic who termed I4.0 as referring to the integration of physical objects,
human actors, intelligent machines, production lines and processes across organiza-
tional boundaries, forming a system in which all processes are integrated and share
information in real time [14]. I4.0 embraces the concept of all systems collaborating in
real time in an integrated manner. While this concept is mostly referred to in terms of
manufacturing processes [3, 15], it as a concept that will see those with modern ICT
able to apply its principles for the benefit of their specific industries [3].
Barriers to Construction Procurement Change in Higher Education Institutions 347
2.1 Various Revolutions

The fourth industrial revolution was preceded by revolutions that laid the work for
(1) industrialization then (2) the foundation for the emergence of hard automation
followed by (3) groundwork for computers and fluid automation finally culminating in
(4) the ground work for I4.0 through modern information and communication tech-
nology [14]. Each revolution laid the ground work for evolution into more efficient
systems. I4.0 is built around the collection and use of vast amounts of data [3, 14–18]
to ensure more efficient systems, processes and human interactions.
I4.0 achieves cost reductions and improvements by the automation of production
through the use and exchange of data in real time and use artificial intelligence [3];
these are termed also Big Data and Modern Technology [3, 14–17].
2.2 Barriers to I4.0 Adoption

Various authors have delved into the challenges involved in applying I4.0. Of note are
the barriers noted by Slusarczyk who compiled a list of challenges South Africa faces
in comparison to its global counterparts [3]. The table below adapted from Slusarczyk
details the barriers to digitization and whether South Africa’s position in relation to
global averages (Table 1).
Table 1. Barriers to I4.0 adoption
Lack of clear vision

Partners unable to
basic tech infrastruc-
and
economic
Loss of intellectual
Lack of standards,
High investment re-
Lack of digital culture

Slow expansion of
norms & certification

digitally collaborate
Insufficient talent
property control
Data security
and leadership
privacy issues
and training
quirements
Unclear
benefit
ture
SA 7% 14 35% 12% 40% 14% 37% 35% 35% 58%

%
As can be noted in the table above, South Africa’s greatest barriers to I4.0 are the
slow expansion of basic technology infrastructure, insufficient talent in terms of skills
for using technology, the high investment needs necessary to set up and the lack of
digital culture and training. While unclear economic benefit and lack of clear vision and
leadership scored lower than global trends, it was by a margin of at most 3%; therefore,
these two can also be considered barriers to 14.0 application.
2.3 Procurement Change

Change in the SACI has been a protracted process. The current drive for change has
been driven by National Treasury who have realized the benefit of utilizing procure-
ment with a focus on Value for Money as opposed to Lowest Price [19]. This has
resulted in a newly legislated process for procurement for public projects. The
Department of Education and Training has also released draft copies of policies for
procurement in HEIs [20]. The necessity for change has been prioritized due to the
current economic pressures on government funding and the need for better account-
ability of public funds.
Change to a more collaborative approach has been touted as best practice [6]. Focus
has been on more collaborative relationships through the type of contracting used. The
table below details the envisioned changes. These changes all involve the concept of
working together, decentralizing operations and sharing information (Table 2).
Table 2. Arms-length contracting vs. relational/obligational contracting

Arms-length contracting Relational/obligational contracting
Adapted from [20] Adapted from [6]
Fragmentation as each stakeholder has Stakeholders work together, e.g. contractor with
their part to do and it ends there designer
Silos as no one is interested in sharing or There is information sharing and transparency
learning together
Adversarial relationships Cordial relationships built on trust
Constant overruns Stakeholders work together to ensure schedule
and budget are kept under control
Constant claims from the contractor Reduced claims due to working together and
preservation of relationships
3 Methodology
Qualitative research was conducted using semi-structured interviews with either Heads
of Departments or knowledgeable senior management in the Facilities Management
Departments of HEIs. Thematic analysis was used on the collected data.
There are currently twenty-six (26) public universities in South Africa made up of
three (3) categories; traditional, comprehensive and universities of technology. These
made up the population of the research. It should be noted that one of the participating
Institutions (U5) was in charge of oversight for 2 of the newest Institutions. For this
study, the population then reduces to twenty-four (24) HEI as U5 was managing
procurement for the two Institutions.
To conduct the research, the researcher had to obtain permission from each uni-
versity to be able to interview staff in their Facilities Management Departments
(FMDs). When this was done, further permission needed to be sought from participants
themselves.
While permission was obtained from eighteen (18) institutions, only five (5) par-
ticipants agreed to be part of the study, giving a response rate of just over 20%. Semi
structured interviews were conducted with the participants, some over the telephone
(due to distance) and others face to face. Questions for the interviews were derived
from literature and pertained to procurement and collaboration in their departments.
Thematic analysis was then conducted on the data. Themes derived from the charac-
teristics of collaboration identified in literature were used as an initial point of reference
in identifying themes from the interviews, with subsequent themes emerging from the
data itself.
4 Analysis of Results and Discussion
The Institutions that participated in the study are referred to as U1, U2, U3, U4, U5. U5
is the Institution with two other institutions linked to it.
The observed themes included the following; functioning, procurement, relation-
ships and future. Barriers were extrapolated form the themes. Additional data was
collected on the experiences of U5 in terms of their change to more collaborative
working.
4.1 Functioning
The Institutions had various models for their FMDs. While U2 and U3 have a central
office dealing with both capital projects and maintenance, U1, U4 and U5 have separate
divisions with specialty in either maintenance or capital projects. There is no “best
practice” in terms of the models as they are dependent on the particular context
(Table 3).
Table 3. Structures and policies of FMDs

Characteristic U1 U2 U3 U4 U5
FMD structure Separate Central Central Separate Separate
Procurement policies One Policy One Policy One Policy One Policy Separate Policies
Red Tape Red Tape Red Tape Red Tape
U1, U2, U3 and U4 also have stringent procurement policies in place which are not
conducive to collaborative working. Total overhauls of their policies would be nec-
essary for collaboration to take place as their current policies are geared towards goods
and services. U5 on the other hand had a procurement policy for construction and a
separate one for goods and services. This enables flexibility in a manner that was not
possible when using a goods and services procurement policy. Working with one
procurement policy is set to end though as National Treasury has legislated the sep-
aration of policies as done in U5. This is a huge step towards more collaborative
working.
4.2 Procurement
As discussed in the literature review, traditional procurement is the “go to choice” for
most projects in the SACI, it is therefore no surprise that Institutions would “prefer”
this type of procurement. For most institutions, lowest price is a major consideration
when assessing tenders. JBCC is a common choice of contract as it is well known and
established; it tends to be most dominantly used contract. U5 uses the NEC as it is
considered a flexible contract that enables strict control of the budget. It would be
expected that this quality of strict budget control would make the NEC a preferred
contract especially considering the funding problems most HEIs are facing (Table 4).
Table 4. Procurement strategy

Tenders Open Open Open Open Open
2 stage 2 stage 2 stage 2 stage 3 stage
Contracts JBCC, FIDIC JBCC JBCC, JBCC, NEC
BOQ, Lump Lump GCC GCC Target Cost, BOQ
Sum Sum
Contractors Concerns Building Building Concerns Design (ECI), Equal
Building Building Partner
While stakeholder engagement is evolving globally, most HEIs are still treating the
contractor as merely a builder. While contractor concerns could be considered, his job
is clearly that of constructing the required infrastructure. In its collaboration drive, U5
brings in the contractor early to consult on projects and ensures that he is treated as an
equal partner in the team. The logic here is that the contractor is actually a professional
in his own right and should be treated as such.
4.3 Relationships
Institutions had varied relationships with their stakeholders. All except U5 have a 2-
step conflict resolution process and have resorted to litigation in some cases. U5 has not
had any litigation in 10 years and they attribute this to cordial relationships between
stakeholders. Again, U5 was different in its approach to risk. While others allocated it
upfront with possible assessments conducted over the project duration, U5 stood out as
an Institution allocating risk with a consideration of which stakeholder was best suited
to handle a particular risk. They also share trust and have long term relationships with
other stakeholders. The other institutions had a problem with trusting especially con-
tractors and their procurement policies did not cater for long term relationships
(Table 5).
The Institutional approach to relationships infers its attitude to collaboration.
Collaboration involves working together to ensure mutual benefit. Most Institutions are
focused on solely the Client’s benefit. This does not bode well in a relationship built on
compromise and sharing. In addition to this, I4.0 involves big data sharing; if parties do
not share trust, this acts as a solid barrier to adapting to change.
Table 5. Stakeholder relationships

Conflict Arbitration Arbitration Arbitration Arbitration Remediation
Litigation Litigation Litigation Litigation Arbitration
Litigation
Risk Upfront Upfront Upfront Upfront Best suited
Tender Doc Tender Doc Tender Doc Tender Doc allocation
Trust Limited None Limited Limited Shared
Relationships No long No long No long No long Long term
term term term term
4.4 Future
Table 6 reflects the prospects or possibilities for each HEI. HEIs like U1, U2 and U4
saw the potential for change though current systems would create difficulties in
implementing these changes. U3 was defeatist, envisioning no likelihood of change
anytime soon. U5 on the other hand had problems mostly associated with what happens
after handovers take place as opposed to working in a project like the other HEIs.
Table 6. Potential future changes

U1 ECI good idea, current structures do not allow
Need to shift from goods procurement to construction procurement
Challenging to move to NEC because of lack of capacity for administration
U2 ECI good idea but current policies do not allow
U3 Changes not really viable at the moment
U4 Incentives would be interesting to consider
U5 Need more integration between Capital Projects division and Maintenance
One common refrain seems to be that concerning policies in institutions. The most
detrimental has been that of having a single procurement policy for both goods and
construction. Besides limiting what should be a more flexible process, it also forces a
focus on lowest price tendering. This is problematic especially as Institutions are being
encouraged to prioritize value for money when procuring.
The results from the four themes show that U5 procures in a manner that is different
from other Institutions; it has succeeded in adapting to and adopting collaborative
practices. The comparison of U5 to the other institutions was therefore helpful in
determining what barriers exist when changing from traditional procurement to col-
laborative procurement.
4.5 The Process of Change

Further information furnished by U5 showed that change is not an easy process. Before
the introduction of any changes, there are prerequisites for the process (Table 7):
Table 7. Prerequisites to change

Management buy in If management is not supporting the idea, change is unlikely to
take place successfully. They also need to be prepared for a few
mistakes along the way
Team to shape change Change cannot happen without a someone driving the process,
articulating what the process is and will achieve, encouraging
stakeholders in the change, enforcing agreed upon rules
Large enough capital A programme is needed in order to appreciate change. It also
programme allows the flexibility to fine tune the process, discard what does not
work and improve on what does
U5’s experience showed that change does not have to be a sluggish process; they
managed to implement all their changes at once. This is process of change would fit in
with I4.0 considering that technology changes so rapidly, meaning organizations need
to be prepared to implement flash changes.
Human capital also proved an important factor. Processes cannot run themselves,
people need to be skilled and understand what change is and its purpose/benefit before
committing. This applies to both management and general staff. Trust also needs to
exist between stakeholders otherwise no information sharing will occur, there will be
no transparency, and everyone will be working in silos.
U5 stressed the importance of the administrative process. Change takes time,
energy, and investment in resources. One major resource is that is constantly over-
looked is data. Data provides information for predicting patterns, receiving early
warnings and making savings just to name a few.
From the issues raised, the barriers most relevant to preparedness for I4.0 are
summarized in Table 8. Though barriers are linked to the difficulties faced in changing
to more collaborative working, they are also a reflection of the problems likely to be
faced with I4.0 application. It is important to take time to deal with these barriers in
terms of collaboration as they open the door to working in a more flexible manner able
to adapt to rapid changes. While it is unlikely that complete automation of the industry
can occur, it would still be helpful to utilize technology as a means of improving the
performance of the industry.
These barriers can be overcome if various stakeholders do their part in opening the
SACI to change. Clients can make a huge difference in changing the way professionals
in the industry work. In this case, HEIs through research can determine and insist on
the utilization of best practice procurement in their capital projects.
Table 8. Barriers
Barrier Relation to I4.0
Management When management does not understand benefits, this limits the change that
buy in can occur. This has been noted as an issue in the SACI
Slow change I4.0 works on premise of constantly changing technology that works more
efficiently and produces better processes. Change cannot be slow
Big data There were concerns about the amount of data and work needed to
implement e.g. changes to type of contract. If organizations unable to
handle data, that limits benefits of I4.0
Human capital Those working with technology need to be skilled and tech savvy, keeping
up with trends. This is lacking in the SACI, which has been having limited
success with change due to mostly archaic policies and comfort in the
current status quo
5 Conclusion
In order for the SACI to be prepared for I4.0, there is a need for stakeholders to value
best practice. The starting point of this would be in reviewing procurement policies and
ensuring they have the necessary flexibility to accommodate change. All stakeholders
also need to be able to work collaboratively together, sharing necessary information
and making good use of available data as this will work towards improving the pro-
cesses within the industry. They would also need to up skill as a means of ensuring they
are able to acclimatize to a more technological environment. BIM is a byword in
industry currently because of its “ability” to bring stakeholders together while sup-
plying all necessary data. Utilizing such processes would be a great step towards
preparedness for I4.0. Change is not impossible to accomplish, stakeholders need to be
proactive about preparation instead of waiting to be forced into it when their processes
are made obsolete by technology.
If HEIs take the initiative to change their manner of procurement, they have the ability
to influence the SACI. Starting with their procurement policies and working on more
collaborative relationships will make a difference in the route to preparedness for I4.0.
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An Examination of Contextual Factors
that Cause Variations in Labour Productivity
Mochelo Lefoka(&) and Abimbola Windapo

University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
mochelo.lefoka@uct.ac.za
Abstract. The performance of labour is one of the factors that contribute to the
success of the construction project. Labour productivity alone has been ascribed
the sole measure of poor project performance without an examination of factors
giving rise to this claim. Furthermore, there is limited research that examines the
primary factors affecting labour productivity in the context of South African
construction industry. This study examines the contextual factors affecting labour
productivity on construction projects and whether there are key factors that
impact on labour productivity on construction projects. The aim of this study will
be achieved through a review of literature pertinent to contextual factors
impacting labour productivity on construction projects. Additionally, a distri-
bution of a questionnaire survey to construction companies listed on the cidb
Register of Contractors in the grades 2–6. It emerged from the study of extant
literature that delays in delivery of material, inspection delays from engineers,
change orders from designers/consultants, lack of experience amongst workers
and mismanagement of resources on site, critically and negatively impact on
labour productivity on construction projects. This examination of contextual
factors that affect labour productivity provides necessary information for use by
construction organisations in implementing measures to properly address issues
pertaining to poor labour productivity on construction projects. Based on these
findings, the study recommends that construction organisations create a database
that clusters contextual factors per region/location of the project. This is to ensure
that the critical factors such as inadequate supervision and remuneration disputes
that impact on the performance of labour are addressed, while those that are out
of the organisation’s control such as shortage of materials and industrial action
are planned for at the pre-construction phase of the project. Further studies that
investigate the contextual factors impacting on labour productivity, using
empirical data is recommended.
Keywords: Delays Labour Material shortage Productivity Supervision
1 Introduction
Most global economies rely on the construction industry as a significant contributor to

the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [1]. This assertion holds for South Africa as the
sector contributes close to 9% to the country’s GDP [11]. Additionally, the construction
industry further forms part of one of the larger industries that significantly strives to

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_35
356 M. Lefoka and A. Windapo
create employment in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy. According
to Statistics South Africa (StatsSA), over 10,8 million people are employed in the
South African formal sector and 11% of this number work in the construction industry
[12]. Additionally, between 2015 and 2016, 2.6 million people were reported to be
employed in the formal sector of which the construction industry contributed 17% of
the number of those employed. It can, therefore, be deduced that the impact of the
construction sector to both employment and GDP is significant.
One of the endemic issues in the construction industry is the recorded poor per-
formance of labour [1], and this has sparked global concern for the sustainability of the
construction industry [2]. Notwithstanding the reported poor productivity, but it is also
the general perception and sometimes practices, that the project performance in the
construction industry is measured using the productivity of labour as a benchmark [3, 4].
This further allows contention between the different parameters that are used to measure
the productivity of labour on a construction project.
Labour productivity is defined as a ratio of the output obtained to the input utilised
to achieve the production [7–9]. This definition is expressed in Eq. 1 below;
Product output
Labour productity ¼ ð1Þ
Labour input
A criticism faced by the construction industry is the reported poor productivity that is
evidenced by poor workmanship on projects and the inability of projects to be completed
both to cost and on time [4, 13, 14]. Globally, a fundamental analysis of the factors that
give rise to this issue has been explored; however, the South African construction
industry has done this analysis marginally in comparison [3, 15]. It is crucial to unpack
and identify contextual factors that are perceived to disrupts labour performance on
construction projects and inadvertently, impact on the project performance.
In conclusion, this study aims to examine the contextual factors that affect the level of
labour productivity on site and rank them according to the level of significance both
within the designated cluster of factors and overall from a building project perspective.
Additionally, this study will conclude the way forward that the construction industry as a
whole can adopt and implement in their planning of activities, measures that can elim-
inate the excessive impact of these factors and their significant effects on project success.
2 Overview of Factors Impacting Labour Productivity
Due to the complex nature of the construction industry and the interconnectedness of
activities, a synthesis of factors that affect the productivity of labour from a project,
organisational and environmental perspective is essential to contextualise elements that
have a direct impact on the productivity of labour [16, 17]. Through a critical review of
the literature, critical factors influencing productivity were clustered together and
explained and this is represented in Fig. 1 below.
As can be seen in Fig. 1, these factors have been clustered according to the
components that when viewed as a whole, compliment the construction project. These
An Examination of Contextual Factors that Cause Variations in Labour Productivity 357
Fig. 1. Critical factors influencing labour productivity. Adapted from Jang et al. [16]
factors are adopted for this study and grouped into environmental, organisational,
technical and social categories [17]. These categories are explained below.
2.1 Environmental Factors

The geographical environment or conditions under which a construction project is being
executed, as well as the factors that are outside the control of the construction team, are
termed the site environmental factors [18, 19]. These environmental factors comprise of
the climatic conditions, ground conditions, as well as any other environmental con-
siderations on the site that can impact the level of productivity. In critically assessing
their impact and understanding what factors in this cluster are key to labour productivity,
the environmental factors need further analysis in relation to the construction site.
2.2 Organisational Factors

Management and organisational dynamics have the potential to affect the level of
labour productivity expended on a project, and as a result, the critical aspects of
management are crucial to understanding the impact and the offset of the expected
productivity output to that which is evidenced on site [18, 20]. It is postulated through
literature and shown in Fig. 1 that the capacity of management and their skill, adopted
management styles, economic changes that may destabilise the organisation and leg-
islature and policy, are factors that indirectly affect onsite productivity [17, 18, 20, 21].
2.3 Technical Factors

Technical factors relate to both the capabilities and the skill set possessed by the
labourers to execute the construction project [22]. Further arguments are that the nature
of the construction projects is complex and closely linked from one trade or work, to
the other, thus creating a relationship between activities which is sequential [23]. With
this presented level of complexity, it is evident that the disruption of one activity can
give rise to an important ripple effect of unproductivity in the following activities and
as a whole, the construction endeavour becomes unproductive [16, 22]. Furthermore,
the design of the project, method of construction employed, the innate complexity of
the project as well as the inability of the engineers to give due feedback with regards to
change orders can also impact labour productivity [23].
2.4 Social Factors

The construction industry is labour-intensive [24]. An often disregarded and not deeply
explored level of research, is the relationship between the level of labour output and the
social factors impacting the productivity of labour [25]. Socio-economic factors were
evaluated in relation to their impacts on labour productivity by some scholars, and it
was deduced that personal problems, substance abuse, commute between residential
homes to construction sites, are some of the factors that impact the level of productivity
[16, 24, 25]. It is thus essential to analyse the effect of social factors and their rela-
tionship to the level of expended productivity on construction projects.
A thorough review of peer-reviewed journal articles was adopted for this study. Fur-
thermore, keywords; labour, productivity, labour outputs were used to refine the search
for literature pertinent to this study. A research questionnaire was developed and
designed based on the synthesised literature and the intended objective of the study.
This questionnaire was validated and approved through a consultative process. The
questionnaire was administered using survey monkey web-based platform to contrac-
tors listed in Grades 2–6 of the cidb register of contractors. A total of 117 completed
questionnaires was obtained after cleaning the data and used in the data analysis.
However, for the objective of this paper, 58 contractors that operate on building pro-
jects were used in the analysis and the reporting of the data, and the other respondents
that worked in the road and infrastructure projects were excluded from this analysis to
be used in further studies. The Relative Importance Index (RII) method of analysis is
employed in the analysis of data for this research to rank the factors that affect the
productivity of labour on construction projects [26, 27]. Equation 2 shows the formula
used in calculating the Relative Importance Index (RII) [28];
Pn
i¼1 Wi
RII ¼ ð2Þ
AN
The numerator part of the equation computes the weight of the responses by multi-
plying the weight assigned to the variable with the number of respondents per variable.
However, the highest factor that could be attributed to the variable is multiplied to the
number of respondents to give us the denominator. The findings of the study are
discussed in the following section. The RII method is used in order to identify what
factors are perceived by the respondents to be critical to the productivity of labour on
construction project. Further studies will draw correlation of the degree of impact these
factors pose to the project performance.
4 Findings of the Study
The results of the study are presented in Table 1 below. The factors have been tabu-
lated and ranked according to their respective RII values calculated using Eq. 2. As can
be observed in Table 1, two different types of rankings are presented as Column A and
Column B respectively. Column A represents the classification of factors across the
four different categories of Site Environment, Organisation, Technical and Social
factors affecting labour productivity. While Column B represents the ranking of factors
within the specific group of factors impacting the productivity of labour.
Table 1. Perceptions of the respondents and the ranking of factors concerning IRR.
Very low…Very
high impact
Factors 1 2 3 4 5 RII Group Overall
ranking ranking
[B] [A]
Site Inclement weather (rain/cold/heat) 6 19 4 16 13 0.638 5 12
environment Unexpected site ground conditions 7 12 11 15 13 0.652 4 7
Site location/environment 6 17 9 18 8 0.617 7 17
Lack of experience amongst workers 5 15 6 19 13 0.669 2 4
Delays in delivery of material 6 13 4 15 20 0.703 1 1
Poor site supervision 9 19 3 12 15 0.617 7 17
Lack of tools and equipment 10 17 5 11 15 0.614 9 21
Mismanagement of resources on site 9 11 8 12 18 0.666 3 5
Rework due to poor quality 10 15 6 12 15 0.624 6 15
Organisational Non-payment of labour 17 5 5 11 20 0.641 3 11
factors Delays in payment of labour 15 8 3 13 19 0.645 1 9
Fluctuations in material/equipment 7 15 8 14 14 0.645 1 9
prices
Changes in management structure 14 13 10 12 9 0.562 8 30
Shortage of labour/manpower 9 19 5 16 9 0.590 6 27
Inexperienced supervisors 15 10 4 14 15 0.614 4 21
Change in government 10 18 7 11 12 0.590 6 27
legislature/policy
Economic changes (change in VAT, 11 15 6 11 15 0.614 4 21
inflation and foreign exchange rates)
Technical Poorly designed project 9 11 10 13 15 0.648 4 8
factors Incomplete drawings 8 13 5 18 14 0.659 3 6
Methods of construction 9 16 10 13 10 0.597 8 26
(prefabrication vs onsite)
Poor coordination/planning of 11 11 7 18 11 0.624 6 15
activities
The complexity of the project 9 10 14 12 13 0.634 5 13
Buildability of the structure 9 13 14 13 9 0.600 7 25
Inspection delays from engineers 8 10 8 15 17 0.679 1 2
Change orders from the 8 11 8 12 19 0.679 1 2
designers/consultants
(continued)
Very low…Very
high impact
Factors 1 2 3 4 5 RII Group Overall
ranking ranking
[B] [A]
Social factors Lack of experience of workers 12 13 6 13 14 0.614 4 21
Personal problems 15 11 8 15 9 0.572 5 29
Drug abuse 18 15 6 12 7 0.514 7 32
Alcohol abuse 19 17 4 11 7 0.497 8 33
Long commute periods to site 15 11 9 17 6 0.559 6 31
The relationship between supervisors 9 13 7 17 12 0.634 1 13
and labourers
Labour unrest/rioting 16 9 6 8 19 0.617 2 17
Uncertain job security 13 8 12 11 14 0.617 2 17
Further, the study sought to know what factors within the various clusters affect the
level of labour productivity. It can be observed from Table 1 that under site environ-
mental factors; Delays in delivery of material (RII = 0.703) is perceived by the
respondents as the primary factor affecting labour productivity, followed by Lack of
experience amongst workers (RII = 0.669), Mismanagement of resources on site
(RII = 0.666), Unexpected site ground conditions (RII = 0.652) and Inclement weather
(rain/cold/heat) (RII = 0.638) from a ranking perspective.
Moreover, under organisational factors; Delays in payment of labour (RII = 0.645)
and Fluctuations in material/equipment prices (RII = 0.645) are ranked first. In the
third rank, Non-payment of labour (RII = 0.641). The fourth-ranked factors are Inex-
perienced supervisors (RII = 0.614) and Economic changes (change in VAT, inflation
and foreign exchange rates) (RII = 0.614).
The ranking of factors under the technical cluster of factors that impact labour
productivity shows that: Inspection delays from engineers (RII = 0.617) and Change
orders from the designers/consultants (RII = 0.617) are both considered by the
respondents as primary factors affecting labour productivity, followed by Incomplete
Drawings (RII = 0.659), Poorly designed project (RII = 0.648) and Complexity of the
project (RII = 0.634) from a ranking perspective.
Lastly, under the social factors, respondents perceive that Relationship between
supervisors and labourers (RII = 0.634) as the most critical factor affecting labour
productivity from a ranking perspective, followed by Labour unrest/rioting (RII =
0.617), Uncertain job security (RII = 0.617), Lack of experience of workers (RII =
0.614) and Personal problems (RII = 0.572).
Overall, Delays in delivery of material (RII = 0.703) is perceived by respondents to
be the critical factor affecting labour productivity, followed by inspection delays from
engineers (RII = 0.679) and Change orders from the designers/consultants (0,679) both
listed as the second factor, Lack of experience amongst workers (RII = 0.669) and
Mismanagement of resources on site (RII = 0.666) from a ranking perspective.
5 Discussions of the Findings
The study sought to find out the factors affecting labour productivity on construction
projects employing both a systematic review of extant literature and a survey of
construction professionals. The outcome of this study resonate with this studies that
conducted research in a similar research fiend, particularly on the subject of the pro-
ductivity of labour on construction projects. It emerged from the study that Delays in
delivery of materials is perceived as the key factor significantly affecting the produc-
tivity of labour and this finding is corroborated by literature sources [16]. The study
also found that respondents see inspection delays from engineers to affects productivity
as the factor ranks number one is technical factors and ranks second under a general
ranking of factors. The inability of engineers to respond to inspections requested for
work to commence, impact the productivity of labour as this contributes to idle time
and inefficiency of labour.
Furthermore, this demoralises the productivity [24]. Additionally, change orders
from designers also affect the productivity of labour as it is ranked second under
general factors and again in first ranking under technical factors. The occurrence of
change orders contributes to a change in work schedule which further impacts the
productivity of labour as the disruption in the operational programme requires labour to
work on tasks pre-planned for an additional period [4].
Lack of experience amongst workers is another factor that impacts the level of
labour productivity. This factor is ranked fourth under general factors and in the second
position under site environment factors. Lack of experience amongst workers gives rise
to construction rework and additionally, cost and time overruns [4, 29]. Mismanage-
ment of resources on site is another factor that impacts productivity on construction
projects. This factor ranked fifth in the overall factors and third in Site environmental
factors. The results are consistent with other studies as the results are consistent with
the work that has been done before and in other countries [9, 19]. As part of the
objective of the study, it was established that in factors that impact on the productivity
of labour; site environment, organisational factors, technical factors and social factors,
there are those specific factors that impact the level of productivity as evidenced from
the analysed data. The degree of an impact amongst these factors is further evidenced
by the level of ranking that these factors were assigned. Overall, it can be deduced from
the study that Site Environmental factors are perceived to highly affect labour pro-
ductivity more than the organisational, technical and social factors.
6 Conclusion
The findings of the study, show that delays in delivery of material, inspection delays
from engineers, change orders from the designers/consultants, lack of experience
amongst workers and mismanagement of resources on site are key factors perceived to
impact the level of labour productivity in building projects. From a theoretical per-
spective, some of the factors that are found in literature have been tested for different
project types and not specifically for building projects. This study has incorporated
some of those factors to the research design and moreover, found that in the RII ranking
matrix, some of the factors have a practical implication of affecting the performance of
labour as per the respondents. Based on these findings, the study concludes that esti-
mators and planners who do not consider the site factors during the project and
planning stage will set the project up for failure during the construction stage - time and
cost overruns. This must also elicit thorough planning and before a project is developed
to prevent and eliminate the potential impacts that these factors affect the level of
labour productivity.
Acknowledgements. This study was in part financed by the National Research Foundation
(NRF). Additionally, the opinions expressed in this paper and the derived conclusions are those
of the authors and not attributed to NRF.
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Assessment of Political Risk Factors Associated
with Public-Private Partnership Projects
in Developing Countries: A Case Study
of Lagos State Nigeria
Akintayo Opawole(&) and Kahilu Kajimo-Shakantu
Department of Quantity Surveying & Construction Management,

University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
tayoappmail@gmail.com, kajimoshakantuk@ufs.ac.za
Abstract. Previous studies identify political risk factors as significant to the

poor performance of public-private partnership (PPP) contracts in general. This
study therefore aimed at developing a simplified approach to manage this cat-
egory of risk factors. Quantitative data were obtained using a structured ques-
tionnaire which was self-administered to 5 architects, 7 quantity surveyors, 12
engineers, 1 lawyer, 1 economist/financial manager/banker and 8 builders
involved at the design, procurement, financing, construction, and project man-
agement of PPP projects in Lagos State, Nigeria. The respondents were selected
using a respondent driven sampling (RDS) approach. Data analysis was done
using descriptive and inferential statistics. Key findings include that corruption
and exchange rate policy were the most frequently occurring risk factors with
indices of 0.806 and 0.748 respectively. Moreover, strict implementation of anti-
corruption and transparency together with appropriate use of financial instru-
ments were the appropriate mitigation measures. The study highlights impli-
cations for managing political risk factors associated with PPP projects that
could guide investment decisions in infrastructure development by the private
sector in developing countries.
Keywords: Infrastructure Public-private partnership Project

Political risk Risk factor
1 Introduction
The success of public-private partnerships (PPP) is essentially influenced by sociopo-

litical and economic characteristics of a country. According to [1], maturities of legal
regime and political stability have both been significant in different countries’ contexts in
the execution of PPP contracts. Unstable sociopolitical factors are significant and
necessitate cautious assessments before arriving at any investment decisions in PPP
transactions in developing countries [2]. Political risk factors such as; long rule of mil-
itary, civil disturbance, change in law, political violence, expropriation, breach of con-
tract, and currency convertibility have made PPP market immature and highly risky [3, 4].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_36
Assessment of Political Risk Factors Associated with Public-Private Partnership 365
Political risks have manifested in three main ways related to traditional, regulatory
and non-compliance factors [5]. Traditional risk factors include opportunism, expro-
priation, currency convertibility and instability of policies. Regulatory risks are those
related substantially to change in law and policies relating to PPP contracts as well as
lack of mechanisms for enforcement of obligations and penalty. Non-compliance risks
include default in buyer obligations, lack of mechanism for enforcement of buyer
obligations and inability to comply resulting from forecast or managerial deficiency [5].
These types of risk factors have been identified as a critical success factors (CSF) PPPs
in infrastructure delivery in almost all countries. For example, political factors were
considered highly significant in the failure of transportation infrastructure by [sanni,
2012] in the case of the Ibadan-Lagos expressway project and delay in the delivery of
Lekki-Epe road in the Nigerian context. Notwithstanding, the limited number of studies
that have specifically focused on this category of risk have not enabled their proper
management in PPPs within the developing countries’ contexts. The purpose of this
study is therefore to evaluate the political risk factors associated with PPP projects with
a view to developing a simplified approach to their management. The study is expected
to highlight implications for managing political risk factors that influence PPP projects
and guide investment decision in infrastructure business by private sectors in devel-
oping counties.
2 Literature Review
Various limitations of the traditional delivery system of infrastructure delivery such as

budget constraints [6, 7]; lack of political will by governments [8]; and competence of
public sector organizations (PSOs) [9], had resulted in the adoption PPPs [10].
Although different variants of PPPs have emerged in recent times, the generic structure
often comprise public sector organisations (PSOs) and private sector investors (con-
cessionaire) [11].
A number of studies have identified political risk as highly significant to PPP
transactions in developing countries [12, 13, 14]. Political risks such as approval risk
and change in law were identified in [15]. Ameyaw and Chan [16] identified political
interference, termination by government, change in government, political instability,
corruption, weak regulatory and monitoring regime, uncertain tariff review, strained
relationship, maturity of public party, competence of public sector organization, and
public opposition. In [17], currency convertibility, expropriation, breach of contract,
civil war/civil disturbance, legal and bureaucratic risks were identified. Lashinde et al.
[18] identified currency risk, expropriation, taxation, change in law, approval bottle-
necks and corruption. Moreover, [19] identified cancellation of project, construction
permit delay, community risk such as protest by individual, formal/informal groups,
outright confiscation or nationalization of asset, breach of contract, renewal of con-
cession agreement, concession explicitly and ineffective judiciary system.
Political risk factors have affected PPP transactions most significantly through the
withdrawal of concessionaire when the profitability on the investment is becoming
uncertain [20]. The approach towards managing political risks include risk retention
[3], and this has been effective in risk factors such as changes in regulation and delay in
366 A. Opawole and K. Kajimo-Shakantu
project approval. Excessive contract variations have been preferred to be shared by

both parties [21]. Moreover, convertibility risk, expropriation, civil disturbance, change
in law, war, political violence, expropriation, breach of contract, and currency con-
vertibility risk had been mitigated using insurance mechanism [22]. Earlier studies [3,
17] and [23] have indicated varying frequency of occurrence, degree of impact and
severity of risk factors on PPP contract performance in different countries’ contexts.
With limited studies that have specifically focused on political risk factors, it appears
that the absence of framework for effective management of this category of risk factors
in PPPs explains in part the poor performance of PPP contracts in Nigeria.
3 Research Method
The research design adopted was a quantitative descriptive approach. The study
adopted the use of a structured questionnaire, which was designed to capture issues
such as the identification of risk factors as well as their impact and mitigation measures.
The respondents were selected using the respondent driven sampling (RDS) approach.
RDS is an advanced snowball sampling technique that has been widely adopted in
studies involving an undefined population [24]. This approach has been widely adopted
in PPP studies due to the absence of comprehensive lists of PPP participants in the
Nigerian construction industry [14, 25]. Li et al. Further, [26] defines the population of
PPP participants in countries that are newly experimenting with PPPs as dynamic,
which makes it difficult to compile a comprehensive population of participants.
Respondents in this study were 5 architects, 7 quantity surveyors, 12 engineers, 1
lawyer, 1 economist/financial manager/banker and 8 builders, involved at the design,
procurement, financing, construction, and project management of PPP projects in
Lagos State. The respondents were considered suitable to provide information relating
to political risk factors based on their experience and involvement at the various stages
of PPP projects.
A structured questionnaire was utilised to enable a relatively simple and quick
capture and assessment of the variables evaluated [27]. The first part of the ques-
tionnaire was designed to gather respondents’ profile data such as the number of PPPs
they have been involved on, type of PPP projects, academic qualifications, professional
qualifications and years of working experience in the construction industry and on PPP
contracts specifically. The second part of the questionnaire evaluated the specific
objective of this study. This part was structured based on a 5 point Likert scale, where 1
and 5 represent the least and highest ranking respectively. Specific features relating to
identification of political risk factors as well as their impact and mitigation measures
were listed in tables for quicker evaluation by the respondents. The second part of the
questionnaire was also designed in a closed ended format to ease the analysis of
specific set of responses rated by the respondents. Data analysis was achieved using
percentage, mean and relative importance index.
4 Results and Discussions

4.1 Profile of Respondents
The profiles of the respondents were evaluated based on type of organizations, cov-
erage of organizations’ operations since establishment, designation of respondents,
highest academic qualifications, professional qualifications, type of projects under-
taken, years of working experience and number of PPP contract executed. Thirty-four
(34) copies of the questionnaires, which represent a response rate of 42.5% of the
eighty (80) copies administered, were properly completed and analyzed to provide
quantitative data for the assessment. The designations of respondents showed that
engineers were the highest with 47.4% of the sample. Quantity surveyors were 22.8%,
architects were 17.5%, and builders 1.8% of the respondents. Other
professions/designations in the construction industry were 10.5%.
Twenty-six (76.5%) of the respondents were from public organizations and 23.5%
represented private sector organizations. About 79.4% of the respondents have oper-
ated within their state, 2.9% within their geopolitical zone, 8.8% at national level and
8.8% at international level. About 14.7% of the sample were architects, while quantity
surveyor, engineers and builder were represented at 35.3%, 20.6% and 23.5%
respectively. Lawyers and financial administrators were represented at 2.9%. Analysis
of the academic qualifications of the respondents showed that 29.4% held higher a
national diploma (HND) and 8.8% were those with a postgraduate diploma (PGD).
About 32.4% of the respondents obtained a first degree while those with masters degree
and doctorate degree were represented at 26.5% and 2.9% respectively. The result of
the professional qualifications showed that 17.6% of the respondents had professional
affiliation to the Nigerian Institute of Quantity surveyors (NIQS) and 14.7% were
members of the Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA). Members who were affiliated to
the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) were 29.4%, 20.6% were members of the
Nigerian Institute of Building (NIOB), and 2.9% were affiliated to Institute of Char-
tered Accountants Nigeria/Association of National Accountants of Nigeria
(ACA/ANAN).
Respondents with some other professional affiliations represented 14.7% of the
sample. About 19.1% of the respondents had been involved in transportation projects,
16.4% in power projects and 19.1% had been involved in housing projects. The
respondents with experience in commercial projects, water, communication projects
were represented at 27.9%, 0.2% and 0.4% respectively. The mean work experience of
all the respondents was estimated at 7 years. The overall results of the analysis of the
profile of the respondents justify their adequate education levels to supply reliable data
for this study.
4.2 Evaluation of the Political Risk Factors Associated with PPP

Contracts
Table 1 shows the frequency of occurrence (FoO) of the political risk factors evaluated.
Corruption was ranked first with a RII of 0.806. In second place was currency exchange
with an index of 0.748, while constraints on foreign currencies were ranked third with
(RII = 0.724). Community opposition, and variation to the contract scored indices of
0.700 and 0.706 to rank third and fourth respectively. Rethinking of nationalization of
projects and failure to appropriate funds for proposed projects were equally rated with
RII of 0.700, ranking fifth.
Table 1. Evaluation of the political risk factors

Factors Frequency of Degree of Severity
occurrence impact index
RII Rank RII Rank
Corruption 0.806 1 0.853 1 0.688
Currency exchange 0.748 2 0.741 2 0.554
Political interference 0.694 8 0.712 3 0.494
Nationalization of project 0.700 5 0.682 4 0.477
Variation to contract 0.700 5 0.676 5 0.473
Government initiated change of project 0.664 12 0.676 5 0.449
scope
Construction of competitive projects by 0.670 11 0.671 7 0.450
government
Adjustment of construction duration 0.652 15 0.665 8 0.434
Community opposition 0.706 4 0.659 9 0.465
Change of output specification 0.658 13 0.653 10 0.430
Delay in land acquisition 0.606 25 0.647 11 0.392
Restriction on foreign currencies transfer 0.724 3 0.641 12 0.464
Restriction on foreign direct investment 0.658 13 0.641 12 0.422
Change in enabling law 0.648 19 0.635 14 0.411
Failure to appropriate necessary fund 0.700 5 0.629 15 0.440
Weak agreement between public and 0.594 28 0.624 16 0.371
private parties
Breach of contract 0.652 15 0.618 17 0.403
Judicial and adjudication risk 0.652 15 0.618 17 0.403
Approval bottlenecks 0.682 9 0.606 19 0.413
Resistance to reveal vital information 0.600 26 0.606 19 0.364
Court injunctions 0.624 23 0.594 21 0.371
Nationalization 0.600 26 0.588 22 0.353
War/civil disturbance risk 0.624 23 0.576 23 0.359
Project/contract cancellation by 0.682 9 0.571 24 0.389
government
Asset transfer 0.642 20 0.571 24 0.367
Volatile taxation policy 0.652 15 0.571 24 0.372
Outright cancellation of project by 0.636 22 0.565 27 0.359
government agencies
Change in investment law 0.642 20 0.535 28 0.343
Expropriation 0.570 29 0.494 29 0.282
The risk factors with the least FoO were expropriation (RII = 0.570), weak
agreement between parties (RII = 0.594), land acquisition (RII = 0.606), civil distur-
bance ranked (RII = 0.624), court injunction (RII = 0.624), and outright cancellation
by public agencies (RII = 0.642). The findings that corruption, constraints on foreign
currencies, community opposition, nationalization were rated high are consistent with
earlier findings in [3] and [23].
An evaluation of the degree of impact of political risk factors showed that cor-
ruption is the highest with RII of 0.853 while currency exchange with RII of 0.741, and
political interference with RII of 0.712, ranked first, second and third respectively.
Government rethink for nationalization ranked fourth with RII = 0.682 and variation to
the contract by public sector had the fifth degree of impact with RII of 0.676. This was
closely followed by construction of competitive projects, which ranked sixth with RII
of 0.671. Risk factors with the least degree of impact were; expropriation which ranked
29th with RII of 0.494, and change in law which ranked 28th with index of 0.535.
Outright cancellation, asset transfer and volatile taxation policies which were all
ranked 24th with index of 0.571 each, civil disturbance which ranked 23rd with RII
0.576, and nationalization ranked 22nd with RII of 0.588.
The severity indices of the risk factors were calculated from the product of fre-
quency of occurrence (FoO) and the degree of impact of the factors (RImI). The
severity of the factors ranged as 0.282 SI 0.688, with corruption, currency
exchange, political interference and nationalization of the projects ranked first, second,
third and fourth with indices of 0.688, 0.554, 0.494 and 0.477, respectively. Con-
struction of competitive projects (SI = 0.449) and government initiated change of
project scope (SI = 0.449) ranked sixth and seventh respectively. Corruption with SI of
0.668 ranked first as the political factors with the highest severity. The significance of
corruption and currency exchange is far reaching as can be deduced from their rankings
as factors with the highest FoO and RImI.
4.3 Evaluation of Mitigation Measure for Political Risk Factors

Table 2 shows the evaluation of mitigation measures against the political risk factors.
The relative importance index (RII) of the factors ranged between 0.730 SI
0.84, which is interpreted as significant or very significant on the likert scale adopted
in the questionnaire used. The results show that all the identified measures were sig-
nificant in mitigating political risks and agreed in part with [23]. The relative signifi-
cance of the factors, however, shows strict implementation of anti-corruption and
transparent standards ranked as first with RII of 0.841, while culture of open dialogue
ranked second with RII of 0.835. Effective interaction between both parties, effective
dispute resolution mechanisms, reliable and efficient administration and community
engagement were equally significant at 0.824 to rank third. The least significant
measures were integrated risk management system (0.729), establishment of export
credit agency (RII = 0.730), multilateral investment guarantee agency (0.753) and
transfer of political risk to public partner (0.759).
Table 2. Mitigation measure for political risk factors

Factors RII Rank
Strict implementation of anti-corruption and transparent standards 0.841 1
Culture of open dialogue 0.835 2
Effective interaction between both parties 0.824 3
Effective dispute resolution mechanisms 0.824 3
Reliable and efficient administration 0.824 3
Community engagement 0.824 3
Appropriate use of financial instruments 0.812 7
Government guarantee 0.812 7
Private partner measures 0.812 7
Public partner measures 0.812 7
Responsive business conduct 0.806 11
Joint public-private measures 0.806 11
Establishment of PPP agency 0.800 13
Efficient procurement and permit process 0.794 14
Political risk insurance 0.794 14
Stability of laws and regulations 0.788 16
World bank guarantee 0.782 17
Establishment of specific project governance agency 0.765 19
Establishment of multilateral organization provider of political risk 0.759 20
insurance such as multilateral investment guarantee agency
Transfer of political risk to public partner 0.759 20
Multilateral investment guarantee agency 0.753 22
Integrated risk management system 0.729 23
Establishment of export credit agency 0.730 24
5 Conclusion
This study evaluates the political risk associated with PPP projects and thereby
developed a simplified approach to understanding the management of the risk factors.
Corruption and currency exchange were the political risk factors with the highest
frequency of occurrence and degree of impact. However, expropriation was the least
factor considering its frequency of occurrence and degree of impact. This high severity
indices of the impact of the risk factors suggests that PPP contracts in Nigeria are likely
to be subjected to multiple risks occurrences and high impact. The simplified approach
to management of political risk factors provided in this study is therefore expected to
guide parties involved in PPP contracts in making investment decisions and in
preparing robust contact packages. Although the study provides highlights of the
implications for management of political risk factors associated with PPP contracts,
further assessment of the concept through a mixed methodology approach is recom-
mended to provide findings that are more robust. Moreover, the approach adopted
especially, the sampling method, could at best enable the generalisation of the finding
in countries with similar PPP maturity markets as the study area. This study could also
be extended to develop a multi-factor approach for the management of political risk
factors in PPP contracts.
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Delphi Survey on the Influence of Succession
Planning in Leadership Development
Murendeni Liphadzi(&), Clinton Aigbavboa, Didibhuku Thwala,

and Titus Kwofie

University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
mliphadzi@uj.ac.za
Abstract. Leadership succession is vital for the construction industry, and now,
with the generation z and baby boomers entering the age of retirement, the
industry must place greater endeavour in planning for succession amongst the
current workforce. The study aimed to establish the influence of different suc-
cession planning factors on leadership development in the construction industry.
The study adopted the Delphi survey system of data collection to examine the
study objective. Delphi experts (Construction specialists and researchers) were
engendered from peer-reviewed conference proceedings and the South African
construction industry professionals’ database. The evaluation of different suc-
cession planning factors was done by identifying the influence of each suc-
cession factor on leadership development; these factors were measured between
no influence and very high influence. Data collected were analysed using mean
item score and interquartile deviation. Of the different succession planning
attributes evaluated, ability to understand organisational long term vision had a
high influence on developing succession planning attributes for leadership
development in the construction industry. The article contributes to the frame of
knowledge on leadership development and succession planning in the con-
struction industry.
Keywords: Human resources Leadership development Succession planning
1 Introduction
Humans are the most essential resource for many industries, and the construction
industry is no exemption. The construction industry depends on the construction
workforce of the organization; however, executives that establish and direct the
companies are critical to the development of any construction organization [1].
Besides, potential leaders are even limited within Small Medium companies in the
South African construction industry, and these companies are the majority of con-
struction firms in the country [2]. Also, most of the experienced companies in the South
African construction industry have an ageing generation on the verge of retirement, and
this generation has various overtime carried out leadership and management respon-
sibilities [3]. The succession of these leaders is an inevitable change that will effectively

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_37
374 M. Liphadzi et al.
influence many construction firms in the coming future [4]. Moreover, proper suc-
cession planning is essential for any construction firm. Xe et al. were of the view that if
companies aspire to attain project success, they should make leadership transition a
priority for their organizations [5].
Organizational professionals prominently discuss leadership succession planning.
Yet, notwithstanding the interest from these professionals, the undertaking often falls
with human resource managers of different firms to organize and coordinate efforts to
establish and operate planned succession programs and avert the succession crises [6].
Without these programs, organizations will have difficulty maintaining leadership
continuity or detecting appropriate leaders when a change is necessary. Planning for
succession has been credited for reducing the impacts that come with construction
project failures [7]. Moreover, construction firms within the industry should actively
prepare for leadership transitions and minimize the negative influences that come with
abrupt managerial changes. The research article appraised the Delphi experts’ views on
the influence of different succession planning attributes on leadership development
within the construction industry.
2 Succession Planning
Studies in succession planning dates back to the early 20th century with Henry Fayol’s
14 principles of management. Fayol’s principles concedes the significance of devel-
oping and retaining key employees; he emphasized these principles by asserting the
stability of tenure personnel. Nonetheless, it was not until the early 1960s that research
in succession planning developed significantly [8]. Preferably, succession planning is a
continuing process, a practice that is intertwined into the inclusive strategic plan of an
organisation. Succession planning embraces developing talent from within the organ-
isation, moreover, talent externally [9].
To succeed in the ever changing industries, it is vital for industry key personnel to
understand the succession processes and to be able to deal with transformations and
changes within different positions. It is to this end that succession planning is required
to make sure that these competencies are not misplaced if and when people leave firms
[17]. SFGate indicated that not having a succession plan sets the future of any
organisation at risk [10]. Moreover, in this extremely competitive and fast-paced world,
one needs every technical resource you can get, and in-relation to human resources;
you need the best possible talent to keep up with the changing world. Rothwell
revealed the importance of evaluating, selecting and developing the right candidate for
successful succession planning [11].
Construction firms should not disregard the challenges and problems of planning
for succession if they aspire for the firm’s continuous success [5]. Previous studies
established the benefits of planning for succession, but there is minimal research
available to understand the unique attributes that influence succession planning for
leadership development in the construction industry. Though human resource is vital
for the construction industry [1], research that speaks to maintaining and replacing the
construction workforce has afforded little support towards the South African con-
struction industry. Moreover, these succession planning fundamentals are barely found
Delphi Survey on the Influence of Succession Planning 375
in small construction companies [2]. Besides, it is essential for individuals selected for
succession within a firm to be trained for them to become leaders within the con-
struction industry and further align with the firms’ strategic goals [6].
Dahlke indicated that different generations are collectively working together than
ever before, and each generation brings its own set of principles and ways of working
[12]. It is vital to effectively manage these different generations, though it is a challenge
that has been noted by a few authors. Thus, effective succession planning processes are
required to make sure that firms can deal with the above mentioned eminent challenge.
Moreover, when selecting replacements for managers who leave firms, firms need to
choose people who are proficient in dealing with the above discussed generational
disparities.
It is also noteworthy to note that Baby Boomers are approaching retirement age.
Although statistics indicate that many Baby Boomers are planning to work into their
70s, the reality is that employers will soon be facing a tremendous increase in the
number of retirements and, therefore, open positions. The mass retirements of Baby
Boomers will lead to a severe loss of skilled, experienced, knowledgeable employees, a
situation that might be compounded and occur across all industries [12].
To reduce the impact of this significant shift in the workforce, it is even more
critical to identify, train, and develop employees to fill these impending vacancies.
Besides, globalisation has brought us a more culturally diverse workforce. As a result,
it is vital for the succession-planning team to recognise the diversity of the workforce
and take careful note of the skill levels of people from different parts of the world,
while also paying extra attention to their customs, values, expectations, attitudes,
preferences, and work styles [13]. Given, the emerging multigenerational, culturally
diverse workplace, new sets of competencies are needed by people at every level from
the CEOs to front-line employees.
2.1 Importance of Succession Planning

Succession planning will help construction firms clarify the short term and long-term
staffing needs of any organization, it is also important to set up a tailor-made plan to
identify, attract, and deploy the right people for the right positions and leadership
transitions. It additionally helps with creating a road map for the future of the firm [12].
Succession planning and management can improve employee morale by reassuring
promotion from within the firm. Indeed, promotions from within permit an organisation
to develop the skills and abilities of individuals more successfully, and the opportunity
to gain a promotion can serve as an incentive [14].
Moreover, Succession planning is needed to make sure that organizations keep up
with technological developments. Not only do organizations need to train and develop
personnel to be more tech-savvy, but they need a systematic plan to make sure that
when people leave, new candidates can be equally technological [12]. Lastly, the
construction industry that seeks to plan for the future will need ongoing analysis to
prepare the workforce for changing roles, based on the changing business conditions
and internal strategic initiatives.
3 Methodology
The methodology segment gives detail on the method used to determine the influence
of different succession planning factors on leadership development in the South African
construction industry. A Delphi survey was conducted amongst 13 experts (academics,
built environment professionals and business owners) in the South African construction
industry. A Delphi study is a group evaluation instrument compelling qualified experts
who have an understanding of the subjects at hand [15]. Each expert was required to
meet some of the following criteria; Knowledge: Knows construction management and
project management; knowledgeable in leadership research, knowledgeable in the field
of management theory. Academic Qualification: A degree related to any field and has
had occupation and experience focusing on infrastructural development issues, psy-
chology, construction management, project management and social sciences. Experi-
ence: Previously or currently performing consulting and contracting services within the
construction industry or any related infrastructure projects. The experts should
demonstrate a high degree in the subject matter and an also have an extensive theo-
retical understanding thereof. Research: Has done research on leadership and man-
agement issues. Membership: Member of professional organization or represent such
organization. Finally, Enthusiasm: Panel members must be eager to participate entirely
in the Delphi study.
The recommendations of Rowe et al. [16, 17] were assumed for the current study,
whereby they stated that respondents should be enough to successfully consolidate the
expert views, but not so large as to analyse the results in an uncontrollable manner.
Five of these criteria items were measured than the customarily advocated two. Experts
were required to be in managerial positions and also have an understanding of lead-
ership development. The initial Delphi survey was made up of 20 experts comprising
academics and construction professionals who were randomly selected based on the
criteria. The experts applied their knowledge on the leadership concepts raised through
the developed questionnaire. From the 20 experts requested to participate in the Delphi
survey, 13 responded and completed all the three rounds. These amount of experts was
considered sufficient grounded on the literature recommendations from scholars who
have previously employed the Delphi technique, whereby they cited that, it viable to
have between 6 and 16 experts, this makes 13 experts as seen in the current study
reasonable [17]. Likewise, experts were asked to rate the impact factors influencing
succession planning for leadership development in the construction industry as shown
in Table 1. Data attained from the survey instrument were analysed from Microsoft
Excel. The output from the analysis was a set of descriptive statistics whereby the mean
items score and interquartile deviation (IQD) were determined through a scale that
reflected no influence, low influence, medium influence, high influence and very high
influence.
4 Findings
Results from the Delphi survey shows the (14) listed succession planning measurement
variables, that were recognized by the experts as influencing succession planning for
leadership development. When assessed, findings revealed all 14 measurement vari-
ables to have achieved consensus with IQD cut off (IQD 1) score (See Table 1).
14 variables managed to reach the median score of 7, which implied a high influence
(HI: 7–8.99).
Table 1. Succession planning attributes

Table 1: Succession planning attributes Median Mean SD IQD
Knowledge management features 8 8.00 0.55 0.00
Future focused features 8 7.86 0.66 0.75
Succession time management features 8 7.64 0.50 1.00
Ability to understand organisational long-term vision 8 8.00 0.55 0.00
Leadership continuity features 7 7.29 0.47 0.75
Talent identification features 7 7.14 0.77 0.75
Talent management features 7 7.14 0.53 0.00
Transition management features 7 7.29 0.61 1.00
Change management features 7 7.36 0.74 1.00
Skills transferring features 7 7.29 0.61 1.00
Employee retention features 7 7.07 0.62 0.00
Leadership ability to document the succession plan 7 7.00 0.78 0.00
Ability to communicate the succession plan with 7 7.36 0.63 0.75
immediate managers
Ability to review the succession plan continually 7 7.14 0.36 0.00
SD = Standard deviation; IQD = Interquartile deviation
Findings from the survey divulged that the following 14 succession planning
dimension variables were contemplated by the experts to have varying influence on
leadership development in the construction industry.
– Knowledge management features (HI)
– Future focused features (HI)
– Succession time management features (HI)
– Ability to understand organisational long-term vision (HI)
– Leadership continuity features (HI)
– Talent identification features (HI)
– Talent management features (HI)
– Transition management features (HI)
– Change management features (HI)
– Skills transferring features (HI)
– Employee retention features (HI)
– Leadership ability to document the succession plan (HI)
– Ability to communicate the succession plan with immediate managers (HI)
– Ability to review the succession plan continually (HI)
From the impact assessments of the factors; findings discovered that all 14 of the
factors had high influence towards leadership development.
Human capital in a firm is the most vital resource in the construction industry.
Moreover, the absolute succession need for leadership creates undetected impacts to
construction firms. These succession implementation challenges can cause entities to
perform financially and operationally poor. This section bestows the discussions of the
findings from the Delphi survey on the impact of succession planning variables on
leadership development in the construction industry. Results reveal that knowledge
management and succession management features are fundamental for leadership
development and this corresponds with the work by [12, 14]. Further findings disclosed
that it is essential for construction mangers and personnel to have the ability to
understand the long-term organisational vision of their firms and this notion supports
the effort by [7, 8, 13, 14].
The objective of this article was to evaluate several succession planning factors that
influence leadership development in the construction industry. This was done using the
Delphi survey technique. The study shows that succession planning has high level of
impact on leadership change and development. This study offers a strong base for
leadership succession research in the South African construction industry.
References
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Res. News 24(3/4), 101–105 (2001)
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(2006)
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659 (1993)
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empirical study in China. J. Chin. Entrepreneurship 2(2), 148–164 (2010)
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leadership. Int. J. Project Manage. 26, 620–630 (2008)
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Corp. Gov. 13(2), 168–177 (2005)
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327–372 (1994)
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27104573_1_bloomberg-briefing-succession-releases-quarterly-results
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Talent from Within, 4th edn. American Management Association, New York (2010)
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Wiley, New York (2016)
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Leadersh. Manag. Eng. 2(2), 38–41 (2002)
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4th edn. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks (2014)
Impact of Construction Health and Safety
in Economic Growth
Sitsabo Dlamini1 and Gcinithemba Masimula2(&)

1
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
2
Alakhiwe Project Management, Midrand, South Africa
Sitsabo.dlamini@wits.ac.za
Abstract. There is a great deal of interest in occupational health and safety

(OHS) in the infrastructure sector of most developing countries. A lot has been
said about how dangerous the infrastructure sector is on OHS. Given the poor
record of OHS in the infrastructure sector, it is of interest to understand how this
affects economic growth. This paper employs a descriptive analysis of data
collected using a structured questionnaire to examine how OHS impacts on
economic growth. The impact has been measured in terms of the degree of
satisfaction of customers’ needs in terms of budget. The use of the SERVQUAL
model in the analysis of the results reveal that OHS has a positive impact on
project delivery. This can be construed to mean that the implementation of OHS
in the infrastructure sector has a potential to positively influence GDP growth in
developing countries.
Keywords: Health Safety Economic growth Project delivery
1 Introduction
The construction of physical infrastructure to provide society’s needs such as water

supply, flood control and transport is characterized by its large, elaborately designed
and enduring features. It has been technology-driven to find better and efficient ways of
meeting these needs. Networked delivery systems of infrastructure delivery have
become common in recent years.
Construction is considered a major sector of the economy throughout the world. It
influences investment. According to Hillebrandt, construction produces infrastructure
that provides goods and services [8]. Construction products such as roads and factory
buildings are considered as investment goods because they are used to create other
commodities. Good transport infrastructure and the availability of factories attract
investment into other sectors of the economy, such as manufacturing.
The infrastructure sector provides commercial facilities in which business operate.
It builds dwelling facilities where people reside. The sector also builds education and
health infrastructure. Increased demand for construction inputs such as cement and
steel influences investment in the manufacturing sector. The provision of infrastructure
is therefore vital for any economy to prosper.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_38
Impact of Construction Health and Safety in Economic Growth 381
In a case study of the infrastructure sector of Kenya, Muiruri and Mulinge ascer-
tained that despite the importance associated with the sector, infrastructure is regarded
as an accident-prone sector of the economy [13]. They asserted that the infrastructure
sector was characterized with frequent accidents and problems of ill health. The fun-
damental challenge faced by most developing countries, especially in Africa is in
effectively implementing occupational health and safety (OHS) procedures in con-
struction sites.
What is OHS? The International Labour Organisation defines OHS not only as a
means of avoiding accidents and preventing disease but also as all aspects of the
worker’s well-being [9]. In the same vein, Monk described OHS as a method through
which the employees’ safety, health and welfare is protected [11].
Monk went on to suggest that the maintenance of OHS issues in high regard in
construction should be viewed as a fundamental human right. The nature of the con-
struction work should not limit the manner in which workers carry out their work. Care
must be taken to protect workers from any potential hazards. In most economies, OHS
matters are regulated through appropriate legislation. Efforts are made to ensure that all
employers are conversant with the risks involved and their obligations. It is not clear
how the negative OHS picture of the infrastructure sector affects the sector’s contri-
bution to economic growth.
How does the poor OHS record of the infrastructure sector affect economic growth?
It is not clear if this question has been explored in any depth. However, a vast amount
of literature is available that points to the poor OHS record of the infrastructure sector.
A descriptive survey undertaken by Smallwood revealed that inadequate enforcement
of OHS legislation contributes to high project risk [16]. This negatively affects overall
project performance, particularly project costs. The next chapter examines the estab-
lished views on OHS as it relates to the infrastructure sector. The importance of OHS
with respect to economic growth is then discussed.
2 Literature Review
Understanding of the link between OHS and economic growth in developing countries
is poor. Using a multi-methods strategy design, Kheni, attempted to explain this link
[10]. He found that the Ghanaian construction small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
were major players in the economy of Ghana. He also observed though that failure by
the construction SMEs to employ OHS in construction sites compromised the infras-
tructure sector’s contribution to economic growth. He gave insight into the difficulties
posed by inadequate skills, lack of support from government and weak institutions to
facilitate the implementation of OHS in infrastructure projects.
What is the link between OHS and economic growth? Bloom, et al. tracked this
link from the mid-nineteenth century [4]. They explored the evidence showing that the
implementation of OHS contributes to growth in GDP. How? Bloom, et al. found that
OHS on construction sites increased productivity. Another strand of supporting evi-
dence that they found was that investment in OHS led to better employee wages, which
raises the per capita income.
382 S. Dlamini and G. Masimula
The study done by Bloom, et al. included a number of emerging economies in

Africa and East Asia. Better wages in these areas motivated workers to save. Bloom,
et al. asserted that behind the success of the economies studied was capital accumu-
lation, which was driven by high levels of saving. This substantially boosted invest-
ment and economic growth. Boom, et al. also found that as developing countries
implement OHS in their construction sites, this has a potential of attracting foreign
direct investment. They observed that investors generally shunned areas where the
infrastructure sector had a bad OHS record.
Why did the East Asia’s exceptionally high rates of capital accumulation matter? In
a time series statistical analysis of total construction output and GDP, Dlamini pro-
pounded that the infrastructure sector is part of a unified system of production, con-
sumption and distribution [6]. It provides essential infrastructure to support other
sectors of the economy, hence it is considered an investment sector. It plays a role in
influencing investment through capital accumulation.
Dlamini went on to assert that apart from savings, capital and labour, the Harrod-
Domar and Solow growth theories viewed growth as being influenced by technological
factors, which were exogenous to the theories. Dlamini postulated that lately, the
endogenous growth theory provided that over and above savings, capital and labour,
economic growth was influenced by technological advance through deliberate actions
of individuals within the economy. It is not just given as the Harrod-Domar and Solow
theories purported.
Do all countries benefit equally from the link between OHS and economic growth?
Apparently not! Bhargava, et al., in a model they developed to investigate the effects of
health on economic growth, ascertained that the issue of health was more important in
the context of wages in developing economies than it was in developed economies [3].
Allied to this finding, Bhargava, et al. also argued that OHS was more important in
economies that are transparent in their economic policies and governance structures.
Bloom, et al. concurred with this view [4]. A major finding of their work was that those
East Asian economies that achieved high economic growth served as a strong case to
support the view that improvements in OHS can positively influence economic growth.
How does OHS affect project performance? In most developing countries, the
project environment presents unique challenges arising from inherent risks such as
bureaucratic contract procedures. These make it difficult to effectively implement OHS
in construction sites. According to Akanni et al. such challenges have the potential to
influence cost and time overruns on construction projects [2]. Failure to complete a
project on time and within cost undermines project performance.
Faniran, et al. suggested that there was need to develop appropriate management
tools and techniques. Such tools and techniques cannot be directly copied from
developed countries [7]. They must be tailored to suit the specific project environment
of developing countries. The implementation of OHS in construction sites demands
that certain factors must be taken into consideration.
Walker identified a number of fundamental project environmental factors that need
to be taken into consideration when implementing OHS in infrastructure projects [18].
These included political, legal, institutional, cultural and economic factors. In the same
vein, some external environmental factors also need consideration. According to Ajayi,
et al. these include community issues, weather conditions and government policy [1].
Does the implementation of OHS have a positive contribution to the economy? A

study conducted by Thwala and Monese investigated the influences for productivity in
building sites. The study suggested that the infrastructure sector has for some time
suffered from poor productivity, which negatively affects project costs, resulting in
unsatisfactory quality performance and time overruns [17]. Mthalane et al. asserted that
health and safety issues in construction have major economic consequences in con-
struction [12]. They contended that apart from the human cost of suffering an accident,
the economic effect can be costly. This therefore suggests that OHS has both positive
and negative impacts.
Given the poor record of OHS in the infrastructure sector, there is need to assess
whether the implementation of OHS helps or hinders the sector’s contribution to
economic growth. Therefore, the research question for this study is: What is the impact
of OHS on economic growth?
3 Methodology
This investigation seeks to assess the influences of OHS on economic growth in the
infrastructure sector. Secondary data, adapted from Dlamini was used in the analysis
[5]. The instrument used in collecting data was a structured questionnaire. The target
population was composed of construction clients, design team members and contrac-
tors. The tool used to analyze collected data was the SERVQUAL model.
What is SERVQUAL? Developed by Parasuraman, et al. SERVQUAL is a model
for measuring consumers’ perceptions of service quality [14]. Shahin defined
SERVQUAL as a multi-dimensional research model that can be used to measure
service quality in relation to customer expectations [15]. Four variables were identified
as factors having an impact on project delivery, namely, budget, time, quality and
utility requirements. In the light of the fact that this paper is seeking to understand if
OHS implementation hinders or enhances economic growth, the budget variable was
chosen for the analysis.
4 Research Results
Survey findings on OHS and delivery of construction projects.
4.1 Data Collection

From a chosen sample of seventy-four individuals, fifty-eight people returned the
completed questionnaire, which worked out to an 80% rate of response. The sample
was selected randomly to include major disciplines, civil engineering and general
building contractors. Professional councils such as the SACPCMP, SACAP and CIDB
were also included. Other stakeholders included property developers, major clients and
government agencies. Efforts were made to stratify the sample so that it was repre-
sentative of major players in the construction sector. It was considered prudent that
experienced professionals and line managers would be able to share valuable data,
considering the complexity of the construction environment.
4.2 OHS Influence
4.2.1 Project Rollout

The total number of questionnaire received was 58. 14 out of 58 (24%) indicated that
they agreed strongly with the assumption that the implementation of OHS was likely to
improve the way in which a construction project is rolled out. 27 respondents out of the
58 (47%) shared the same opinion. Only 12 respondents out of the 58 (21%) were of
the view that the implementation of OHS was not likely to improve the way in which a
construction project is rolled out. 5 respondents out of the 58 (only 8%) felt very
strongly that the implementation of OHS was unlikely to improve the way in which a
construction project is rolled out. Overall, a total of 41 respondents suggested that the
implementation of OHS was likely to improve the way in which a construction project
is rolled out.
The collected data was further analyzed to establish if there were any strong
descending views. The respondents’ familiarity with OHS was assessed and 22
respondents (88%) who had used OHS confirmed that OHS enhanced the project
rollout process. Even those respondents who had employed OHS in part also concurred
with the view that OHS does positively influence the project rollout process. 8 re-
spondents fell in this category, which represented 47% of the total respondents. It is
also of interest to note that even respondents that had never really employed OHS in
their projects also felt very strongly that OHS was likely to result in an improved
project rollout process. 11 respondents (69%) were in this category while only 5
respondents (31%) had opposite views.
4.2.2 Client Satisfaction

The study also sort to establish the respondents’ views on how they would rate the
general level of project delivery where OHS was implemented. 50 respondents (86%)
perceived that the delivery process ranked between reasonable and excellent. 30 re-
spondents (52%) were of the view that the delivery process was reasonable. 14 and 6
respondents ranked the delivery process as good and excellent, respectively. Only 8
respondents (14%) were of the view that the process was poor or awful.
20 respondents (80%) who indicated that they had used OHS in some of their
projects ranked OHS between reasonable and excellent. A majority of these respon-
dents (13 to be exact, which represented 52%) suggested that implementing OHS in a
construction project yielded a reasonable project outcome. 14 respondents (88%) that
had never been exposed to OHS viewed the implementation of the system as ranging
from reasonable to excellent (Table 1).
4.3 Measuring the Rollout Process
Table 1. GAP scores, perceptions & expectations

Dimension Used OHS Used OHS in part Never used OHS Overall
Expect. Percept. GAP Expect. Percept. GAP Expect. Percept. GAP Expect. Percept. GAP
score score score score
P1 3.792 3.522 −0.270 3.875 3.467 −0.408 3.250 3.467 0.217 3.639 3.485 −0.154
P2 3.458 3.182 −0.276 3.188 3.125 −0.063 3.625 3.385 −0.240 3.424 3.231 −0.193
P3 3.391 3.130 −0.261 2.938 2.733 −0.205 3.438 3.357 −0.081 3.256 3.073 −0.182
P4 3.409 3.136 −0.273 3.563 3.125 −0.438 3.375 3.429 0.054 3.449 3.230 −0.219
Tangibles 3.513 3.243 −0.270 3.391 3.113 −0.279 3.422 3.410 −0.013 3.442 3.255 −0.187
P5 3.870 3.000 −0.870 3.938 3.000 −0.938 3.563 4.071 0.508 3.790 3.357 −0.433
P6 3.696 3.217 −0.479 3.813 3.188 −0.625 4.125 3.929 −0.196 3.878 3.445 −0.433
P7 3.739 2.783 −0.956 4.063 3.125 −0.938 3.688 3.714 0.026 3.830 3.207 −0.623
P8 3.783 2.913 −0.870 4.125 3.000 −1.125 3.500 3.643 0.143 3.803 3.185 −0.617
P9 3.652 3.261 −0.391 3.750 2.813 −0.937 3.875 3.167 −0.690 3.753 3.080 −0.673
Reliability 3.748 3.035 −0.713 3.938 3.025 −0.913 3.747 3.705 −0.042 3.811 3.255 −0.556
P10 3.696 2.913 −0.783 3.938 3.313 −0.625 3.813 3.643 −0.170 3.816 3.290 −0.526
P11 3.696 3.042 −0.654 4.125 2.938 −0.187 4.067 4.071 0.004 3.963 3.350 −0.612
P12 4.261 3.696 −0.565 4.188 3.375 −0.813 4.400 4.333 −0.067 4.283 3.801 −0.482
P13 3.783 3.565 −0.218 3.938 4.063 0.125 3.133 4.188 1.055 3.618 3.939 −0.321
Responsiveness 3.859 3.304 −0.555 4.047 3.422 −0.625 3.853 4.059 0.206 3.920 3.595 −0.325
P14 3.565 3.087 −0.478 4.063 3.500 −0.563 4.188 4.143 −0.045 3.939 3.577 −0.362
P15 4.000 3.130 −0.870 3.688 3.133 −0.555 4.000 3.857 −0.143 3.896 3.373 −0.523
P16 3.087 3.087 0.000 3.250 3.250 0.000 3.929 3.929 0.000 3.422 3.422 −0.000
P17 3.304 3.304 0.000 3.563 3.563 0.000 3.667 3.667 0.000 3.511 3.511 −0.000
Assurance 3.489 3.152 −0.337 3.641 3.362 −0.280 3.946 3.899 −0.047 3.692 3.471 −0.221
P18 3.783 3.792 0.009 3.625 3.000 −0.625 3.733 3.533 −0.200 3.714 3.442 −0.272
P19 3.696 3.348 −0.348 3.500 3.813 −0.687 3.733 3.133 0.400 3.643 3.431 −0.212
P20 3.565 3.565 0.000 3.625 3.125 −0.500 3.563 3.500 −0.063 3.584 3.397 −0.188
P21 3.545 3.261 −0.284 3.500 2.750 −0.750 3.933 3.933 0.000 3.659 3.315 −0.345
P22 4.130 3.522 −0.608 3.875 3.180 −0.695 3.800 3.933 0.133 3.935 3.545 −0.390
Empathy 3.744 3.498 −0.246 3.625 2.974 −0.651 3.752 3.806 0.054 3.707 3.426 −0.281
Overall 3.670 3.246 −0.424 3.728 3.179 −0.549 3.744 3.776 0.032 3.714 3.400 −0.314
4.4 Statistical Analysis

Table 2 is an illustration of the sign confidence interval for the median worked out
using the respondents’ opinions on project delivery variables.
Table 2. Sign confidence interval

Variables Median Achieved confidence Confidence interval
Improved project delivery 3.0 0.9363 (3.00, 3.00)
Table 3 presents the outcomes of the Kruskal-wallis tests on improved project

delivery.
Table 3. Kruskal-wallis test

Variables H DF P
Improved project delivery 6.50 2 0.390
The mood test was undertaken on the data supplied by the respondents and the
outcome produced is illustrated in the following table (Table 4).
Table 4. Mood median test

Variables Chi-square DF P Overall median
Improved project delivery 7.80 2 0.020 3.00
One-way anova test analysis done produced the following table (Table 5).
Table 5. One-way anova test

Variables F P Pooled SD
Improved project delivery 3.57 0.035 0.8443
The correlation analysis undertaken to ascertain the kind of relationships that exist
between the variables produced the results outlined below (Table 6).
Table 6. Correlation between variables & structure

Variables Correlation P Value
Improve project delivery −0.152 0.258
Respondents drawn from professional disciplines in the construction sector constituted

45%. Those drawn from client bodies constituted 31%. It is important to note that client
bodies are the ones who are affected by the service that professional consultants offer.
Therefore, OHS matters have a direct impact on clients. Where construction is suc-
cessfully undertaken, such outcome is often the result of efficiency in the implemen-
tation process. The investigation was thus focused on those contributors that have stake
in the project implementation process.
Respondents in the prime age (middle age) group tended to provide more positive
and mature responses. They constituted 73% of the respondents. A majority of
respondents exhibited vast experience in the industry. It is to be expected that this
increased the chances of getting more reasoned responses. 66% of the respondents had
more than 10 years’ experience in various roles in construction. The experience of such
respondents was reflected in the depth and wealth of responses received.
Efficiency in the delivery of construction projects is crucial. The distinguishing
characteristics of construction firms that that employ OHS in the implementation of
their projects is but how efficient and effective the entire process is. OHS roles are often
integrated into the core construction processes. However, it is not unusual to procure
OHS services through subcontract arrangements. Improved project delivery has been
shown to be highly likely where OHS is incorporated into the key project delivery
mechanisms.
The most dominant responses received were clear that the implementation of OHS
in construction results in more efficient project rollout sequences. Respondents who
have utilized OHS were supported in their views by those never used the process in that
the implementation of OHS brings lots of positives into the overall project rollout
process. Common tendency and dispersion revealed a slightly different result from the
one obtained when utilizing frequencies and percentages. Responses on improved
project rollout process by familiarity with OHS was approximately one standard
deviation for all three variables (used OHS, partially used OHS, never used OHS). The
group that had used OHS was the only one that had a mean of 3.0. This was in
agreement with the relationship between OHS and improved project delivery. The least
common tendency was the group that partially used OHS, while the mean to the group
that never used OHS was close to 3.0.
The median of 3.0 recorded by the group that used OHS and those that never used it
indicate that the two groups were in agreement with the assertion that OHS improved
project delivery. The median below 3.0 achieved by the group that partially used OHS
suggest that they did not agree with the assertion. Again the group that partially used
OHS seemed to agree with the assumption of inverse relationship between OHS and
project delivery. 93–6% confidence was achieved in the median when using the sign
confidence test for all variables. This suggests that there is a relationship between OHS
and improved project delivery. The Mood test and Kruskal wallis test show that the
relationships are not significantly associated given the high probability. Judging by the
probability that was more than 0.5, it can be inferred that there was a weak negative
correlation and no significant relationship.
The mean and median for overall project delivery was at 3.0 in all the different
groups of respondents. This suggested the existence of a relationship between OHS and
the manner in which the project was delivered. The statistical test suggested that there
was no significant association.
Further analysis of data was undertaken using the SERVQUAL model. The aim
was to ascertain understand some of the major perceptions held by respondents. The
model revealed that the group that had never used OHS had the least gap score. This
was followed by the group that had used OHS. The group that had partially used OHS
exhibited the highest gap score.
To put project delivery into perspective, the SERVEQUAL model and its 22
questions were used. As far as tangibles are concerned, those companies that never
used OHS had the least gaps. Those that had used OHS followed suit. The other aspect
pertaining to reliability, responsiveness and empathy followed the same trend. The gap
score for the assurance dimension was the highest with those companies that have used
OHS and the lowest with those that had not.
In all the respondents, reliability had the highest gap score, while empathy had the
least score for those companies that had used OHS and those that had not. Those
respondents that partially used OHS gave the least gap score. These findings are
important beyond the investigation of OHS. They may be used to in creating appro-
priate strategies that may be employed in improving the rollout processes of con-
struction projects.
6 Conclusion
The implementation of construction health and safety has a positive impact on eco-
nomic growth. This study has revealed the existence of a positive relationship between
OHS and the manner in which construction projects are rolled out. Analyses of
respondents’ perceptions suggest that the implementation of OHS yields positive
impacts on overall project delivery with respect to quality, budget, schedule and utility
parameters.
Apart from the respondents who indicated that they had used OHS, the positive
relationship of OHS to overall project delivery was ratified also by those who never
used OHS and those that partially used it. Therefore, the identified positive relationship
can be construed to suggest that OHS has the potential to positively impact on eco-
nomic growth. The statistical analysis of data through frequency tables as well as
percentages derived from collected data gave some insights on how OHS affects the
rollout of construction projects.
The data analysis undertaken as part of this research was strengthened through
descriptive statistics. These included employing common tendency and dispersion. The
picture that emerged was that the relationship of OHS and project delivery was not
necessarily significant. The utilization of quantitative statistical models can present
limitations since the data in this research has been largely non-parametric (ordinal). It is
thus imperative that the statistical tests undertaken should be used cautiously, with a
view to avert asserting conclusions that might be misleading.
In the light of the fact that this study was exploratory in nature, it would be prudent
that further research is undertaken to explore the relationships to some depth. Tracking
the trends over time would yield more insights. In this vein, it would help to evaluate
time series statistical analysis of construction output data. Allied to this, more studies
should aim to fully explore the relationship at operational level over time, so as to
establish objectivity as to how the implementation of OHS affects economic growth.
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Sustainable Water Supply in Buildings
Through Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting
Chidozie Charles Nnaji1,2(&)

1
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
Chidozie.nnaji@unn.edu.ng
2
Abstract. This paper used a combination of theoretical concepts, literature

review and real-life survey to establish the need for a global and aggressive
adoption of rainwater harvesting (RWH) as sustainable means of water supply
and flood control. The ideas presented in this paper were aimed at making RWH
systems an integral part of building conception and design as well as enshrining
compulsory RWH in national building codes. In areas of adequate rainfall,
RWH can supply up to 100% of domestic water needs of bungalow dwellers.
Non-reactive roofs such as aluminium roofing sheets were found to be more
suitable for RHW than asbestos, galvanized roofing sheets and concrete roofs.
RWH can be made more sustainable and cost-effective by using mass balance
and optimization methods for providing adequate storage for harvested water.
Simple point-of-use treatment methods such WaterGuard® and Purifier of
Water® can be used to render harvested water potable.
Keywords: Rainwater harvesting Water supply Rainfall Roof

Storage tank
1 Introduction
The coupled effects of population explosion and climate change are exerting a heavy
toll on global water resources, leading to a high level of suffering in certain parts of the
world. The economic development associated with urbanization increases the per capita
use of water, as new technologies such as showers, washing machines and dishwashers
increase residential water use [1]. Water scarcity has gone past an emerging global
problem; it has been identified as one of the pressing global risks [2]. Sustainable
development remains a mirage without sufficient water supply for domestic con-
sumption, sanitation, hygiene, agriculture and industrial processes. Water is one of the
most important needs of man and yet the most misused, especially among city dwellers.
This could be because, in many parts of the world, water is so affordable that the
burden of expenditure is hardly felt by anyone except, perhaps, the government. The
culture of wasting water usually stems from the extreme perspective that water is a
social good rather than an economic good.
Global water consumption rose form 200 108 m3 to 4400 108 m3 from 1900
to the year 2000. Arguments abound that despite the fact water is an economic good, it

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_39
Sustainable Water Supply in Buildings Through Rooftop RWH 391
is still comparatively and more importantly, a social good that guarantees several
aspects of a dignified human life [3]. When defined as a social good, it may warrant a
rights approach. However, the current global threat of water scarcity has proved
intractable to governments. This has been the case for Cape Town which was predicted
to be the first major city to run out of water in April 12, 2018 (day zero). Several other
cities such as Cairo, Beijing, Mexico City, Moscow, Istanbul, Tokyo and London
amongst others are facing the same fate. There is no doubt that if the current trend
continues, many more cities will join the queue. Usually, government’s inability to
tackle a national threat forebodes helplessness for the citizenry. However, in the case of
water scarcity, there remains a largely uncharted vista of relief – rainwater harvesting
(RWH), and this can be explored without the assistance of the government. Hence this
paper explores the potentiality of rainwater being a sole or supplemental source of
water supply when incorporated into the building architecture.
2 Methodology
This research was accomplished by a combination of actual surveys, theoretical

analyses and literature review. Part of the data used in this study came from a RWH
survey carried out in Nsukka, Nigeria in 2017. The survey basically focused on RWH
practices while the theoretical analyses were used to illustrate the geometric effect of
land development (pavement) on urban runoff.
3 Discussion
3.1 Urban Flood Control Through Rainwater Harvesting
One of the numerous drawbacks of urbanization is indiscriminate paving of surfaces
consisting of streets, parking lots, roads and driveways, which reduce the rate of
infiltration and invariably aggravates urban flooding. In the United States alone,
pavements and other forms of impervious surfaces cover over 43,000 square miles
(111,369 km2), which is nearly the size of the entire state of Ohio [4], one tenth of
South Africa, one eighth of Nigeria or half the size of Ghana. Even at a moderate
rainfall intensity of 10 mm/hr, this combined area of paved surfaces will produce a
staggering 309,360 m3/s of runoff which is eighteen times the discharge of River
Mississippi or fifty-five times the discharge of River Niger. The foregoing paints a
frightening image of the impending danger posed by impervious surfaces on the
environment. In high density urban areas, rooftops constitute a substantial part of
impervious surfaces that contribute to increased urban runoff and associated risk of
flooding. Land development without corresponding efforts to equalize or attenuate the
enormous amount of runoff generated represents a serious human and ecological risk
resulting from flooding. RWH can be a cheap, unobtrusive and economical means of
mitigating flood resulting from increased runoff engendered by land development.
392 C. C. Nnaji
3.2 Water Supply Prospects of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting

RWH dates back to 3200–1100 BC down through the Hellenistic Roman, Byzantine,
Venetian and Ottoman periods [5]. RWH is a relatively inexpensive means of small-
scale water supply which basically requires a catchment area, a conveyance system of
channels/gutters and a storage (Fig. 1). Depending on the nature of the catchment and
conveyance systems, a simple treatment system may be required. However, the
development of other forms of water resources in modern times which are able to
provide water all year round almost obliterated the role of rainwater as source of water
supply, until recently. Once again, RWH is being seriously considered in several
countries as a major source of relief in the face of acute water shortages threating the
existence of urban settlements. But even as the world grapples with dwindling fresh-
water resources, there is still a substantial degree of inertia with respect to RWH despite
its acknowledged great potential as a source of water supply.
Fig. 1. Sectional view of RWH system
In recognition of RWH as a significant source of water supply, countries like

Germany, Japan and Australia among others have made some policies in favour of
RWH (Table 1). Other countries like UK and the USA have strong and active RWH
associations namely: UK Rainwater Harvesting Association and American Rainwater
Catchment Systems Association respectively. Though RWH has been gaining popu-
larity in the United States, it is mainly used for irrigation [6, 7]. The United Kingdom
(UK) had lagged behind other developed countries with respect to RWH practices with
[8] reporting only 75 successful and operational RWH systems in 2001. However, by
2011, an estimated 7500 systems were identified in UK commercial and residential
properties [9]. This is a far cry from the situation in Germany where about 50,000
systems were being installed every year [10]. RWH has always been practiced in the
rural areas of Canada, but there has been a renewed interest in RWH for domestic
purposes in urban areas [11]. However, uncertainty of costs and risks as well as lack of
clear policies has impeded the rate of adoption of RWH as an alternative source of
water in Canada [11]. France has a law that restricts the use of rainwater for washing
clothes, bathing and drinking which is part of the reason for the limited uptake of RWH
[12]. In Sweden RWH is motivated by ecological sustainable development in large
community housing complexes [13]. In Japan where 50% of the total impervious area
of the city is roof; and in China, reduction of urban flooding is the main reason for the
adoption of RWH [14, 15]. However, in the semi-arid areas of China, the need to solve
the problem of water scarcity is the main driver of RWH. In South Korea, urban
flooding and combined sewer outflows during the wet seasons have sparked high
interests in RWH and reuse systems [6]. In Australia, there was an increase in the
number of people that practiced RWH from 24% in 2007 to 34% of households in 2013
[16]. This resurgence of interest in RWH was triggered by the millennium drought
which occurred in Australia from years 2000 to about 2008, resulting in extensive
investment in stormwater harvesting and rainwater tanks [6]. RWH is encouraged in
Australia as a supplementary water source through financial incentives and regulation
such as requirement in building codes and/or water conservation measures [6]. Brazil
specifically stipulated compulsory RWH for buildings greater than 200 m2. All these
represent significant efforts towards RWH, but so much is yet to be done to maximize
its potentials.
Table 1. Current status of RWH practices in various countries of the world

Country Level of adoption of Motivation Efforts in place
RWH
United Low – renewed Non-potable domestic supply Establishment of UK
Kingdom interest Rainwater harvesting
Association (UKRHA) in
2004
United Low and in some Irrigation and domestic Some states offer tax
States of cases prohibited supply exemption on rainwater
America treatment equipment,
Establishment of ARCSA
China Extensive in some Potable water supply, Workshops and conferences
areas such as Gansu irrigation, Urban flood on RWH
Province mitigation
Germany Growing interest Flood control, conservation Provision of grants and
of freshwater resources, toilet incentives to households with
flushing, gardening RWH systems
Japan Renewed attention Flood mitigation, alternative Establishment of Rainwater
source of drinking water, Utilization Liaison Council
disaster response water for Local Governments,
supply, mitigation of urban subsidy for RWH tanks,
heat island conferences
(continued)
394 C. C. Nnaji
Country Level of adoption of Motivation Efforts in place
RWH
Canada Growing interest for Toilet flushing, laundry, lawn Rebates for rain barrel
sanitary uses, and garden irrigation
reluctance towards
other uses
Australia High rate of Flood control, environmental Incentives for new buildings
acceptance of RWH sustainability, irrigation, high with RWH systems,
cost of piped water supply stipulation of water
conservation measures in the
building codes
South Low, slow uptake Acute water shortage None identified
Africa
Nigeria Scattered individual Poor perception of RWH, Individual research efforts to
efforts quality concerns, low annual promote RWH, lack of
rainfall in the arid and semi- government support
arid region
Brazil Rudimentary and Quality concerns, infeasible Establishment of standard for
low-level practice benefit-cost ratio, lengthy rainwater usage, compulsory
of RWH pay-back time RWH systems in
buildings > 200 m2
Malaysia Low – declining Water quality concerns, Introduction of RWH
interest from 1999 mosquito breeding, cost guideline in 1999 after the
to 2006 1998 drought, compulsory
installation of RWH systems
in factories and schools with
effect from 2006
3.3 Choice of Roofing Material for RWH

As rain drops glide through the atmosphere, they dissolve atmospheric impurities.
More contaminants get dissolved as the water droplets reach the ground or roof of
buildings, thereby making rainwater more contaminated. In RWH, the quality of water
harvested is largely dependent on the ambient atmospheric conditions, the nature of
catchment surface (roofing materials), type and sanitary condition of the conveyance
system and the material and maintenance of storage tank. Unfortunately, RWH is not
usually a consideration in the design of most residential building. The overriding
consideration in the choice of roofing material and shape is aesthetics. However, there
needs to be a paradigm shift in this trend if sustainable development is to be attained
globally.
The nature, shape and age of roofing material are critical factors that largely
determine the quality as well as quantity of harvested rainwater. More water can be
harvested from smooth sloping roof with high runoff coefficient (C) than from flat
rough roofs with much lower values of C. The range of runoff coefficients for various
roof materials available in the literature are 0.9 for sloping concrete/asphalt roof, 0.81–
0.95 for sloping metal roofs, 0.7 for sloping aluminium roof and flat bituminous roofs,
0.8–0.85 for flat gravel roofs, tiles (0.8–0.9) and 0.81 for level cement roofs [17, 18]. In
fact, [17] reported that smooth sloping roofs with C = 0.9 yield water of better quality
and 50% more water than flat roof with C = 0.62. This can be explained by the fact that
the residence time of water on sloping roofs is much lower than that of flat roofs. Low
residence time of water on the roof reduces the risk of the dissolution and weathering of
roof materials as well as other deposits on the roof by rainwater. The effect of type and
age of roofing materials on rainwater quality has been the subject of several studies and
there is a general consensus that water harvested from old roofing sheets are of much
lower quality than those harvested from new roofing sheets. For instance, the total
concentration of copper in old galvanized roofing sheets can be as much as 1.97 mg/l
which is roughly twice that of new roofing sheets with a copper concentration of
1.0 mg/l [19]. Galvanized roofing sheets increase the concentrations of zinc and lead in
rainwater. Aluminum roofing sheet yields harvested rainwater of higher quality than
other common roofing sheets such as galvanized roofing sheets and asbestos. In a
survey conducted in Nsukka, Nigeria as a part of this research, it was found that the
most common types of roofing materials were concrete (4%) galvanized roofing sheet
(40%) and aluminium sheet in (56%). The survey further revealed that long span
aluminium roofing sheets are becoming popular as newer buildings are more likely to
be roofed with them, resulting in a drastic decline in the use of other types of roof such
as concrete and galvanized roofing sheets. This trend is by no means connected to a
desire for improving the quality of harvested rainwater, rather it driven by aesthetics
and class. The downside of this disposition is that in the future, there might be a shift to
new roofing materials which may not favour harvesting of good quality rainwater.
3.4 Improving Reliability of RWH

Rainfall is seasonal and therefore necessitates adequate storage for water harvested in
the rainy season for use in the dry season. With adequate storage system, rainwater can
supply daily water demand all year round in areas with high rainfall amounts. The
quantity of harvested water during each rainfall event is primarily a function of climatic
factors such as rainfall intensity and duration; as well as building characteristics such as
area and nature of roof. However, reliability is more intricately tied to the amount of
water harvested per occupant of the building which is directly related to the roof area
per capita. In this regard, high rise buildings present a severe disadvantage for rain-
water harvesting since the roof size is most likely going to remain constant as the
number of floors in the building increases. Increase in number of floors in a building
invariably implies increased number of occupants for the same roof area. The con-
comitant outfall is drastic reduction of roof area available for rainwater harvesting per
capita and impaired reliability of water supply (Fig. 2). The roof area per capita as
shown in Fig. 2 is the portion of the entire roof plan area that supplies water to an
individual occupant if the roof were divided equally among all occupants. For high rise
buildings, as the number of floors or number of occupants increases, the roof area per
capita reduces. Hence, high rise residentials buildings do not favour RWH and cannot
justify the required investment or guarantee return on investment.
396 C. C. Nnaji
100 50
Effective roof area per capita (m2)

Roof Plan Area Per Capita (m2)
No of Occupants per Type
80 40
Number of occupants 60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
s)
ts)
ow
ts)
(8 )
s)
(1 ts)
ts
le
at
at
la
a
la
la
al
up
Fl
Fl
Fl
F
St (6 F
F
ng
4
0
(4
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y
ey
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re
re
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y
Tw ore
Tw re
o
or
St
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o
St
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Tw
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Fig. 2. Illustration of decline in per capita roof area for RWH for multi-storied buildings
One of the most important factors that determine the feasibility and sustainability of
RHW is rainfall amount (depth) received in an area and their temporal distribution. It is
not enough to have sufficient rainfall to meet water demand, it becomes almost
infeasible to practice RWH if the entire annual rainfall occurs in a few months (short
rainy season). This is because an enormous amount of storage volume, usually an
underground tank, will be required for holding the water for use throughout the rest of
the year. If it were possible to spread rainfall in a geographical location uniformly over
the year, then there would be no need for an underground tank, and only nominal
storage would be required, thus drastically reducing the cost associated with storage.
Figure 3 illustrates a scenario where the annual rainfall (say 1000 mm) in a locality is
spread uniformly over all the days of the year. It can be seen that the reliability of
supply will decline asymptotically as the number of floors of the building increases, but
at a point where the total annual demand exceeds the total annual rainfall, the required
nominal storage remains constant. However, this is not so in real life because of the
probabilistic and seasonal nature of rainfall. The constant storage capacity in Fig. 3 is
because as the number of floors increases, the required storage capacity shifts from a
demand-side to a supply-side system.
In an ongoing study on the lifecycle cost of RWH systems, results available suggest
that storage (underground and overhead) can gulp between 62.9 and 89.1% of the
capital cost of RWH systems depending on the level of water consumption or demand.
However, if harvested rainwater is to be a supplemental source of water supply, the use
of large underground storage tanks will not be justified. Hence, there is need for
optimal sizing of RWH storage tanks to meet the level and degree of water demand.
This implies that proper sizing of RWH storage tanks is necessary for optimal resource
utilization. Determining a tank size depends upon a wide variety of factors including
rainfall patterns in the given location, catchment area, runoff coefficient, the present and
the future daily rainwater demands within the household. RWH storage tank sizing
requires proper calculations and realistic assumptions, in order to optimize resource
allocation. A number of methods have been proposed for sizing of rainwater tanks.
100 Basic water need (50 lpcd)

1.5
Pour flush (75 lpcd)
Storage capacity (m 3)
80 Full plumbing connection (150 lpcd)
Demand met (%)
1.0
60
40
0.5 Basic water need (50 lpcd)
20 Pour flush (75 lpcd)
Full plumbing connection (150 lpcd)
0 0.0
ts)
s)
s)
s)
ts)
ts)
s)
s)
s)
s)
ow
ow
x
s
s
le
le
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
at
a
la
a
al
up
al
up
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
Fl
F
ng
ng
D
D
(4
(6
(8
St (12
(4
(6
(8
4
Bu
Bu
(1
(1
(1
(1
(1
ey
ey
ey
ey
ey
e
ey
Si rey
ey
ey
ey
ey
or
or
or
or
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to
to
or
or
or
or
or
St
St
St
St
eS
eS
St
St
St
St
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ne
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o
re
re
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ur
ve
Tw
ur
ve
x
O
Si
Th
Th
Fo
Fo
Fi
Fi
Fig. 3. Reliability and storage pattern for uniformly distributed annual rainfall of 1000 mm
One method suggests sizing storage tanks to cover the needs of R days of the year,
based on the roof area, annual rainfall and runoff coefficient of the roof. Another
method sizes rainwater storage tanks based on the longest average period without
rainfall for the specific geographic location. The average monthly demand is multiplied
by the period in months of the dry season and the resulting volume is the minimum
storage capacity. Yet another method, uses the average annual water consumption and
the dry season expressed in days and found as a ratio of the whole year (365 days). The
ratio is multiplied by the annual consumption to find the minimum storage capacity of
water. The major problem with these methods is the implicit assumption that rainwater
will be allowed to accumulate in the tank without use until the dry season period. The
reality is that rainwater is also utilized in the rainy season as it accumulates in the
storage. Depending on the rate of water consumption and rainfall pattern, using these
methods may yield oversized tanks which may be half-empty at the end of the rainy
season or half full at the onset of the next rainy season. Hence, a water balance method
which takes into cognizance continuous supply and consumption is more appropriate
because it yields an optimized storage capacity.
Besides determining the appropriate RWH storage tank capacity, there is also the
need to choose the type of tank to use. Choice of water storage tank is determined by
three principal factors namely: cost, durability and size of tank. High density poly-
ethylene (HDPE) tanks are usually cheaper than steel and ferro-cement tanks, are
almost leak-proof, require very little maintenance (washing and changing of faulty
faucets) and are easy to install. However, there is usually a limit to their size and they
are prone to vandalism and accidental damage. HDPE tanks can undergo degradation
under the influence of ultra violet radiation. Besides, research results have shown that
black HDPE tanks can result in elevated water temperatures, thereby encouraging the
proliferation of pathogens. Nevertheless, HDPE tanks have found very wide acceptance
for RWH especially for above-ground small and medium scale storage. Steel and
concrete tanks are the preferred options for underground storage because of their ability
to withstand earth pressure when empty. However, concrete and ferro-cement tanks are
susceptible to cracks due to shrinkage and therefore must be subjected to adequate
analyses and design as well as proper construction both in terms of materials and
398 C. C. Nnaji
workmanship. Ferro cement is the technology of choice for many rainwater harvesting
programs because they are relatively inexpensive and with a little maintenance can last
indefinitely.
3.5 Towards Improved Rainwater Quality

There is a prevailing perception that rainwater is contaminated, even when several
studies have shown that rainwater can be consumed with minimal or no treatment. The
first culprit of rainwater quality impairment is the atmosphere which contains acidic
oxides that dissolve in rain to produce acid rain. This is responsible for the low pH of
rainwater reported in the literature. Rainwater quality is further depleted as the rain-
drops come in contact with the roof where it weathers roof materials and dissolves
pollutants deposited on the roof by wind and fecal matter deposited by birds, lizards
and rats. Further deterioration occurs in the conveyance system and the storage tanks.
Considering that one of the major objections raised against RWH is its questionable
quality as perceived by many, there is therefore need to improve its quality by
incorporating a treatment unit. The level of pollution of rainwater is almost infinites-
imal compared to streams and rivers from which many cities and towns all over the
world are served after treatment. Hence, given the low level of rainwater pollution,
rainwater usually requires simple inexpensive treatment methods to render it potable. In
most cases, the only treatment required is disinfection which can be achieved using the
appropriate quantity of chlorine or other point use (POU) treatments such as Water-
Guard Plus® and Purifier of Water®. Generally, however, the type of treatment
adopted for rainwater will depend on the material of the catchment surface, atmo-
spheric conditions and the intended use. The most practical approach to improving and
maintaining rainwater quality is to adopt adequate measures for protecting, monitoring
and treating the harvested water. Given the ease with which water is polluted, a multi-
phased defence mechanism can be adopted by treating rainwater before and during
storage, and equally at the point of use. The first line of defence in RWH system is to
install a first flush diverter for removing pollutants that are deposited on the roof. The
first flush diverter prevents the initial rain falling on the roof from entering the storage
tank until the roof has been sufficiently cleaned by the abrasive impact of rain drops.
The quantity of first flush water to be diverted depends on the amount and type of
debris that accumulates, the number of dry days since the last rainfall, the properties of
the catchment surfaces and the intended use of the water. However, [20] recommended
that first flush water volume should range from 0.04–0.2 m3 per 100 m2 of roof. Each
downspout will require its own first-flush diverter and the diverter should be sized
according to the portion of the catchment that contributes to that downspout.
4 Conclusion
Integrating RWH into new buildings can form a veritable tool for sustainable global
development. RHW can be employed to mitigate two of the foremost threats of our
civilization viz: water scarcity and flooding. There is still a global widespread reluc-
tance towards the adoption of RWH harvesting despite evidence of rapidly dwindling
freshwater resources. However, compulsory requirement of RWH as integral part of

new buildings in national building codes can be exploited to facilitate the adoption of
this concept.
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harvesting in Canada. Water Qual. Resour. Can. 44(1), 92–102 (2009)
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roof runoff harvesting system: the use of rainwater for toilet flushing. Water Sci. Technol.:
Water Supply 11(2), 151–158 (2011)
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supply in Ringdansen, Norrkoping, Sweden. Build. Environ. 40, 1174–1184 (2005)
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novel to mainstream. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10036/106575
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planned industrial park, China. Water Resour. Manag. 28(3), 671–682 (2014)
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Canberra (2013)
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extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1344.pdf
Macro-BIM Adoption Study:
Establishing Nigeria’s BIM Maturity
Mansur Hamma-adama1,2(&) and Tahar Kouider1

1
Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and Built Environment,
Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK
{m.hamma-adama,t.kouider}@rgu.ac.uk
2
Department of Civil Engineering,
Kaduna Polytechnic PMB 2021, Kaduna, Nigeria
Abstract. Construction Industry in Nigeria has since required a disruptive

technology to change its construction business and improve its capabilities and
productivity. As an on-going research (PhD work) to developing a strategy for
an effective Building Information Modelling (BIM) adoption in Nigeria, a
macro-BIM adoption study was carried out to establish BIM maturity within the
Nigerian construction market. Online questionnaire was used as tool for data
collection from the professional stakeholders in the industry. In the process to
formulate a National BIM Roadmap, five conceptual macro-BIM maturity
models were utilized. The models’ findings act as a guide in developing a
national BIM adoption policy. The five applied models helped classify the
macro maturity components and the key policies’ deliverables that must be
addressed within both the initiation and consultation phases of proposing the
Nigerian BIM roadmap. The results established positive progress in awareness
and adoption level compared to the 2017 survey. Recommendations are made
based on the study findings as to advance into policy development.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling Macro-BIM Adoption

Nigeria Construction industry
1 Introduction
BIM is gradually becoming a norm in the built asset procurement, but its adoption
around the world varies significantly. Effort by government is playing a significant role
in facilitating BIM adoption around the world. For example, UK, USA, Finland,
Russia, Denmark, Singapore etc. are some case study countries where government
involvement played a significant role on BIM adoption [1, 2]. Moreover, more coun-
tries are keying into this strategy, to mention but a few, such as Canada, Germany,
Japan, Ireland, Qatar and Spain. Some of these countries used the developed macro-
BIM adoption models to streamline or develop BIM adoption roadmap and guidance
for the development of their BIM adoption policy, and such countries include Ireland
and Brazil [2, 3]. Other countries which are currently utilizing the macro-BIM adoption
models include Spain, Canada, Russia, Brazil, Hong Kong etc.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_40
402 M. Hamma-adama and T. Kouider
BIM may be referred to as disruptive technological process that is changing the

way construction work is being procured. The Nigerian construction sector is known to
be a fragmented industry where professionals have monopolized construction infor-
mation [4] and work more like a group than a team. BIM is not well established in the
Nigerian construction market, but the level of awareness is rapidly progressing. The
industry needs this disruptive process (BIM) to improve its productivity and capabil-
ities through integrating the stakeholders’ working process. To achieve this, BIM
maturity must be established. This piece of work aims at determining the BIM maturity
of the Nigerian construction market with the use of the BIM established adoption
(macro) models.
2 Background of the Study
In 2015, Succar and Kassem developed five new conceptual constructs for assessing
BIM adoption at macro (country) level. The developed models were subsequently
refined as conceptual tools, developed additional assessment metrics to assist
researchers and policy makers to analyze and improve or develop BIM diffusion
policies within a market [5]. The developed macro-BIM adoption models include:
Macro-Diffusion Responsibilities model; Macro-Diffusion Dynamics model; Diffusion
Area model; Policy Actions model; and Macro-Maturity Components model.
Thus, the Nigerian macro-BIM adoption study aims to assist the policy makers in
developing and or assessing the macro BIM diffusion policies, strategies and plans
within the Nigerian construction market. Sequel to the completion of the assessment,
the study aimed to achieve deliverables at Initiation Phase of Policy Development and
specifically the development of a seed BIM policy framework and engagement with
stakeholders. Finally, assessment and planning of diffusion roles are generated through
mapping the macro player groups and the macro maturity components.
Having the macro BIM maturity models as one of the most cited and used maturity
models [5, 6] and already applied in several countries like Peru, Russia, Ireland, Egypt,
Spain, Hong Kong and Brazil (BIMexcellence); ultimately, the macro maturity model
is considered as the most viable method to assess BIM adoption at macro scale.
As part of a process to develop a strategy for effective BIM adoption in the
Nigerian construction market, the market maturity should be assessed ahead of policy
development or adoption guide. There are several maturity models ranging from
assessment of the derived benefits of BIM utilization [7] to the capability of
National BIM Standards model that deals with BIM tools and maturity levels [8] and
BIM proficiency matrix by Indiana University [9] etc. In spite of their derived benefits
within their individual settings, the models do not offer full understanding of how BIM
diffuses at macro level or comprehensive macro-BIM adoption [10].
This study is carried out mainly to assist the researcher in the development of a
working strategy for an effective BIM adoption. Therefore, assessment of current
market specific on BIM diffusion policies becomes necessary, and the developed
macro-BIM maturity models by [11] or framework is thus adopted. The adopted
framework consists of five conceptual models as illustrated in Succar & Kassem [11].
Macro-BIM Adoption Study: Establishing Nigeria’s BIM Maturity 403
The precedence set by these models in their application of establishing BIM

adoption at macro level ensured that the adopted framework is appropriate to achieve
the researchers’ objectives.
3 Nigerian Macro Maturity Model
Structured questionnaire was used as tool for data collection [6] hosted online using
google forms. In addition, snowball method was adopted in targeting the survey
respondents due to low level of BIM awareness and maturity in the country [12]. A few
number of BIM experts volunteered to participate in the survey and subsequently more
participants were recorded through them (initial respondents) – snowball. Thirty Seven
(37) valid responses were recorded and analyzed quantitatively (see Table 1). This
study was “market” specific; and the target was establishing the level of BIM “diffusion
and adoption” in Nigeria.
Table 1. Profile of respondents (field survey, 2018).

Variable Characteristics Freq. Percentage (%) Total
Location of practice North-Central 18 48.6 37
North-East 2 5.4
North-West 8 21.6
South-East 2 5.4
South-South 3 8.1
South-West 4 10.8
Years practice <5 years 12 32.4 37
5–10 years 13 35.1
11–15 years 5 13.5
>15 years 7 18.9
Number of <10 personnel (micro) 21 56.8 37
employees 10–50 personnel (small) 12 32.4
50–200 personnel (medium) 3 8.1
>200 personnel (large) 1 2.7
Profession Architecture 14 37.8 37
Building engineering 1 2.7
Civil/structural engineering 14 37.8
Construction management 0 0.0
Electrical engineering 0 0.0
Mechanical engineering 1 2.7
Other 1 2.7
(continued)
Variable Characteristics Freq. Percentage (%) Total
Specialization Contractor/construction 8 21.6 37
Designer or consultant 27 73.0
Client 1 2.7
Development authority 1 2.7
Level of BIM Modelling only - BIM stage 1 20 54.1 37
utilisation Limited to collaboration - BIM 12 32.4
stage 2
Up to integration - BIM stage 3 5 13.5
There are two dominant BIM maturity classifications or capability stages; these are
the Succar [13] descriptive BIM capability stages 1, 2 and 3 and the Bew-Richards’
BIM maturity levels 0, 1, 2 and 3. The Succar’s three-stage capabilities evaluate
maturity from the first point of adoption (POA) just after the readiness ramp as BIM
stage 1 (modelling only), to BIM stage 2 (limited to collaboration) and BIM stage 3 (up
to integration). On the other hand, Bew-Richards’ UK BIM maturity is prescribed
based on levels, BIM level 0, BIM level 1, BIM level 2 and BIM level 3. The level 0 is
an unmanaged CAD, predominantly two dimensional CAD system (2D) with paper or
electronic paper as dominant information exchange mechanism [14]. Moreover, the
level 0 appears to be of the same description of POA or pre-BIM in Succar [15], while
the BIM level 1, 2 and 3 may be seen to be parallel to or matching with the Succar-
Kassem’s capability stages 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Going by a wide consideration of
BIM capability stages in most of BIM studies, Succar-Kassem’s maturity stages is
specifically adopted for this section of work as it were in the Macro-BIM adoption
conceptual models [11].
3.1 Model A: Diffusion Areas Model

Diffusion area model explains how BIM field types (process, policy and technology)
relate with the BIM capability stages (integration, collaboration and modelling) to
produce nine diffusion areas where BIM diffusion occurs; thus, such areas can be
analysed and planned. Findings here demonstrated irregular distribution of rates (see
Fig. 1). Nigeria and Ireland are reasonably mature in applying technology for mod-
elling purpose with a little move at applying technology for collaboration as well as
processes at modelling stage. There is very low level of inter-organisational collabo-
ration and no model workflow at both fields not to talk of integration. On the other
hand, there has been no policy or mandate by government [16].
Fig. 1. Diffusion areas model for Nigeria
It is therefore established that by 2018, the diffusion levels of staged capability

milestones in the Nigerian construction market are as follows:
25% diffusion rate of modelling capabilities,
21% diffusion rate of collaboration capabilities and
11% diffusion rate of integration capabilities.
3.2 Model B: Macro-maturity Components Model

There are eight complementary components within the Macro Maturity Components
model used in measuring and establishing maturity of BIM at country level. The
developed and refined components by Kassem [5] are as follows: Champions and
drivers; Measurements and benchmarks; Noteworthy publications; Objectives, stages
and milestones; Learning and education; Standardised parts and deliverables; Regu-
latory frameworks and Technology infrastructure.
Figure 2 below illustrates Nigerian maturity components that is, Nigeria’s current
maturity within each component. These components were assessed with BIM Maturity
Index (BIMMI), which has different maturity levels (from the outer to the inner circle)
as follows: ad-hoc – low maturity; defined – medium-low maturity; managed – medium
maturity; integrated – medium-high maturity; and optimised – high maturity.
The components converge as they mature from a to e corresponding to ad-hoc to
optimised or low maturity to high maturity. These components and their maturity index
set a very clear description of all the eight components within a market. The closer these
components are (converging), the mature they are. Assessments are made holistically
based on granularly matrix as to compare relative maturity of one component over the
Fig. 2. Macro-maturity components model for Nigeria
other as prescribed in [11 Table 11]. Successively, each component is evaluated using
component-specific metrics as described in [11 Table 3–10 pp. 70–72].
Nigerian construction market appears with a dominant ‘medium-low’ maturity.
Champions & drivers leading with 1.6 (between medium-low and medium maturity) on
a Likert scale of 5 corresponding to maturity levels of a, b, c, d and e as prescribed
above. These indicated that the components tangle between ‘defined’ and ‘managed’
levels (b and c), as such all the components needed a push. The evaluation suggests an
early adopter with individuals as champions promoting the new concept.
Moreover, ranking regulatory framework lowest is an indication that government
lacks policy consideration in this regard; and pending when regulatory requirement is
considered, most of these components will not advance.
3.3 Model C: Macro-diffusion Dynamics Model

The macro-diffusion dynamic model was adopted [11 p.72 Fig. 7] primarily to assess
the adoption trend within a market and compare with the directional pressures to how
diffusion unfolds within a specific market. This model comprises three diffusion
dynamics namely: Bottom-Up; Middle-Out and Top-Down [11]. Moreover, this model
sets four directional pressure mechanisms who are laid over the three diffusion
dynamics; these include Downwards, Horizontal Downwards, Upwards Horizontal and
Upwards Horizontal pressures.
The study reveals Nigeria’s diffusion dynamic as predominantly bottom-up, by
‘majority’ response [11]; this result indicated smaller organisations are those pushing
the adoption in the industry but not the bigger firms or the government. However, the
bigger organisations seem to be picking up as the result suggests their suit.
The bottom-up diffusion dynamic assured the transmission by small organisations

in an upward horizontal pressure mechanism with industry bodies, larger and other
small organisations as pressure recipients and potential adopters. With current lack of
policy in place [16] and unwillingness from most of the bigger companies to embrace
the BIM concept, the bottom-up diffusion dynamic would possibly continue.
3.4 Model D: Policy Actions Model

The policy action model (Fig. 3) has nine policy actions generated from mapping the
three implementation approaches (passive, active and assertive) and the three imple-
mentation activities (communicate, engage and monitor) [11]. Succar [11] developed
this model as an assessment tool to generate activities/task, which are used in com-
paring policy actions across many countries for a structured policy intervention in
achieving a market-wide BIM adoption.
The Nigerian policy action pattern recorded a full active with a partial assertive at
engagement stage (see Fig. 3). This suggests government intervention at both
engagement and monitoring stages. Moreover, incentivise and enforce (Fig. 3) are
mostly prescribed by government/regulations. Therefore, the practitioners desired
active government involvement approach.
Fig. 3. Policy actions model of Nigeria
The evident result of diffusion of innovation within smaller organizations (bottom-

up) has considerable influence in the behaviour of the bigger organizations or higher
end of the supply chain [17].
Fig. 4. Policy actions models of USA, UK Australia and Nigeria respectively
There are series of policy action model patterns at various country specifics that go
along vertical stripe, alternating within passive, active and assertive action along the
three implementation activities. For example, Fig. 4 above presents different sets of
policy action models of USA (A2, B1, C1), UK (A2, B3, C2), Australia (A1, B1, C1)
and Nigeria (A2, B2, C2).
3.5 Model E: Macro-Diffusion Responsibilities Model

The established BIM field types have their respective capability sets (that differ base on
BIM stage) as group of players within construction industry and across the BIM field
types [13]. This goes into the analyses of BIM diffusion through the players’ (stake-
holders) roles in the industry as a network of actors [11]. The nine player groups are:
technology advocates, communities of practice, policy makers, individual practitioners,
construction organisations, educational institutions, technology developers, industry
associations and technology service providers (Fig. 5). Any of the player groups is
either belongs to one of the three BIM fields type (Policy, Process & Technology) or
intersection of any two; more to that, any player group has a number of player types as
well.
The survey result reveals that at present, the educational institutions and individual
practitioners are the most influential players in the Nigerian construction market. In the
same vein, construction organisations & professional associations were acknowledged
as key process players. However, policy makers and communities of practice were
lowest players within this market. Figure 5 demonstrates the results of the model.
Fig. 5. Nigerian macro-diffusion responsibilities model

4 Development of BIM Policy Plans and Templates
The above models as equally explained in [10] have assisted in deeper understanding of
BIM maturity in the Nigerian construction market and equally revealed grey areas
where attention is needed. Succar and Kassem demonstrated how these models are
utilised to provide basis for the BIM roadmap development at national level.
The policy plan is developed through three phases (Initiation, Consultation and
Execution). However, due to a limitation to this study, only the first two (initiation and
consultation) phases were dealt with for now.
4.1 Initiation Phase

The initiation phase is determined to institute “task group” (as a proposal) and the seed
BIM Framework that will act as guidance to the National Framework. The following
are set as applications of the three models (B, C and D) at initiation stage: model B is
used in assessing BIM maturity or worldwide efforts, model C is used to identify the
market specific diffusion dynamic and model D is used to establish a policy approach to
be taken by policy makers.
The first part of the Initiation phase is the establishment of a task group; this
includes the development of goals for the group and their corresponding objectives.
There is currently no organisation taking similar responsibility in Nigeria. This research
has been working to establish the BIM maturity within the Nigerian AEC industry for
about 2 years. This has been attained through direct contact with Higher Education
Institutions [18]; direct contact with the construction professionals (in the last 5 months
of 2018); and direct discussions with some industry stakeholders [16].
As illuminated in [5 p. 294 Fig. 5], the task group targets the development of a seed
BIM policy framework, where this section is considered achieved quantitatively in this
study. The framework development involves investigation into similar efforts around
the world and identify a suitable model approach to domesticate. Finding from the
application of macro maturity components model on 21 countries suggests UK’s
framework as the strongest [10].
BIM has well-established guidance and workflows in the UK as such, those who
adopted BIM concept in Nigeria considered UK BIM protocol as a source of guidance.
The respondents largely agreed that the UK model provides substantial guide once
adopted. Other potential countries that are worth learning from are USA and Australia,
they have potentials in technologies and terminology, and their BIM participation at the
world stage and availability of noteworthy BIM publications [19] are eminent. Any
remodelled framework for the study context must certify acceptability to the country
and its ecosystem.
The sequential input by model C and model D are explained based on the survey
findings; as such, model C (diffusion dynamics) identified the Nigerian market diffu-
sion dynamic as predominantly bottom-up. This will subsequently influence the next
input (model D – policy approach). The policy approach as presented in model D [5
p. 294] is mostly active, hence putting further pressure on the proposed BIM frame-
work whose smaller organisations are currently leading.
Although there is no mandate in place, there is still a substantial awareness mostly

at lower or individual level. The awareness in the education sector is moving very fast
since the launch of BIM Africa Student Advocacy Program mostly patronised by
Nigerian students of AEC related courses. This program (initiated in 2018) is serving as
a medium to create awareness and training to students of higher institutions. Although,
the rudimentary training can increase awareness; however, some of the critical issues
that will subsequently arrive are the availability of up to date software and BIM expert
for training as multi-disciplinary class [18]. The organisational BIM adoption repre-
sents discrete approaches that need profound consultations with the professional
stakeholders to confirm the level of execution, successes and challenges.
Primary website development as source of valuable information for the Nige-
rian AEC industry is the last stage of the initiation phase. This portal/website also
serves as a medium for awareness, guidance and source of Noteworthy BIM Publi-
cations (NBPs). AEC related professional regulatory bodies and National Information
Technology Development Agency (NITDA) are the key players in this aspect.
4.2 Consultation Phase

The consultation phase is explained as a stage where seed BIM framework is finally
refined and transformed into a roadmap. The roadmap has a set of responsibilities that
are assigned to selected stakeholders for action [5 p. 295 Fig. 6]. Model E is then
deployed with performance indicators and timeframes. The initial stage involves
identifying (from the survey undertaken) experienced stakeholders and conducting
face-to-face interviews as a replacement to the round-table discussions and workshops
[10]. As a result, this process aids in capturing of challenges and recommendation of
the stakeholders as well as identifying champions at implementation stage.
The diffusion responsibility model helped in identifying sectors and areas where the
Nigerian construction industry is lacking the needed attention as priorities are also
considered; adequate resources are to be provided all through as a recommendation.
A roadmap is therefore designed with crucial dates and milestones labelled and con-
nected to policy deliverables through a Macro Roadmap Template generated in 2017 as
explained by Kassem [5 p. 296 Fig. 8].
5 Conclusions
The findings of this study provided the Nigerian construction industry’s stand with
regard to current BIM adoption and significant information where the country is
lacking that has to be addressed in order to advance in macro adoption. As such, these
include the following: the low diffusion level of 11% and low maturity components
(especially in regulatory framework and NBPs) as suggested from the ‘bottom-up’
dynamic due to lack of regulations. Moreover, the active policy approach is also
suggested as the government participation became paramount. This piece of work also
demonstrated briefly how the findings could be used further to develop a roadmap for
an effective BIM adoption in Nigeria. A proposed roadmap will reflect these findings
and some other challenges that are not mentioned here through a series of
recommendations based on other results from subsequent collected data. However, the
execution phase remains out of this research scope and will require substantial
resources to ensure its realization.
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Criteria to Be Considered in the Selection
of Building Materials for Sustainable
Housing Delivery
Bimpe Alabi(&) and Julius Fapohunda

Faculty of Engineering, Cape Peninsula University of Technology,
Cape Town, South Africa
alabim2010@yahoo.com
Abstract. Among the numerous factors that affect sustainable housing delivery
is the inappropriate selection of building materials. It is significant to know the
kind of building material to been used in a specific application, it is essential to
know the measures to be taken for choosing such materials. Therefore, for a
sustainable urban future and to avoid ecological loss, it is vital to choose materials
wisely. Quantitative research approach was adopted to ascertain factor to consider
in the selection of building materials for sustainable affordable housing. Con-
struction stakeholders and site contractors are the selected sample to represent the
population for the purpose of this study. The findings show the factor to be
considered in the selection of sustainable building materials under the sustain-
ability categorised are maintenance cost, health and safety, energy consumption,
maintainability and expectancy of material. The identified factors to be consid-
ered in the selection of building materials if effectively considered, this would
allow construction stakeholders to verify that the building production processes
abide by the principles of sustainability from the early stage of building.
Keywords: Building materials Selection of building materials

Sustainable housing
1 Introduction
According to [1] Sustainable housing means, “Housing which adds to community

structure, towards community fairness and cost-effective at a confined level. Sustain-
ability objectives may possibly be attained through considering factors such as envi-
ronmental effect, economic impact, and market demand [2]. Hence, sustainable housing
should bump into a certain number of objects in term of resource and energy efficiency,
Cabondioxide and greenhouse gas emissions reduction, as well as pollution prevention,
mitigation of noise, improved indoor air quality and harmonization with the environment
[3]. Ideally, housing should be less expensive to construct, last endlessly with modest
maintenance, and be able to return completely to the earth when abandoned [4].
Therefore, to actually develop sustainable housing, housing essential needs to be socially
adequate, economically sustainable, environmentally approachable and technically

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_41
Criteria to Be Considered in the Selection of Building Materials 413
realistic [1]. This paper aims to investigate factors to be considered in the selection of
building materials for sustainable housing.
Building materials remain the most substantial input in construction development
because of this, play an undeniably significant role in the delivery of construction
projects [5]. Notably, the building is identified by the materials used in its construction
and its selection should be done along with sustainability principles to achieve cost-
effective in construction [6]. Conversely, an unsuitable selection of materials may
exclude the accomplishment of the anticipated sustainability goals [7]. In fact, an
appropriate approach of selecting building materials in a sustainable way it’s being
noted to be the simpler means for construction stakeholders to begin integrating sus-
tainable values in construction projects [3].
2 Criteria for Selection of Sustainable Building Materials
Sustainable development is the introductory principle towards ensuring an affordable

life for the current and forthcoming generations. Construction can be said to be sus-
tainable construction if it meets the goal of sustainable development [15]. Further
elucidated that sustainable construction is attainable through management and orga-
nization of construction processes, material selection and construction approaches and
resources consumption.
When choosing building materials to use for construction, it is essential to know the
factors that need to be considered for selecting such materials [8]. With the emerging
amount of building materials available, every single material has particular efficient
demands and complex assembly necessities for building construction [9]. Construction
projects are the main contributor to worldwide environmental degradation. Therefore,
for a sustainable urban future and to avoid ecologically damages, it is vital to choose
materials wisely The overall method for selecting building materials can be broadly
divided into five categories [10]: resource efficiency; energy efficiency; water conser-
vation; indoor air quality and affordability.
Resource Efficiency
Resource efficiency simply means the effective use of materials, energy and natural
resources to produce materials with reduced resources and environmental impact.
Notably, [6] emphasised that the selection of materials should be based on the envi-
ronmental impact of the materials and this have to be integrated at the early stage of
project and design stages. According to [9], resource efficiency can be made proficient
by using a material that runs into one or more of the following criteria: recycled
content, locally available, retrieved, remanufactured, and certainly durable [1]. Stated
that the significance of reusing and recycling the building parts is the saving energy. He
further verified using recycled materials to produce new building materials consumes
less energy than using new materials.
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is an imperative feature in enhancing the environmental sustainability
of materials [11]. Thus, the main purpose of using materials which are energy efficient
is to lessen the volume of generated energy in a structure. To achieve optimal energy
414 B. Alabi and J. Fapohunda
efficiency in building it is good to use materials or components that have less energy
intake in a building [9].
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
In order to meet the wants of the existing a generation without conceding the ability of
forthcoming generations to meet their own wants, taking cognizance of the quality of
the air we breathe inside the building has gained considerable attention over recent
decades [1]. Materials applied in the interior of a building can be a source of pollutants,
significantly affecting the indoor air quality, which in turn is harmful to the health and
comfort of building occupants [11]). According to [9] indoor air quality can be
improved by using materials that adhere to these factors: little toxic, minimal organic
releases, low-VOC assembly and dampness resilient.
Water Conservation
Materials that have water conservation features help in reducing the amount of water
used on site. In addition, water consumption can be monitored and capped in buildings
and landscaped areas by making use of materials that reduce water ingesting as well as
increasing water recycling and reuse [9]. [1] highlighted examples of ways by which
water can be conserved, by controlling the amount of water through a fixture and
recycling water that has previously reached the site or been used. Thus, recycled gray
water from sinks, showers, and laundry can be re-designated to flush toilets.
Affordability
Building materials are said to have cost-effective when less expensive than counterpart
conventional building materials or within budgeted construction cost as well as low
life-cycle cost [9]. Cost-related with energy, replacement, and maintenance costs are
significantly reduced with the adoption of life cycle cost (LCC) and essential appli-
cation of green construction practices. The LCC method is mainly applicable in
knowing the cost of a building, which is economically realistic with reduced use cost
when compared with another building that has a lower initial cost but greater use cost
in terms of maintenance, operating, replacement and repair [11].
Cost Efficiency
The theory of sustainability concerning the construction of buildings relates to the
effective cost and reducing investment costs [8]. Client demand on standard quality,
lower cost and timely delivery of the project have been a considerable problem within
the construction industry. In order to meet client demand, secure better contract and
investment return, construction stakeholders should adopt cost efficiency strategies [12].
3 Methodology
The quantitative research approach was adopted to investigate criteria to be considered

in the selection of building materials for sustainable housing. Quantitative research
always includes the numerical inquiry of data collected by means of some kind of
detailed questionnaire. Construction stakeholders (architects, quantity surveyors,
engineers, construction managers, project managers, and materials suppliers) and
contractors in Cape Town was selected as samples for the research population (Western
Cape Province). The samples were selected by the use of cluster sampling and pur-
posive sampling technique. A total of sixty-nine (69) questionnaires out of (90) ques-
tionnaires were retrieved and used for analysis. Quantitative data were analysed with
the use of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Respondents were asked to
rate the level of importance of the derived criteria based on a four (4) point Likert scale:
4 = Extremely, 3 = important, 2 = Less important, and 1 = Not important.
3.1 Findings
Table 1 presents the positions held by survey participants. The largest groups of the
respondents (20.3%) were project managers, followed by quantity surveyors which
represented 17.4%; and site managers at 11.6%; construction managers at 13%; 11.6%
were sales consultants; contractors at 7.2%, site managers at 5.8%; and architects at
13%. Table 1 present the work experience of respondents in the construction sector,
7.2% of respondents have worked more than five years in the construction industry.
Respondents having six to ten years’ construction work experience represented 10.1%.
A substantial 36.2% of study participants had eleven to fifteen years’ experience while
21.7% had sixteen to twenty years’ experience, and 24.6% had construction experience
of greater than twenty years.
Table 1. Profile of participants.

Profile of participant Frequency
Site engineer 8 11.6
Project manager 14 20.3
Construction manager 9 13.0
Sales consultant (building materials) 8 11.6
Contractor 5 7.2
Quantity surveyor 12 17.4
Site manager 4 5.8
Architect 9 13.0
Total 69 100
Work experience
1–5 years 5 7.2
6–10 years 7 10.1
11–15 years 25 36.2
16–20 years 15 21.7
20 years above 17 24.6
Total 69 100
Criteria for Selection Sustainable Building Materials

Table 2 shows the outcomes for each factors group (e.g. socio-economic, environ-
mental and technological). Respondents were requested to rate how important are the
resulting benchmarks constructed on a four (4) point Likert scale: 4 = Extremely
important, 3 = Important, 2 = Less important and 1 = Not important. Maintenance

cost was rated as the foremost importance in the socio-economic group, with an
(mv = 3.36). Energy consumption (mv = 3.34) was also ranked as having major sig-
nificance under the environmental category, while maintainability (mv = 3.43) had the
highest ranking in the technical category and interestingly was the highest among all
the selection criteria.
Table 2. Criteria for selection of sustaiable building materials

Criteria No. Extremely Important Not Less Mean Std.D Rank
important (%) important important value (r)
(%) (%) (%) (mv)
Socio-economic criteria
Maintenance cost 69 42.0 52.2 5.8 0.0 3.36 0.59 1
Health and safety 69 49.3 39.1 8.7 2.9 3.34 0.76 2
Initial cost 69 44.9 39.1 15.9 0.0 3.29 0.73 3
Disposal cost 69 34.8 56.5 8.7 0.0 3.26 0.61 4
Aesthetics 69 29.0 52.2 18.8 0.0 3.10 0.68 5
Labour availability 69 36.2 37.7 18.8 7.2 3.02 0.92 6
Recycle cost 69 29.0 42.0 21.7 7.2 2.93 0.89 7
Use of local 69 20.3 49.3 23.2 7.2 2.83 0.84 8
materials
Transportation cost 69 20.3 36.2 40.6 2.9 2.74 0.82 9
Environment criteria
Energy 69 52.2 30.4 17.4 0.0 3.34 0.76 1
consumption
Environmental 69 39.1 44.9 15.9 0.0 3.23 0.71 2
pollution
Air quality 69 42.0 39.1 17.4 1.4 3.22 0.76 3
Low or non- 69 43.5 36.1 18.8 1.4 3.21 0.80 4
toxicity
Sound disposal 69 34.8 44.9 18.8 1.4 3.13 0.77 5
options
Embodied energy 69 34.8 43.5 21.7 0.0 3.13 0.75 6
in the material
Environmental 69 31.9 46.4 21.7 0.0 3.10 0.73 7
statutory
compliance
Green gas emission 69 29.0 50.7 20.3 0.0 3.08 0.70 8
Amount of likely 69 27.5 53..6 17.4 1.4 3.07 0.71 9
wastage in the use
of materials
Ozone depletion 69 27.5 47.8 20.3 4.3 2.99 0.81 10
potential
Potential for 69 24.6 43.5 27.5 4.3 2.88 0.83 11
recycling as well as
re-use
Technical criteria
Maintainability 69 49.3 44.9 5.5 0.0 3.43 0.61 1
life expectancy of 69 58.0 27.5 11.6 2.9 3.41 0.81 2
material (strength,
durability)
Fire resistance 69 42.0 46.4 11.6 0.0 3.30 0.67 3
(continued)
Criteria No. Extremely Important Not Less Mean Std.D Rank
important (%) important important value (r)
(%) (%) (%) (mv)
Resistance to decay 69 37.7 49.3 11.6 1.4 3.23 0.71 4
Energy saving and 69 46.4 29.0 23.2 1.4 3.20 0.71 5
thermal insulation
Moisture resistance 69 39.1 40.6 17.4 2.9 3.16 0.82 6
Ease of 69 33.3 49.3 17.4 0.0 3.15 0.70 7
construction
Material 69 29.0 59.4 8.7 2.9 3.14 0.69 8
availability
Sound insulation 69 21.7 62.3 15.9 0.0 3.06 0.62 9
Table 2 reveals the perception of respondents on socio-economic criteria to be

considered for selection of sustainable building materials. Maintenance cost was rated
as the number one priority in the selection of sustainable building materials. High
maintenance costs have negative effects on stakeholders and the construction industry
as a whole [13]. However, building maintenance cost can be reduced through deep
knowledge of building maintenance cost theories [14].
The finding also shows that energy consumption, environmental pollution, air
quality and low or non- toxicity as the major criteria to be considered in the selection of
building materials (Table 2). Effective uses of energy help to reduce energy intake in
buildings and facilities [9]. [1] posit using low volatile organic compounds materials
for construction can considerably decrease the release of explosive organic compounds.
Thus, this is a vital factor to any effective project, also as a significant measure of
sustainable construction.
Maintainability with a mean value of 3.43 under technical criteria as the most sig-
nificant factor to be considered in the selection of sustainable materials. “Maintain-
ability” has been a major fear among designer and engineers in the construction industry.
Thus, preservation buildings are gradually to search by clients, to cut the running costs
related to buildings [1]. In addition, the finding reveals life expectancy of material in term
of strength and durability, fire resistance, resistance (Table 2) to decay as other notable
factors to be considered in the selection of sustainable building materials.
The factors to be considered in the selection of building materials were further sub-
divided into a socio-economic criterion, environmental criteria and technical criteri
based on sustainability. Effective considerations of building materials before selection
in construction towards enhancing sustainable housing delivery based on socio-
economic, environmental and technical criteria is a method to ensures that the sus-
tainability supply chain requirements are met at the beginning of the phase of the
project. Thus, this would allow the construction stakeholders to verify that the building
production processes abide by the principles of sustainability from the early stages of
the building.
Proficiently consideration of some factors when selecting materials will safeguard

sustainable improvement in the building project. Maintenance cost, energy consump-
tion, and maintainability as substantial factors to be considered in the selection of
sustainable building materials this will enhance the delivery of affordable housing.
Thus, Effective considerations of building materials before selection in construction
towards enhancing sustainable housing delivery based on socio-economic, environ-
mental and the technical criterion is a method to ensures that the sustainability supply
chain requirements are met at the beginning phase of the project.
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in Lagos state Nigeria. SAGE Open. 4 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014561213
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Contracting Firms Compliance to Health
and Safety Measures on Construction
Sites in Nigeria
Olusola Festus Akinradewo(&) and Bamidele Temitope Arijeloye

Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
{foakinradewo,btarijeloye}@futa.edu.ng
Abstract. Every year, millions of people around the world die due to con-
struction works related accidents. For this reason, this study evaluates adherence
of construction organisations to health and safety practices while executing
construction projects on site with a view to improving compliance with existing
policies. The study was done by distributing well-structured questionnaires to
external and in-house construction professionals who have been involved in
ongoing construction projects at the Federal University of Technology, Akure.
Percentile and mean item score were used to analyse the retrieved data. Results
indicates that the usage of health and safety tools is very low by the construction
firms because 12 out of 20 identified health and safety tools have mean scores
below average. The study concluded that construction professionals are highly
aware of health and safety regulations in the study area. The study recom-
mended that a regulatory body to oversee enforcement of adherence to health
and safety policies should be commissioned and empowered by the government.
Keywords: Compliance Construction firms Health and safety

Measures and tools
1 Introduction
The construction industry, as noted by so many researchers, is one whose level of risk
is very high. Gharibi [1] noted that construction sites pose a lot of risks to workers’ life
and therefore, it is part of the highly ranked risky workplaces in the world. Similarly,
[2] noted that the construction industry frequently record high rate of hazards to
practitioners, construction workers and eventually the end users with accidents. Muiruri
[2] further stressed that all over the world, construction workers have twice or thrice
tendency to die or sustain dangerous injury while working than workers in other
sectors. In addition, [3] stated that the industry experience double of accidents and
fatality rates of other sectors on average, with an increase in the rate of minor accidents.
Furthermore, [4] noted that the construction industry is widely acclaimed to be dan-
gerous and highly risky due to the out-of-proportion incidence of accidents that takes
place on construction sites.
There are wide ranges and probable hazards during construction works which
include trips, slides, dips, hand arm vibrating syndrome, noise, collapse, respiratory
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_42
420 O. F. Akinradewo and B. T. Arijeloye
diseases, electrocution among others [5]. The reasons for high-risk level in construc-
tion, according to [6] arises from the nature of work operations in construction, con-
struction methods, physical environment, heavy equipment in use, materials used for
construction, coupled with the construction project physical properties. Hassan [7] in
addition noted that the modus operandi of construction work is very dynamical and
composite. Hassan [7] further noted that this is due to the different phases of con-
struction such as the planning and viability phase, design phase, demolition and
clearance phase, execution phase, commissioning phase among others. Putting these
facts into view, there is a necessity to adopt construction site health and safety (H&S)
measures. It is worthy of note that due to the facts mentioned above, the construction
sector is perceived to be the hardest in implementing Health, Safety and Environment
(HSE) measures [8].
Considering the construction sector’s contributions to the economy of the country,
there is a need for stakeholders to seriously look into the issue of construction H&S. If
it is left unchecked, it will not only bring about economic loss but also affect the growth
rate of investment. It would thus be to the advantage of organisations, construction
industry stakeholders and the Government to invest in any system and processes that
can decrease incident rates. Thus, it is on this note that this study aims at evaluating the
adherence of construction firms to H&S policies on construction project sites.
2 Literature Review
H&S in the construction industry deal with the psychological and physical health and
well-being of labourers and professionals on the construction site together with other
individuals who can be at health risk. It is, therefore, a necessity for clients, employees,
stakeholders, governments, employers, and general project participants to embrace the
implementation of H&S policies [2]. Construction H&S management covers the
activities a project/construction manager can engage in to train workers and motivate
them to practice safe and productive construction activities. Workers’ H&S are critical
components in work environment. According to [9], a work environment that is safe
reduces the level of absenteeism, the cost spent on companies’ insurance bills but
increases productivity. Globally, people die more while at work than when at warfront.
International Labour Organization [10] reported that on average, about 2.3 million
workers die yearly due to diseases and accidents that are work-related with about
360,000 resulting from disastrous accidents while about 1.95 million results from
work-related diseases. This can be explained to indicate that after each day at work,
workers up to 1 million will account for accidents while about 5,500 workers die at
their workplace. H&S have been an issue to study since the development of a con-
struction site and other related work settings [11].
“Occupation Safety and Health (OSH) also known as Occupation H&S (OHS) or
Workplace Health and Safety (WHS)”, by [12], is an interdisciplinary field that focuses
on guaranteeing the health, welfare, and safety of workers while in their workplace
taking others who may be partakers directly or indirectly into consideration. This is
why [13] submitted that OHS covers the social, mental, as well as the physical welfare
of workers in the workplace.
Contracting Firms Compliance to Health and Safety Measures 421
2.1 H&S on Construction Sites in Developing Countries

Construction activities in developing countries are considered dangerous, and a quick
inspection of a construction site will show various H&S risks. Dutton [14] noted that
H&S is a worldwide phenomenon which requires serious attention most especially by
small and medium organisations. Unfortunately, the importance of practicing con-
struction H&S in developing countries has been undermined. Farooqui [15] rightly
noted that developing countries are faced with significant H&S challenges. The fact
that construction work environments are considered to be extremely hazardous does not
equally indicate that its proneness to accidents cannot be controlled. According to [16],
the risks and hazards are largely dependent on “work situation” or “working envi-
ronment” which can be controlled humanly. This can be ascertained from the safety
reports and records of construction industries from advanced countries. Thus, the
grounds on which [17] and [18] expresses worries concerning developing countries’
worse safety practices still continue to surface such as Nigeria. Muiruri [2] opined that
factors standing as barriers to managing developing countries’ H&S in construction
sector include “poor infrastructure; problems of communication due to low literacy
level; unregulated practices on construction sites; adherence to traditional methods of
working; non-availability of equipment; extreme weather conditions; improper use of
equipment and corruption”. The prevalence of OHS issues in developing countries has
been associated with not giving enough attention to OHS by stakeholders, practitioners
and government [19]. Puplampu [19] further opined that the causes might be as a result
of more emphasis being laid on profitability and productivity with H&S procedures,
standards, and policies compromised.
A lot of international and non-governmental companies mostly ask the reason
behind most African countries struggling to promote effective OHS in the workplace.
The irony of the situation, as noted by [15] indicated that there is an inadequacy of
OHS systematic procedures while business owners and construction industry stake-
holders are not devoted to OHS measures. This has led to accidents being under-
reported in some of these African countries such as Nigeria and Ghana [18, 20] as well
as the allocation of little resources to OHS [18]. In addition, [21] noted that developing
countries’ construction environment experiences issues that serve as barriers to
implementation of OHS on construction sites among which are insecurity, corruption,
and poor safety culture. Furthermore, poor regulation of OHS in developing countries
like Nigeria results in a lackadaisical and indifferent attitude of construction profes-
sionals and workers towards OHS [21]. Similarly, [2] noted that the culture of
developing countries’ construction industry has not given room for encouraging H&S
practices. Procurement process that uses competitive tendering which leads to the
lowest bidder being awarded most public contracts obliges contractors to beat their
rates down by taking out some cost aspects of the project thereby affecting OHS
incorporation in many developing countries [2].
According to [22], although Nigeria participated in the OSH Convention held in
Geneva in 1981, the country still falls behind in implementing OHS on construction
sites. Furthermore, [18] noted that even the most relevant and up-to-date safety records
by contractors in Nigeria indicated considerably increase in number of casualties on
construction sites. From a study of forty-two Nigerian contracting organisations, there
was poor performance on OHS practices with an average of five injuries per 10 labourer
and two accidents per One hundred labourers recorded [18]. This corroborated the
submission of [23] that these figures most times are worse in practice as concealment
and under-reporting culture is normally done by these contracting firms.
Presently, the Nigerian construction industry has no H&S regulation policy in use
which is a major challenge to the adoption and effectiveness of H&S practices in the
industry.
Research methodology according to [24] is an organization of conditions, a blueprint or

an outline for data collection, measurement, and analysis, in a way that conflates
relevance to the purpose of the research with the economy in procedure. This study,
therefore, adopted quantitative research method such that data were retrieved chiefly
using a well-structured questionnaire. The questionnaire adopted a five-point Likert
scale to measure a range of opinions from the respondents. The research focused on
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria as a case study while the
target population included Mechanical and Electrical Engineers, Architects, Quantity
Surveyors and Civil Engineers who have undertaken various construction works for the
University. It also included the consulting team of professionals who are in the
employment of the University at the Physical Planning Unit. Census sampling tech-
nique was employed by this study to retrieve data from the respondents. This was used
simply because the target population falls between the reasonable size that can be
reached with ease. 39 questionnaires were distributed and 27 were retrieved which were
found suitable for analysis indicating a 69% success rate according to the submission of
[25] that about 20–30% return rate for questionnaire survey is acceptable. Retrieved
data was analysed using percentile and Mean Item Score for ranking of the variables
based on the 5-point Likert scale.

4.1 Respondent’s Background Information
From the analysis of data retrieved, respondents’ demographic information is presented
in Table 1. The table showed that respondents’ type of organization ranges between
contracting firms, consulting firms and government firms. The table also shows that all
respondents work in indigenous organizations. Results from the table also revealed that
most of the respondents’ year of experience ranges between 6 years to 15 years and
they have handled an average of 6–15 projects. This shows that the respondents possess
the required experience and expertise needed to provide professional answers to the
questions of this research study.
Table 1. Characteristics of respondents

Factor Variable Frequency Percentage
Type of organization Consulting 7 25.9
Contracting 11 40.7
Government 9 33.3
Total 27 100
Category of organization Indigenous firm 27 100
Professional background Building 5 18.5
Engineering 11 40.7
Architecture 5 18.5
Total 27 100
Academic qualification HND 1 3.7
PGD 2 7.4
B-degree 7 25.9
M-degree 17 63
Total 27 100
Years of experience 1–5 years 2 7.4
6–10 years 18 66.7
11–15 years 6 22.2
16–20 years 1 3.7
Total 27 100
Public project handled 1–5 7 25.9
6–10 10 37
11–15 5 18.5
16–20 5 18.5
Total 27 100
4.2 H&S Regulations Awareness

Table 2 reveals a high awareness level of H&S regulations by the respondents. This is
revealed as most of the regulations identified in the study has a mean score of over 4.0.
It can, therefore, be inferred that construction workers know about H&S regulations.
However, just as it is opined by [26], knowing the H&S regulations does not auto-
matically translate to compliance. Several other factors including management com-
mitment, involvement of workers, enforceable regulatory framework among others
must be considered also for project H&S performance to be improved.
4.3 Compliance to H&S Measures in Construction

Table 3 showed how construction professionals comply with H&S measures. Most of
the measures identified had a mean score a little bit above average. It is worthy of note
that the use of first aid facility scored the highest with a mean score of 4.22. In contrast,
results indicated a low level of the report of incidents and near misses as the measure
Table 2. Awareness level of H&S regulations

H&S regulation Mean Rank
Ensuring the availability, maintenance, usage and correct storage of safety 4.74 1
equipment
Logout and tag of faulty and idle electrical devices 4.63 2
Supervision of employees to ensure the use of protective equipment and 4.52 3
safety devices
Restriction of access to electrical equipment and installations to qualified 4.48 4
and certified electricians
Having programs to develop and maintain health incentives for workers 4.22 5
Maintenance of emergency phone number, H&S poster, and others 4.19 6
Proper storage and restriction of access to hazardous materials 4.19 7
Regular H&S inspection 4.11 8
Use of safety signs and signals 3.85 9
Use of guardrails and scaffold fall protection for heights above 1.8 m 3.82 10
Report of accidents resulting in fatality or more than 3 hospitalization 3.67 11
within 8 h
had a mean score of 2.93. The study also showed that provision for regular training
regarding H&S is a little above average having a mean score of 3.26. This is similar to
the findings of [26] which opined that the compliance level of professionals to con-
struction H&S is below expectations and lower than the acceptable standard. This
implies that there is a need for construction firms to show more commitment to
upgrading their knowledge and to the training of workers concerning H&S. Consid-
ering the fact that inadequate training of workers particularly in recognition and
avoidance of job hazards is one major cause of accidents on site [27], it is necessary
that construction firms infuse a convinced behaviour towards H&S. Improvement of
safety awareness in their workers through personal adherence to construction H&S
regulations, personal contact with workers, training on H&S from time to time, and
regularly scheduled safety meetings should be focused on also [28]. Furthermore, it
was opined in [2] that a Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) program can be
implemented on construction sites. It is believed that “this program would address the
hazards present; the selection, maintenance, and use of PPE; the training of employees;
and monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness”. Failure to do so,
according to [21], does not only imply a loss of confidence in those responsible for the
training of workers, but also negligence of social obligations and responsibilities.
4.4 Level of Usage of H&S Tools

Considering the usage of various H&S tools by construction workers during con-
struction, Table 4 revealed a wide disparity between the usage of these tools. The level
of usage of some tools like Hard Hat and First Aid are very high with mean scores of
4.67 and 4.33 respectively, compared to other tools like restroom, foot and leg pro-
tection, eye protection, hand and arm protection with mean scores of 1.96, 1.93, and
Table 3. Compliance of contracting firms in the study area to the various H&S measures to be
provided during construction
H&S measure Mean Rank
Provision of first aiders and first aid facility 4.22 1
Issuance personal protecting equipment 3.74 2
Compliance with up to date h & s policy 3.67 3
System for keeping up to date with OSH act and its regulation 2.37 4
Enforcement of use of personal protecting instruments 2.36 5
Safety signs and symbols 2.32 6
Program for regular training regarding H&S 2.26 7
Availability system for reporting and recording incidents and near misses 1.93 8
1.78 and 1.74 respectively. This indicates a low level of usage of H&S tools which is
contrary to the suggestions given by [2] that the “Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE) used in the construction sites include; eye protection and face protection, hearing
protection, respiratory protection, hand and arm protection, foot and leg protection,
head protection and body and fall protection mechanisms”.
Table 4. Level of usage of various H&S tools.

H&S tool Mean Rank
Hard hat 4.67 1
Scaffold 4.63 2
Ladders 4.56 3
First aid box 4.33 4
Visibility jacket 4.15 5
Storage facility for hazardous materials 4.04 6
Safety boots 2.89 7
Healthy drinking water 2.67 8
Gloves 2.48 9
Safety and warning signs 2.44 10
Scaffold fall protection and guard rails 2.44 10
Lightning protection 2.44 10
Site fencing 2.33 13
Dust mask 2.22 14
First aid training 2.19 15
Fire safety training 2.00 16
Restroom 1.96 17
Foot and leg protection 1.93 18
Eye protection 1.78 19
Hand and arm protection 1.74 20
5 Recommendations and Conclusions
With the research study findings, conclusion can be drawn that construction profes-
sionals are highly aware of H&S regulations in the study area. Construction profes-
sionals know that they are to ensure the availability, maintenance, usage and correct
storage of safety equipment; log out and tag faulty and idle electrical devices; ensure
the use of safety equipment among other regulations. It is therefore recommended that a
regulatory body to oversee enforcement of adherence to H&S policies be commis-
sioned and empowered by the government. This regulatory body will be able to
effectively monitor and ensure the provision of H&S tools by contracting firms on
construction sites. It is also recommended that contracting firms should create avenues
for regular training of their workers concerning various issues of H&S while they make
provisions for H&S tools for their workers on site during construction. Further study
can be carried out to evaluate causative factors of low adherence to H&S measures in
the Nigerian construction industry.
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28. Department of Workforce Services OSHA Division Wyoming: Comprehensive Health and
Safety Program for Construction (2014)
Supplementing Quantity Surveying Traditional
Services with Arbitration as One
of the Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR) Methods
Xoliswa Mangese and Mart-Mari Els(&)
Department Quantity Surveying and Construction Management,

Archerm@ufs.ac.za
Abstract. The quantity surveying profession has once been defined as a pro-
fession on the brink, prompting quantity surveyors to reinvent themselves by
adopting services outside their professional domain. One of the services they
adopted was Alternative Dispute Resolution Methods, one of them being
Arbitration. However, it is of concern that most quantity surveyors do not
provide Arbitration as an additional service. This gives rise to the importance of
the study. The aim of this study was to examine the knowledge and competency
level of quantity surveyors regarding arbitration as a plausible cause for the
limited number of quantity surveyors providing arbitration as an additional
professional service. By making use of questionnaires, the researcher investi-
gated whether the knowledge and competency level were not the cause of the
small number of quantity surveyors who are arbitrators.
Keywords: Arbitration Arbitrator Alternative dispute resolution

Quantity surveyor
1 Introduction
Quantity surveyors, also known as cost engineers, building economist and estimators,
are specialists in the building industry; they oversee expenses and funds of an
undertaking, as well as provide advice on procurement to assist with construction
agreements and the documentation thereof. They are mostly involved in the following
sectors: the government and its parastatals, private-sector building and civil engi-
neering companies (including consulting firms), bank institutions and property devel-
opers as well as project management organisations [10].
Cavill [13] issued the article, The QS: a profession on the brink in their 1999
building magazine. The magazine directed its own particular review of more than
12,000 quantity surveyors, and the staggering inclination was one of concern about
their future. The review demonstrates that QSs are worried about the quick disinte-
gration of their traditional role, and their failure to convince clients that they can
fundamentally contribute to their projects.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_43
Supplementing Quantity Surveying Traditional Services 429
Harun and Torrance [4] suggest that quantity surveyors ought not to position
themselves inside the traditional limits of cost management. One of the ways the
profession has evolved was by supplementing traditional services with Alternative
Dispute Resolution (ADR), in particular arbitration.
The danger of the Quantity Surveying profession becoming extinct prompted them
to reinvent themselves by supplementing their traditional professional services with
services outside their professional domain, one being Arbitration. However, it is of
concern to note that only a few Quantity Surveyors do in fact provide Arbitration as an
additional service. This gave rise to the problem of the research study, which states,
“the majority of the QS professionals do not exploit Arbitration as one of the ADR
services that they can provide”.
The research study then raised questions as to why the Quantity Surveying fra-
ternity was not interested in providing arbitration as a service and questioned whether
the small number of Quantity Surveyors as arbitrators was due to the competency level
required for one to become an arbitrator. The purpose of this study was therefore to
examine the knowledge and competency level of Quantity Surveyors regarding arbi-
tration as a plausible cause for the limited number of quantity surveyors providing
arbitration as an additional professional service. The objectives that the study aimed to
achieve were to determine the cause of the low interest amongst Quantity Surveyors to
offer arbitration as an additional service and to investigate the competency level of
Quantity Surveyors in offering arbitration services.
2 Overview of the Quantity Surveying Profession
A quantity surveyor is a professional involved within the building environment; their

responsibility is concerned with building costs [8]. The Quantity Surveyor obtains
his/her qualification through one or a combination of the following routes: formal
education, specific training and knowledge. These afford one with a universal set of
abilities that are then applied to multiple problems. These primarily transmit to costs
and contracts on construction developments.
The primary function of the Quantity Surveyor is to advise the client on project
cost. Over the most recent couple of decades, the QS profession has faced many
developments. The progressions were motivated by fear of the quantity surveying
profession becoming obsolete as a formal profession [7].
A senior partner of Davis Langdon and Everest was cited as saying, “traditional
quantity surveying, especially the calculation of BoQs, is on the way out”. His state-
ment was confirmed by numerous senior QSs of large firms, who also believed the
profession was heading into specialisation, in particular management consultancy in
construction. The latter currently allude to themselves as construction economists. This
article appeared to spell the end for the Quantity Surveyor as more articles that sang
from a similar psalm trailed it. “Adapt or Die” (2000) prompted QSs to discover
another specialty in the industry as their conventional role of measuring and producing
BoQs was fast becoming obsolete. It alluded to QSs as an ‘endangered species’ and
that it was an instance of survival of the fittest, which means that the fittest would be
the surveyor that had acclimatised and differentiated to an evolving industry [13].
430 X. Mangese and M.-M. Els
A year later (2001), the building magazine published a further article titled “What is
the use of QSs”, expressed over a survey that the broad public practically had no clue of
what a QS did. The writer proposed that construction law was a suitable landing spot
for expanding a QS’s role, mentioning that their cost knowledge could be a valuable
tool in dispute resolution. The article additionally took after the subject of others,
suggesting that the traditional role was dying [13].
Disputes in the built environment are mostly associated with cost, claims and time.
The Quantity Surveyor might be the best-suited professional to deal with these kinds of
disputes involving extension of time, disrupt claims, etc., because they are thorough
and would advise on the best resolution for the dispute based on the knowledge in
terms of cost planning, control and advice. Quantity Surveyors can also take up the
arbitrator role, should the dispute be resolved by arbitration [14].
Quantity Surveyors are more acquainted with a project’s contract conditions and
should always advise their clients to limit disputes arising from the contract [13].
Asaqs.co.za [1] supports these findings by stating that QSs have the knowledge and are
equipped in the field of costs and contracts, which enables them to act as arbitrators for
disputes arising in the built environment.
Arbitration as the last dispute resolution method is a process whereby an unbiased
third party or a group of neutral third parties known as an Arbitrator/s, usually chosen
by the parties in disagreement, make a final and binding judgement (award) with regard
to a dispute between the parties [2].
Truter [12] further elaborates that the parties to the dispute select an arbitrator of
their choosing. Failing to do so within a specified timeframe, they can request the
Arbitration Foundation of Southern Africa (AFSA) or the Association of Arbitrators
South Africa (AASA) to assign an appropriate and qualified arbitrator. The contract
regularly decides the strategy for selecting an arbitrator. Arbitration in South Africa is
administered by the Arbitration Act 42 of 1965; however, there must be a valid
agreement recorded in writing for the Act to be enforceable. By doing so, this will
enable the parties to arbitrate any current disputes or future disputes identifying with an
issue determined in the agreement.
Education requirements to become an arbitrator are not standard; the requirements
may vary by position (job function) and mostly focus on real-world experience.
However, having a degree or work experience in law-related matters is common for
arbitrators. Experience is important in that it gives an understanding of the legal
influences for decision-making [4].
It was confirmed that as of the 26th of April 2018, only one arbitrator affiliated with
AFSA is also a Quantity Surveyor by Profession [9]. It was also confirmed that as of
the 24th of April 2018, there are 37 Quantity Surveyor arbitrators who are members of
the AASA [6]. It is believed that these numbers do not include candidate QS Arbi-
trators who are underway to qualify as Arbitrators. The total of 38 Arbitrators is seen to
be insignificant compared to the total number of Quantity Surveyors. This implies that
there are only 1.73% of Quantity Surveyor Arbitrators, compared to a high number of
2 194 PrQS. This number (2194) excludes CanQS and the unregistered Quantity
Surveyors.
The study was conducted by undertaking a quantitative approach. This was achieved
through analysing arbitration as well as quantity surveyor services in the literature
review, followed by the development of questionnaires. Quantitative analysis is as an
approach used to test theories by examining the relationship between variables [3].
Therefore, a quantitative approach was used, because the study attempted to examine
the relationship between the lack of knowledge and competency and the small number
of arbitrators who are QS.
Questionnaires were the data collection method employed for this study. Close-
ended questions based on the literature review were modelled for the participants and
administered via email and google forms, as the target group was assumed to be
computer-literate, and also to erase any geographical constraints [11]. The question-
naire was divided into four sections. Section A titled “Demographics” consisted of the
participants’ demographics. Section B titled “Knowledge Level Regarding Arbitration
as a Service” tested the knowledge level of the participants regarding arbitration.
Section C titled “Interest in Becoming an Arbitrator” asked the participants if they were
interested in becoming Arbitrators and what would motivate them to become Arbi-
trators. The concluding section, Section D, titled “Interest Level in Providing Arbi-
tration as a Service” was a scaled section from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly
Agree) with four questions (regarding quantity surveyors’ knowledge, expertise and
arbitration as a specialised field) wherein the participants were requested to scale their
opinions. Research ethics were considered, and the study adhered to ethical rules.
Convenient Sampling (also called availability sampling) was employed for this
study. It is one of the most common non-probability sampling methods. It entails the
use of those participants who are available or easily/readily accessible for the study
[11]. For this paper, the selected individuals were QSs who worked within the built
environment.
The QS profession population is large and therefore the entire group of interest was
not studied. Subsequently, 100 questionnaires were distributed to Quantity Surveyors.
The data analysis was completed using SPSS 23 (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) software. The descriptive statistics was rendered with this software and
presented illustrating percentiles, mean, standard deviation, and correlation, using the
Kruskal Wallis test to show any relationships between the variables.
4 Research Results and Discussion
Section A
In section A respondents were ask about their professional environment, year experi-
ence and qualification. From the table below it is clear that the majority of the
respondents resides in Gauteng and a total of 67% of the respondents are candidate
quantity surveyors. 60% of the respondents has less that 5 years experience in the
industry. The majority (67%) of the respondents are working for consulting firms or
private companies. 64% of the respondents indicated that their highest qualification is
honours degree (Table 1).
Table 1. Respondents’ profile

Province of employment GP EC WC FS None
46% 19% 14% 12% 10%
Professional registration CanQS PrQS Other
67% 17% 15%
Years experience <5 years 5–10 years >10 years
60% 23% 17%
Employment sector Consulting Public sector Contractor
67% 17% 15%
Qualification Masters Honours Bachelor B.Tech Degree Diploma
4% 64% 12% 15% 6%
(Source: Mangese, 2018: Adopted from SPSS 23)
Section B
Question 1: Do you know what an Arbitrator is/does?
98.1% of the surveyed respondents knew what an arbitrator is or does, while only 1.9%
specified that they were not sure. The finding indicated that all the respondents except
one knew what an arbitrator is or does, indicating that they had knowledge about an
arbitrator is and what he does. Thus, it can be concluded that the knowledge level was
very high.
Question 2: Are you an Arbitrator?
None of the surveyed respondents were arbitrators as all (100%) of them picked “no”
as response. This implied that even though they knew what it means to be an arbitrator,
as well as what the responsibilities of an arbitrator are, and possibly knowing that a QS
can be an arbitrator, none of them was yet one or planned to become an arbitrator. The
reason could be because the surveyed respondents lacked the experience or required
qualification to be a qualified and practising arbitrator. This implies that traditional
quantity surveying services have not yet been fully supplemented with Arbitration as
one of the alternative dispute resolution (ADR) methods within the South African
context.
Question 3: Do you know any QS who is an Arbitrator?
51.9% of the surveyed respondents picked “Yes”, while 48.1% picked “no” as response
when they were asked whether they knew any QS who is an arbitrator. This indicated
that about half of them knew QSs who were arbitrators, while almost half of them did
not know any QS who was an arbitrator.
Question 4: Which of the following do you think qualifies a QS to be an Arbitrator?
Table 2 reveals the responses to what qualifies a QS as an arbitrator from the surveyed
quantity surveyors in the study area. The results indicate that 53.8% agreed that only
experience qualifies a QS to be an arbitrator; 13.5% agreed that only qualification
qualifies a QS to be an arbitrator; while 30.8% of them agreed that both experience and
qualification qualify a QS to be an arbitrator. This implies that experience is a major
requirement for being an arbitrator, although qualification is also important for a QS to
be qualified as an arbitrator.
Table 2. What qualifies a QS to be an arbitrator?

Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent
Experience 28 53.8 53.8 53.8
Experience qualification 16 30.8 30.8 84.6
None of the above 1 1.9 1.9 86.5
Qualification 7 13.5 13.5 100.0
Total 52 100.0 100.0 100.0
Section C
Question 1: Do you have any knowledge that QS can offer Arbitration as a service?
A high number (80.8%) of the respondents expressed their opinion as ‘yes’, which
means they had knowledge that QS could offer arbitration as a service. Only 7.7%
picked ‘no’ as response, which means that they had no knowledge that a QS could offer
arbitration as a service, whereas 11.5% were not sure. From the result of this study, it
can be inferred that the respondents surveyed have knowledge that QS can offer
arbitration as a service.
Question 2: Having knowledge that QSs can become Arbitrators, would you consider
becoming one?
55.8% of the respondents picked ‘yes’, which indicates that they were interested in
becoming an arbitrator based on their knowledge that a QS can become an arbitrator.
26.9% picked ‘unsure’, which connotes that they were yet to decide, while 17.5%
picked ‘no’, which suggests that they clearly specified their intention that they did not
consider becoming an arbitrator, despite the fact that they knew that a QS could
become an Arbitrator.
Question 3: What would motivate you to become an Arbitrator?
Table 3 indicates what would motivate the respondents to become an arbitrator. 32.7%
believed that becoming an Arbitrator would broaden their portfolio; 19.2% specified
that it was an opportunity for them to offer expertise in their field; while 11.5% agreed
that becoming an arbitrator would be for financial reward only. Some of the respon-
dents (13.5%) agreed that motivations to be an arbitrator included broadening one’s
portfolio and offering expertise in their field, while 15.4% of them upheld the fact that
what motivated one to be an arbitrator should be more than broadening one’s portfolio
and offering expertise in one’s field, but also include financial reward. It could be
inferred that broadening one’s portfolio, offering expertise in one’s field and financial
reward are good motivators for becoming an arbitrator. Some of the respondents also
believed that becoming an arbitrator provided the opportunity to solve problems and
ensure fair dispute resolution.
Table 3. What would motivate you to become an arbitrator?

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative
percent percent
Broadening your portfolio 17 32.7 32.7 32.7
Broadening your portfolio; Offer 7 13.5 13.5 46.2
expertise in your field
Broadening your portfolio; Offer 8 15.4 15.4 61.5
expertise in your field; Financial reward
Financial reward 6 11.5 11.5 73.1
N/A 2 3.8 3.8 76.9
Offer expertise in your field 10 19.2 19.2 96.2
Solving problems 1 1.9 1.9 98.1
To ensure fair dispute resolution 1 1.9 1.9 100.0
Total 52 100.0 100.0 100.0
Section D: Question 1-4

The study further identified the expected requirements for a QS to become an arbitrator.
These requirements include having knowledge and being equipped in the field of costs,
contracts administration, and being equipped to offer services outside their domain.
They should not believe that Arbitration is a specialised field and the services should be
provided by law-qualified professionals only (Table 4).
Table 4. QS Perception on QS competency to provide arbitration services

Mean Std. Rank
deviation
QSs are more knowledgeable and equipped in the field of 4.27 0.888 1
costs, such that they should be the ones offering arbitration
services on building disputes
QSs are more knowledgeable and equipped in the field of 4.10 0.823 2
contracts, such that they should be the ones offering
arbitration services on building disputes
QSs are equipped to offer services outside their traditional 4.04 0.907 3
domain
Arbitration is a specialised field and the services should be 3.04 1.371 4
provided by law qualified professionals
From the table above, all the expected requirements were embraced and given
overwhelming support as revealed by the mean score, which is far above the average
value of 3.5. This includes having knowledge and being equipped in the field of costs
(mean score = 4.27), having knowledge and being equipped in the contracts admin-
istration (mean score = 4.10), being equipped to offer services outside their domain
(mean score = 4.04), and low score for marking arbitration a specialised field, which
should be limited to only law qualified professionals only (mean score = 3.04).
The results implied that for a QS to be qualified to become an arbitrator, he/she is
expected to have knowledge and be equipped in the field of costs, have knowledge and
be equipped in the contracts administration, and be equipped to offer services outside
their domain. There should not be any room for an inferiority complex, believing that
arbitration is a specialised field that should be limited to law-qualified professionals only.
This question is related to the problem. Determining how the QS profession views
their competency level will have a direct effect on the number of QS offering arbitration
services, because in most cases people’s interests are hampered by their incompetency,
which keeps them from exploring their interests.
To test the hypotheses, further analysis using the Kruskal Wallis test was carried
out on the data collected to examine the respondents’ views, based on the
profession/job description (as previously mentioned, through their job function, their
knowledge on arbitration can be determined) and the years of work experience
(competence) as a quantity surveyor to determine whether there was any correlation
between the knowledge and competence level and the low number of QS arbitrators.
The results show that the Kruskal-Wallis Test sig. values are greater than 0.05 for the
variable that measures what qualifies a quantity surveyor to be an arbitrator. This
indicates that there was no significance difference in the views of the respondents based
on the profession/job description and years’ working experience as a quantity surveyor.
This is revealed from the result of the analysis that gave Kruskal-Wallis Test significant
values greater than 0.05 for all the variable tested.
Hypothesis 1: Due to the lack of knowledge by QS that they can provide arbitration as
a service there is a low number of arbitrators who are QS
Hypothesis 1 test summary

Null hypothesis Test Sig. Decision
1 The distribution of 1 Independent .350 Retain the
Do you believe that QS’s are more samples null
knowledgeable and equipped in the field of Kruskal-Wallis hypothesis
costs such that they should be the ones test
offering arbitration services on building
disputes?
Is the same across categories of
Professional/Job Function categorised
Do you believe that QS’s are more samples null
knowledgeable and equipped in the field of Kruskal-Wallis hypothesis
contracts such that they should be the ones test
offering arbitration services on building
disputes?
professional/job function categorised
(continued)
(continued)
Do you believe that QS’s are equipped to samples null
offer services outside their traditional Kruskal-Wallis hypothesis
domain? test
4 The distribution of 4 1 .329 Retain the
Do you believe that arbitration is a null
specialized field and the services should be hypothesis
provided by law qualified professionals?
Asymptotic significances are displayed. The significance level is .05.
Hypothesis 2: The majority of the QS population do not meet the requirements for one
to become an arbitrator, consequently, not qualifying to render arbitration services

Do you believe that QS’s are more samples Kruskal- null
knowledgeable and equipped in the field of costs Wallis test hypothesis
such that they should be the ones offering
arbitration services on building disputes?
Is the same across categories of years of
experience as a Quantity Surveyor
(QS) categorised
2 The distribution of 2. Independent .792 Retain the
Do you believe that QS’s are more samples Kruskal- null
knowledgeable and equipped in the field of Wallis test hypothesis
contracts such that they should be the ones
offering arbitration services on building disputes?
(QS) categorised.
Do you believe that QS’s are equipped to offer samples Kruskal- null
services outside their traditional domain? Wallis test hypothesis
(QS) categorised
(continued)
(continued)
Do you believe that Arbitration is a specialized samples Kruskal- null
field and the services should be provided by law Wallis test hypothesis
qualified professionals?
(QS) categorised
Asymptotic significances are displayed. The significance level is .05.
The implication of this is that neither knowledge gained from the profession/job
function nor competency influences the perception of the surveyed quantity surveyors
on what qualifies a quantity surveyor to be an arbitrator. The results are consistent with
the findings, as it was revealed that 80.8% of the respondents had knowledge that QS
provided arbitration services. However, this did not influence their interest in pursuing
arbitration as a service. Likewise, the findings were also consistent with the literature
review, for all categories QSs confirmed that they were competent to perform arbi-
tration services, because their tasks equipped them to offer such services that are
outside their professional domain; they had the experience and the qualification.
Therefore, the null hypotheses are both retained, and the alternative hypotheses
rejected.
In the literature review it was discovered that most disputes in the built environment
were due to cost and contract-related issues. One of the methods to resolve disputes is
arbitration and the QS are therefore equipped to resolve such disputes. However, most
of them were not arbitrators. The research study aimed to investigate the lack of
knowledge and competency as the causes of the small number of QS arbitrators. The
research study revealed that a high number of the QS population were aware that they
could provide arbitration as a service and that their job function and years’ experience,
together with their qualification, render them competent to offer arbitration services. It
has emerged that the lack of knowledge that QSs could offer arbitration services and
QSs being competent to render the services were not the reasons for the small number
of QSs who are arbitrators. As noted, there could be several reasons for the small
number; however, QSs having knowledge had to be ruled out as the first cause, fol-
lowed by the requirements for QSs to become arbitrators.
The primary objectives of this study was to determine the cause of the low interest
amongst QSs to offer arbitration as an additional service and to investigate the com-
petency level of QSs in offering arbitration services. To achieve the objectives, ques-
tionnaires were distributed amongst the participants. The questions tested whether the
participants knew that they could offer arbitration services, having the knowledge that
they could offer arbitration as a service, should they consider becoming arbitrators.
Their years’ experience and whether they believed that their qualification and job
function render them competent to be arbitrators.
The 13 questions posed to the participants were comprised of the participants’
demographics, their knowledge level regarding arbitration as a QS service, their interest
in becoming arbitrators and providing the service. All the questions were formulated to
answer the research questions and consequently the research study achieved its main
objectives.
As it was revealed that the small number of QS arbitrators was not attributed to lack
of knowledge nor to the competency level of QS, the researcher made the following
recommendations:
1. In order to have a successful dispute resolution in the built environment, an expert
in the subject matter of the dispute is required. The cost and contract administration
experts are none other than QS and therefore there could be a need and a market for
QS arbitrators.
2. Having knowledge that a QS can offer arbitration services does not necessarily
mean that QSs know exactly what arbitration entails and how it can benefit the
construction industry. Therefore, it is important that QSs enlighten themselves on
the benefits that arbitration brings about.
Due to the time constraints and the degree level the research study was narrowed to
investigate the “first degree” causes of the small number of QS arbitrators. The
researcher therefore suggests the following for further research:
1. Investigation into the average cost and contract related disputes that arise in a year
to determine if the number necessitates more QS arbitrators.
2. Investigation into the average of cost and contract-related disputes that actually end
up in arbitration cases per year; this will also determine whether there is a need for
more QS arbitrators. In parallel, investigate the number of contracts that stipulates
arbitration as a resolution method because the parties cannot request for arbitration
if it is not agreed in the contract.
3. An in-depth investigation on other reasons for the small number of QS arbitrators
such as personality requirements, because arbitration is not for the fainthearted.
4. As an extension to the knowledge of arbitration, investigate the curricula of the
universities in South Africa to determine the extent to which the universities relate
to arbitration as a QS service.
References
1. Asaqs.co.za. (n.d.): What is a quantity surveyor? – Association of South African Quantity
Surveyors (ASAQS). http://www.asaqs.co.za/?page=what_is_QS. Accessed 11 Mar 2018
2. Ashman, D.: The impact of alternative dispute resolution (ADR) in employment law.
Unpublished Thesis (Master’s Degree). West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University, p. 13
(2011)
3. Creswell, J.: Research Design, 4th edn, p. 32. SAGE Publications, Los Angeles (2014)
4. Frost, S.: Qualifications for becoming an arbitrator (2018). https://work.chron.com/

qualifications-becoming-arbitrator-5992.html. Accessed 17 Oct 2018
5. Harun, H., Torrance, J.V.A.: Drivers of change: New challenges for the quantity surveyors.
In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Construction Industry 2006: Toward
Innovative Approach in Construction and Property Development, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
p. 38 (2006)
6. IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. Released 2015. Armonk, NY:
IBM Corp. (2015)
7. Mthembu, H.: (Office Coordinator: Association of Arbitrators South Africa). Correspon-
dence on number of quantity surveyor arbitrators. Bloemfontein, 24 April 2018
8. Ofori, G., Toor, S.: Role of leadership in transforming the profession of quantity
surveying. Aust. J. Constr. Econ. Build. 9(1), 37–38 (2012). https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/
journals/index.php/AJCEB/article/download/3013/3195. Accessed 21 Mar 2018
9. Oyewobi, L.: Diversification and performance of quantity surveyors in Nigerian construction
industry, p. 8. ResearchGate, Cape Town (2016). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
303565051_Diversification_and_performance_of_quantity_surveyors_in_nigerian_
construction_industry. Accessed 24 Mar 2018
10. Terk, I.: (Registrar: Arbitration Foundation of Southern Africa). Correspondence on number
of quantity surveyor arbitrators. Bloemfontein, 26 April 2018
11. Thanikal, J.: MBA in construction economics and quantity surveying (2018). http://ricssbe.
org/qs/. Accessed 21 Mar 2018
12. Trochim, W., Donnelly, J.P., Arora, K.: Research Methods: The Essential Knowledge Base.
Nelson Education, Scarborough (2015). pp. 65 & 118
13. Truter, A.: Arbitration in South Africa (2017). http://www.polity.org.za/article/arbitration-in-
south-africa-2017-05-05. Accessed 12 May 2018
14. UKEssays: The changes to profession from its traditional roots construction essay (2015).
http://www.ukessays.com/essays/construction/the-changes-to-profession-from-its-
traditional-roots-construction-essay.php?vref=1. Accessed 03 Apr 2018
15. Yeshwanth, B.: Modern quantity surveying- a complete package adding values to projects,
p. 3. Yeshwanth Babu Reddy, Australia (2017). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
314152911_Modern_Quantity_Surveying-_A_complete_package_adding_values_to_
projects. Accessed 11 Mar 2018
Perceptions of Urban Stakeholders Concerning
the Value of Urban Open Spaces
in Bloemfontein
Lindelwa Toba(&)
Department of Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering Built Environment

and Information Technology, Central University of Technology,
Bloemfontein, South Africa
tobaM@cut.ac.za
Abstract. Different perceptions concerning the value of urban open spaces

have created value conflicts in terms of the quest for sustainable neighbour-
hoods. These value conflicts negate the ability of planners to achieve planning
objectives. Addressing the increasing incidence of value conflict management
has become imperative for urban open space sustenance. As such, this study
seeks to contribute to filling this gap through an exploration of the diverse
perceptions of different urban stakeholders as it pertains to the value of urban
open spaces in Mangaung Township, Free State Province. A qualitative case
study research design is utilized in the study. The accruing data was analyzed
using Qualitative Content Analysis (QCA). Findings indicate that urban stake-
holders have different perceptions concerning the value of urban open spaces
like economic, environmental and social values respectively. These findings
have considerable implications for practitioners within the urban planning and
socio-economic development praxes in the Municipality and beyond.
Keywords: Participation South Africa Urban open spaces

Urban stakeholders Value conflicts
1 Introduction
Urban open spaces play a critical part in sustainable development of communities.

From a sustainability perspective, these spaces contribute to improved environmental
conditions and quality of life. Urban open spaces are defined in terms of the space,
location, development and function. An open space is “any open space in ownership of
the municipality which is situated outside normally built-up areas and …but is not
limited to nature reserves, game farms, riverine vegetation and private open space” [1].
Urban open spaces comprise of portions of the urban area that contribute to its
ambience through a combination of green and civic spaces. From a town planning
perspective, developments must comprise of open spaces even though no criteria are
provided concerning the number, location and usage of these spaces. During the
planning phase, different land uses are allocated to built-up and non-built up envi-
ronments. Built-up environments comprise of residential, industrial, commercial areas
and the non-built environments are made up of open spaces. Planning of urban open
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_44
Perceptions of Urban Stakeholders Concerning 441
spaces is carried out through, supply and demand approaches. According to Maruani
and Amit-Cohen [2], the demand approach to open spaces focuses on the fulfilment of
human needs, namely, the attributes of the targeted community in reference to its size,
values and preferences, residential distribution and density. But the supply approach
focuses on the conservation of natural environment. The main targets to the latter
include the selection of the site, the size and amount of open spaces in that community,
recreational activities and the design of the site. Urban open spaces provide a vast range
of benefits, values, opportunities and challenges globally. They define the sense of
space, image and attractiveness as well as the competitiveness of urban areas. Also,
they add value to social, economic, environmental, ecological and planning dimensions
of urban areas. Value within the urban open spaces’ context is described based on its
functionality and its impact on the quality of life in the urban context [3]. The per-
ceptions of urban stakeholders regarding urban open spaces include recreational,
economic, environmental and housing values. Since the value of urban open spaces is
dependent on functionality, these different perceptions lead to the incidence of value
conflicts; a conundrum that negates sustenance of urban open spaces.
However, the future of land use planning relies on an understanding of these
conflicts and the solutions that will allow them to create sustainable communities [4]. In
addition, all these urban stakeholders have roles to play in the planning practice,
management of urban open spaces and creation of sustainable communities. Therefore,
there is need for the perceptions of the urban stakeholders concerning value of urban
open spaces to be gauged and considered during the planning and development of
urban centres. This will inadvertently lead to effective design and management of these
open spaces. Yet, quite a few studies have sought to explore this phenomenon in this
regard. This is the gap which this study seeks to explore and, possibly fill.
2 Theoretical Perspective
In this section, reportage in extant literature concerning the perception of the value of
urban open spaces in the urban context and contributions thereof to the concept of
creating sustainable communities is reviewed.
2.1 Defining Urban Open Spaces in Sustainable Communities

Urban open spaces are often considered as an integral part of sustainable neighbor-
hoods. Campbell [5] refers to an open space as any unbuilt land found within a
designated boundary of a neighborhood which provides direct or indirect benefits to the
community. These spaces assume salient roles, both within a democratic society and in
social space. In the former, urban open spaces are regarded as “places where democ-
racy is worked out, quite literally, on the ground, and therefore, the way such spaces are
designed, managed and used demonstrates the realities of political rhetoric” [6]. This
involves different cultural groups with differing perceptions interacting as a community
for recreational purposes. Furthermore, the community gains access to open spaces
especially those without monetary value. As a social space, urban open space focuses
on achieving urban integration instead of isolated entities. A relationship must be
442 L. Toba
established between the urban open spaces and its users [6]. Urban open spaces involve
different urban stakeholders working together in planning, managing, sustaining and
protecting urban open spaces. Key factors for effective urban open space planning
include community participation and consumer education.
2.2 Understanding the Value of Urban Open Spaces

2.2.1 Urban Stakeholders in Planning
Scholars like Walker, Borne and Rowlinson [7] describe the term ‘stakeholder as
consisting of individuals or group of individuals who either have an interest (stake) in
an endeavour or are influenced by an endeavour. Stakeholders can be classified into
three categories; those who affect the project, those who are affected by the project and
those with an interest in the project [7]. Within the urban planning domain, Campbell
[8] describes urban stakeholders as a group of individuals who have different back-
grounds, roles, expertise and represent different aspects of urban complexity being
witnessed in contemporary times. Continuing, the author maintains that urban stake-
holders can be classified according to two broad classifications. The first set comprises
of individuals or organizations which are involved in the delivery of the project and
play salient roles in determining the context of the project [8]. This group of urban
stakeholders comprises of planners, project managers, developer, investor, environ-
mentalists and human settlement experts.
A second category of urban stakeholders comprise of those who may be directly or
indirectly affected by a project. Members of this second category consist of the users of
urban land (urban open spaces), owners of properties (houses) and the community
member encroaching urban open spaces [8]. Also, urban stakeholders can be described
as individuals who may be interested in a project such as researchers and potential users
of future projects [9]. All these persons share common interests in planning practice or
in the creation of sustainable communities.
2.2.2 What Values Do Urban Stakeholders Place on Urban Land?

Urban stakeholders place different values on urban land/open spaces, and this depends
on how they perceive the contributions of the urban environment to their
performance/sustenance [9]. Their perceptions are majorly influenced by the distinctive
nature of engagement with existing land use patterns within an urban ecosystem [9].
For instance, investors and developers in the urban context view urban land in terms of
its economic value potential. Based on economic value, cities are viewed as economic
entities as they assist in creation of sustainable environments. Part of urban land, that is,
urban open spaces, has a positive impact on the entire environment of the city because
they make cities attractive, enhance tourist spending, boost the economic development
of the city [10]. Urban open space has a considerable property value because it also
attracts other community members who value urban open space benefits to reside near
these spaces [10]. As urban stakeholders, planners are concerned with the creation of
sustainable environments. Whilst planning for urban open spaces, the planner focuses
on the attainment of improved quality of life for human beings and this includes
meeting demands for recreational space and environmental quality [8]. Yet, environ-
mentalists concern themselves with open space conservation by protecting the existing
natural values [11]. These refer to the “demand approach” and “supply approach” [2].
CABE Space [11] alludes to the direct relationship between investment in environ-
mental infrastructure such as the use of parks as integral aspects of urban drainage
systems and an increase in the urban area’s ability to capture excess water runoffs
thereby mitigating the incidence of flooding.
Community members are concerned with safety and security in urban open spaces.
Also, their concerns include increased cultural and social vitality, better quality of life
including better and improved health, more inclusive open spaces, sense of place and
accessible environments [12]. Those who do not have shelter place a housing value on
urban land hence an increasing incidence of urban open space encroachment [12]. The
housing value leads to gradual disappearance of urban open spaces and this threatens
sustainable planning of urban open spaces. Socially, urban open spaces contribute to
community cohesion, visual amenities, social integration and interaction among dif-
ferent urban stakeholders [13]. The interaction of urban stakeholders in urban open
spaces promote the sense of community and sense of belonging [11, 13]. Culturally,
different strategies for planning, designing and managing of urban open spaces is used
to encourage different ethnic groups to use these spaces. Cultural and personality traits
of individuals also determine the manner in which urban stakeholders view urban open
spaces [14]. In addition, urban open spaces can be used as a cultural focus hence the
significance of understanding people’s perception on the use and value of urban open
spaces within their cultural context [15]. Planners have to understand why different
cultural groups use urban open spaces. Urban open spaces are also perceived as having
an educational value for some urban stakeholders [15]. According to Woolley [15], the
National Conservancy Council encouraged schools to be developed within a few
minutes’ walk to an ecological area. This added value to their education component.
Facilities such as nature trails, field study sites and information centres should be
provided within the reach of the local neighbourhood [15].
2.2.3 How Do These Value Conflicts Influence Urban Open Space

Encroachment?
Effective planning for the use for urban open spaces considering the different per-
ceptions of value held by relevant stakeholders requires extensive interaction of all
urban stakeholders. Such interaction is buttressed by the involvement of different urban
stakeholders and community participation in planning for urban open spaces thus
enabling the management of encroachment [16, 17]. However, urban stakeholders view
the value of urban open spaces differently. This leads to value conflicts on the value of
urban open space hence planners struggle to achieve predetermined levels of planning
objectives for these spaces through effective management of these variance.
With lack of awareness of the different existing perceptions about the value of
urban land or urban open space by different urban stakeholders, a conflict may arise.
The different value conflicts influence urban open space encroachment. For instance,
drivers for placing housing value on urban open spaces is homelessness or lack of
shelter. Other factors resulting in the encroachment of urban open spaces include;
failure to manage and implement land use regimes by the planners, use of outdated
444 L. Toba
town planning schemes by planners, and delays in approval of land use change
application [17]. The major cause of concern is non-participation of community
members during the planning of projects for sustainable neighborhoods [19]. Available
evidence indicates that relevant authorities have neglected the value of urban open
spaces with a renewed focus on planning for other social amenities [18].
2.3 Urban Open Space Encroachment in Mangaung

Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality in Free State Province, South Africa has the
population of approximately 747 431 and measures 9 887 km2 in extent. It comprises of
three prominent urban centres, which are surrounded by an extensive rural area. It is made
up of Bloemfontein, Botshabelo, Thaba Nchu, Soutpan, Dewetsdorp, Wepener and
Vanstadersrus [19]. Mangaung is faced with urban open space encroachment because of
people who do not have shelter or cannot afford decent housing. It is challenged with
housing back-log, which is mostly caused by, among other factors, rapid urbanization.
Urbanization forms an integral part of poverty eradication when it is properly planned
and managed [20]. In 1998, the Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality took a resolution
in one of its Council meetings that families illegally residing on erven (properties) with
the land uses other than “Residential” in areas for which the town planning has already
been finalized as well as other existing or future townships areas, will not be accom-
modated in terms of town planning, surveying and the provision of services [19].
However, when land use applications on municipal land are lodged, especially for
informal settlement upgrading on land earmarked for urban open spaces, an exception
is made. Due to this exception, urban open space encroachment on municipal land has
become a common practice in Mangaung. Values of urban open spaces are discarded,
and all the planning processes are followed by means of rezoning from an urban open
space to residential. In this instance, a housing value, which is a concern for some
community members, is considered for residential purposes (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Urban open space encroachment in mangaung source: [19], indicates the study area with
urban open spaces that are encroached
3 Methodology
The study seeks to explore, in its entirety, perceptions of different urban stakeholders
about the use and value of urban open spaces in Mangaung Townships, Free State
Province of South Africa. This qualitative study adopted a case study research design.
A variety of techniques such as focus group discussions, face-to-face semi-structured
interviews and personal observation were employed for data elicitation at different
intervals. A case study research design explores a contemporary bounded system
through detailed, in-depth data collection [21]. The potency of this research design to
engender in-depth data collection is enabled by the deployment of a plethora of
techniques like observations, interviews, documents, etc. within the bounded area [21].
Semi-structured interviews focus on similar and not identical questions being asked to
the same sample size. Personal observations as a form of data collection assists
researchers to observe the behavior and lifestyle of participants in their natural setting
[22]. Field notes were also taken during this process. Focus groups, as a method of data
collection, refers to the interactive discussion with a group of people with the
knowledge of the topic [23].
In this case, individual semi-structured interviews were conducted with purposively
recruited town planning, human settlements, land invasion and environmental man-
agement professionals from the local government. The community members who had
encroached upon urban open spaces and those residing on properties around urban
open spaces formed part of the focus group discussions. The ward councilors and ward
committee members governing the study area were selected to form part of these
discussions. Personal observations were conducted around the study area to get first-
hand information on the state of urban open spaces in Mangaung and notes (memos)
were taken during this exercise. Ten (10) interviewees were interviewed for the study.
This sample was drawn from the population mentioned previously. The accruing data
was analyzed thematically relying on a set of pre-set themes which evolved from
literature.
4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
The study’s findings are discussed according to pre-determined themes resulting from
the study’s guiding research question: How can the incidence of value conflicts among
different urban stakeholders affect the burgeoning rate of urban open space
encroachment? The thematic areas consist of the perceptions of urban stakeholders
regarding the values of urban open spaces. The two selected themes for discussion
include: (1) Evidence of varying perceptions of value among different urban stake-
holders and, (2) Relationship between value conflicts witnessed and poor management
of urban open spaces by planning authorities and communities.
446 L. Toba
4.1 Evidence of Varying Perceptions of Value Among Different

Stakeholders
Different urban stakeholders display different perceptions on the value of urban open
spaces. These perceptions range from economic, social and environmental value and
influence planning choices. Investors and developers view urban land in general in
terms of the economic value and their main aim is to secure investment [12]. The
planner has a responsibility to create sustainable communities and to provide quality of
life to human beings. This can be achieved by fulfilling the human demand of urban
open spaces for recreational purposes and environmental quality. The demand
approach in planning for urban open spaces refer to the satisfaction of the community
needs [2]. Community members who are the rightful owners of the properties sur-
rounding urban open spaces are concerned about the safety and security, increased
cultural and social vitality, better quality of life that include better and improved health,
more inclusive open spaces, sense of place and accessible environments [12]. Those
who illegally occupy municipal land, that is, encroaching urban open spaces, view
urban open spaces as unbuilt space or land without any function hence mushrooming of
informal settlements. Most of the open spaces that are encroached are parks that are not
properly managed. In order to avoid conflict, the community must be recognised as the
key stakeholders in the management of open spaces.
Focus group discussants occupying the urban open spaces stated that they are in
dire need for housing and these spaces are the only solution for them to access better
houses. These open spaces have been left open for many years and are utilised for
criminal activities or dumping sites. Some confirmed that they are aware of the values
of urban open spaces, but their main concern is housing. What is more critical is non-
involvement in planning processes and they are willing to be part of the planning and
management of urban open spaces. This make stakeholder engagement to be encour-
aged. Participation is the distribution of power to society so that they can have influ-
ence in decision-making. Non-involvement of the community members in decision-
making regarding policies affects the community negatively, they will not be
empowered [24]. Residents occupying properties around the urban open spaces are
willing to be educated on the sustainability of these spaces to create change in the
quality of their lives. Richards, Carter and Sherlock [25] add that stakeholders must not
only be given an opportunity to participate in decision-making, but they must be
capacitated. Capacity building refers to the efforts taken in building relations and
competency of the society in the participation process [20]. Despite the value conflicts
by different urban stakeholders, they have to find a common goal which will assist the
planner to achieve the objectives of planning.
4.2 Relationship Between Value Conflicts Witnessed and Poor

Management of Urban Open Spaces by Planning Authorities
and Communities
Abbasi, Alalouch and Bramley [26] highlight three main factors related to the effective
use of open spaces and these include the needs of the users, quality of the physical
features and the spatial structure of the space. These spaces have a positive impact on
people’s sense of quality of life, their physical and psychological well-being. Open
spaces provide the community a space for interaction, relaxation, restoration, contact
with nature and they offer many opportunities or leisure purposes. In Mangaung, urban
open spaces are less prioritized as concentration is on other land uses like residential,
educational and health facilities. This has led to mismanagement or negligence of urban
open spaces. Similar cases are evident in some African countries and this result in poor
implementation of planning projects [27]. According to Cilliers, Timmermans, Van
Den Goorbergh and Slijkhuis [10] urban open spaces are not prioritized because they
lack monetary value. This has caused value conflicts in terms of different land uses,
conservation and development. Land uses like residential, commercial, and community
facilities are highly prioritized because they have monetary value. Low prioritization of
urban open spaces has led to under-provision and amendment for residential purposes.
The municipal officials indicated that there are many urban open spaces in the township
that have been rezoned for housing purposes. Discussants stated that they are residing
in properties that were initially zoned as urban open spaces but are rezoned for resi-
dential purposes. This is referred to as “informal settlement upgrading”. This leads to a
challenge in balancing the importance of building sustainable future and addressing the
need to prioritize urban open spaces [28].
In addition, Mashalaba [29] highlights that all the stakeholders must be part of the
management of the urban open spaces. This will assist in achieving sustainable and
meaningful contributions in decision making. Authorities who are responsible for
urban open space management must consider open space audit. These audits must
include the location, size, characteristics, quality and the purposes of open spaces. This
will assist the authorities to know their space and manage it better [5]. Proper planning
and management of urban open spaces, especially in townships, must be considered. In
the case of Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality, management of urban open space in
the township, city centre and the surrounding suburbs is different. The functions of the
urban open spaces in the city centre and the suburbs are clearly stated on the munic-
ipality’s land use schemes. Municipalities, especially in planning practice, need
guidelines or framework on how to manage urban open spaces. This must be inclusive
of community participation or involvement of the different stakeholders involved in
management and sustaining urban open spaces.
5 Conclusion
Changes in the value and occupancy patterns on urban open spaces poses a major
concern in urban planning and development. This study aimed at exploring perceptions
of different urban stakeholders about the value of urban open spaces in Mangaung
Townships, Free State Province. Focus of the study is in one of the townships in
Mangaung, Free State because there is recurring gradual disappearance of urban open
space due to encroachment for housing value by the community members who do not
have shelter or cannot afford decent housing. For data elicitation, face-to-face semi-
structured interviews, focus groups and personal observations were used. Findings
indicated that urban stakeholders view urban open space values differently and this
leads to the incidence of urban open space encroachment.
448 L. Toba
Mangaung townships has lost some urban open spaces due to value conflicts by
different urban stakeholders and poor management urban open spaces. The different
urban stakeholders involved in planning display different perceptions on the uses and
values of urban open spaces. These different values include economic, recreational,
environmental and housing. This permits different value conflicts among urban
stakeholders and it makes it difficult for the planners and other professionals to achieve
the planning objectives for urban open space and for other issues, such as housing and
land use management. However, all urban stakeholders need to collaborate with each
other to help in facilitating sustainable environments. Municipal planners are the key
actors in promoting sustainable neighborhoods and they have to formulate policies that
will curb the encroachment of urban open spaces.
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Probable Challenges Facing Servitization
Adoption in Construction: Lessons
from the Manufacturing Sector
Rotondwa B. Ramafalo1(&), Bankole O. Awuzie1,

and Clinton Aigbavboa2
1
Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa
{rramafalo,bawuzie}@cut.ac.za
2
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg,
caigbavboa@uj.ac.za
Abstract. The construction industry has acquired a reputation for product

delivery without consideration for associated services. This dissatisfaction of
clients due to the non-functionality of such products has led to a clamour for the
adoption of servitization. Servitization entails a transition from selling products
to offering products that are blended with services to add value to the end-user.
This study explores probable challenges associated with the adoption of servi-
tization within the construction industry based on lessons learnt from the
manufacturing sector. A systematic review of the servitization literature was
conducted. The literature selection was predicated on a set of keywords from
various databases. These articles were analyzed using qualitative content anal-
ysis based on pre-selected themes. Results indicate that poor communication
flow and nature of contractual arrangements which foster further fragmentation
as well as lack of clear service-orientated strategies posed as probable barriers to
the adoption of servitization in the construction industry.
Keywords: Clients Product-Service System Systematic literature review

Value-in-use
1 Introduction
Construction industry clients are increasingly committing to supporting societal aspi-

rations through their operations. Of significance is their unwavering commitment to
sustainability and sustainable development (SD) whilst also entrenching improved
levels of efficiency in their operational activities [14]. Also, the impact of national
commitments to global agenda has brought about policies which necessitate acute
compliance on the part of these client organizations [19]. This has, inter alia, given
verve to the increasing agitation for green and sustainable, eco-friendly, energy-
friendly and low carbon buildings/products by clients, which will in turn enable an
optimization of their core activities.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_45
Probable Challenges Facing Servitization Adoption in Construction 451
Yet, the penchant of the construction industry for under-delivery has continued to
haunt it, negating attempts at improved service delivery to its clientele [6, 8].
Various initiatives like: sustainable construction, lean construction, and agile pro-
ject management have been adopted by the industry over time to provide for these
agitations. But such interventions appear not to be yielding the desired results clients
still complain of the delivery of non-functional assets which do not provide desired
levels of value-in-use. This is further buttressed by the seeming fixation of the industry
on project management success as assessed by the ability of the project team to deliver
projects according to time and budget with quality being undermined [13, 18]. Often,
the client’s business plan for initiating the project is not considered.
The manufacturing sector was plagued by similar circumstances prior to its
adoption and implementation of the servitization praxis [3]. Although this transfor-
mation has not been without attendant challenges and increased risks [4], it has been
heralded as delivering on the value-in-use proposition the clients [2]. Noticeably, a
plethora of interventions towards improving construction industry standards as well as
deliverables have been derived from other sectors especially the manufacturing sector.
Obviously, this can be traced to the similarities in the prevailing modus operandi within
these sectors. For instance, the interventions associated with lean production was
adopted from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and subsequently adapted to the
construction industry [15, 29]. As applied in the manufacturing sector, servitization has
been identified as contributing towards the production of products and services that are
customer-centric and not product-oriented services due to the attendant synergy in the
creation of knowledge during the product conceptualization and development stages [2,
26]. The concept has been applauded for enabling a transition from transaction-based to
relationship-based interactions between the manufacturer and the client-a transition that
is far-fetched in construction despite the introduction of partnering, alliancing, etc. [2].
The construction industry as presently constituted has shown its inability to deliver
in terms of client satisfaction. Therefore, it is trite to continue to explore vistas that have
worked in other contexts within the industry in the attempt to get it right this time
around. This notion endeared the authors to the concept of servitization and its probable
utility in the construction industry. It has been proposed as a panacea for integrating
various facets of the industry in manner that will prevent further fragmentation. But the
wholesome adoption of this concept cannot be executed without understanding the
probable challenges which may accompany the adoption. As such, this study set out to
explore the challenges encountered in the manufacturing sector during the adoption of
the concept therein, which may also occur in construction.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Servitization in the Manufacturing Sector
For the first time [23] evolved the term ‘servitization’, which is the process of adding
services to products with the aim of creating value or meet the needs of the end user.
Since then, the concept has been evident in the manufacturing sector for its use as a
competitive manufacturing technique [20]. Since the invention of the term
452 R. B. Ramafalo et al.
‘servitization’, there is an increasing interest for this theme in the academics, com-
munities, and business ventures and it has expanded beyond the manufacturing sector
[11]. But a lot still believe that transiting towards servitization is a way to deliver added
value capacities for conventional manufacturing companies.
The expanding interest by firms moving towards more creative and collaborative
associations with their clients through ‘servitization’ are evident also in the automotive
industry. For example, within the aerospace sector, engine suppliers, for example, Rolls-
Royce do not simply fabricate engines, yet in addition give through-life support to their
engines and rent out the utilization of their engines through what is known as “Power by
the hour” [22]. While the applicability of cross-industry development must be noted [7],
the construction of the Rolls-Royce Total Care Model, and additionally comparable
innovations from other engine manufacturers within the aerospace division, raise doubt
about whether the production network in building construction can play a more effective
part in the operation and maintenance of building frameworks. Be that as it may, even
before Rolls-Royce changed its plan of action and received “power by the hour”, the
firm still used to offer extras and offer repair and upgrade services [27].
Servitization includes the construction of the abilities of an association and pro-
cedures with the goal that it can better make common incentive that allows a transition
from product-based offering to service-orientated products [3]. A few authors propose
that manufacturing companies incorporate services among their principle offers [5]. As
indicated by [21] manufacturers can discover new business openings by adding ser-
vices to their chain, completing exercises previously undertaken by the client or pre-
senting adjoining chains. This is supported by [5], who mentions that to increase the
value of the primary chains, services can be joined with substantial products to separate
them from contending products. On the other hand, [12] adds that the majority of
products offered on the market today consist of both products and services, with a
greater emphasis on the product offered.
Manufacturing firms implement services to increase their revenues and enhance
customer satisfaction. Additional services may enable manufacturing firms to access
new business opportunities, improve efficiency and enhance the offering differentiation
and customer relationships [20]. In this manner, servitization evolved from the notion
that clients stand to benefit from products when they are complemented by services,
which ultimately deliver value-in-use [24, 25]. Endmost, the process of servitizing and
building products and services into one interesting provision resounds quite evidently
with the public–private partnership (PPP) or private finance initiative (PFI). Again, the
importance is not only set upon the deliverance of the products yet in addition the
servicing of these products over a 20 to 25-year time frame [1].
2.2 Servitization and Nature of the Construction

The paradigm shift by product manufacturers towards full service provision was first
recognized in a study by [23], wherein the term “servitization” was first used.
Developing patterns of servitization have increased and gained significance within the
construction industry as expansion of private finance initiative (PFI) projects challenges
contractors to adopt a more holistic strategy towards the design, construction, com-
missioning, operations, maintenance and post-occupancy of buildings [16].
The construction industry is a very complex and fragmented sector comprising of

many team players at various stages of the construction project resulting in problems
associated with fragmentation, such as lack of coordination between design and con-
struction, and isolation of professionals, which has resulted in the development of a
knowledge gap. The level of complexity and fragmentation in the construction industry
becomes a barrier in adopting and implementing servitization. However, this brings the
need for knowledge creation in the construction industry at the early stages of a project
(design process) to reduce failure and improve functionality of the final product to the
end users.
3 Research Method
A systematic review of the selected literature was conducted to explore the challenges
of adopting servitization in the construction industry from 1994 till 2018 to ensure
validity across two decades. The search approach was developed by first selecting
keywords and identifying the relevant databases within the set timeframe in which the
research papers where published. Finally, identification and analysis of the papers was
done by reading through the abstracts of each identified paper. At a later stage, after
filtering the relevant papers, the entire content of the papers were read to identify the
patterns and themes to help prepare and present the findings (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Procedure for systematic review of literature
At first, a wide range of major databases was consulted with intentions to cover a
variety published articles as per the researcher’s choice. These databases included
Compendex, Elsevier, Scopus, Springer link, ProQuest Central, ISI web of science, and
EBSCOHost web (Table 1). The publications for the literature reviewed in this study
were gathered in two parts. The first part gathered 237 full peer-reviewed scientific
articles on the main keywords: such terms as Servitization and Product-Service Sys-
tems. The second part gathered 63 articles based upon the combinations of keywords,
such terms as sustainability, service design, servitized products, value-in-use, service-
centred, and service-oriented. The total reviewed papers of part one and part two
amounted to 300, as shown in Table 1. However, not all the reviewed papers were
relevant, only 102 of the reviewed papers were central to the study. Table 1 only shows
the number of papers acquired from the databases by just reading through their
abstracts before they were pruned down through reading the entire paper to check their
relevance towards building up the paper. These databases represent the main academic
journals related to the subject.
Table 1. Main keywords and combinations.

Part 1 Part 2
Main keywords ISI SPR PQC CPX SPS EBS EVR No: of Combination No: of
articles keywords articles
Servitization 45 19 17 14 60 5 12 172 Sustainability 29
Product - Service 15 7 8 9 16 3 7 65 Value-in-use 6
System (PSS)
Service 5
design
Servitized 3
products
Service- 12
orientated
Service- 8
centred
Total from the 60 26 25 23 76 8 19 237 Total 63
databases combination
Databases legend
ISI = ISI web of
science
SPR = Springer
PQC = ProQuest
Central
CPX =
Compendex
SPS = Scopus
EBS =
EBSCOHost web
EVR = Elsevier
Many of these keywords were combined with ‘construction industry’ in various

search instances in order to ensure that they are relevant towards the goal of this study.
Moreover, the set of discovered articles were then expanded and refined due to their
appropriateness. All the remaining abstracts were considered, not unless they seemed to
be inappropriate, then a need to read the entire paper was key. Later, the main topics
and contributions were apprehended and gathered using techniques of a mind map to
analyze the data. Thus, the findings of this paper were based on the analysis made from
the main topics. More specifically, it is an addition to the work by [3] and identifies the
existence of research gaps in the literature.
4 Presentation and Discussion of Findings
The findings deriving from the reviewed literature of servitization will be presented in
this section in accordance to the designated themes.
Challenges to Servitization in the Manufacturing Industry
The following challenges were identified from the articles sourced through the litera-
ture review, which appear to be the barriers to the adoption and subsequent imple-
mentation of servitization (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Number of published articles reviewed over years in relation to challenges of achieving
servitization
The presented data shows that there is a continuous increase in the barriers of
achieving servitization due to the flow of information and factors resulting from the
fragmentation of the construction industry. The studies showed that a significant
number of servitizing firms were attempting to receive the financial related benefits
publicized by past authors. This connects with a noticeable change in the recent tone of
the servitization literature which tends to concentrate more vigorously on the diffi-
culties related with making the progress towards more servitized provisions. The
degree to which expanded innovation in building energy performance administrative
structures will trigger servitized conduct from construction contractors will be reliant
on the attractiveness of the agreed payment mechanisms. Without contractors having
absolute control of energy supply and use, finding a quantifiable output from which
contractor performance can be precisely judged remains a key challenge [9].
The following challenges appear to be the most common from the reviewed
literature:
Information Flow Management
Information Flow Management is also another challenge since construction is frag-
mented, the level of fragmentation affects the flow of information which makes it
difficult to deliver products that are accompanied by services to convey value in use to
clients through offering building with lower carbon and more energy efficient. Sus-
tainable construction ought to deliver environmental, societal and economic execution,
and value (as far as quality) to the end client and to society. Performance and value
must be delivered if these destinations are shared through the value chain, i.e. if
common intentions, targets and necessities are passed on undisrupted between ensuing
players in the value chain [1].
Technology
Clearly, there is more intensity of issues talking about barriers from an industrial
perspective that there is ’Technology Breakdown’. When technology is brought to
construction, it should be made sure that there is adequate technology across the
design, operational and management team. The differences in the design of products
and services lies in the essence that the design for services are more difficult to
delineate, hence they are vague in nature [23]. As a results, companies may be dis-
couraged by intensifying their services offering due to the fact that need consider
competition beyond the usual market form unexpected competitors which includes
their trust clients and suppliers [20, 23].
Policies and Politics
While on the other hand [10] identify the constraints of legally contractual arrange-
ments without the satisfactory help of relational governance. This can be seen within
the more extensive challenge of endeavouring to embed a service-orientated culture
within traditionally product-based associations [20]. [12] talk about the need for an
internal alignment of performance metrics in achieving this cultural move in mind-set
towards product-service delivery.
Organisational
At this point, difficulties are experienced relating to defining strategies of organizations
that are necessary help deliver products that are complemented by services to the
customers/clients [28]. Manufacturing firms have consistently delivered services, by
providing spare parts, installing equipment, training staff, or providing client support.
In competitive markets however, firms look for better approaches to separate their
business, including an expanded effort on services and product-service systems, nor-
mally alluded to as servitization. Regardless of the focus, studies demonstrate that
manufacturers struggle to servitize; numerous new service and PSS (product-service
system) ideas are produced yet fail once they are taken to the market, and even
manufacturers that discover how to dispatch new offerings fail to accomplish their vital
targets of servitization [3, 23]. Adopting a downstream position, such as the provision
of installed base services, organisations have to be service oriented and value services
[20]. These organisations provide solutions through product-service combinations and
tend to be client-centric by providing customised, desirable client outcomes organised
around capabilities, competences, and client requirements. Finally, in the design for
service provision, consideration should be given to clear and simple communication
strategy towards describing the value proposition to clients/customers (Table 2).
Table 2. Challenges to servitization in the manufacturing industry

Categories Challenges No. of Example of
articles authors
Information flow • Communication Flow 19 • [20]
Management
Technology • Design of products and 12 • [20, 23]
services
Policies & Political • Contractual arrangements 9 • [10, 17]
Organisational • No clear service-orientated 10 • [20]
strategies
5 Conclusions
This paper has used the servitization literature to comprehensively assess the probable
challenges hindering the adoption of servitization in the construction industry. Fur-
thermore, the paper seeks to explore the applicability of the concept of servitization in
construction industry in assuring client value through delivering buildings that are
accompanied by services to meet the clients purpose/use. This paper highlights the
need for a better understanding of how servitized business models can leverage upon
functionality and satisfaction through offering coordinated blend products and services
that deliver value in use. It proposes that construction business models find ways of
adding value by adding services to the product to satisfy client’s needs, and create
awareness with respect to concerns associated with servitization. one of the keys to
success is creating an environment that is service-orientated and discovering individ-
uals that are willing to deliver the required services. Thus, managers should take into
cognizance that people are their main assets in order to transit from deliver of products
only to delivery of products that are accompanied by services. To end with, companies
gain an understanding of their clients’ needs when they offer services to them, and they
can start offering custom-made products to their clients.
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Resolution of Management Issues
with Mega Project
Ayodeji Olatunji Aiyetan(&) and Mhlongo Scelo
Department of Construction Management and QS,

Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
ayodejia@dut.ac.za, scelo@chsdevelopments.co.za
Abstract. South Africa is a developing country and there are many construc-
tion projects that are underway. This study aims to contribute to the resolutions
on the management of mega projects, since previous studies indicated that there
are many failures in the construction of mega projects. The study was based in 3
provinces in South Africa which are KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and Western
Cape. A mixed method research approach incorporating both qualitative and
quantitative methods were used in the study to collect empirical data from
stakeholders working on mega projects. The sample frame consist professionals
such as the project managers, architects, quantity surveyors, foremen and site
agents. The data were collected using a structured questionnaire and focused on
individual interviews. A total of ninety-two questionnaire were analysed for this
study. The study established that there are management issues that contribute to
the success of the mega projects such as the lack of stakeholder engagement,
poor plant management, and poor public participation. The paper recommends
that in order for mega projects to be successful, stakeholder decisions must
mitigate turnaround time on taking decisions for a project. Also, sound decisions
must be taken for mega project success. It is recommended that regular plant
schedule checking is done on a daily basis and proper plant checking must be
done daily, prior to plant operation.
Keywords: Stakeholder Plant Production Supervision
1 Introduction
There is always a percentage of risk involved when erecting mega construction pro-
jects; however, there are many ways to improve the odds of escaping the negative
consequences of such risks. Construction of mega projects is an essential aspect of
development in cities, states and individual livelihoods. Substantial infrastructure
projects are normally economic transformers, for example, the Dubai international
airport is the world’s most eventful, and responsible for 21% of Dubai’s employment
and 27% of its GDP [1].
The inability of the client and the project team to come to mutual agreements and
understandings based on the comprehensive overview of the construction processes
from inception to completion is a persistent reason for delays in delivery dates.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_46
460 A. O. Aiyetan and M. Scelo
Either party may be unaware of the environmental effects that may hinder the con-
struction process. This view is supported by [2] who emphasize the problem of delays
in the global phenomenon. The construction undertaking involves a plethora of tasks,
requiring task management personnel to drive the construction team for effective
production. It was estimated in the year 2010 that there were more than 1500 large
construction projects worldwide at dissimilar stages of financing or construction, in
areas such as oil, power, conveyance and engineering. Furthermore, the number, the
intricacy and the scope of the projects have been increasing hurriedly over the past few
decades [3].
Owing to this, several guides have been drawn up to help participants understand
the management of mega projects. Articles and books give guidelines of how to
manage the mega project without failure; an example would be ‘Management of Mega
Construction Projects (National Economic Developments office of Construction)’
where the author identifies the importance of the strength, caliber and leadership of the
project/construction manager. Reports such as these will assist in increasing informa-
tion and equipping participants for the successful implementation of many mega
projects. The rapid rate of modernization and projected elevation of progress of the
state’s economy have created a colossal market for the construction business over the
preceding decades. With the outline of a number of fiscal policies intended at
increasing investment in fixed assets and to fast-track the infrastructure developments,
an increase in extraordinary profile mega construction projects such as King Shaka
International Airport have commenced in the preceding five years.
Mega construction projects are characterised by hefty investments, prodigious
complexity, additional stakeholders and extensive influence. Despite these achieve-
ments of extensive influence, the construction business has been disparaged for pro-
ducing inferior construction work, delays and budget overruns with truncated
competence and value. Difficulties with dodging submission to the procurement sys-
tem, untruthful contracts and unlawful sub-letting are some of the common challenges
encountered in construction procurement. Regardless of a succession of government
transformation in the construction trade, these adverse conditions persist. With this in
mind, it is imperative to implement a rational and operative instrument to advance
project management and governance of mega construction projects.
Intercontinental mega projects are probable to become progressively common in
the engineering and construction trades. Participants at the Engineering Foundation
Research session demarcated a mega-project as ‘a high impact technically complex
project which requires careful advanced planning, last three or more years, has sig-
nificant impact on the public and industry, employs thousands of people and typically
over billions of rand’s’. The upsurge in the necessity for mega-projects are attributed to
weakening and insufficiencies of present infrastructure, chiefly thoroughfares, conduits,
water and sewage management plants; considerable infrastructure development
required by third world nations to develop their economy; improved methods for the
accrual and reduced bearing of perilous wastes on the environment, and the ongoing
requisite for forceful private development and massive industrial ventures.
The very nature of these requirements infers that accomplishing them falls within
the definition of a mega project. It is then indispensable that both advocates and
implementers of mega-projects wholly understand the reasons involved in their
Resolution of Management Issues with Mega Project 461
preparation, implementation and overall management. [4] states that on one approxi-
mation, 65% of mega projects are botches. Project scoping and risk apportionment are
fundamental to refining these consequences. Overall, the success rate of mega projects
is less than the success rate of smaller projects.
2 Literature Review
This section discusses issues of management of mega projects. This is relative to the
factors that influence the management aspects. Many mega projects face difficulties due
to escalating management issues. Two main issues namely, stakeholder and plant
management issues are discussed in this study.
2.1 Stakeholder Management

This concerns the relationship between an organization and the interested groups or
stakeholders. These relationships affect the individuals and their organizations, and
could be a positive or negative influence on any successful project []. In the past years,
stakeholder management has been advocated to be the main component of increasing
the delivery of construction projects [5]. Previous research focuses on addressing the
need for a practical guide to carry out stakeholder management duties in the con-
struction industry. The following factors are possibly the main causes of poor stake-
holder management: stakeholder management decisions, meeting responsibilities
through the project life cycle, internal stakeholder collaboration in carrying out
stakeholder management tasks, stakeholder dynamics and the use of available tech-
niques for stakeholder engagement [6]. The long process of design and implementation
of construction projects involve interaction, collaboration and negotiations among
many project stakeholders, which involve but are not limited to the client, designers,
contractors, local authorities and general project environment [7].
The relationships created by project stakeholders both directly and indirectly
influence the construction project and have an impact on the overall successful com-
pletion of the project [8]. The deference participants involvement both directly and
indirectly on the project are also considered categories since the project stakeholders
management is vital to the success of the project. The other concerning factors affecting
the stakeholder management process is the hiring of a project manager with high
competency and transparent evaluation of alternative solutions. This project manager
should also ensure effective communication between the project and its stakeholders,
set common goals and objectives for the project, and explore the stakeholders’ needs
and expectations.
2.2 Impact of Stakeholder and Plant Management

Plant management refer to the management of construction plant and equipment on
construction site. The construction of mega projects has exacerbated the rate of change
and witnessed widespread development of mega civil engineering and construction
projects. As a result, the demand on machines became increased and seen as an
economical alternative to costly labour resources [9]. In the earlier days, the powering
system of the machines were steam. This was clumsy and inefficient, but in the 1950’s new
modern diesel engine machines were introduced, having more potential for work [10].
Modern construction project managers must therefore pursue the effective utiliza-
tion of their equipment, and thus ensuring survival of company [9].
According to [11], three factors affect plant management. These are plant main-
tenance, downtime and health/safety. In the construction of mega projects, many
believe that the construction plant has different costs, which require deferent utiliza-
tions in order to make it efficient in the construction site [12]. Other factors that affect
plant management, such as employing expert mechanics to increase the quality of the
plant and having enough fuel to avoid plant down time [13]. Within the broader subject
of construction management, other principle themes are identified namely, productiv-
ity, optimization, robotics and automation, machine control and operators and com-
petence [14]. The impact of stakeholder’s decisions and plant management on a project
are relative to time, cost, productivity, quality, company’s image and competitive
advantage. These factors might have adverse impact if not well attended to.
This study was conducted within three provinces in South Africa, namely, KwaZulu
Natal, Gauteng and Western Cape. The sampling frame consist of Engineers (24) Site
Agent (23) QS’s (24) Foremen (14) Social facilitator (9) and Safety officer (4).
A non-probability sampling approach was employed, namely, selective method of
sampling. The research instruments for this study were a questionnaire survey and a
structured interview. These were administered through e-mail and personal contacts.
Responses for the questionnaires were received through the same means. Overall,
ninety-two (92) questionnaires representing 90% response rate achievement recorded.
Descriptive statistical tool was employed for data analysis. All respondents have been
involved in the management of a mega project.
Respondents between the ages of thirty and forty predominate in the sample
investigated. Regarding the qualification of respondents, (20%) have bachelor’s degrees,
and predominate in the sample. Followed by National Diploma’s and B-tech Degree
(15.5%) each; Masters Degrees at (7.5%) and Honors (7%). Majority of respondents
(40%) were found to have fifteen years’ experience. Respondents have involved in the
construction of mega projects such as hospitals, malls, sport fields and residential units.
The strategical means for data analysis used were means scores. The Cronbach alpha
(>.60) and factor analysis (>.70) test were conducted and are satisfactory.
3.1 Data Presentation and Analysis

This section presents the data obtained of the study and analysis (Table 1).
The factor of that has the most significant influence under stakeholder management
is: stake holder decision (MS = 3.13). The probable reason for the first factor are
participants who take decision that will benefit themselves not the project. Decision that
are not fair for all parties involved in the project.
Table 1. Stakeholder and plant management issues

Factor Unsure Response (%) Mean Standard Rank
DN Minor………………………..Major score deviation
1 2 3 4 5
Stakeholder related issues
Stake holder 0.0 0.0 1.3 20.0 43.8 35.0 0.0 3.13 0.77 1
decisions
Stake holder 0.0 0.0 1.3 12.5 62.5 23.8 0.0 3.09 0.64 2
responsibility
through project life
cycle
Ensuring effective 0.0 0.0 0.0 17.5 56.3 26.3 0.0 3.09 0.66 2
communication
among the stake
holder
Transparent 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.3 62.5 21.3 0.0 3.05 0.61 4
evaluation of
alternatives
solutions
Stake holder 1.3 0.0 0.0 23.8 66.3 8.8 0.0 2.85 0.56 5
collaboration
Techniques for 0.0 0.0 1.3 45.0 41.3 12.5 0.0 2.65 0.71 6
stakeholder
engagement
Stake holder 6.3 0.0 7.5 35.0 46.3 5.0 0.0 2.52 0.72 7
dynamics
Common goals and 1.3 0.0 6.3 51.3 37.5 3.8 0.0 2.39 0.67 8
objectives for
project
Hiring competent 3.8 2.5 41.3 38.8 12.5 1.3 0.0 1.72 0.75 9
project manager
Plant management issues
Plant downtime 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 20.0 63.8 8.8 3.74 0.72 1
Plant maintenance 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.5 28.8 51.3 12.5 3.69 0.79 2
Health and Safety 0.0 1.3 5.0 22.5 58.8 12.5 0.0 2.80 0.72 3
Plant productivity 3.8 0.0 5.0 30.0 56.3 5.0 0.0 2.64 0.67 4
Robotics and 1.3 2.5 10.0 32.5 48.8 5.0 0.0 2.51 0.75 5
automation of plant
Plant operators and 1.3 0.0 21.3 31.3 35.0 10.0 1.3 2.38 0.98 6
competence
Plant optimization 25.0 0.0 2.5 45.0 26.3 1.3 0.0 2.35 0.58 7
The least significant factor in this category is hiring the competent project manager
(Ms = 1.72). This implies that mega project requires and demand the competent project
manager for the project to be successful. The inexperienced project manager who lacks
management skills can take wrong decisions, which can fail the project.
The factor that has the most significant influence under plant management related
issues is plant down time (Ms = 3.74). Most of the time in mega project heavy
machines are used which some of them are imported and there not maintained regu-
larly. Poor plant management and planning of work as well can also have an impact.
The least significant factor in this category is plant optimization (Ms = 2.35). The
reason for this can be the lack of correct required plant on site. The failure to allocate
plant on site can also have a negative impact on plant optimization.
Table 2 presents the impact of stake holder and plant management issues on key
performance parameters, which include: cost, quality, time, production, company’s
image and competitive advantage, these are discussed below:
Table 2. Impact of stakeholder and plant management issues on mega project delivery
Factor Response (%) Mean score Rank
Minor……………………………..Major
1 2 3 4 5
Cost
Plant management 0.0 1.3 1.3 12.7 84.8 4.8 0.5
Stake holder management 0.0 0.0 13.8 31.3 55.0 4.4 0.7
Quality
Time
Production
Company’s image
Competitive Advantage
Relative to Cost
The most significant factor between stake holder and plant management that impact
cost of the project is plant management (MS = 4.8). Plant management in the mega
project need to manage by a very experienced personal since it can have a great impact
on cost and once the cash flow of the mega project are affected, the entire project
delivery also get affected.
Stake holder management (MS = 4.4) has less impact on cost compared to the plant
management, this depends on the manner, experience and professionality of the stake
holder.
Relative to Quality
The most significant factor that impact the quality on the management of mega project
is plant management (MS = 4.6), faulty plant is likely to give wrong result. This is
relative to the weighing of different materials for mixing, Also the adequacy of tools
and plant to execute task neatly and more quickly. Therefore plant management have
both positive and negative impact on the quality of production.
The least significant factor that influence plant management is stake holder man-
agement (MS = 4.5). Comparing to plant management it has less influence on quality
of the mega project however it most important factor that may affect quality if it not
management properly.
Relative to Time
On the table reveals the influence of management issues on time the factor that mostly
affect time is plant management (MS = 4.93). Plant that are in good condition, given
regular maintenance are likely to be used for a considerable long time without breaking
down. A hitch free performance of plant engenders high productivity and early delivery
of the project. The contrary is the case, if plant are not regularly maintained.
Stake holder management (MS = 4.71) has less influence compering to the plant
management. The setup of the management team can have a positive or negative
influence in time, therefore the way stake holder engaged each other can affect the
project.
Relative to Productivity
Plant management (MS = 4.89). This corroborates the earlier analysis, stating that
mega projects are driven by machines. This have great impact on production. While
stake holder management (MS = 4.7) has less impact than plant management. There is
minor difference on the influences between plant and stake holder management. This
shows that stake holder management is also very critical on production management.
Relative to Company Image
The most significant factor that influence company image the most is stake holder
management (MS = 3.86). Impact on company image. A good management will
engender good operation and result. A bad management may also have negative impact
or the operation of the company revealing the image of the company.
Plant management (MS = 3.2) has the less influence company image compered to
stake holder management. However the company that fails to manage plant may fail to
manage mega project which may lead to project failure and company image can be
negatively influenced.
Relative to Competitive Advantage
Stakeholder management (MS = 3.24) has most influence in competitive advantage,
there are knowledgeable and unknowledgeable clients in the construction industry,
their contribution to the construction stages of a project could either make good of
product or negatively affect. These contribution in either way having impact on the
final product ultimately affect contractor’s competitive advantage in both ways.
A knowledgeable client will contribute positively in terms of idea on construction
methods with positive impact on quality of production. While plant management
(MS = 2.7) has a less influence on the competitive advantage.
4 Conclusion
From the analysis of the data, it is found that stakeholder’s decisions and stakeholder’s
responsibility through the life cycle of projects are those that mostly influence the
delivery of mega projects, from the stakeholder’s point of view. While, on plant
management issues, plant down time and maintenance are the factors that most
influence the productivity of plant. Stakeholder and plant management issues adversely
impact time, cost productivity and quality in this decreasing order. Based on the
conclusions reached from the data analysis, the following recommendations are made:
Stakeholders should endeavor to make quick and qualitative decisions that will
enhance progression on project.
A plant maintenance schedule should be produced and strictly compliance to plant
maintenance be enforced, in order to mitigate against plant down time.
These two major decisions will mitigate against delay, cost increases, ensure high
productivity and quality of products.
Acknowledgments. The authors herby acknowledge the financial contribution of Durban

University of Technology relative to the conduct of this research.
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An Assessment of the Challenges
in the Delivery of Umgeni Water Project
in South Africa
Ayodeji Olatunji Aiyetan(&) and Naidoo Ashok
Department of Construction Management and QS,

Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
ayodejia@dut.ac.za, ashok.naidoo@umgeni.co.za
Abstract. Implementing a suitable plan, design and management strategy is

critical to the success of a project. Project delivery challenges encountered within
the built-environment is a global phenomenon. Factors causing project delivery
challenges in construction projects differ between countries, due to various
fundamental reasons. The aim of the study is to assess lack of performance and its
effects on project delivery for construction infrastructure projects with reference
to Umgeni Water. The study was conducted at Umgeni Water, Pietermaritzburg
in Kwazulu-Natal. Respondents for the study were Project Managers, Civil
Engineers, Planning Engineers, Quantity Surveyors, Servitude Administrators
and Environmental Project Managers. A non-probability sampling technique was
employed in the selection of samples. A total of twenty three questionnaires were
analysed for the study, Descriptive statistic was employed for the analysis.
Findings revealed that insufficient planning and designing, and a weak project
management approach endorsed and implemented by the project manager
influence project success at Umgeni Water. This implies the need for the study to
pursue strategies that will improve project and service delivery at Umgeni Water.
Recommendations include that attention should be given to implementing a
workable project delivery plan and management approach that will result in a
better understanding and successful delivery of a project.
Keywords: Challenges Design Project delivery Management approach
1 Introduction
Understanding the project delivery challenges and its associated influences are very
important to achieve project success. [1] explains approaches endorsed and undertaken
at different stages of the project may exert positive or negative influences on the
project. Positive influences are such that it assists the project to reach its desired
outcome and within the initial estimated time, cost and quality, while negative influ-
ences are such that will affect initial plans and exceed anticipated successful project
delivery parameters. Strategic planning and management, which can be referred to as
Process Model are expected to assist project managers including all stakeholders
throughout the project life cycle. [2] defines a project life cycle as a set of sequential

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_47
An Assessment of the Challenges in the Delivery of Umgeni Water Project 469
phases that a project goes through from its beginning to its completion. [3] states that
having an effective project delivery model increases the stakes of implementing and
completing a successful project. [4] describes a project delivery model as a method-
ology within a framework. This means that a project delivery model must follow a
certain process within the boundaries of an established setting. [3] states the quality and
workability of the project delivery model affects the parameters. These could result in
inadequate participation and contribution by the client, insufficient planning and
designing, project risks, estimating errors, communication problems, project quality,
and challenges, which hinder the implementation of a good project management
approach. Therefore, this study aims at identifying leading challenges together with
their associated influences and impact relative to the delivery of the project.
2 Literature Review
2.1 South African Water Infrastructure Projects

[5] reported that prior to 1994, water supply obligation was split with no singular
government department accountable for its management. This caused inconsistent
levels of service delivery within South Africa. After 1994, the government saw the
critical need for new policies for the county, which included changes in the water
sector. The department of water and sanitation is currently the third largest contributor
to public sector infrastructure expenditure, with an estimated value of R132.1 billion
between the period 2012/13 to 2018/19 [6]. This contribution by the department
provides an indication of water infrastructures importance.
2.2 Project Delivery Challenges and Influencing Factors

2.2.1 Inadequate Participation and Contribution by the Client During
the Project
[7] state that clients have to be more interactive with the project team and should be
hands-on relating to contribution and participation. According to [8], these factors
could be measured as client understanding of design drawings and specifications,
awareness of the project processes, authoritative decision making, decisions made in a
pressure situation, contribution of ideas, capabilities of understanding project con-
straints and productiveness of briefings to the project team.
[9] opined that client participation have high impact on project delivery, which in
many cases may determine the project’s success or failure; and that the clients’
involvement during the project life cycle provides the fundamental link to the project.
2.2.2 Insufficient Planning and Designing Done During the Project

[10] investigates the effects of placing enough effort and cost into the early planning
and design phases of capital expenditure projects in order to try to eliminate as many
problems as possible when executing the project, labelling this process as front end
loading (FEL). Factor that influence this are: the amount of time given to plan and
design the works, procurement processes that favours the cheapest rather than expe-
rienced consultants and skill shortage experienced by consulting firms.
470 A. O. Aiyetan and N. Ashok
2.2.3 Project Risks That Are Poorly Identified, Assessed, Mitigated

and Controlled During the Project Execution Stage
[2] defined the objectives of risk management as: to increase the probability and effect
of positive events and decrease the probability and influence of negative events during
the project. According to [11], risk management analysis should be performed in order
to give the project manager significant, acceptable and valuable information on which
future decisions will be based on. The findings by [12] suggest that there is a direct
relationship associated with achieving project success and good risk management; and
that the impact of not properly identifying, assessing, mitigating and controlling risk
often results in project delays and cost overruns.
2.2.4 Unsatisfactory Cost Estimating Resulting in Errors and Oversights

[13] conclude that the initial cost estimates fail in considering all costs. Generally, costs
are managed during the execution phase of a project and costs are not sufficiently
managed during the planning, and design phases, when 80% of project costs are
committed. [14] identify some of the main factors that measure cost estimating and cost
control; Conditions of contract, market requirements, type of project and its com-
plexity, project duration and contract period, error in judgement, lack of historical data,
incomplete project information and estimating techniques.
2.2.5 Communication Problems Within the Project

It can be identified from [15] certain measurable components within communication in
the construction industry. They are accuracy, procedures, barriers, understanding,
timelines and completeness.
[16] explain that poor communication has grave consequences and effects in the
construction environment, such as time overruns, cost overruns, disagreements, and
finally project failure.
2.2.6 Oversight of Critical Quality Factors During the Project

[17], explain that project quality is often side-lined and insufficient attention paid on
quality because project teams are more focused on the time and cost factors. [18] list
some items that need to be addressed in order to improve on quality which positively
affects the success of a project, these items are; designs, project management, materials,
workmanship, quality management systems and methodologies.
2.2.7 Inadequate Attributes and Capabilities Endorsed by the Project

Manager that Hinder the Implementation of a Good Project Management
Approach
[19] validate that being a manager that leads is an important aspect in managing
projects and performing at a high level as a leader is a vital manager’s obligation to
ensure the effort of people are aimed towards the same objective. [20] reinforces the
perception that managers and leaders mould the environment and efficiency of the work
surroundings. [21] classify the causes that are challenging the successful implemen-
tation of a good project management approach as; lack of leadership, failure to coor-
dinate, inexperience, incompetence and lack of commitment.
2.3 Factors Impacting on the Delivery of Umgeni Water Project

There are many factors that can impact either negatively or positively on a project.
These include: [22] insufficient planning and designing, [13] that reflecting incorrect
costs at the beginning of a project has serious effects on the project, [19] poor project
management adversely affects three fundamental aspects of a project, which are, cost,
time and quality. [23] risks have the most influence during the construction phase if not
managed correctly, client’s level of participation and contribution on project delivery
has enormous influence on the project, [17] state re-work is a product from poor quality
both in designs and on the construction site. Further, he explain that redoing work due
to poor quality is extremely costly and adversely impact on project time, and [15]
identify that incomplete, inaccurate or misunderstood and these communication
problems have a knock on effect on time, cost and quality.
The focus of the study was to identify and assess challenges and its associated impact
on project delivery in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. The sampling frame consisted of
Project Managers (10), Civil Engineers (5), Planning Engineers (3), Quantity Surveyors
(2), Servitude Administrators (2) and Environmental Project Manager (1).
The sample size formula used: n ¼ 1 þ N N
ðeÞ2
n = required sample size, N = the applicable population size, and e = precision or
e-value
The study adopted a case study research approach; therefore, a non-probability
sampling approach was employed due to limitation in number within the sample frame,
namely, a selective method of sampling. The research instrument for this study was a
questionnaire survey. These were administered through e-mail and were received
through the same means. A total of twenty-three (23) questionnaires representing
88.8% response rate achievement recorded on questionnaire administration. Differential
statistics statistical tool was used for data analysis. The sample frame consist of Project
Managers, Civil Engineers, Planning Engineers, Quantity Surveyors, Servitude
Administrators and Environmental Project Manager. Regarding the qualification of
respondents, bachelors’ degrees predominate. Most of the respondents have working
experience above six years and have handled large project more than six. Based on
these, the data obtained can be deem reliable. The Cronbach alpha values were >.70,
which is satisfactory.
3.1 Data Presentation and Analysis

This section presents the data obtained of the study and the analysis.
Table 1 presents the respondents’ rating of the influence of project delivery chal-
lenges encountered during the Project Life Cycle at Umgeni Water. It is notable that all
factors in the category have MSs > 2.60 3.50, which indicates that the factors have
between a near minor to moderate/moderate influence on project delivery at Umgeni
Water.
Table 1. Project delivery challenges encountered during the Project Life Cycle at Umgeni
Water
S/No Factors Mean Standard Rank
score deviation
1 Insufficient planning and designing done during the 3.5 1.2 1
project
2 Inadequate attributes and capabilities endorsed by 3.3 1.3 2
the project manager that hinder the implementation
of a good project management approach
3 Unsatisfactory cost estimating resulting in errors 3.2 1.0 3
and oversights
4 Inadequate participation and contribution by the 3.1 1.3 4
client during the project
5 Communication problems within the project 3.1 1.2 5
6 Oversight of critical quality factors during the 2.8 1.3 6
project
7 Project risks that are poorly identified, assessed, 2.8 1.4 7
mitigated and controlled during the project
The factor with the most significant influence is insufficient planning and designing
done during design stage of the project (MS = 3.5). It is evident that when a project is
not properly thought out, planned and designed, these short-falls are felt during the
construction phase noticeably affecting time, cost and quality.
Following this factor is inadequate attributes and capabilities endorsed by the
project manager that hinder the implementation of a good project management
approach (MS = 3.3). A project manager is an individual who is appointed to steer the
project team that is accountable for accomplishing the project purposes and has the
necessary abilities to apply understanding, capabilities and tools to project activities in
meeting project objectives. It could be catastrophic to a project, should a project
manager be incompetent, inexperienced or lack leadership skills.
The least significant factor is project risks that are poorly identified, assessed,
mitigated and controlled during the project (MS = 2.8). Project risk is a specialised
field of expertise and requires knowledge with experience to execute successfully. It is
normally assessed and controlled by consultants and contractors, therefore this may be
the reason why the factor is the least influential.
Impact on Project Delivery
Table 2 presents the respondents rating regarding influencing factors that impact on
project delivery at Umgeni Water. All factors in this category have MSs > 2.80
3.10, which indicates that these factors have between a near minor to moderate/
moderate influence on infrastructure project delivery at Umgeni Water.
The most significant influencing factor impacting on project delivery at Umgeni
Water is planning and designing (MS = 3.1). The probable reason for this is that
respondents are fully aware of time constraints given to properly plan and design
including not putting enough emphasis into front-end loading at the beginning of a
project.
Table 2. Influencing factors impacting on project delivery at Umgeni Water

S/No Impact Mean Standard Rank
score deviation
1 Planning and designing 3.1 1.1 1
2 Influence cost estimating 3.0 1.3 2
3 Implementation of a good project 3.0 1.2 3
management approach
4 Level of risk management 2.9 1.2 4
5 Level of participation and contribution by 2.8 1.3 5
the client
6 On quality of product 2.8 1.2 6
7 Quality of project communication 2.8 1.2 7
The second most significant influencing factor is cost estimating (MS = 3.0). The
most likely reason for this is that respondents realise at Umgeni Water estimates are
generally calculated based on incomplete project scope definition, designs, specifica-
tions and information.
The third most significant influencing factor is implementation of a good project
management approach (MS = 3.0). The most possible reason for this is that respon-
dents are conscious that Umgeni Water employs young inexperienced project managers
to undertake complex projects. These project managers tend to have weak leadership
skills and lack coordination capabilities.
The least significant factor in this category is project communication (MS = 2.8).
The most probable reason for this could be that Umgeni Water has effective com-
munication procedures in place that addresses matters around project communication.
3.2 Discussion
Findings from the data analysed through mean score ranking indicates that insufficient
planning and designing done during the project is the most influential project delivery
challenge at Umgeni Water, which is consistent with [10], conclusion that the lack of
effort invested at the beginning of the project is the most significant problem that
hinders project delivery. The second most influential project delivery challenge is
inadequate attributes and capabilities endorsed by the project manager that hinder the
implementation of a good project management approach. This is supported by [20],
who argue that employing a weak project manager to steer a project to its successful
completion is very unlikely to occur. [20] further explain that the most substantial
challenge that obstructs project delivery is incompetent and inexperienced project
managers. Unsatisfactory cost estimating resulting in errors and oversights is the third
ranked influence, which is in alignment with [24], deduction that commencing and
continuing with incorrect cost estimates can be the single most crippling factor to a
project.
The findings do not back the view of prior researchers, who found, inadequate
participation and contribution by the client during the project, communication problems
within the project, oversight of critical quality factors during the project and project risk
management as very significant problems that have a major influence on project
delivery. [5, 16, 25], and [11]. These results may be due to the fact that Umgeni Water
has good client relations, established project communication systems, and adequate
quality and risk management procedures in place.
According to [26], water infrastructure is still one of South Africa’s most important
requirements and 20% of South Africans live without clean drinkable water. Regret-
tably [27] reported that in South Africa the delivery of large scale water infrastructure
projects decreased by 30% from 2015 to 2016. It is becoming increasingly apparent
that currently and in the future, water infrastructure project implementation will be at
the forefront of the construction industry, which will require, the need for sound project
implementation strategies and models to achieve successful project delivery.
4 Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Conclusion
Based on the analysis of data, the following conclusions are reached:
Insufficient planning and designing done during the project and inadequate attri-
butes and capabilities endorsed by the project manager that hinder the implementation
of a good project management approach are the most significant project delivery
challenge at Umgeni Water. Unsatisfactory cost estimating resulting in errors and
oversights is observed as challenge in the delivery of Umgeni water.
4.2 Recommendations
The following are recommendation to mitigate these project delivery challenges at
Umgeni Water:
The project team should endorse a front-end loading approach when implementing
projects and sufficient time must be given to the planning and designing team to
execute their work successfully in order to mitigate insufficient planning and designing
issues experience on the project.
Regular checks and updates must be done to determine if the cost estimates and
time periods are still valid and applicable. Umgeni Waters estimating there is adequate
project scope defined to start the estimating process to guide against adverse influence
on cost estimating.
The organisations project stakeholders must hold regular meetings to assist the
project manager. Relative to the evaluation of the progress and settling issues of
concern to ensure smooth progression of the project. This will positively influencing
the implementation of a good project management approach.
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dive-in-2016.pdf
Exploring the Quality Management Methods
Adopted by Contractors in Fast-Track
Construction Projects in Eastern Cape
Fidelis Emuze and Michael Oladokun(&)
Department of Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering,

Built Environment and Information Technology, Central University
of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free State, Republic of South Africa
{femuze,moladokun}@cut.ac.za
Abstract. The aim of this research is to explore the quality management

methods adopted by contractors in fast-track construction projects by identifying
the challenges experienced by the contractors and how these challenges are
mitigated. To achieve the study objectives, a qualitative case study research
design was applied using the narratives, in form of interviews, extracted from
the contractors, clerk of works, quantity surveyors and project managers. The
case studies were from projects in East London, Queenstown and Aliwal North
in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The findings from the study
suggest that majority of those interviewed have an understanding of the concept
of fast-track construction. The study also discovered that the most essential
quality management methods adopted by contractors in fast-track construction
were checklist, design-build, schedule compression technique, quality control
plan, and Plan-Do-Act-Check methods. The study concludes that the fast-track
construction approach can aid construction projects to be completed on time
without jeopardising the quality standard. However, the contractors need to be
meticulous in the application of the fast-track construction approach considering
the challenges inherent therein.
Keywords: Construction industry Eastern Cape Fast-track construction

Quality management South Africa
1 Introduction
The construction industry has been an epicentre of criticism over the years considering
its performance and productivity when compared to other industries [1]. As such, there
is the need to challenge the management approaches being used by the construction
companies. Clients demand improved service quality, faster building and innovations
in technology. This is why the construction industry has borrowed the concepts such as
Total Quality Management (TQM) and Lean from the manufacturing industry [2]. The
concept of fast-track construction is also gaining momentum.
Fast-track construction refers to the method of shortening the normal time it takes
to carry out different phases of construction projects so that the total time taken for the
project is less than the normal time it takes to finish up such projects [3]. That is,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_48
478 F. Emuze and M. Oladokun
fast-tracking compresses the project schedule by progressive design and construction

phases going on simultaneously as well as site preparation works and procurement of
major long-term delivery are done in parallel [4]. It is worthy of note that in traditional
construction on the one hand, projects follow a predetermined sequence, concept,
schematic design, design development, construction documents and construction
administration [4]. On the other hand, fast-track construction overlaps these stages to
allow for construction to begin earlier and proceed at a faster pace [4]. The main
challenge in the construction sector is to create certainty about delivery on time, on
budget and to the targeted quality and safety. Fast-track construction strategy is
therefore being used to achieve shorter project duration [1].
Many contractors that participate in fast-track construction use many fast-track
techniques, such as temperature-controlled concrete, the adoption of high-strength and
high-performance concrete, and the use of ready mix and pumped concrete. Slip forms
and moving forms are other techniques that speed up construction, which in turn
demand a detailed planned parallel working on reinforcement. Other techniques include
the use of pre-fabricated structures, adoption of modular construction techniques, the
use of left-in shutter reinforcement and the adoption of fly ash concrete and self-
compacting concrete. The selection of technology, methodology, materials along with
trained man power, proper planning and co-ordination are essential to a successful fast-
track construction [4].
Quality management in fast-track construction, unlike in standard construction
projects has a unique and detailed procedure for approval. The contractor gets informed
at the tender stage about the quality requirements and is required to have quality
management plans and a full-time quality assurance manager. Also, the sub-contractors
are expected to fill out inspection test plans. With each inspection the relevant parties
sign documents that indicate that there is approval of the quality before work can
continue to the next stage [5].
However, it is of note that within the realm of construction project management
research, most studies of quality management have been in line with standard con-
struction, especially in South Africa. Thus this study explored the quality management
processes adopted by contractors in fast-track construction projects in the Eastern Cape
Province of South Africa.
2 Methodology
For the objectives of the study to be fulfilled, the research firmed up a research
approach capable of answering the research questions. As such, the case study research
approach was adopted. Considering the fact that the study aimed at exploring the
quality management processes of fast-track construction in the Eastern Cape Province
of South Africa and given that the perspectives of contractors in South Africa cannot be
generalized without potential errors in the process, the study opted to gain access to
contractors’ experiences and knowledge engaged in fast-track construction qualita-
tively. The study used interviews to generate data from four case study projects in the
Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The design and the data collection methods
follow the guidelines in Yin [6].
Exploring the Quality Management Methods 479
The questions that were included in the interview protocol were first piloted with
the experienced academics within the Department of Built of Environment at the
Central University of Technology, Free State. This is mainly to ensure the validity and
reliability of the instrument of data collection as well as to remove any form of
ambiguity in the questions posed. The interviews were basically focused on the project
participants that were directly involved with the engagement of quality methods in fast-
track construction in a bid to reflect the actual situation on fast-track construction sites.
This enabled the researchers to make proper and accurate findings. Participants on the
study included the contractors, clerk of works, quantity surveyors and project managers
on the case study projects. The interviews took place on-site in their site offices. The
interviews were tape recorded before being transcribed. The data were analysed in a
thematic manner based on the interview protocol.
It is equality important to briefly report on the four case study projects. The first
case study project is a construction of an office block with the client being the
Department of Agriculture located in East London. The implementing agent for the
project is the Department of Public Works (DPW). The main contractor for the project
is S Builders with SDL as the principal agent. The contract is for a duration of 30
months with a contract sum of R 124 000 000. The second case study project is the
construction of an early childhood development centre by the Department of Education
with the implementing agent being the DPW and project is located in Queenstown.
T construction is the main contractor whereas HA is the principal agent for the project.
The duration for the project is eight months with a contract sum of R 12 000 000. The
third case study project located at Aliwal North of the Eastern Cape Province is the
construction of 314 housing units at Sterkspruit with the Department of Human Set-
tlements being the client and implementing agent as the same time. SC contractors is
both the main contractor and the principal agent for the project. The duration of the
project is for two years with a contract sum of R 52 116 762.30. The fourth and the last
case study project is the construction of 539 housing units at Sterkspruit as well
belonging to the Department of Human Settlements as both the client and imple-
menting agent. KT is both the main contractor and the principal agent for the project.
The duration of the project is for two years at R 72 000 000 as contract sum.
3 The Results and Discussion
This section of the paper thematically presents the findings emanating from the
interviews conducted regarding the case study projects. The findings discussed in this
section of the paper are based on the understanding of fast-track construction by the
interviewees on the case study project, issues relating to quality management on fast-
track construction method, and identification of the challenges associated with quality
management in fast-track construction technique.
3.1 Theme 1: Understanding of Fast-Track Construction

For this theme, there are quite a number of questions that were posed to the inter-
viewees. Among those questions are questions relating to their understanding of
fast-track construction concept, question relating to the methods used in fast-track

construction projects, effectiveness of those methods, amongst others.
Regarding the understanding of the concept of fast-track construction, the inter-
viewee 1 for the Case study 1 project identified fast-track construction as a labour-
intensive project involving so many labour and tradesmen working concurrently on the
project. According to interviewee 2 working as well on Case Study 1 project, based on
his experience on the project, he admitted that the fast-track construction method leads
to an increased labour on site. Interviewee 3 for the Case study 2 concisely defined fast-
track construction as a kind of construction method in which so many activities are
done concurrently. The understanding of interviewee 4 working on Case study 3
project is very apt as he put the fast-track construction approach as “the project delivery
approach to start construction before the design is complete. It is the overlapping of
tasks to reduce the time needed to complete a project. The contractor is selected early
enough before the commencement of other processes in such a way that the contractor
supplies its input to the design development and bids for the project before the design is
completed. In this type of project, a guaranteed maximum cost is provided by the
constructor. The purpose is to shorten the time to completion.” In the opinion of
interviewee 5 working on the Case Study 4 project, the fast-track construction method
is “a method that can be used to reduce the overall period of a project.” From the
responses recorded from the interviewees on the case study projects, it is clear that
majority of them have a little bit understanding what the concept of fast-track con-
struction is all about.
For the question relating to the methods used for fast-track construction, intervie-
wee 1 on the Case Study 1 project explained that the Plan-Do-Act-Check approach is
being used on the site. He further indicated that they had to use labour scheduling
approach in order to know those that will work overtime and the kind of activities that
will commence simultaneously without jeopardising the quality standard of the work
and safety of the workmen. Apart from that he also mentioned that material scheduling
is taking seriously as a way of ensuring fast-track construction project go as scheduled
by ordering materials in advance for fast-tracking construction on site. The interviewee
2 in the Case Study 1 project also mentioned that another method adopted includes the
use of latest technology and making use of knowledgeable skilled workers to fast-track
work on site. The interviewee 3 in the Case study 2 project, based on his experience on
the project, was of the opinion that the management and supervision of labourers and
the use of machinery are some of the methods they use to fast-track construction on
site. He reiterated that these methods are effective when managed correctly. In Case
study 3 project, the interviewee 4 mentioned that the method used to fast-track con-
struction is the form of the procurement method used for the delivery of the project,
which is Design-Build method. He argued that it is effective in achieving fast-track
construction projects when the designer/engineer and the contractor are working as a
single-unit on the project. As such, both the design and construction phase can over-
lap. In this way, construction documents need not to be completely finished prior to the
commencement of construction. According to him, this does not only enhance the
flexibility for changes during the project itself, but radically shortens the construction
timelines, which is the main tenet of fast-track construction approach as enunciated
Wearne [7] and Bogus et al. [5].
About the effectiveness of the methods of fast-track construction, the interviewee 4

working on the Case Study 3 project indicated that it is extremely difficult to maintain
quality in fast-track construction as the construction phase starts prior to the completion
of the design phase. The drawings are not yet complete and the specifications are not in
place. The construction methodology needs to be first decided on. He further reiterated
that communication and collaboration are crucial for success of the fast-track project.
The interviewee 4 on the Case Study 4 project explained that setting and maintaining
high quality standards in fast-track construction projects can be a very big challenge. In
his words “there are so many moving parts on a daily and weekly basis that it can
become quite difficult to oversee. The project team needs to make sure that top quality
work from subcontractors still gets achieved without sacrificing the schedule through
the use of a formal quality program to be able to communicate to the team members so
that they can enforce the execution there of.” In short, it can be deduced from the
opinions expressed by the interviewees that the effectiveness of the fast-track con-
struction methods still cast shadows in their minds.
3.2 Theme 2: Quality Management Methods Available to Contractors

in Fast-Track Construction
Kanji and Wong [8] argued that there is an upsurge in the adoption of quality man-
agement as strategy by construction companies to resolve the quality problems and
meet the needs of the customers. The quality management methods need to be put in
place, utilized and monitored. As such, this sub-section discusses in-depth the insights
from the interviewees regarding the quality management methods available to con-
tractors in fast-track construction projects. Majorly, they were asked questions relating
the methods in place for achieving quality in fast-track construction projects, regula-
tions governing how the quality management methods are implemented for fast-track
constructions, amongst others.
Interviewee 1 in Case study 1 claimed that the methods available differ from
existing and new building. He states that “a person with knowledge in that trade carries
out quality checks, persons such as an on-site engineer, having different supervisors in
each trade to oversee work done and having a knowledgeable foreman.” The inter-
viewee 2 working as well on Case Study 1 agreed that “having a good experienced
team to overlook each trade on site is one of the most important quality management
method in fast-track construction”. The interviewee 4 on Case Study 3 declared that to
achieve quality during fast-track construction they submit quality management plan to
the Department of Human Settlements (DoHS), being the client, before the design
stage. This plan defined the roles and responsibilities of the project team members,
management and reporting structures and identified the procedures to be followed to
ensure satisfactory delivery of all services on site. Further, they also mentioned that the
plan covered the necessary documents for the performance of the project’s stakeholders
for the stages of the project, which includes project inception, preliminary design,
detailed design, documentation and procurement, contract administration and inspec-
tions and project close-out. They also argued that the quality management plan for the
project included a checklist tool of all the information required in each stage to ensure
that the activities are not overlooked during the stages. According to interviewee 4, the
quality control measures used on site were the use of good quality workmanship in all
activities, site staff meetings and testing of materials. Interviewee 5 working on Case
Study 4 project stated that every construction project is unique and the approach to
setting quality standards must reflect that. Further, he mentioned that it is very
important that the construction manager has a quality control plan as they do have in
the Case Study 5 project. Accordingly, they developed a pre-plan checklist, a proactive
assessment tool that identifies every potential quality related issues that might be
encountered on each job.
Regarding the question about the regulations governing the implementation of the
quality management methods, Interviewee 1 on the Case Study 1 project stated that all
professionals working on the project are registered with their respective Councils.
However, the submission of interviewee 4 working on the Case Study 3 project is more
apt by explaining that the quality management plan (QMP) is designed and guided by
the National Housing Code containing the minimum National technical norms and
standards for the creation of houses to be constructed through the application of the
National Housing Programme. According to him, it is also guided by the National
Home Builders Registration Council (NHBRC). He gave further information that this is
in the Act No. 95 of 1998 of the Housing Consumers Protections Measures, which
empowers all home builders to register with the NHBRC. The NHBRC has also
published the Home Building Manuals and the National Building Regulations, which
consists of performance standards for buildings dealing with conventional construction
only. Conversely, interviewee 5 working on the Case Study 4 project argued that there
are regulations that govern fast-track construction but there are no restrictions from
adding where necessary. They usually provide clients with a copy of the Quality
Management methods for approval.
On the question relating to workers’ adherence to quality management methods on
site, interviewee 4 on the Case Study 3 explained that in order to ensure that workers on
site adhere to these quality management methods they train the foremen and team
leaders to guarantee that they understand the standard of works expected, provide
adequate good tools and monitor the works at intervals. Both interviewees 1 and 2 on
the Case Study 1 project agreed that constant training and supervision are conducted.
Based on the experience of interviewee 5 on Case Study 4 project, he indicated that a
quality control plan (QCP) is provided to sign for each project and have weekly
meetings to see if the QCP is still in order and if there are any adjustments to be made.
This method is used to ensure that workers on site adhere to quality management
methods.
A question was also posed to the interviewees on whether or not the way quality is
managed in the fast-track construction and convectional/traditional construction pro-
jects are the same. Interviewee 4 on Case Study 3 project stated that quality man-
agement is highly required in fast track projects as the speed of works is high and the
design phase may not be complete in order to know the specifications. The response of
interviewee 5 on Case Study 4 project aligned with that of interviewee 4 and further
reiterated that the quality management methods are not managed the same way as in
conventional and fast-track construction. Conventional projects have a lot more room
for errors that fast track construction eliminates. The interviewees 1 and 2 on Case
Study 1 project agreed that the management methods are not managed the same
because the fast-track construction projects require more supervision than the con-
ventional construction projects.
3.3 Theme 3: Identifying the Challenges Associated with the Quality

Management Methods in Fast-Track Construction
It is important to understand that quality management methods are implemented by
construction companies to ensure good quality standards and to achieve targeted
timeframes; however, if these are not done correctly it creates challenges to fast-track
construction. To this end, this sub-section reports the findings regarding the identifi-
cation of challenges associated with the quality management methods in fast track
construction and how to overcome those challenges.
According to interviewee 1 on Case study 1 project, inclement weather conditions,
plant and equipment break down, availability of material and delays in availability of
detailed drawings are the big challenges associated with the quality management
methods in fast-track construction. The response of the interviewee 2 on Case study 2
project mentioned that the attitude from labourers and inclement weather conditions are
part of the challenges they do encounter in fast-track construction projects. Interviewee
5 on Case Study 4 project indicated that every project is unique and faces challenges of
its own that is why they have a general quality plan. Tin response to the question, the
interviewee 4 working on Case Study 3 project argued that the challenges that are faced
when applying quality management in fast-track projects is the involvement of sub-
contractors and suppliers. He reiterated that quality management methods work against
speed and that speed is a requirement in fast-track construction projects. As such, this
requires skilled and experienced workforce on site.
In a bid to overcome the challenges, the interviewees were asked about what their
respective companies are doing based on the experience gained so far on the fast-track
construction projects. Interviewee 3 on Case Study 2 project stated that they organise
workshops on site purposely to train workers on communication and working together.
Interviewee 1 on Case Study 1, suggested that there must be a maintenance manage-
ment plan for plants and equipment should any of them breakdown.
4 Conclusions
The paper explored the quality management methods used by contractors in fast-track
construction projects. The findings from the study indicates that stakeholders inter-
viewed have the requisite understanding of fast-track construction concept. Though the
understanding differs a little bit with big contractors with more experience being more
knowledgeable about fast-track construction as compared to small contractors that do
not have as much experience.
The study also discovered that the most essential quality management methods
adopted by contractors in fast-track construction were checklist, design-build, schedule
compression technique, quality control plan, and Plan-Do-Act-Check methods. It was
also confirmed that the quality management methods in fast-track construction are very
effective when done correctly by a trained work force, though this cast shadows in the
minds of some of them. When these quality methods in fast-track construction are done
correctly, many fast-track projects can be completed timeously. Implementing these
quality management methods effectively can assist is improving working performance.
The study discovered that inclement weather conditions, plant and equipment break
down, availability of material and delays in availability of detailed drawings are the big
challenges associated with the quality management methods in fast-track construction.
In conclusion, the fast-track construction approach can aid construction projects to
be completed on time without jeopardising the quality standard. However, the con-
tractors need to be careful in the application of the fast-track construction approach
considering the challenges inherent therein. As such, there is the need for the con-
tractors to implement a proper resource management. This may mean that the con-
struction companies will have to offer continuous training to their on-site workers.
References
1. Das, K.A.: Strategies of fast-track mode of construction. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. 5(4), 4995–
4999 (2018)
2. Hoonakkera, P., Carayona, P., Loushine, T.: Barriers and benefits of quality management in
the construction industry. Total Qual. Manage. 21(9), 953–969 (2010)
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6. Yin, R.K.: Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 5th edn. SAGE, California (2013)
7. Wearne, S.H.: Fast-track project duration. Int. J. Project Manage. 2(4), 240–241 (1984)
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Using Case Study Design to Investigate
the Delivery of Building Energy
Retrofit Projects
Chikezirim Okorafor1(&), Fidelis Emuze1, and Dillip Kumar Das2

1
Department of Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering,
of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa
kezirim042@yahoo.com, femuze@cut.ac.za
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
of Technology, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa
ddas@cut.ac.za
Abstract. The potential for reductions in carbon emissions in the built envi-
ronment is significant. However, unlocking the potential presents a problem. To
better comprehend the problem and advance solutions, a desktop case-study
research design on retrofits was adopted to generate textual data. The textual
data were analysed. These reveal different innovative and proactive tools
required to attain efficiency in the delivery of building energy retrofit projects
(BERP). The study unravels the retrofit features of the project, recorded chal-
lenges, and lessons learnt from each of the project. Subsequently, a literal
replication of the study were carried out and the result shows that no single BER
projects are the same in terms of delivery due to many factors such as age, use,
materials, thermal mass, location, orientation and occupancy as the study sug-
gested. The research concludes with a motivation for socio-technical approach
to retrofitting exercise.
Keywords: Building Energy Projects Retrofit South Africa
1 Introduction
The built environment consumes a lot of energy. Buildings use about one-third of the
world’s energy [1]. In the world today, the buildings sector accounts for 40% of the
primary energy use, compared to 32% for the industrial sector and 28% for the
transportation sector [1]. The use of electric power and heat in the buildings sector also
accounts for about 40% of world carbon emissions. However, advances in energy-
efficient technologies hold the promise in reducing energy consumption in buildings [1,
2]. In most cases, energy retrofit technologies perform well in theory based upon
analytical building models and simulations. However, once the project is completed
and occupants move in, the actual performance could be problematic [3, 4]. In fur-
therance to this assertion, the paper seeks to investigate how projects were delivered
internationally with the intention to bridge the performance gap.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_49
486 C. Okorafor et al.
2 Literature Review
The terms retrofitting have a multifaceted definition based on context. For the purposes
of this research, the term retrofitting is defined as the installation of individual or
multiple energy efficiency measures to an existing building [5]. An energy efficiency
measure is any technology that improves the energy performance of the building, such
as loft insulation, advanced heating controls, and renewable energy generation tech-
nologies [5, 6]. While some high-performance buildings achieve their environmental
performance goals, many do not [3, 4]. Due to global warming and depletion of natural
resources, the world has recognised the impact of CO2 emission and its attendant
consequences. The perception is that the built environment is major contributor of this
CO2 emission. In support of the above view, authors such as Lombard assert that
existing buildings are major consumer of energy and as such responsible for CO2
emission, with the majority of the energy being used to power heating, ventilation and
air conditioning (HVAC) systems, lighting and office equipment [7]. Building energy
retrofit project will bring about economic gains, while enhancing social wellbeing and
engendering sustainable development. However, energy retrofit projects encompass
additional considerations and requirements in terms of process, material, expertise, and
technology. All these factors constitute difficulties in the delivery of the project.
According to Miller and Buys, retrofitting existing buildings is more challenging, than
designing a new sustainable building from scratch [8]. Sustainable retrofits are viewed
as expensive disruptive process. In view of the disruptive process, building occupants
show resistance to change [8, 9]. Retrofit processes often include addition of existing
walls, opening walling elements, removal and installation of Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning (HVAC) elements, and strengthening of frames [10]. This leads to
costly consequences such as demolishing, lengthy construction time and occupant
relocation. Such disruptions’ associated with these processes usually deters building
owners from retrofitting their buildings [11, 12]. Despite these impediments, the
potentials of energy retrofit of existing buildings remain promising.
3 Research Method
According to Gray and Sutrisna, research is an organised way of exploring a problem to

get the best solution [13, 14]. Researchers’ chosen methodology provides the foundation
for the utilisation of a particular philosophy, approach, strategy and choice. Because of
this, the study is situated in an inductive paradigm; a case study research design was
adopted. Inductive research entails the search for pattern from observation and the
development of explanations–theories-for those patterns through series of hypotheses
[15, 16]. This approach aims to generate meanings from the data set collected to identify
patterns and relationships to build a theory. Since, Saunders et al and Neuman, has
confirmed inductive reasoning as been based on learning from experience, patterns,
resemblances and regularities in experience are observed in order to reach conclusions
(or to generate theory) [17, 18]. The author has used “bottom-up” approach to describe
the phenomenon that is being studied [19]. A desktop case study was chosen to gather
data on how energy retrofit of an existing building was carried out in the international
Using Case Study Design to Investigate the Delivery of BERP 487
arena. Three case studies were conducted on retrofit projects. The projects have been
completed, and their document analysis is available in the public domain. The case
studies provide greater understanding of how energy retrofits has been done across the
globe. The data extracted from the desktop studies included key retrofit features,
challenges, and lessons learnt. The projects was selected because of their uniqueness, the
public attention they have received, the features of retrofitting that they demonstrate, and
the availability of data from numerous sources about the same project.
4 Findings
For clarity, the Table 1 below provides an overview of the desktop cases.
Table 1. Overview of three desktop case studies

Number Country Project name
1 Australia Szencorp Building in Melbourne, Australia
2 Singapore Zero Energy Building in Singapore
3 China MGM Macau Resort in Sé, Macau, China
Source: Researchers (2019).
4.1 Desktop Case Study 1 - Australia: Szencorp Building

Key Retrofit Features of the Project: The building were installed with an occupier
integrated controls system of sensors, so that services such as air-conditioning and
lighting are only provided if the area is occupied; on-site power generation from
different sources, including multiple solar panel arrays and a ceramic fuel cell; lift
controls and the lift car were completely modernised, for smoother, safer operation and
reduced energy consumption; using rainwater capture and grey water recycling for
flushing, waterless urinals, dual-flush toilets, low-flow taps, and cut-off sensors on
basin faucets; natural ventilation through automated opening windows. The lighting of
the building utilises new-generation triphosphor and T5 lamps, and dimmable DSI
ballasts controlled via an intelligent occupancy-based system, achieving 1.4 watts per
100 lx. An integrated sensor and management system for occupancy lighting, HVAC
and security control were installed. A ceramic fuel cell was installed, which generates
low-emission, off-grid energy, with the potential to provide for >30% of the building’s
energy requirements on-site. Two solar photovoltaic (PV) grids (one amorphous) were
also installed, which generate 5.5 kW. With the ceramic fuel cell, these grids will
potentially ensure zero grid energy consumption in future. The ceiling height was
increased (reclaimed from the old building plenum), allowing for use of thermal mass
for improved energy efficiency. Use of the Drykor dehumidification unit, which
removes 94% of all micro-organisms and 77% of particles larger than 5 microns from
the airspace, which helps to overcome “sick building syndrome”, was also introduced
thereby increasing the productivity of the occupants. A refrigerant leak-detection and -
monitoring system was installed to ease operation.
Recorded Challenges: The challenges include selection of the right retrofit compo-
nents for the whole building, developing a performance-based design, engineering
capacity, and developing financial modelling for the project.
Lessons Learnt From the Project: The Szencorp Group looked at life cycle costing
when undertaking this retrofit, as they benefit directly from the building’s improved
efficiency and performance. The lesson is that the strategy is paying off, with energy
savings of over 70% and water savings of 94% less than the industry average in the
second year of occupation after project completion. The company is also benefiting
from a perceived overall productivity increase of 13% because of improved internal
environment quality. As a demonstration and partly experimental project, Szencorp
believes “the money and effort expended would be difficult to justify for a single
building”. However, they have proven that “the investment has more than paid for itself
in terms of the learning’s, the profile the project has received and the ability of the
owner to develop a new level of business services in the rapidly growing market of
leading edge green buildings”.
4.2 Desktop Case Study 2 - Singapore: Zero Energy Building

Key Retrofit Features of the Project: The building was cooled by natural ventilation.
Building occupants in Singapore appreciate some air movement, as it reduces the
effective temperature, and the new HVAC and natural ventilation systems provide
increased indoor air movement. A solar chimney system was chosen for natural ven-
tilation for the building. Four chimneys on the roof, which are the end of a series of
partially hidden ducts along the building envelope, are the most visible part of the
system. The system starts with exposed vertical ducts along the west façade, which then
bend to follow the curved roof and eventually connect with the prominent central
chimneys. When exposed to sunlight, the vertical ducts heat up, creating internal hot
air, which expands, becoming lighter, and rises (the buoyancy effect) and, in turn,
‘sucks’ warm indoor air through various inlets, drawing ambient air through the façade
into the interior. In the building, air movement of up to 394 fpm (2 m/s) has been
measured and has changed the thermal acceptability from unacceptable to acceptable.
This improved thermal comfort was determined through predicted mean vote
(PMV) and predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD) and was reconfirmed through an
occupant survey. The cooling system is designed specifically for the tropics. Energy
efficiency is achieved by cooling fresh and re-circulated air separately and by having
separate fan controls with variable speed to match localised demand. In tackling heat
gains, the original building envelope with exposed concrete walls and metal roofs that
had little shading would get heated up during the day and would re-radiate the heat into
the interior, due to the absence of insulation. The overall strategy was to add a cooling
skin to the building envelope. Sunshades and vertical green walls were added on the
western side, and the roof received a layer of photovoltaic (PV) modules. The PV roof
was elevated about 1 ft (300 mm) off the metal roof and had horizontal gaps between
the modules to ensure ventilation and cool the PV modules and the metal roof below.
The cooling skins served additional purposes beyond shading. Some sunshades on the
façade had PV modules on the upper parts, generating additional electricity. Others had
reflective films, doubling as light shelves, redirecting daylight deeper into the building.
The green walls and the roof system support the study of their shading and evaporative
cooling effect on reducing heat transfer and resulting cooling energy use.
In addressing day lighting, an innovative design concept was to direct the windows
towards the sun, or rather to collect the zenith light from the roof and the façade and
redirect it to where it is needed. Several advanced day lighting systems were installed
and tested for providing daylight for some selected zones, including vertical and
horizontal hollow light guides and ducts, external light shelves and customised double-
glazing with integrated adjustable blinds, electro-chromic films, and semi-transparent
PV modules. In conclusion, the concept of collecting bright zenith light on roofs and
façades and directing it into deep building zones was found to be an effective and
innovative alternative or supplement to electric lighting, and it provided excellent
colour neutrality. However, this solution required more space and planning compared
to electric lighting, and it slightly increased the mean radiant temperature, by 1 °F
(0.5 °C). While integrating the photovoltaic. The energy target for the building was to
be net-zero, i.e., to produce as much electricity as the building consumes over the
course of one year. As there is no heating required, all energy was electric for air-
conditioning, ventilation, lighting and plug loads, which was estimated to be about
706,300 kBtu (207 MWh), or 14.6 kBtu/ft2 (55.3 kWh/m2) per year. To produce an
equivalent amount of electricity with PV modules, it became clear that the building roof
would need to be completely reserved for PV modules. After a few iterations to define
the benefits of electricity generation with PV modules versus energy savings through
solar chimneys, roof greening, or reflective coatings, a PV system of 190-kWp
capacity, covering some 16,577 ft2 (1,540 m2), was chosen. A large grid-connected
system designed to produce a maximum electricity yield was installed on the roof.
Therefore, a performance-based invitation to bid was launched. The supplier had to
guarantee a certain amount of electricity production, which provided the motivation to
install as well as operate and maintain the PV system efficiently. PV systems were also
installed on the façades, designed here to demonstrate the variety of PV technologies
and their multi-functionality, such as serving as sunshades, railings, opaque and semi-
transparent walls, and windows. These smaller systems were off-grid, meaning that
their DC electricity was consumed on the spot by a cell phone charger. Both grid-
connected and off-grid systems are owned and operated by the BCA, following the
requirements for electrical power systems set by Singapore’s Energy Market Authority
(EMA) and the design guidelines on conservation and development control formulated
by the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA).
Recorded Challenges: A further challenge is that space use may change over time.
Here, some of the classroom spaces planned for natural ventilation was converted to
air-conditioned spaces with a different use. Responding to increased energy use is
another key take-away point. This requires constant monitoring to identify areas for
further energy savings. For example, the initial lighting was using T5 lamps, but after
replacing them with LED lamps, the energy consumption was reduced by about 40%,
partially absorbing the increased energy consumption for the enlarged air-conditioned
space. There were some difficulties, mainly due to the lack of experience and arti-
sanship in installing green building technologies properly on-site. This was especially
true if it was the first of its kind, such as the solar chimney system and the PV façades.
Most of the extra work could fortunately be supported by the accompanying research
projects, which also brought in foreign experts and their experience. What also turned
out to be essential was the call for a performance-based arrangement for the building-
integrated PV system, unlike the usual capacity-based arrangement. For the
performance-based arrangement, the supplier had to ensure that the specified annual
electricity generation is achieved.
Lessons Learnt From the Project: Many lessons were gathered regarding the gen-
eration of accurate energy models, enabling of monitoring and verification, designing
for maintenance, and responding to increasing energy use. The integrated design
process with all stakeholders at the early stage of the project was beneficial in setting
the stage and identifying best practices. The design-build-operate approach was also
beneficial, as it considered the operational costs, too, which are usually ignored in the
standard design-build-sell approach. Simulations on energy savings and yield were
instrumental in sizing different energy systems. However, building accurate and inte-
grated energy models with occupancy schedules and dynamically responsive systems
was challenging. Occupancy schedules are very difficult to predict, but their resulting
energy loads have a strong impact on the predicted energy consumption of a building.
Actual and predicted occupancy schedules usually differ, especially if the prediction is
outdated. The planning of the project included some reserves, e.g. for extension of air-
conditioned spaces. In fact, the energy use intensity (EUI) of the building has increased
by 15% over the first two years, and it keeps increasing, due to converting more of the
naturally ventilated spaces into air-conditioned zones. Nevertheless, with additional
energy efficiency measures, it has remained a net-zero-energy building over the first
five years.
Building information modelling (BIM) was used to create and communicate design
aspects. However, not all of the green building systems were a part of the standard
building products library, and they had to be created and added first. Multifunctional
objects, such as electricity-producing semi-transparent PV windows, are difficult to
represent in BIM. Traditionally, windows only have thermal and optical properties, and
not electrical, and PV modules have only electrical properties, and even if they are
integrated in the building envelope, they remain mono-functional energy generators.
Therefore, BIM was used for integration and communication purposes, but not as a
front end for energy performance simulation. Energy simulations were performed
independently from BIM, with the locally prevailing tools for PV system sizing,
building energy performance, and HVAC and day-lighting systems.
4.3 Desktop Case Study 3 - China: MGM Macau Resort

Key Retrofit Features of the Project: The chilled water network was designed as a
de-coupler system, with two de-coupler bypasses. The chilled water design supply and
return temperatures were 7 °C and 12 °C (45 °F and 54 °F), respectively. The team
disabled the de-coupler bypasses and converted the system into a full variable primary
system. The result was a reduction of 876,196 kWh (41%) of pumping power in the first
year post-modification. The secondary sides of the –7 °C (19 °F) heat exchangers’
differential bypass were replaced with a variable-speed pumping system, using variable-
speed drives. The on-off-type control valves on the primary sides of the heat exchangers
were replaced with modulating valves. This has reduced the pumping power on the
secondary sides of the plate heat exchanger and has improved the distribution trans-
former on both sides. The oversized cooling water pump impellers were trimmed, with
all the springs inside the constant-flow valve serving each chiller removed.
The cooling water flow was balanced using manual butterfly valves. Variable-speed
drives were installed on all cooling tower fans. During spring and autumn, there were 2
n numbers of cooling fans in operation, with n number of operating chillers. Chilled
water supply temperature was reset linearly and inversely against outdoor air tem-
perature, to minimise chiller power use, by reducing chiller lift between evaporators
and condensers. The boiler plant initially consisted of two liquefied petroleum gas-fired
(LPG-fired) steam-tube boilers, with an output of 7,800 kg/h at 10 bar (17,196 lb/h at
4,014 in. w.c.). The transferred energy was provided to facilities in the hotel and casino
areas for pool heating, laundry, kitchens, space heating, and domestic hot water. After a
feasibility study, the two larger boilers were replaced with two 1,500 kg/h (3,301 lb/h)
smaller boilers as the primary source of steam for kitchens, laundry, and the pool, with
three new 880 kW (250 ton) heat pumps at N + 1 configuration. The heat pumps were
installed to serve as the heat source for space heating, space dehumidification reheat,
and domestic hot-water heating. One larger boiler was kept and not removed, to cater
for extremely low-temperature weather, e.g. below 8 °C (46 °F) outdoor temperature.
There are 1,000 fan coil units (FCUs) in the nearly 600 guest rooms, suites and villas.
All existing capacitance motors/fans were removed from the FCUs and replaced with
electronic commutated motors. All FCUs are connected via a wireless mesh network
through digital thermostats to the hotel management system, which can determine the
room temperature and the on/off status of the FCUs, depending on occupancy.
Other retrofit measures such as variable-speed drives were installed for exhaust fans
in busy kitchens, so the chefs can select cooking mode (normal speed) or standby mode
(reduced speed) of fan operations. Air handling unit (AHU) economiser mode was
introduced to enable free cooling of indoor spaces when the outdoor temperature is
low. Enthalpy wheels were also installed in AHUs to facilitate pre-cooling/pre-heating
of outdoor air. Programmable thermostats are used to control runtimes, fan speeds, and
minimum adjustable temperatures of the FCUs in the back of house office areas. Over
95% of the traditional halogen, filament, fluorescent, and cold cathode lighting at
MGM Macau was replaced with LED lighting, resulting in an annual electricity
reduction of 4,807,462 kWh. In addition, timer switches are used in plant rooms, and
daylight sensors are used to control the operations of aesthetic façade lighting on the
building perimeter. Introduction of the primary variable system has helped to signifi-
cantly reduce the maintenance cost of the chiller plant, through the removal of the 10
primary chilled-water pumps and the related pipe-work. Energy-monitoring dashboards
were installed to enhance staff buy-in and visibility. MGM Facilities Management
introduced a plant-monitoring energy dashboard, which tracks the energy performance
of both the chillers and the heat pumps. Regular reporting is done on the chillers and
the heat pumps, and month-to-date electricity consumption of various components is
measured. Monthly utility summaries are created automatically and are reviewed
regularly, to ensure that the chiller plant and the heat pumps are running in optimal
condition. Energy consumption data is stored in 15-minute intervals, which allows
International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)-compliant
energy-saving projects, analysis of plant operating data through the monitoring-based
commissioning (MBCx) platform, and record-keeping for the ISO50001 system, in
which MGM Macau is certified. By deploying the energy-performance dashboards in
addition to the Building Management Systems (BMS) functional dashboards, the
contractors have strengthened data visibility and have made energy management part of
the BMS control operation. This allows feedback on initiatives and operational issues,
where lessons are learnt and mistakes are not repeated.
Recorded Challenges: The MGM Grand Hotel project is very complex, influenced by
a wide range of HVAC systems. Several challenges were experienced such as ability to
quantify and compare the relative cost and performance attributes of a proposed design
in a realistic manner and even integration of experts in the project and optimal
installation of technical requirements, as envisaged during the start-up of the project.
Lessons Learnt From the Project: Building energy retrofit is better served where
building energy simulation is properly undertaken and tasks are properly assigned and
integrated. This will help to engender sustainability in the delivery process.
5 Discussion of the Findings from the Cross-Case Analysis
The cross-case case analysis draws upon the findings of each case study and sets out to
find literal replication across each case. This analysis provides significant evidence of
literal replication. It is summarised in Table 2.
Table 2. Literal replication from the cross-case analysis
Theme Szencorp Building, Australia Zero Energy Building, Singapore MGM Macau Resort, China
Retrofit Occupier integrated controls system of An integrated approach was adopted in • The chilled water network was designed
features sensors, on-site power generation from engendering deep retrofit in the building. as a de-coupler system, with two de-
different sources, including multiple solar For example, solar chimney systems were coupler bypasses. The team disabled the
arrays and ceramic fuel cell, and natural chosen for natural ventilation for the de-coupler bypasses and converted the
ventilation throughout. Automated building. In tackling thermal gains, the system into a full variable primary
opening windows were also installed. The strategy was to add a cooling skin to the system. Chilled water supply
lighting utilises new-generation building envelope. The cooling skin temperature was reset linearly and
triphosphor and T5 lamps, dimmable DSI served additional purposes beyond inversely against outdoor air
ballasts controlled via an intelligent shading. Some sunshades on the façade temperature, to minimise chiller power
occupancy-based system, achieving 1.4 had PV modules on the upper parts, use, by reducing chiller lift between
watts per 100 lx. An integrated sensor and generating additional electricity. Others evaporators and condensers. There are
management system for occupancy had reflective films, doubling as light 1,000 fan coil units (FCUs) in the nearly
lighting. HVAC and security control were shelves, redirecting daylight deeper into 600 guest rooms, suites and villas. All
also installed. The ceiling height was the building. The green walls and the roof existing capacitance motors/fans were
increased, allowing for use of thermal system support the study of their shading removed from the FCUs and replaced
mass for improved energy efficiency and evaporative cooling effect on reducing with electronic commutated motors. All
heat transfer and resulting cooling energy FCUs are connected via a wireless mesh
use. In addressing day lighting, an network through digital thermostats to
innovative design concept was to direct the hotel management system, which
the windows towards the sun, or rather to can determine the room temperature and
collect the zenith light from the roof and the on/off status of the FCUs, depending
the façade and redirect it to where it is on occupancy. Energy-monitoring
needed dashboards were installed to enhance
staff buy-in and visibility. MGM
Facilities Management introduced a
plant-monitoring energy dashboard,
Using Case Study Design to Investigate the Delivery of BERP
which tracks the energy performance of

both the chillers and the heat pumps.
(continued)
493
494
Theme Szencorp Building, Australia Zero Energy Building, Singapore MGM Macau Resort, China
Regular reporting is done on the chillers
and the heat pumps, and month-to-date
electricity consumption of various
components is measured. Monthly utility
summaries are created automatically and
are reviewed regularly, to ensure that the
C. Okorafor et al.
chiller plant and the heat pumps are

running in optimal condition
Recorded Selection of the right retrofit components The use of building space use may change The project is very complex, influenced
challenges for the building, developing a over time, considering its nature. There by a wide range of HVAC systems.
performance-based design, engineering were some difficulties, mainly due to the Several challenges were experienced such
capacity, and developing financial lack of experience and artisanship in as ability to quantify and compare the
modelling for the project installing green building technologies relative cost and performance attributes of
properly on-site. Most of the extra work a proposed design in a realistic manner
was supported by the accompanying and even integration of experts in the
research projects, which also brought in project and optimal installation of
foreign experts and their experience technical requirements, as envisaged
during the start-up of the project
Lessons The Szencorp Group looked at life cycle The integrated design process with all Building energy retrofit is better served
learnt costing when undertaking this retrofit stakeholders at the early stage of the where building energy simulation is
project was beneficial in setting the stage properly undertaken and tasks are
and identifying best practices. The design- properly assigned and integrated
build-operate approach was also
beneficial, as it considered the operational
costs, too, which are usually ignored in
the standard design-build-sell approach
Source: Researchers (2019).
6 Conclusions and Way Forward
From the case studies reviewed, it can be deduced that no energy retrofit project
deliveries are the same. The retrofitted case study buildings show that each building has
its own unique retrofit features. This can be attributed to different factors, such as the
building orientation, the building assessment, the detailed energy survey, the technical
analysis, the retrofit technologies used, the cost-benefit analysis, the nature of the
building, the implementation plan, and the geographical location, as identified in the
study. This observation resonates with the suggestion that no single intervention is
capable of delivering substantial reductions in energy usage, and, instead, a series of
measures is uniquely required as per each project [20]. This is shown in the reviewed
case studies. While there are numerous technologies that have the potential to address
carbon emissions in existing buildings, there remain problems associated with their
deployment, which is clearly identified in the study. This entire consideration makes
each building energy retrofit project optimisation a problem. However, in addressing
this problem, an integrated approach should be adopted and tasks should be properly
assigned and integrated [20, 21].
In sum, this paper provides a detailed technical description of three cases. The
reviewed projects show innovative ways to deliver energy retrofit in existing buildings.
Techniques available are not limited to using green technologies to improve the pro-
ductivity of the workforce, indoor air movement and lighting. Nevertheless, various
challenges highlighted in the study need to be addressed. Such impediments drag the
concept of energy retrofit backwards in curbing CO2 emission. The action should be
targeted at making the best use of a situation or resource in implementing energy
efficiency (EE) drives in any energy retrofit project delivery. The guiding principle
should be taking each project life cycle as a point of departure in arriving at right
retrofit components for the whole building, developing a performance-based design,
scouting for engineering capacity, and developing financial modelling for the delivery
of the project. The limitations of the desktop cases require future inquiries that embrace
pragmatism as a philosophical approach so that both breadth and depth of knowledge
on energy retrofit can be developed.
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Developing a Framework for Deploying
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to Improve
Construction Safety Management
Lesiba George Mollo1(&), Fidelis Emuze1, and John Smallwood2

1
Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
lmollo@cut.ac.za
2
Department of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela University,
Abstract. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) is gaining traction in the
construction industry. UAVs are used to address productivity, inspection and
safety matters. This paper presents a conceptual framework that would help to
deploy UAVs on construction sites for safety inspection purposes. The paper was
compiled from the data obtained in the literature. The keywords unmanned aerial
vehicles and safety in construction were used to search the relevant database. The
findings reveal that the use of UAVs would help the construction professionals
improve safety on construction sites through the capturing of visual images and
video clips on the site project from a bird’s eye view. The collected data (images
or video clips) could be analyzed to identify risks and hazards that might cause
accidents on construction sites. There is major scope for using UAVs to improve
construction safety when appropriate guidelines are implemented.
Keywords: Construction Safety Unmanned aerial vehicle
1 Introduction
The nature of construction work is complex and unique when compared to other
industries. Construction industry embraces different types of risks and hazards that are
faced by workers daily. Thus, there is a need to reduce risks and hazards in construction
and this need encouraged researchers and practitioners to search for innovative
methods, technics, and technologies. Despite innovative methods of construction or the
adoption of technologies, safety at work is a complex phenomenon, and often the
adopted method of construction works exposes the workers to hazards that might result
with accidents causing either injury or fatality [1]. To solve this reported problem, most
of the construction organizations have opted to design safe work procedures that have
the primary purpose of managing safety on sites [2]. In addition, safety at work is
concerned with the workers, and most of the workers have an informal and oral culture
of risks, in which safety is rarely openly expressed in the workplace [3].

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_50
498 L. G. Mollo et al.
There are several factors contributing to the unsafe working environment in con-
struction. For instance, the worker’s safety-related behaviors and their compliance with
safety rules are influenced by the site supervisors’ decisions or actions. Site supervisors
decide how to control certain risks on construction sites, and this makes it necessary for
the workers to behave in certain ways [4]. The unsafe behavior of the workers on
construction sites is recognized as one of the factors causing accident causation [5].
This is because the knowledge and attitudes of the workers towards safety often differ
from individual to individual. Also, safety practices, norms and attitudes are continu-
ously negotiated between the workers and site supervisors [3]. Additionally, it is
reported in the HSE [4] report that it is better to eliminate the risks and hazards in a way
which are not reliant on human behavior.
To ameliorate reported safety problems causing accidents in construction, several
tools are deployed on project sites. In the context of this paper, a tool called unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs) is chosen to address safety problems in construction. UAVs has
been used in construction for a variety of purposes for more than a decade [6]. It is
reported that in the United Emirates of Arab (UAE), Australia and the United State of
America (USA), UAVs are used to perform site inspections and violations detections
on construction sites [7–9].
However, in South Africa, the construction industry is not utilizing emerging
technology to improve safety when compared to other developed countries. In essence,
there is little utilization of such technology in South African construction, despite
UVAs been in existence for more than a decade. Thus, the aim of this paper is to
propose how to deploy a UAVs for on sites in South Africa. The deployment frame-
work emphasizes the effectiveness of UAV as a tool for enhanced safety regarding
construction site objectives.
2 Research Method
In this research, the authors applied systematic literature review to answer the questions
which asked, how will the use of UAVs help the safety manager to improve safety on
construction sites? The literature review included papers that investigated UAVs and
safety topics in the construction industry. The adopted literature search is completed by
reviewing the titles and abstracts of the published papers between 2010 and 2019.
Firstly, the author would review the title, followed by an abstract, and a full paper
would be screened. The adopted flowchart of this systematic literature study is high-
lighted in Fig. 1. The databases used to search for the published papers included a
Science Direct database (https://www.sciencedirect.com/), International Council for
Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB) database (http://www.
irbnet.de/daten/iconda/CIB_DC31504.pdf), and Google Scholar databases (https://
scholar.google.co.za/). To identify the relevant papers for this study, the keywords such
as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), safety management systems and construction
industry, were used to search the databases. In this study, 26 authors were cited from
the reviewed papers.
Developing a Framework for Deploying Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) 499
LITERATURE SEARCH LITERATURE FRAMEWORK

CONTENT ANALYSIS
SELECTION DEVELOPMENT
1. Science direct databases
1. Analysing the literature
2. CIB databases 1. Review the title 1. Develop a conceptual
2. Summarizing the
3. Google scholars 2. Review the abstracts framework
literature
databases 3. Screen the paper 2. Validate a framework
Fig. 1. The flowcharts of the study
3 Background of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
This section outlines the history or background of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).
So, UAVs, which is commonly known as drones, are aircrafts systems that can fly
without a pilot and passengers on board [10]. The aircraft system includes the UAVs or
drones (remotely controlled aircraft), the control system, satellite-based equipment,
communication links and an operator (pilot) needed to operate or fly the aircraft
effectively and safely [11]. The operations of the UAVs depend on the participation of
a pilot being a person. Historically, UAVs were designed for the purpose of military
services [8]. In the year 2006, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the USA
issued a first commercial UAVs permit to grant permission for its use for business
purpose [12].
According to the report by Dronethusiast [12], the first commercial UAVs in the
USA were used by the government agencies for disaster relief, border surveillance and
wildfire fighting, and while the Agricultural Industry started using UAVs to inspect
pipelines and spray pesticides of farms. In the industrial sectors, the agricultural
industry dominated the use of UAVs for improving agricultural production, and other
industries such the real estate has taken advantages of this technology to conduct aerial
survey and mapping of planned developments [11].
UAVs in the construction industry has been adopted to carry out site inspections
and design site layout plans [13]. It is also used to monitor the working conditions of
people, and to identify the potential risks and hazards on sites [14]. According to
Hubbard et al. [15], UAVs provides a platform to improve safety management by
providing real-time visual information to monitor the work on sites. The high definition
camera which is installed on UAVs provides visual assets (images and video clips),
which can be analyzed to improve the safety management system on construction
projects [14].
4 Regulations Governing the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

(UAVs)
It is stated in the previous section, that the first commercial permit to fly UAVs in the
USA was issued in 2006. The permit to fly UAVs in the USA shows a sign of good
regulations and it also helps to remove the anxiety of citizens regarding the usage of
UAVs for commercial purpose [16]. Thus, regulations both endorses and overturns
innovations. Good regulations should be able to apprehend social values and objectives
and is effective in promoting economic activities by reducing direct and indirect costs
[16]. UAVs in the USA is regulated by the Federal Aviation Industry (FAA), which is
the main agency for managing civil aviation [6]. The FAA regulates UAVs by dividing
the UAV uses into two categories namely, to fly for hobby purposes and fly for
commercial use [6].
While, in South Africa, the use of UAVs is regulated by the South African Civil
Aviation Authority (SACAA). In terms of Part 101 of the Civil Aviation Regulations,
2011, the pilot operating a UAVs shall be appropriately trained on the UAVs and
qualified for the area and type of operation. In addition, the SACAA acknowledges that
numerous businesspeople interested in obtaining a UAVs operator certificates for
business purpose are required to provide aerial work service South African Civil
Aviation Authority [17]. The operator or pilot of a UAVs is compelled to observe all
statutory requirements relating to liability, privacy and any other laws enforceable by
any other authorities when flying a UAVs.
5 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) on Construction Sites
This section outlines the impact of UAVs in the construction industry. As elaborated in
the introduction section that this study focuses on the deployment of UAVs for
enhanced safety regarding construction site objectives. Safety in the construction
industry is a serious concern and the industry is regarded as one of the most hazardous
industry contributing to high accidents rate worldwide [2, 3, 18]. The causes of acci-
dents in the construction industry are rooted in the working conditions of people.
Notably, construction sites could be overcrowded with workers who are exposed to
high risks duties such as operating at height and outdoors and with heavy machinery
and equipment [19]. There are numerous factors contributing to the worker’s safety
through the interactions among the workers and the work environment [20]. Thus, it is
important to investigate the working environment of the workers to improve safety in
the construction industry. The use of modern technologies on construction sites is one
of the most recent interventions used to improve safety management system on con-
struction sites.
As explained by Tatum and Liu [11] UAVs are used to improve the working
conditions on construction sites. For example, UAVs could be used to investigate the
worker’s safety-related behaviors through site inspections. However, it is critical for a
UAVs operator to investigate the site project which UAVs would be deployed to and to
determine the area which would be suitable to capture the images and videos of a site
project [21]. It should be acknowledged that safety inspections are the responsibility of
a safety manager on a site project [8]. The safety inspection process is carried out by
regularly walking and taking direct observations of the site activities or tasks by a
safety manager.
The competency of a safety manager on construction sites can be increased sig-
nificantly with the use of UAVs [11]. The use of UAVs in the construction industry is
continually changing the safety managers task of direct observation on site works and
interacts with the workers [15]. UAVs improves site inspection by providing real-time
inspection and surveillance from the site project in the form of a high-definition
(HD) images and videos [9]. Figure 2 highlights the images that were taken on a
Brazilian construction site using a UAVs for a safety inspection. It can also be noted
that the images captured using a UAVs on a site project helps the safety manager to be
able to identify the risk and hazards which might cause accidents. Additionally, the
images and video clips captured using a UAVs provide reliable data suitable to
improve the safety inspection as indicated in Fig. 2 [21].
It should be acknowledged, that safety inspection process in the construction
industry is based on the three main aspects, which includes, being regular, imple-
menting direct observation and leading interaction with workers [22]. Therefore, it is
critical for the safety manager to align safety inspection process with the safety system,
especially when evaluating the working conditions of a site project [23]. It is further
reported that safety inspections through visual aspects (images and video clips) also
provide data to improve the working conditions at a site project [24].
Fig. 2. Examples of non-compliance observed images on a site project in Brazil (Adapted from
Melo et al. [21])
In addition, Fig. 2 shows the example of non-compliance observed images on a

project in Brazil. Plate (a) demonstrate waste unprotected from rain; (b) workers
without hard-hats and personal fall arrest systems; (c) safety platforms not installed on
the entire perimeter of the building; (d) workers on the roof unprotected from falling;
(e) inappropriate use of hard-hats; (f) there is no isolation of areas for loading and
unloading of materials.
6 Discussion and Way Forward
Based on the reported literature regarding the construction challenges relating to safety,
it can be concluded that indeed safety at work is a complex phenomenon as emphasized
by Rae and Provan [2]. Accident experienced in construction is described as
unavoidable, happens unexpectedly and the construction industry is high risk when
compared to other industries [25]. Hence, the causes of accidents are also rooted in the
working conditions on construction sites. To solve this reported safety problem, a
proposed conceptual UAVs framework sets a standard ground on how to improve
safety in construction using visual safety inspections. According to Mendes et al. [24]
the use of visual technologies can contribute positively to the entire process of safety
inspections and improving safety practice on construction sites. Additionally, it is
reported by several authors such as Melo et al. [21], Hubbard et al. [15], Tatum and Liu
[11], Irizarry et al. [8], and Moud et al. [6] that the application of UAVs for safety
inspections is used to identify hazards and improve the unsafe working conditions on
construction sites.
The application of UAVs for safety inspections is indicated in Fig. 2. While Fig. 3
presents a conceptual framework guideline for deployment of UAVs in the construction
industry. The following procedures must be followed when deploying UAVs for safety
inspections. Firstly, an operator that might be a safety manager must set a UAV.
Thereafter, an operator must fly a UAV to start with the site surveillance. During the
surveillance, an operator will capture the images or video clips of the site under
surveillance (Fig. 2 shows the images captured using UAVs on a Brazilian site project).
The images or videos clips will be saved either on a smartphone or iPad, which was
used as a signal transmitter. Thereafter, a database will be created, and the images or
video clips will be saved on a computer. The images or video clips would be analyzed
with the determination of identifying the risks and hazards, which might cause acci-
dents, and the working conditions on sites. Thereafter, the data would be processed to
help the safety management team to improve the safety management system based on
the analyzed data of the images or video clips (Fig. 2 shows the images which were
used to identify hazards on a Brazilian site project).
Unmanned aerial vehicle

Set a UAV
(UAV)
Safety inspections or
Fly UAV to a site project
surveillance
Visualization Take images or video clips using high definition

Images and video clips (HD) camera installed on a UAV
Saving images or video clips taken by a UAV on

Data storage a computer (creating a database)
Identifying the risks and hazards from the site

Data analysis images or videos
Data processing Improving the safety management systems
Fig. 3. A conceptual UAVs framework to improve safety in construction
Despite the formulation of a UAV deployment UAVs to improve safety in con-

struction, there is still a need to validate the UAVs framework on an actual research
project. To test this deployment framework, new studies are under development in
order to evaluate the impact of safety inspection using UAVs on a construction site.
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Communication Channel at Pre-contract
Phase and Construction Project Delivery
in South-West, Nigeria
E. Aladeloba Adesina1(&), I. Idoro Godwin1,

and Osunsanmi Temidayo O2
1
Department of Building, University of Lagos,
Akoka, Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria
aladelobasina@yahoo.com, gidoro@unilag.edu.ng
2
Environment, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
osunsanmidayo@gmail.com
Abstract. The advent of the fourth industrial revolution has disrupted the
channel of communication within the construction industry especially at the pre-
contract phase of a construction project. Thus, this study investigated the
communication channel adopted at the pre-contract phase of a construction
project in Nigeria. The study adopted random sampling from collecting data
from construction professionals in South West of Nigeria. A total of 480
questionnaires was distributed to the respondents and used for the analysis. The
questionnaire was analysed using SPSS V 20 using the mean item score. The
findings from the analysis show that the communication channel adopted by the
construction professionals consists of print, face to face and electronic media.
The study discovered that the fourth industrial revolution has not disrupted the
communication practice in Nigeria as the print media remains the predominant
channel of communication.
Keywords: Communication Communication channel Construction project

Information
1 Introduction
The construction project contributes significantly to the development of any nation [1].
The contribution includes the workforce employment of which the industry is
responsible for about 20% of the total workforce [2]. Ansah et al. [3] provided another
means in which the construction industry contributes to the economy. They affirmed
that the infrastructure provided by the industry serves as a backbone for the economy.
In support of this statement Koolwijk et al. [4] concluded that the world depends on the
construction industry to solve its infrastructural problems. Hence it is reasonable to
postulate that the industry contributes significantly to the growth of the economy
through the provision of infrastructure.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_51
506 E. A. Adesina et al.
Unfortunately, Meng [5] stipulated that the industry has not been able to effectively
contribute to the economic growth of the country. The ineffectiveness is attributed to
numerous factors major amongst them which is the unclear communication process
adopted by construction professionals [6]. Olaniran [7] related the poor communication
process among construction professionals to the assemblage of different profession
under one flag which typifies the display of different principles, and skills formulated in
a manner. This, no doubt, explains the reason for non-cooperation among distinct
professionals and passage of incomplete information. Dainty [8] corroborated this
claim when he observed that the communication process tends to be characterized by
an unacquainted group of people coming together for a brief period.
It, therefore, becomes imperative that appropriate communication channel is used to
resolve design and construction problems which, according to [9] are inevitable projects
and undesirably disturb cost, schedule and safety performance. Research studies have
also discovered that the communication process used in project delivery is far from
being effective. For instance, Olaniran [7] observed that the use of the traditional system
of documentation or communication which is dominant in the delivery of construction
project, will not aid collaboration and coordination of all players and encourage cross-
discipline communication between distinct professionals. It will also constitute a major
challenge as document transfer in construction projects and between members are rarely
incompatible and complete format. Wu et al. [10] also identified conflicting design
information, delaying issuance of revised drawings, dimensional inaccuracies as critical
factors emanating from incompetent design and resulting in delays in project delivery
time. This is because most distinct professionals have conflicting priorities and different
objectives. This, therefore, creates the need for examining the communication channel
adopted within the Nigeria construction industry.
In Nigeria, previous study by Ikediashi and Ogwueleka [11] and Olaniran [7]
focused on communication systems and their effect on construction project delivery.
The study revealed that some organizations make use of communication channel with
varying formality while some others focus on both formal and informal communication
routes. In the cases where the communication process was studied, the focus was on
just linear communication instead of taking into account, the project team communi-
cation in Nigeria.
Although these studies investigated several aspects of communication in con-
struction, studies on “project characteristics, Communication channel at pre-contract
stage and project performance in south-west Nigeria” appear to be relatively scarce.
Hence the need to appraise communication channel adopted at pre-contract phase of
construction project delivery.
2 Construction Industry and the Communication Process
The construction industry is such an influential economic sector, which utilizes very
heavy human, material and financial resources characterized by different professionals
working together to achieve a common goal [5]. Olanrewaju and Abdul-Aziz [12]
posited that a construction project is termed to be successful when it is completed at the
stipulated cost and time satisfying the client quality expectation. In other to achieve
Communication Channel at Pre-contract Phase and Construction Project Delivery 507
project success, construction professionals engage in relationships among themselves

that are contractually driven [9]. Brewer et al. [13] asserted that the relationship is built
on effective communication among the construction project team members. In support
of this assertion Adeleke et al. [14] submitted that excellent communication among the
construction professionals facilitates an effective relationship among them. Wu et al.
[10] opined that poor communication among the construction professionals is
responsible for conflicts and lack of mutual respect and trust that in return leads to
design errors that negatively affect cost. Ofori [15] and Ajayi and Osunsanmi [16]
reported that some construction defects occur because of poor communication.
According to Ikediashi and Ogwueleka [11], a delay in the supply of necessary
information during construction may result in 21–30% delay of the total project.
“This implied that communication is essential for construction project success.
Brewer et al. [13] affirmed that proper communication planning for all the project
stakeholders is crucial as it ensures the success of a construction project. Also, Dainty
et al. [9] argued that passage of information is significant to the running of any
construction project and must be properly managed. It can be inferred from the above
that improvements in communication will result in an increase in the quality of the
building and a reduction in the level of defect occurrence.”
2.1 Communication Channel in the Construction Industry

“Dainty et al. [9] categorizes construction communication channels like print, elec-
tronic or face-to-face (interpersonal). Acar et al. [17] asserted that the most used
channel among construction professionals is the print channel, which consumes about
half of communication time due to its low level of effectiveness. Although, Olaniran [7]
on the other hand observed that project team members are exposed to various com-
munication channels, but selecting the most appropriate medium or media becomes a
critical issue for professionals. Dainty et al. [9] reported that the media choice should
match the ambiguity or complexity of the information being passed and the agenda of
the information attempting to achieve.”
Presently the construction industry has become a global arena with increased
complexity and competitiveness due to the influx of global participation in projects
[18]. Fundamental changes resulting from the worldwide growth of the construction
industry is evident in the adoption of technological and scientific innovations [19].
Modern construction is complex and has physical realities, which point to a need for
more technology such as information and Communication Technology (ICT) [20] as
the growth of ICT presents more opportunities for its integration in construction.
The appraisal of the communication channel is a significant factor towards ensuring the
effective flow of construction information. The methodology adopted in this study to
appraise communication channel adopted by construction professionals entails two pri-
mary steps. In the first step literature relating to communication channels among con-
struction professionals and the construction industry were reviewed. The second step
entails designing questionnaire based on the reviewed literature and self-administered to

the construction professionals within South-West Nigeria. The construction professionals
comprise of the architect, builders, civil engineers, structural engineers, quantity sur-
veyors, mechanical engineers and Electrical Engineers.
“A convenience sampling was used, while the questionnaire was distributed online
using google forms and through personal administration after ethical approval was
received from their respective firms. The questionnaire was divided into two (2) sec-
tions covering the communication channel and the respondent personal information.
A total of four hundred and eighty questionnaires (480) was received and used for the
analysis after scrutinizing for errors out of four hundred and eighty-two (482) that was
distributed to the respondents. The response to the questionnaire was then inputted into
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) version 23. The study adopted a quan-
titative research design study, using mean item score.”
4 Discussion and Implication of Findings

4.1 Adoption of Communication Channel at Pre-contract Phase
of Project Delivery
Communication channel consists of three communication practices namely: print, face-
to-face and electronics [9]. Print communication channel consists of seven communi-
cation practices namely: daily reports, annual reports, memos, policy, manuals, posters,
brochures and newsletters. “Face-to-face communication practice consists of six
practices namely: team meetings, speeches, focus groups, brown bag lunches, social
events and gatherings and management by wandering around”. The electronic channel
consists of ten practices namely: “email and voicemail, instant messaging systems,
intranet, chat rooms, video conferencing, blogs, podcasts, electronic town-hall meet-
ings, business TV and wikis”. The level of adoption of each communication channel
was measured using a 5-point Likert scale namely: nil, rare, moderate, often and
always. Respondents were requested to indicate the scale that best represented their
perception of the level of adoption of each communication channel in the projects
selected. The level of adoption of the three communication practices and their sub-
practices were analysed using Mean Score (MS).
The results in Table 1 revealed that the respondents perceived two communication
practices in print communication medium namely: reports and annual reports to be
often adopted. “The findings of this study coincide with the study conducted by [11]
which indicated that report writing is the predominant means of communicating in
Nigeria construction industry”. Whereas the remaining five practices namely: memos,
policy manuals, posters, brochures and newsletters are moderately adopted at the pre-
contract phase of project delivery.
On electronic medium, Table 1 showed that Email with a mean score of 3.90 is
often used by the construction professionals for communicating. Whereas instant
messaging and intranet are moderately used by the respondents. Electronic means of
communicating like chat rooms, video conferencing, blogs, podcast and business TV
are rarely used by the construction professionals.
Table 1. Mean scores of the level of adoption of practices in each communication channel at the
pre-contract phase.
Practices of the communication channel Mean Rank Adoption
Print media 3.08
Daily reports 3.73 1 Often
Annual reports 3.54 2 often
Memos 3.23 3 Moderate
Policy manuals 3.19 4 Moderate
Posters 2.96 5 Moderate
Brochures 2.54 6 Moderate
Newsletters 2.54 7 Rare
Electronic media 2.26
Email 3.90 1 Often
Instant messaging systems 3.17 2 Moderate
Intranet 2.67 3 Moderate
Chat rooms 2.31 4 Rare
Video conferencing 2.21 5 Rare
Blogs 1.81 6 Rare
Podcasts 1.71 7 Rare
Electronic town-hall meetings 1.71 8 Rare
Business TV 1.65 9 Rare
Wikis 1.48 10 Nil
Face to face Media 3.02
Team meetings 3.98 1 Often
Speeches 3.71 2 Often
Focus groups 2.90 3 Moderate
Brown bag lunches 2.69 4 Moderate
Social events and gatherings 2.67 5 Moderate
Management by wandering around 2.15 6 Rare
1 = Nil, 2 = Rare, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Often, 5 = Always,
N = Number of respondents, TS = Total score, MS = Mean score,
Rk = Rank. 1–1.49 = Nil, 1.50–2.49 = Rare, 2.50–
3.49 = Moderate, 3.50–4.49 = often, 4.50–5.00 = always
Concerning face to face channel for communication respondents perceived the

adoption of one communication channel namely: Team meetings and Speeches to be
often adopted while three communication channel in face to face medium namely:
“Focus groups, Brown bag lunches and Social events and gatherings” were perceived
to be moderately adopted. The last communication practice in face to face namely:
management by wandering around was perceived to be rarely adopted.
Table 1 also shows a general mean score for all the communication channels; print
medium, electronic medium and face to face media. The table showed that the print
channel has the highest mean score of 3.08, therefore, implying that traditional form of
passing communication is the predominant communication channel in the Nigeria
construction industry. Whereas the electronic communication channel was perceived to

be moderately used and the second most adopted channel. Face to face communication
Channel was perceived to be rarely used and the least adopted communication channel.
5 Conclusion
Construction projects as activities within the construction industry are based on

information flow which is an indication of the involvement of a diverse number of
people participating in a network of communication at different levels. Communication
plays a vital role in all stages of a construction project either at the pre-contract or post-
contract phase of the projects. Any shortfall therefore or insufficient communication
may contribute to projects failure. Therefore, it is imperative that an appropriate
communication channel should be used for construction management.
The communication channel was broken down into three namely; print, face-to-face
and electronic media. The study discovered that the print channel is the predominant
communication channel in the Nigeria construction industry. Whereas the electronic
communication channel was perceived to be moderately used and the second most
adopted channel. Face to face communication Channel was perceived to be rarely used
and the least adopted communication channel. It can be deduced that the fourth
industrial revolution has not disrupted the channel of communication within the Nigeria
construction industry. The study recommends that construction firms should adopt a
more electronic channel of communication due to its effectiveness for passing
information.
Acknowledgements. The authors like to appreciate everybody that has contributed to this
article directly or indirectly.
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The Implications of Not Utilizing a Quantity
Surveyor as Principal Agent for Residential
Construction Projects
Tascha Bremer(&), Henry Deacon, Mart-Mari Els, and IG Mare
Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management,

bremert@ufs.ac.za
Abstract. Clients who plan to build their own homes are not fully aware of all
the roles played by professional consultants during construction projects. The
problem exists that many negative consequences with regard to cost, time and
quality performance arise on self-build residential construction projects where a
principal agent is not appointed by the client.
The purpose of this study is to determine the necessary roles of a quantity
surveyor serving as principal agent on residential construction projects; and
subsequently establishing the possible implications of only using a building
contractor to execute and manage such projects.
The research design is based on a case study that involved three residential
construction projects in Bloemfontein, Free State. The data was collected by
means of semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders involved in these
projects, with a purposive sampling method applied.
The findings indicate that the public is uninformed of the important services
that a quantity surveyor, serving as principal agent, fulfill with regard to
achieving project success within time, cost and quality constraints. The primary
reasons for not utilizing quantity surveyors as principal agents on self-build
residential construction projects are that clients have a lack of knowledge of the
services provided by construction consultants along with a perception that
consultants’ fees are expensive. Clients further have the personal belief that they
can successfully manage the building contractor, as well as monitor and control
their projects, on their own.
The study concludes that future self-build homeowners (clients) should
appoint a quantity surveyor as principal agent on their projects, which would
assist with the management of time, cost and quality parameters.
This study would be valuable to the residential construction industry by
increasing the awareness of the roles and duties fulfilled by professional con-
struction consultants, especially those of the quantity surveyor serving the dual
role of principal agent.
Keywords: Construction industry Principal agent Quantity surveyor

Residential property

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_52
The Implications of Not Utilizing a Quantity Surveyor 513
1 Introduction
Quantity surveyors are the “cost economists” of the construction industry and play an
important role in the cost management of a project to safeguard the interests of the
client [9]. Their level of expertise are used to draft and interpret contract documents,
therefore enabling them to forecast final costs, execute regular and fair valuations,
prevent disputes, and monitor the progress of a project [3].
The core services offered by a quantity surveyor is to control the construction cost
and advise the client on VAT implications, insurance valuations and dispute resolution
[17]. The quantity surveyor will also consult with the client to ensure that the best
contractor is appointed when there is a need for additional specialists and subcon-
tractors on a project [10]. However [12] stated that quantity surveyors have expanded
their “normal duties” and are offering services beyond their scope of works.
The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession (SACQSP) lists
all the crucial services that a quantity surveyor provides during the life-cycle of a
project. This life-cycle consists of six stages namely, inception (stage 1); concept and
viability (stage 2); design development (stage 3); documentation and procurement
(stage 4); construction (stage 5) and close-out (stage 6). These services are crucial to a
project’s success and there is no better professional to implement these services than
the Quantity Surveyor [17].
[3] further more lists numerous services which covers a wide range of activities
implemented by quantity surveyors such as tendering, claims- and value management,
dispute resolution, life-cycle costing, value engineering, cost benefit analysis, value for
money assessments, research consultancy, valuation, management contracting, feasi-
bility studies, construction dispute resolution, cost planning, change control, cost
estimation and risk analysis. [13] also found that quantity surveying appears to be
relevant in the banking, law, manufacturing (especially oil and gas), project- and asset
management, insurance and taxation.
Recommended fee scales of quantity surveyors are posted by ASAQS and
SACQSP, where the fee scales are only to be used as a basis for fee calculation. It
appears that quantity surveyors provide considerable amounts of discount on profes-
sional fees, which indicates a concrete level of competitiveness among practicing firms.
Hence, the quantity surveying industry proves to offer affordable fees while still
generating substantial profits [18].
[16] proclaims that the principal agent plays an important role on behalf of the
client especially in today’s complex and dynamic multi-disciplinary environment in
which a building agreement is undertaken. The principal agent is regarded as an agent
who acts on behalf of the client [8]. Any construction professional (architect, quantity
surveyor, project manager, and engineer) can be appointed as the principal agent [7]. In
the built environment, the principal agent will play a dual role, thereby acting as a
consultant in the profession he/she is contracted, and as an agent representing the client
in the discharge of the legal relations of the respective parties as they relate to that
service in terms of the building contracts [16].
514 T. Bremer et al.
The services of a principal agent are also detailed according to the six stages of a
construction project, which concentrates on procurement, contracts, quality manage-
ment, inspection and program management.
[16] states that there are different approaches by the professions in calculating the
principal agent’s fees. [3] published that the principal agency fee is calculated at 45%
of the total quantity surveying fee for a project.
[22] determined that time, cost and quality are interlinked with one another.
Therefore an impact on one of the factors would had have an effect on the other. The
complexity of project management with regards to time, cost and quality should not be
underestimated and that minor mistakes can lead to costly expenses. A successful
project is one that is completed within the required performance and that all time, cost
and quality goals are achieved [15] (Fig. 1).
Time
Scope
Quality Cost
Fig. 1. Critical success factors of a project (The Triple Constraint) Source [22]
Secondary data has shown that there are numerous factors which could lead to
projects delays. These factors could either emanate from the client or the contractor, or
from neither [6]. The effect of time delays could also have an effect on project cost and
sometimes cancellation of a contract [22]. The JBCC PBA (2014), clause 23.0 deals
with the revision of the date for practical completion and extension of time and this
could add substantial value to the time management of a project and also benefit the
parties in terms of extension of time claims.
[19] also refers to a cost overrun as “a cost increase” or “budget overrun” and it
involves unforeseen costs incurred which are not accounted for in the estimate. [11]
states that a project cost overrun is measured as the difference between the initial
estimated project cost and the actual construction cost after the project has been
completed.
[14] showed that there are various factors which may cause cost overruns and that
some the factors pose more risk than others. [15] discovered that a lot of projects
experience cost overruns varying between 20.4% and 44.7%, depending on the type of
project. Project cost management is found to be a complex process.
Quality management forms an integral part of improving project performance and

preventing cost and quality defects. Quality control during construction therefore
entails that the necessary inspections and measures are followed to ensure that all
components of a building adheres to the correct standards and requirements [2].
[5] found that there are numerous quality defects which may arise during con-
struction, with some being more severe than others. The JBCC Principal Building
Agreement Edition 6.1 – March 2014 is recommended to clients, for it allows the
principal agent to regularly inspect the quality of work done by a contractor and issue
defects lists that ultimately enforces a contractor to rectify defects within a specific time
period [8]. A suitable procurement process is essential to obtain the best contractor to
complete the works and who is concurrently managed by means of a proper contract.
Clients who are more inexperienced with procurement and contracts in construction
should obtain professional advice to assist them with the process [20]. A quantity
surveyor acting as Principal Agent is the ideal professional to manage the cost of a
project, reduce the risk of cost overruns and ensure quality by regularly inspecting the
works [7].
The research method applied in this study is a qualitative approach that includes a case
study of three residential projects in the city of Bloemfontein, which is located in the
Free State province of South Africa. In this study both primary and secondary sources
are utilized and reference is made for both these sources. A purposive sampling method
was applied as the selected respondents are in the position to provide the best infor-
mation to achieve the goals of this research.
Furthermore, primary data was collected by means of semi-structured interviews
with various stakeholders involved in the selected projects. Secondary sources include
estimates, cost reports as well as lists of delays and defects from the homeowners. The
primary data was analyzed and themed, and secondary data was analyzed, summarized
and compared. Triangulation of the data will give a better understanding of the
problem.
3 Research Results and Discussion
3.1 Case Studies Reponses

Scope: House 1: House 2: House3:
Residential 2-storey Residential 2-storey Residential 2-storey
building built on a building built on a building built on a steel
reinforced strip reinforced strip structure, that includes
foundation, that foundation, that 3 bedrooms, 3½
includes 5 bedrooms (3 includes 3 bedrooms, bathrooms, kitchen,
with own balconies), 2½ bathrooms, kitchen, scullery, dining area,
5½ bathrooms, kitchen, scullery, dining area, TV and living area,
(continued)
(continued)
scullery, living area, TV and living area, covered patio and two
dining area, TV room, covered patio including double garages.
study room, a built in braai, double No swimming pool
entertainment room, garage and a single
entrance hall, covered garage.
patio, store room, Apartment linked with
double garage and a house:
single garage. 1 Bedroom, 1 bathroom
A swimming pool, and and small kitchen area.
outdoor “boma” Swimming pool
Finishes: Roof covering: Roof covering: Roof covering:
Concrete roof tiles. Concrete roof tiles Concrete roof tiles
Walls: Plaster and paint. Walls: Plaster and paint Walls: Plaster and paint
Windows and doors: and stone cladding. and face brick features.
Aluminium. Windows and doors: Windows and doors:
Floors: Ceramic tiles. Aluminium. Aluminium.
Paving: Prefabricated Floors: Ceramic tiles. Floors: Ceramic tiles.
paving blocks. Paving: Prefabricated Paving: Prefabricated
Internally: paving blocks. paving blocks.
Walls: Ceramic tiles Internally: Internally:
(bathrooms) and plaster Walls: Ceramic tiles Walls: Ceramic tiles
and paint finishes. (bathrooms), plaster and (bathrooms) and plaster
Floors: Ceramic tiles, paint finishes and wall and paint finishes.
Laminated flooring and paper. Floors: Ceramic and
vinyl tiles. Floors: Ceramic and vinyl tiles.
Doors: Aluminium, vinyl tiles. Doors: Aluminium,
semi solid and solid Doors: Aluminium, semi solid and solid
timber doors. semi solid and solid timber doors.
Ceilings: Nailed-up timber doors. Ceilings: Nailed-up
ceilings of gypsum Ceilings: Nailed-up ceilings of gypsum
plasterboard ceilings of gypsum plaster board
plaster board
Size: 1000 m2 590 m2 270 m2
Estimate R 3 400 000.00 R 2 360 000.00 R 1 080 000.00
value
Final cost: R 4 200 000.00 R 2 006 000.00 R 1 480 000.00
Cost R 800 000.00 −R 354 000.00 R 400 000.00
overrun:
Planned 9 Months 6 Months 9 Months
constr
period:
Actual 12 Months 9 Months 12 Months
constr
period:
Late 3 Months 3 Months 3 Months
completion:
(continued)
(continued)
Penalties No Yes, for 1 month only Yes, for three months
applicable:
Quality Yes Yes Minor
defects:
1 Building Yes Yes Yes
contractor
Quantity No No No
Surveyor
Principal No No No
Agent
The case studies have shown that no quantity surveyor, quantity surveyor as
principal agent, or any other professional as principal agent had been appointed on the
projects. Two out of three projects had incurred cost overruns, three out of three time
delays, and two out of the three experienced quality defects when the projects were
completed. The researcher therefore calculated the project related quantity surveyor’s
value of professional fees (from the SACQSP fee scale and a market related fee) and
compared the value of fees with the cost overruns incurred in the projects. The fees of a
principal agent were also added to the value of the quantity surveying fees to determine
if it would still have been financially viable to appoint a quantity surveyor as principal
agent (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Comparison of cost overruns with professional fees (QS + PA)

It can be observed that the professional fees are lower compared to the cost
overruns. The researcher calculated that the professional fees only forms 3.63% of the
total contract value compared to the average percentage of 32.55% of the estimate
value that was cost overruns. [10] stated that people have the perception if they employ
a quantity surveyor, it will only increase the project cost, but a good quantity surveyor
in return will actually save the client money because of cost control.
The services of a principal agent would certainly have reduced the risk of time
delays, disputes between parties, unrectified defects and poor contract administration.
[16] supported this by stating that the principal agent plays an important role on behalf
of the client and eases perplexing obligations, especially in today’s complex and
dynamic multi-disciplinary environment. This proves that it would still have been
financially viable to employ a quantity surveyor also acting as principal agent.
3.2 Interview Responses and Findings

The researcher had found that the clients had a relative perception of the term “quantity
surveyor”, but few actually grasped the term “principal agent”. Responses showed that
clients are not fully informed of all the roles and duties of a quantity surveyor and
principal agent. Some clients believed that most of the services are only rendered
during the initial stages of a project which contrasted with literature as [4]’s statement
and [17]’s list of a quantity surveyor’s roles and duties indicates that a quantity sur-
veyor is engaged throughout the duration of a project. Clients did not have a relative
idea of the average fee quantity surveyors ask, especially for residential construction
projects. The fees of quantity surveyors are also believed to be very expensive. [21]’s
opinion aligned with this, as he remarked that a quantity surveyor’s services are mostly
associated with large scale projects and luxury components.
It appears that the quality of estimates done for the projects were not to the desired
standards and two out of the three projects incurred cost overruns as a result. [1] stated
that the purpose of effective cost control is to ensure that the final contract value does
not widely exceed the initial estimate value accepted by the client. The responses also
link with one of the main problems identified that no sufficient contracts forms and
procurement processes are used to appoint the best contractor which may lead to
several consequences. [2] clarified the important services of a principal agent con-
cerning contract management including procurement strategies. [20] embarked that it is
essential to obtain professional advice regarding the best selection of procurement
methods and to ensure that the client’s needs, requirements, project goals and objec-
tives are clear.
The majority of the projects showed quality defects when the projects were com-
pleted and many disputes arose regarding the rectification of defects. Literature has
shown that with a proper contract form like the JBCC and the services of a principal
agent, the risk of defects and concurrent disputes would certainly have been reduced.
There was a question raised on whether the clients considered rendering the services of
a quantity surveyor and principal agent. The majority of the respondents did however
not consider the need for the services, but in the end observed that these services are
inevitable.
Results have shown that a quantity surveyor also acting as principal agent would
definitely improve the efficiency of a project in terms of time, cost and quality.
A complete study done by [7], had shown that the quantity surveyor is highly rec-
ommended to act as the principal agent, also adding substantial value to a project. The
responses have shown the appointment of a quantity surveyor is considered an
inevitability in the current construction industry.
3.3 Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis 1:
The non-employment of a quantity surveyor on residential construction projects, could
lead to poor cost management, which results in cost overruns.
The results proved that without the services of a quantity surveyor, the degree of
cost management will be reduced which leads to cost overruns. The employment of a
quantity surveyor will certainly reduce the risk of cost overruns in a residential con-
struction project.
Hypothesis 2:
lead to poor time management, which results delayed completions.
time management will be reduced which leads to delayed completions. The employ-
ment of a quantity surveyor will certainly reduce the risk of time delays in a residential
construction project.
Hypothesis 3:
lead to poor quality management, which results in quality defects.
quality management will not always be reduced and lead to quality defects. The
employment of a quantity surveyor will however, reduce the risk of quality defects in a
residential construction project.
It can clearly be seen that clients are not fully informed of the important services a
quantity surveyor provides and to how important the services are to project success,
especially with regards to time, cost and quality. The non-employment of quantity
surveyors on residential construction projects are mainly because of the lack of
knowledge, perception of very expensive professional fees and the personal belief of
self-control of the project.
The researcher had achieved to clarify the importance of a quantity surveyor and
why it is recommended to utilize his/her services on residential projects. All the
research questions have been answered, which supports the significance of the study.
It is recommended that future homebuilders and clients appoint a quantity surveyor

as principal agent on their projects. Even the professional advice from a quantity
surveyor will help clients to reconsider the self-management of time, cost and quality of
a project.
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(2015)
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A Review of Critical Project Management
Techniques to Enhance Construction SMEs
Project Performance
Chijioke Emere(&), Innocent Musonda, and Chioma Okoro

University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
cemere@uj.ac.za
Abstract. Performance is linked with implementation of project management

techniques. Literature suggests that problems such as inefficiency, poor bud-
getary issues, improper planning, scheduling and control in projects execution
are associated with inadequate implementation of the essential techniques for
meeting project deliverables. These shortcomings are prevalent among Small
and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the developing countries including South
Africa. Hence, the primary objective of this paper is to review the critical project
management techniques for the improvement of construction project perfor-
mance especially among SMEs in South Africa. The study is based on previous
literature on construction SMEs project performance as well as project man-
agement techniques implementation. The literature review centered on both
international and South African context. The study revealed that critical path
method, work breakdown structure, and earned value management analysis were
the most occurring project management techniques from the sampled literature.
Findings from this study are envisaged to be beneficial to construction stake-
holders in developing relevant project management techniques to improve the
performance of SMEs.
Keywords: Construction SMEs Project performance

Project management techniques
1 Introduction
Adequate implementation of project management techniques is a concern in the con-

struction industry especially in this 21st century. Conventional operational procedures
are no longer sufficient for settling the issues surrounding quite a large and complex
environment such as construction [1]. Hence, construction projects now require a
highly specialized approach such as the discipline of project management and the
implementation of its techniques in achieving the desired deliverables [1]. Projects are
termed successful particularly when they are finished within the planned time, budget,
This work is supported by the University of Johannesburg through its National Research Fund
Scholarship.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_53
522 C. Emere et al.
and quality of which are the popular constraints of project management in executing a
project [2]. As organizations continue to move toward project-based management to get
more done with fewer resources, the need for project management and its techniques
became more and more important [3, 4].
However, literature indicates that construction SMEs are fraught with many project
management related problems such as inefficiency, poor budgetary issues, improper
planning, scheduling and control in their projects execution, partly because of inade-
quate implementation of project management techniques [5–7]. It appears that many
construction SMEs are negligent or not maximising the usage of formal, recognised
techniques and very little attention is being paid to improving the status quo. Hence,
schedule delays, cost overrun, poor quality, client dissatisfaction, loss of contract and
unsustainable business growth [5, 8–10]. Improving project performance therefore
requires implementation of effective project management techniques to improve per-
formance. Therefore, continuous research on this topic is relevant.
Project management techniques are systematic procedures or practices that project
managers use to achieve project deliverables [11]. They are important to the perfor-
mance of construction SMEs, which account for about 78% of companies in the South
African construction industry (CI) which contributes about 10% to the GDP [12, 13].
Moreover, SMEs in the construction industry are major platforms for job creation to
solve the prolonged unemployment rate of about 27.7% among South Africans and to
foster economic growth [10, 14]. Therefore, the performance of SMEs is of paramount
concern. However, SMEs are characterized by high failure rate and are below par in
their project performance efficiency and effectiveness especially among the lower
grades of the CIDB [5]. Consequently, most construction SMEs have a short life span
of approximately 6 months due to liquidation arising from inefficiency and poor cash
flow management [15]. Projects among emerging contractors in South Africa suffer
project management deficiency and quality is compromised due to negligence and
shortcuts in project execution [16]. Statistics South Africa [17] and Monks [18]
declared that the rate of project failure among SMEs in South Africa is about 75%.
CIDB [5] found that 5 in 10 buildings deteriorate few months after erection, which is
related to poor quality - a project management problem. Therefore, research on critical
project management techniques for the success of SMEs is important.
However, previous related literature seemed to use the terms, “tools” and “tech-
niques” synonymously [1, 19]. Other studies, Flemming and Koppelman [20], as well
as Burke [21] discussed the use of Earn Value Management in aiding the project
management plan, and control the project in comparable units, so that it can be
accurately tracked and controlled. Other studies, like Milosevic [11], Simons and
Lucarelli [22], and Kliem and Ludin [23], identified Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS) as a key technique in managing scope. PESTEL (Political, Environment, Social,
Technological, and Legal factors) Analysis, deliverable breakdown structure, PERT,
Make or Buy analysis etc. are among the vital techniques discussed by the Project
management method guide [24]. Appropriate evaluation and implementation of project
management techniques towards the attainment of project objectives is invaluable.
The objective of this study is to identify the techniques that are relevant for con-
struction project performance improvement. The succeeding sections of the paper present
A Review of Critical Project Management Techniques 523
an overview of the method used in conducting the study. Subsequently, the findings from
the desktop study are presented and conclusions drawn from the findings are presented.
2 Research Method
The study sought to establish the critical techniques for the improvement of project
performance. The paper is part of a wider study being conducted on a Master’s degree
project. Consequently, the findings from a review of literature on the techniques are
presented. Various sources were consulted including journals, conference proceedings,
dissertations and theses, to meet the objective of the study. Databases including Science
Direct, Ebscohost, Google and Google Scholar were consulted. The materials were
selected based on their possession of relevant keywords including project management,
performance, SMEs, success, construction industry and techniques. The identified
techniques were ranked according to the frequency of occurrence among the sampled
studies. The findings from the review are presented hereunder.
3 Findings on Project Management Techniques for SMEs

Performance Improvement
Some project management techniques have been identified by many authors as reliable
for improving various aspects of project performance, irrespective of the chosen
methodology [11, 25–28]. For instance, for cost management, Earn Value Management
is vital [11, 23, 29, 30]. For time management, techniques such as CPM, PERT,
milestone analysis, are essential [21, 30–32]. For project risk management, SWOT
analysis and Delphi are the notable project management techniques [11, 30]. For
project human resource management and communication, conflict management,
stakeholder analysis/management and responsibility matrix are some of the essential
techniques to be used [11, 19] and ‘bidder’s conference’ and ‘Make or Buy’ analysis
are useful for procurement [1, 11].
Findings from this study portrayed important techniques, which influence project
performance in both efficiency and effectiveness. Table 1 presents a summary of the
identified techniques from the sampled literature. As shown in the table, the most cited
techniques were Critical Path Method, Work Breakdown Structure, Earn Value Man-
agement, and Milestone Analysis. Some of these techniques are discussed hereunder.
3.1 Critical Path Method (CPM)

This technique helps the PM determine the start and finish dates for all the activities
and identifies the sequence of activities that form the critical path [21]. Burke [21]
affirms that the challenge of the PM is to develop a network diagram and perform the
CPM calculation to produce a logical project timeline that will serve as the project
plan framework. According to PMBOK [2], the CPM is necessary even after the use of
other techniques such as the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), to represent work
activities for effective time management.
524 C. Emere et al.
3.2 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

According to PMBOK [2], WBS is the process of subdividing project deliverables and
project work into smaller, more manageable components. This technique “enables the
project manager define the scope of work” [21]. Hence, the purpose behind the WBS is to
subdivide the scope of work into a sensible lump that are less demanding to gauge, plan,
and relegate to a dependable individual or department for consummation. Similar work
should be grouped together in the breakdown to enhance efficiency of production [21].
3.3 Earned Value Management Analysis

Earn Value Management is regarded as a vital technique for project cost management
[11, 23, 29, 30]. According to Burke [21], this is one of the special techniques within the
project integration knowledge area that aids the PM plan and controls the project in
comparable units, so that it can be accurately tracked and controlled”. It can also be used
for project cost management and as well as the assessment of project risk [11, 29, 30].
3.4 Quality Benchmarking

Benchmarking is a notable technique for project quality management [1, 19]. Quality
benchmarking, also referred to as “best-practice benchmarking”, or “process bench-
marking”, is used in strategic management, to evaluate various aspects of organiza-
tions’ work-tasks and processes in relation to best-practice. This is usually within a
peer-group, which is defined for the purposes of comparison [33]. Organizations are
enabled to develop plans on how to make improvements or adapt specific best prac-
tices, with the aim of increasing some aspect of performance.
3.5 SWOT Analysis

This is a risk management technique that can be used to examine the strength,
weakness, opportunity and threat of project criteria and deliverables for effective
contingency planning [24]. This can also be essential for generating courses of action
should problems occur.
3.6 Make or Buy Analysis

A Make or Buy Analysis helps the organization to take an informed decision about
what to outsource and what not to outsource [24]. “Portfolio managers and project
sponsors are often faced with the dilemma to make or buy, considering the availability
and skills of resources at hand. The various factors to be considered for a Make or Buy
Analysis include cost comparison, technology and business processes, supplier related
information, and support systems” [24].
Table 1. Project management techniques
Technique Source Total
Abbassi and Burke Cetindama Chou and Fleming and Golini Kerzner Micheal Milosovic Newell Patanakul Stojcetovic PM2 PMBOK White and
Al-Mharmah (2013) et al. Yang Koppelman et al. and et al. (2003) (2002) et al. et al. (2013) Guide (2012) Fortune
(2000) (2012) (2012) (2002) (2012) Kerzner (2014) (2010) (2016) (2002)
(2017)
Critical Path Method x x x x x x x x x x x 11
Work Breakdown x x x x x x x x x x 10
Structure (WBS)
Earn value x x x x x x x x x 9
Management
Milestone Analysis x x x x x x x x 8
Program Evaluation x x x x x x 6
and Review Technique
(PERT)
Stakeholder x x x x x 5
Management
(Interest/Influence
Matrix)
SWOT Analysis x x x x 4
Lesson Learned x x x x 4
Make or Buy Analysis x x x x 4
Analogous Estimating x x x 3
Parametric Estimating x x x 3
Quality review x x x 3
technique
Quality Benchmarking x x x 3
Bidders conference x x x 3
Conflict Management x x 2
Delphi Technique x x 2
Brainstorming x x 2
Change control x x 2
Meetings x 1
PESTEL Analysis x 1
A Review of Critical Project Management Techniques
Deliverable x 1
Breakdown Structure
(DBS)
525
526 C. Emere et al.
3.7 Stakeholder Analysis (Interest/Influence Matrix (SIIM))

Here, interest and influence of each stakeholder in the project are analyzed, facilitated
and documented [24]. It is of utmost importance to know the stakeholders and their
relevance for the project to identify project champions and possible detractors.
3.8 Lessons Learned

Capturing Lessons Learned is a way of identifying development/improvement areas
within a project for the aim of helping similar projects avoid certain pitfalls in the future
[24]. Information that can be captured includes lessons learned from management of
risks, quality issues, and outsourcing or contractor issues, change requests and so on.
In summary, the above-discussed techniques are not exhaustive. However, it is
notable that the techniques are usable to improve various aspects of project perfor-
mance and are therefore essential for SMEs in the construction industry, especially
CPM, WBS and Earned Value Management Analysis.
4 Conclusion
The paper set out to establish project management techniques mostly identified in
existing literature. The study found that the critical path method, work breakdown
structure and earned value management analysis were the most frequently occurring
project management techniques among the sampled literature. These techniques, if
judiciously applied by Construction SMEs, will go a long way in ensuring that targeted
objectives in a project are achieved. Project objectives when achieved increase the
overall productivity of the organization, which in turn affects the economic abundance
and business sustainability of the company, as well as the gross domestic product of
any economy. Good project management practices such as the implementation of
techniques in project execution should be given priority among construction SMEs for
achieving efficiency, effectiveness, and meeting of the project objective of time, cost
and quality.
Being a literature review presentation, the findings of the study are not exhaustive
and therefore further research is necessary, even with the use of primary data, to
determine critical techniques used among construction SMEs to improve project
performance.
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An Investigation of Causes of Deterioration
for Health Physical Infrastructure
Transitioned from Donor to National
Management
Bwalya Helena Mutale1, Erastus Mwanaumo1(&), Nathan Musonda2,

and Sampa Chisumbe1
1
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering,
University of Zambia, Great East Road, Lusaka, Zambia
erastus.mwanaumo@unza.zm
2
School of Post Graduate Studies, University of Lusaka, Lusaka, Zambia
Abstract. Maintenance of physical infrastructure transitioned from donor

management to national ownership has been a challenge in the health sector
leading to a considerable number of physical infrastructure dilapidating to a
deplorable state. This study investigated the causes of deterioration for Health
Physical Infrastructure Transitioned from Donor to National Management in
Zambia. A mixed method approach was adopted for the study. Qualitative and
quantitative data was collected through interviews and questionnaires respec-
tively. The findings revealed that there was lack of onsite maintenance techni-
cians in the health centres. Further, that though maintenance plans were in place
in most urban facilities as compared to rural health facilities adherence to such
plans was hindered due to lack of funding. The study therefore, recommends
improved budget allocation for maintenance activities to the Ministry of Health,
assigning of qualified maintenance technicians in health centres. Further, that
Government should consider having a maintenance policy to achieve sustain-
ability for built assets transferred from donor to national management.
Keywords: Transition National Management Maintenance

Physical Infrastructure Health centres Donors
1 Introduction
Infrastructure is the basic physical and organisational structures needed for the oper-
ation of a society, this include; industries, buildings, roads, bridges, health services,
governance and many others [1]. Zambia has in the past years since independence
in1964 benefitted from numerous donor aid and support in various infrastructure
developments projects, more especially in the construction of structural infrastructure
in the health care sector. Several hospitals, clinics and health posts in urban and rural
parts of the country have been built through the support of donor aid from various
western donors. Management of these health centres by the donors has resulted in
consistent and timely maintenance works being carried on these facilities to ensure that

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_54
530 B. H. Mutale et al.
unnecessary destruction and decay to these structures does not hinder the service
provision being offered to the communities [2].
Maintenance of physical infrastructure in all sectors be it health, roads, ICTs etc. is a
critical component of the economy in that it is known to improve outcomes of people
using and accessing services from these sectors. Physical structures in general, overtime
if not taken care of exhibits signs of dilapidation and this has been known to affect work
in terms of poor productivity, efficiency and time management from the health care
workers. The issue of lack of maintenance to infrastructure has engaged practitioners
and researchers for a long time to find best possible ways to encourage communities and
countries to take up maintenance of various infrastructures. According to Doman [3]
“public infrastructure in most developing countries, is often left to decay due to lack of
maintenance. The article further indicates that lack of maintenance strategies and
funding are the common causes of non-functional maintenance departments.”
In Zambia’s health sector, the major setback in lack of maintenance of physical
structures can be attributed to inadequate funding and non-adherence to maintenance
schedules [4]. Maintenance of physical structures can be improved to yield better
results if issues of maintenance are taken more seriously. To continuously provide
quality health care to the citizens and boost the morale of health care workers, main-
tenance activities are of utmost importance [5]. The focus for most donors is moving
away from physical structural construction and management to encouraging local
ownership and management. More so, to foster sustainability of project or programs
through transitioning their projects from donor management to national ownership
through the government by fully engaging the relevant ministry from project initiation,
completion and implementation [6]. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate
the causes of deterioration of health physical infrastructure transitioned from donor
support to national ownership.
2 Maintenance
All built infrastructures are subject to aging, wear and tear in the performance of their
functions and deterioration by exposure to outside operating environment. Hence, left
to themselves, built infrastructures will eventually become inefficient, unreliable and
fail [7]. Maintenance is defined as the act of keeping something in good condition by
checking or repairing it regularly [8]. Maintenance works are conducted to infras-
tructure to maintain, revive and prolong the life of the structure. Maintenance work is
defined as the combination of technical and administrative actions taken to preserve or
protect a structure, system or equipment to function properly [9]. To increase the
quality of maintenance works, maintenance culture has been recognized as an impor-
tant aspect to this [9].
Maintenance culture defines the way of thinking, behaviour, perceptions, values
and underlying assumptions of a person or group or society that considers maintenance
as a matter that is of priority and practices it in their life [9]. Florence [10] further
asserts that maintenance culture is not universal in nature and is usually derived or
learned through a person making maintenance a natural daily practice that can be
followed and emulated by others. Therefore, it has been observed through literature that
An Investigation of Causes of Deterioration for Health Physical Infrastructure 531
to conduct effective maintenance on infrastructure requires on set maintenance culture

from the relevant authorities mandated to conduct maintenance works.
3 Maintenance of Physical Infrastructure in the Health

Sector
Infrastructure serves a central delivery mechanism in achieving sustainable economic

development and in the generation of quality social-economic development in a
country [11]. Physical infrastructure consists of telecommunications, sewerage and
water systems, roads, railways, airports, airline, education and health. In this study, the
focus is on social infrastructure in the health sector. Health infrastructure is critical to
the development of any economy and society. In the health sector, government efforts
and resources have been supplemented by donor finances in further developing the
hospitals, clinics and other rural health centres. The reality is that all the elements and
components that make up an engineering infrastructure unavoidably deteriorates with
time due to inherent defect in design and construction and affects user activities and this
overtime requires maintaining [1]. Maintenance-free or self-sustaining infrastructure is
highly desirable but not feasible. The inadequacy of maintenance of infrastructure in
developing country’s cities has profound consequences for economic and social
development. The ability of these cities to support productive public economic activ-
ities is severely hampered by inadequate service delivery, deteriorating infrastructure
often caused by poor maintenance [12]. The main aim of infrastructure maintenance is
to preserve a building in its initial effective state and in most developing countries
maintenance of building infrastructure in rural and urban settlements is inadequate and
usually non-existent [13].
Most governments in developing countries including Zambia have poor infras-
tructure maintenance systems due to, lack of maintenance policies, insufficient funding
and therefore rely mostly on donor support for such services [14]. Donors in most cases
have funded the construction of new building infrastructure projects instead of main-
taining or refurbishing already existing infrastructure because this has been seen as a
more tangible asset that is mostly appreciated and highly favoured by most donor aid
recipients [3].
Preference usually decided by the government has been more on the construction of
new structures as opposed to refurbishing existing health centres due to the excessive
cost of maintenance, limited financial resources and other pressing expenditure needs
which extend to both rural and urban settings. It is argued that one major weak link in
managing health infrastructure in Africa and Zambia is that of maintenance. Sustain-
ability of any infrastructure and equipment is dependent on maintenance; therefore,
donors seeking to assist in developing good maintenance systems should put measures
in place such as; developing a culture of maintenance, which requires having the right
artisans, technicians, technologist and engineers to provide the necessary skills.
A major problem in the health sector is the dilapidated status of most facilities, which
has affected safety of users and patients [15].
3.1 Health Infrastructure Maintenance Policy in Zambia

In general, the health care infrastructure in Zambia is in a desperate state of refurbishment
and development needs [15]. With regards to the National Health Strategic plan 2011–
2015 under the Infrastructure and equipment component, the core elements that were
monitored included; Capital Investment Plan (CIP) developed and under implementa-
tion; with significant support from Ministry of Health/Government of the Republic of
Zambia and partners; Construction of new health facilities and staff houses continued;
Construction of maternity units and mothers’ waiting shelters continued as well as
Engagement of provincial equipment engineers for maintenance of medical equipment.
Unfortunately, no considerations or plans were incorporated to factor in physical
infrastructure maintenance towards the already existing buildings in the strategic plan.
Maintenance policies are critical to the conduct of maintenance works [16]. However,
currently the country has no maintenance policies formulated and in use by either MoH
or MWS.
3.2 Challenges Faced in Managing Maintenance in Transitioned Physical

Infrastructure
Several authors have cited many reasons as contributing factors to challenges being
experienced during the transitioning of infrastructure management from NGO man-
agement to national ownership such as;
• Lack of maintenance funds to support maintenance works from the responsible
ministries and departments. Maintenance is often regarded as a necessary expense
that belongs to the operating budget and should be balanced with the annual work
schedule that has been decided [12].
• During project implementation, the government as major stakeholders is not fully
involved and engaged in the implementation of activities and are more focused on
actual structures being completed on time there by leaving much of the responsi-
bilities of the works being done to be managed by thee donor.
• Lack of integrating transition plans into the project implementation stage with
emphasis on capacity building local personnel to foster continuation and reduce any
negative impact.
• Scarcity of trained man power caused by experienced staffs that have migrated in
search of greener pastures within the diaspora therefore leading to over dependency
on expatriates [17].
• The poor maintenance culture and inadequate resource allocation in the past have
been identified as the main inadequacies in the development, management sus-
tainability of national infrastructure in Zambia [18].
4 Research Method
The study was carried out using a mixed method approach that involved the collection
of data in both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The quantitative approach
involved the distribution of thirty (30) questionnaires in thirty (30) purposefully
selected health centres of which fifteen (15) were urban health centres while the other
fifteen (15) were rural health centres in Eastern, Lusaka and Western provinces of
Zambia. The respondents for the questionnaires included administrators of the sampled
health centres. Twenty-four (24) questionnaires (representing 80% response rate) were
collected and analysed. A questionnaire was used in order to ensure anonymity of the
respondents, which resulted in the respondents being more comfortable and free to
express their view. Furthermore, interviews were also conducted with respondents’ in-
charge of maintenance from MoH, Ministry of Works and Supply (MWS), and Centre
for Infectious Diseases Research in Zambia (CIDRZ) issues of inquiry included
maintenance scheduling, maintenance policy, skills knowledge, availability of man-
power, maintenance financing, transition management and recommendations on
improvements that can be made to foster continuous maintenance.
5 Findings
5.1 Maintenance Strategies in the Health Facilities

The findings revealed that there was lack of onsite maintenance technicians in the health
centres. More so, that the health centres relied mostly on MoH to manage most of the
facility maintenance requirements. Further, an assessment was carried out to determine
whether the health centres had maintenance schedules and plans. This was ranked first
with SD of 1.313 as shown in Table 1. Similarly, an assessment on whether the
respondents understood the written sentences and paragraphs in the maintenance
schedule or plan was ranked second with SD of 1.213 as indicated in Table 1. This suggest
that most of the respondents understood contents of the maintenance schedule or plan.
Table 1. Factors assessing the level of usage of maintenance schedules and plans.
Factors Weighting Mean SD Rank
Does the facility have a maintenance schedule or 24 3.625 1.313 1
plan?
Understanding the written sentences and 24 3.417 1.213 2
paragraphs in the maintenance schedule
Are you able to prepare budgets and reports for all 24 3.250 1.073 3
anticipated maintenance works on time as
indicated per schedule?
Do you conduct random tests and inspections of 24 3.208 1.179 4
infrastructure to ensure they are in working order?
Are you able to install, replace and maintain 24 2.375 0.924 5
infrastructure as specified in the maintenance
schedule?
Source: Own computations. Mean = 3.175, Standard Deviation = 1.14026024.
5.2 Factors that Can Lead to Improvement in Maintenance

Respondents were asked to rank the key factors that would assist to improve mainte-
nance of physical infrastructure transitioned from donor support and managed by
Ministry of Health. All factors were ranked according to the standard deviation to
adduce the most crucial factors that can help improve maintenance of physical
infrastructure in the health centres. Conducting regular inspections and audits on
maintenance works was ranked first with SD of 0.487. This shows that the respondents
saw this conduct of regular inspections and audits as a critical factor that assist in
timely identification of maintenance works. Having clear policy guidelines on main-
tenance distributed and displayed in the health centre was ranked second with SD of
0.504. This result indicates that the respondents thought this was a very important
factor to assist in conducting maintenance activities efficiently. Strict management
practices by MoH to nurture maintenance activities was ranked third with SD of 0.659.
Good communication and feedback by all stakeholders on maintenance works
undertaken was ranked fourth with SD of 0.590 as can be seen in Table 2.
More so, Provision of smart technologies to alert maintenance officers when to
conduct scheduled maintenance activities was ranked fifth with SD of 1.021. Assigning
permanent maintenance officers at the health centres was ranked sixth with SD of
0.728, continuously building capacity in maintenance officers was ranked seventh with
SD of 0.690. Awarding incentives to health centres adhering to maintenance schedules
was ranked eighth with SD of 0.637 and lastly, ranked in ninth position is the factor to
remove zonal maintenance officers with SD of 1.050 as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Factors assessing improvement of maintenance of physical infrastructure in the health

centers.
Factors Weighting Mean SD Rank
Conducting regular inspections and audits on maintenance 23 1.348 0.487 1
works in all health centres by MoH
Clear policy guidelines on maintenance distributed and 24 1.417 0.504 2
displayed in the health centre
Strict management practices by MoH to nurture maintenance 24 1.500 0.659 3
activities and schedules
Good communication and feedback by all stakeholders on 24 1.500 0.590 4
maintenance works undertaken
Provision of smart technologies to alert maintenance officers 24 1.542 1.021 5
when to conduct scheduled maintenance activities
Assigning permanent maintenance officer at the health centre 23 1.565 0.728 6
Continuously build capacity in maintenance officers 24 1.708 0.690 7
Award incentives to health centres adhering to maintenance 24 1.833 0.637 8
schedules
Removal of zonal maintenance officers 24 3.333 1.050 9
Source: Own computations. Mean = 1.749597333, Standard Deviation = 0.707211789
5.3 Availability of Maintenance Policy

All the interviewees acknowledged that both MoH and MWS had no maintenance
policy. However, that MoH had started the process of developing a maintenance policy
and went as far as production of a draft maintenance policy. Higher authorities
unfortunately did not approve this instead that draft policy was converted to mainte-
nance guidelines for MoH for use in all health centres and hospitals.
Interviews on various maintenance challenges affecting the built infrastructure due
to the absence of the policy revealed that; District Health Office (DHO) had zonal
maintenance technicians that respond to minor facility repairs. While the health centres
do not have maintenance technicians on site, zonal maintenance technicians are
responsible to attending to maintenance requests in their assigned zones. Further, that
there are no skills transfer on maintenance works conducted by the donors to the
district or MoH members of staff. More so, that the major contributing factor to lack of
maintenance of infrastructure in the health centres is the non-existence of financial
resources for maintenance works.
However, it was revealed that the MWS began the process of drafting the overall
maintenance policy in 2016 and currently the draft copy has been completed and
circulated to all ministries and other major government stakeholders such as spending
agencies and the provinces for comments before the final adoption and approval of the
maintenance policy. The interviewee affirmed that once the maintenance policy is
approved, this will be the only maintenance policy to be used by all ministries and
other government stakeholders.
6 Discussion
The study established that there was lack of onsite maintenance technicians in the
health centres. More so, that the health centres relied mostly on MoH to manage most
of the facility maintenance requirements. On the level of usage of maintenance
schedules and plans. The study revealed the usage of maintenance schedules and plans
to be more prevalent in urban health centres as compared to the rural health centres.
Additionally, that the lack of implementation of actual maintenance works was ham-
pered by inadequate financial resources.
On viable options that can assist, improve the maintenance of physical infras-
tructure in the health centres. Respondents were asked to rate the measures to help
improve maintenance in the health centres. Nine (9) measures were identified. Con-
ducting regular inspections and audits on maintenance works was ranked first with SD
of 0.487. This factor was also recognised by the O&M Best Practices guide 2010 which
strongly recommends implementing reactive, preventative and corrective maintenance
activities to prevent infrastructure from ruin and dilapidation. Having clear policy
guidelines on maintenance distributed and displayed in the health centre was ranked
second with SD of 0.504. These results agree with the parliamentary report on health
[14] which indicated that there is no policy on maintenance of infrastructure in the
health sector and there in need to formulate a maintenance policy. Dhillion [16] further
asserts that having a maintenance policy is one of the most crucial elements of effective
maintenance management.
Furthermore, that strict management practices by MoH to nurture maintenance

activities was ranked third with SD of 0.659. This factor was also recognized by Sania
et al. [9] who noted that maintenance culture is not universal in nature and is usually
derived or learned through a person or organisation making maintenance a natural daily
practice that can be followed and emulated by others. While good communication and
feedback by all stakeholders on maintenance works undertaken was ranked fourth with
SD of 0.590 as can be seen in Table 3. This crucial factor agrees with Dhillion [16]
who identified eight elements of effective maintenance management. Under equipment
records that is among the elements identified, he mentions that records or documents
are useful when procuring latest items or equipment to determine operating perfor-
mance trends, troubleshooting breakdowns, making replacements or modifications and
identifying areas of concerns and investigating incidents.
This study investigated the causes of deterioration for Health Physical Infrastructure
Transitioned from Donor to National Management. It was established that though
maintenance plans were in place in most urban facilities as compared to rural health
facilities adherence to such plans was hindered due to lack of funding for maintenance
activities. The results suggest that an aspect of health management that is overlooked is
Built infrastructure maintenance. This issue concerns all levels of the health system
ranging from the clinic to the hospital levels. The study therefore, recommends
improved budget allocation for maintenance activities to the Ministry of Health,
assigning of qualified maintenance technicians in health centres to be in-charge of
maintenance works at facility level. Further, that Government should consider having a
separate maintenance policy for Ministry of Health in order to sustain built infras-
tructure assets transferred from donor to national management.
References
1. Ondiege, P., Moyo, J.P., Verdier-Chouchane, A.: Developing Africa’s Infrastructure for
Enhanced Competitiveness (2012). https://www.fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_
proceedings/fig2012/papers/ts01c/TS01C_oyedele_6119.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2017
2. Ministry of Health: Joint Annual Review 2011, Health Sector Performance Review.
Government of the Republic of Zambia (2012). http://www.nationalplanningcycles.org/sites/
default/files/planning_cycle_repository/zambia/jar_report_final_submission.pdf. Accessed
12 Feb 2017
3. Dornan, M.: Aid and the maintenance of infrastructure in the pacific (2012). http://devpolicy.
org/aid-and-the-maintenance-of-infrastructure-in-the-pacific20120329/. Accessed 24 Apr
2017
4. Government of the Republic of Zambia: National Health Policy. Government Printers,
Zambia (2012)
5. Crye, L.: Transition of Management and Leadership of HIV Care and Treatment Programs to
Local Partners: Critical Elements and Lessons Learned. Arlington, VA: USAID’s AIDS
Support and Technical Assistance Resources, AIDSTAR-One, Task Order 1 (2011)
6. USAID Zambia Country Development Cooperation Strategy 2011–2019. https://www.usaid.

gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/CDCS_Zambia_December_20192.pdf
7. Lekan M.A, Anosike. M.N., Oginde, A.: Sustainability Strategies in Engineering
Infrastructure-Maintenance in Developing Countries Selected State in South Western
Nigeria (2011). https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/CER/article/view/10849. Accessed
5 May 2019
8. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 7th edn. Oxford University Press (2006). ISBN
13:978-0-19-4316613
9. Sania, S.I.A., Mohammeda, A.H., Misnanb, M.S., Awang, M.: Determinant Factors in
Development of Maintenance Culture in Managing Public Asset and Facilities. International
Congress on Interdisciplinary Business and Social Science (2012). https://pdfs.
semanticscholar.org/9c34/e8f92511ff3cea70541a21415665fc3353c0.pdf
10. Florence, T.: An empirical analysis of asset replacement decisions and maintenance culture
in some government organizations located in Ogbomoso and Ilorin metropolis as case study.
J. Manage. Soc. 1(3), 01–09 (2011)
11. Zambia Development Agency: Infrastructure Sector Profile (2014). http://www.zda.org.zm/?
q=content/infrastructure. Accessed 30 Mar 2017
12. Zakaria, H., Ahmad, K. A.S., Aiyub, K.: Financial factor affecting maintenance management
in safety and health practices (2012). www.ukessays.com
13. Zawawi, E., Kamaruzzaman, S., Ali, A.: Retail Leisure Property 9, 349 (2010). https://doi.
org/10.1057/rlp.2010.16
14. Zambian Parliamentary Committee Report on Health (2014). http://www.parliament.gov.zm/
sites/default/files/documents/committee_reports/REPORT%20OF%20THE%
20COMMITTEE%20ON%20HEALTH%202014.pdf
15. Report on the Health Care Sector and Business Opportunities in Zambia (2013). https://
www.swecare.se/Portals/swecare/Documents/Report-on-the-Health-Care-Sector-and-
Business-Opportunities-in-Zambia.pdf
16. Dhillion, B.S.: Engineering Maintenance: A Modern Approach. CRC Press (2002)
17. Aulick, K.: Learning Agenda mini- case 10, Tanzania, Localization; Three partner models
(2011). www.developmentiscapacity.org/sites/default/files/10-localisation_
ThreePartnerTransitionmodels-TanzaniaLAMinicase.pdf. Accessed 13 Feb
2017
18. Muya, M., Lusambo, E., Suzzane, R., Banda, I., Mubemba, C., Hibaajene, S., Mang’elele, I.,
Mukelabai, G., Chisanga, K.: Infrastructure Watch Culture: Zambia’s Infrastructure Report
Card (2017). http://www.hrpub.org/download/20170130/CEA2-14808276.pdf. Accessed 30
Mar 2017
Success Strategies for Competitive Advantage
in the Ghanaian Construction Industry:
A Delphi Study
Matthew Kwaw Somiah1,2(&), Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa3,

and Wellington Didibhuku Thwala3
1
University of Johannesburg,
APK Auckland-Kingsway, Johannesburg, South Africa
brokwaw@yahoo.com
2
Takoradi Technical University, Takoradi, Ghana
3
Sustainable Human Settlement and Construction Research Centre,
University of Johannesburg, APK Auckland-Kingsway,
Abstract. Though strategy appears to be the most mentioned attribute for

firms’ competitive advantage, the success strategies for competitive advantage
of firms in the Ghanaian construction industry in not known. This Delphi study
identified the success strategies for competitive advantage in the Ghanaian
construction industry and determined the relative impact of each of the success
strategies. It used structured questionnaire in soliciting views from 15 experts.
Data was analysed using the median, mean, and standard deviation. In all 14
success strategies were identified to impact competitive advantage with service
differentiation strategy and being technologically independent ranking 1st
among the strategies. It is recommended that firms should highly prioritize
service differentiation strategy, and be technologically independent since these
strategies recorded a very high impact on competitive advantage. The findings
of this study will form the basis for future competitive advantage studies and
inform policy direction in the Ghanaian construction industry.
Keywords: Competitive advantage Construction industry Ghana

Strategies Success
1 Introduction
Firms’ competitive advantage is derived from set of attributes that aid firms to perform
better than their rivals in a competitive industry [1]. Firms with competitive advantage
enjoy cost advantage, larger market share, profit advantage, technology advantage, and
optimizes stakeholders’ satisfaction benchmarked against best performing competitors
in the industry [1–5]. However, as to what actually constitute the set of attributes that
will give firms’ competitive advantage, researchers’ views have varied significantly
over the years. It is attributable to the subjective nature of the competitive advantage
concept and the varying political, social, cultural and economic settings among nations
[4, 6]. Some known attributes for competitive advantage of firms include firms’

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_55
Success Strategies for Competitive Advantage in the Ghanaian Construction Industry 539
structure, factor conditions, strategy, resources and competencies, and demand con-
ditions in a particular industry in previous studies (see [1, 3, 5, 7]). Though strategy
appears to be the most recognized and mentioned among the set of attribute for firms’
competitive advantage in previous studies (see [1, 3, 5, 7]) the industry and national
specific success strategies have varied among the researchers. In relation to the con-
struction industry in Ghana, there is a dearth of studies that identified the set of success
strategies for competitive advantage for firms. It is against this backdrop that this
current research seeks to identify the success strategies for competitive advantage in the
Ghanaian construction industry and to determine the relative impact of each of the
success strategies. The specific objectives that governed this current study were:
• to identify the success strategies for competitive advantage in the Ghanaian con-
struction industry; and
• to determine the relative impact of each of the success strategies in the Ghanaian
construction industry.
The findings of this study will form the basis for future studies on strategies for
competitive advantage. Empirically, it informs firms and stakeholders in the Ghanaian
construction industry of the set of success strategies for competitive advantage. It
unravels the success strategies for policy formation and direction. Though the findings
of this research may largely represent what is prevailing in the Ghanaian construction
industry, it could also be of help to other developing nations whose construction
industry has similar characteristics with Ghana. Again, the findings of this research
were limited to the views of the experts that constituted the Delphi panel and that
further study to validate this qualitative study is recommendable. Construction firms are
registered building and road contractors who undertake civil engineering works in
Ghana. They include both foreign and local contractors. The subsequent sections of this
current study is structured under literature review, methodology and results and
discussions.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Strategies for Competitive Advantage in Previous Studies

Strategies are practical plan that firms use to achieve their mission and objectives in a
competitive industry [8]. Strategies impact structure and competitive advantage of firms
[2, 3, 8]. However, the set of strategies that impact competitive advantage have varied
among researchers. For example, [7] identified focus, growth, differentiation, and cost
leadership strategies to have impacted competitive advantage of firms in the Hong
Kong. Whiles, adopting lean construction, core values as well as firms’ mission and
objectives in industry were identified by [5] to have constituted the strategies for
competitive advantage in the UK, Finland, and Sweden. Subsequently [6] informed that
unique technology, and client relations strategies impact competitive advantage of firms
in China. Thus, informed by previous studies on strategies for competitive advantage,
in this current study, strategies are the set of practical plans that impact competitive
advantage of construction firms; and it includes: lowest price strategy, growth strategy,
540 M. K. Somiah et al.
among others as informed by the literature reviewed. The next section of the study will
theoretical explain strategies for competitive advantage.
2.2 Theories of Firms’ Competitive Strategy

In explaining the strategies for competitive advantage, the competitive strategy theory
by [7] and the three generic competitive strategies theory by [2, 3] were drawn upon.
2.2.1 Competitive Strategy Model

The model posits that competitive advantage is derived from a combination of
resource, strategy and performance in the Hong Kong. Further, it informs that strategy
informs the resources required and again influences the firm’s performance in an
industry [7]. The theory informs that strategies for competitive advantage include:
focus, differentiation, growth and cost leadership strategies [7].
2.2.2 The Three Generic Competitive Strategies Model

According to [2], three generic strategies give firms’ competitive advantage in a com-
petitive industry. The generic strategies were: the differentiation strategy, the overall
cost leadership strategy, and the focus strategy. In relation to the overall cost leadership
strategy, [3, 9] posited that, firms will achieve cost advantage if the aggregate cost of
performing their value activities is lower than that of their rivals in the same industry;
and sustainability of cost advantage in the market is achieved when products of firms are
unique and cannot be imitated [3, 9]. This assertion is not different in the construction
industry as firms that achieve overall cost advantage are very competitive [7]. Fur-
thermore, depending on the nature of competition in the industry, firms that assume
differentiation strategy position have competitive edge over their rivals if, clients or
buyers in the industry find their products or services to be of higher value, and of more
importance to them [2, 3, 9]. This position can be associated with technology, brand or
design image, customer service, features or dealer network [6, 9]. The third generic
strategy for competitive advantage is the focus strategy. This could be, focusing on a
segment of the product line, focusing on a particular buyer group, or focusing on a
particular geographic market ([2, 3, 9]. It must be emphasized that, the three generic
strategies are alternative approaches to neutralizing the competitive forces by rivals [2],
in a particular industry, so as to have competitive edge or advantage [2, 3, 6].
Nonetheless, Porter’s generic competitive strategies theory considered only one
firm at a time thus, neglected the issue of having competitive advantage through the
strategy of synergy or collaboration between firms. According to [5], firms’ competi-
tive advantage is also determined by ability to collaborate with other firms to get tasks
executed. Thus, the need to consider synergy, which could be the fourth strategy an
entity may adopt for competitive advantage in a given industry. However, this fourth
strategy could be adopted in conjunction with any of the three generic strategies at the
same time. This view is affirmed by [10] when the researchers contended that, ‘con-
struction firms’ unique capabilities are not rooted solely within the company but are
spread across networks of relational ties’; suggesting that firms could obtain compet-
itive advantage in the construction industry through the ability to collaborate, and make
use of the capabilities of other firms, at times, in project delivery.
Thus, the literature reviewed informs that none of the theories is exhaustive in
explaining the success strategies for competitive advantage. Hence, a synthesis of the
literature reviewed will give a more comprehensive framework which will guide this
current study to identify the success strategies for competitive advantage in the
Ghanaian construction industry, as well as determining the relative impact of each of
the strategies. As a result, the proposed framework governing the study was made up of
the following strategies: the appropriateness of the pricing strategy of the firm, having
the appropriate growth strategy, having the appropriate focus strategy in relation to
firm’s size, having a brand identity in the industry, having a brand image in the
industry, having a brand communication in the industry, sustaining clients’ loyalty in
the industry, adopting service differentiation strategy, adopting the appropriate lean
construction strategy, adopting the appropriate financial synergies, corporate man-
agement synergies, being technological independent, adopting the appropriate opera-
tive synergies, maintaining cordial firm-client relations.
3 Methodology
This study adopted a two-stage approach to research. The first stage was a literature
review which aided in identifying the strategies for competitive advantage. The second
stage was the use of the Delphi method to seek experts’ view on the success strategies for
competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry and the relative impact of
each of the strategies. In all fifteen (15) experts completed three rounds of the Delphi
process. The Delphi method was used based on the principle that, forecasts (or decisions)
from a structured group of persons are more accurate than forecasts from unstructured
groups (see [11, 12]). More so, it is suitable for studies that seek to solicit opinions/views
from a group of experts in an attempt to build consensus in experts’ opinions, and predict
the timing and likelihood of a future event [13]. [14] accentuated that the Delphi tech-
nique could be used for both qualitative and quantitative study with the aim to establish
consensus in experts’ opinions through rounds of survey [14, 15]. It uses structured
questionnaire in soliciting data from experts [16]. Thus, ideal for this qualitative study.
The experts were drawn from industry and academia. The common criteria for selecting
them was that, an expert should have had both theoretical and practical knowledge on
strategies for competitive advanatge. Again, the panel of experts, were carefully selected,
to represent a broad spectrum of opinion on the issue being examined (see [16–18]).
After each round of the Delphi survey, a statistical estimate of the experts’ opinions was
calculated and analyzed using the median, mean, standard deviation and interquartile
deviation. The adopted scale for measuring consensus was:
1. Strong consensus - median 9–10, mean 8–10, interquartile deviation (IQD) 1
and 80% (8–10);
2. Good consensus - median 7–8.99, mean 6–7.99, IQD 1.1 2 and 60%
79% (6–7.99); and
3. Weak consensus - median 6.99, mean 5.99 and IQD 2.1 3 and
59% (5.99).
The adopted scale was based on a 10-point impact scale where 1 and 2 represent no
impact; 3 and 4 represent low impact; 5 and 6 represent medium impact; 7 and 8
represent high impact; 9 and 10 represent very high impact (see [16]). Ethically, the
credentials of the experts were kept confidential throughout the study.
Further, informed by the aim, the research paradigm as well as the major philo-
sophical considerations or positions of this research, this research adopted a qualitative
methodology, and followed a subjectivity epistemology stance (see [19]). Phenomenal
about subjectivity epistemology is that, meanings to reality are constructed (con-
structivism) and interpreted (interpretivism) by the researcher, thus aligned to the
concept of constructivism and interpretivism [20]. Though reliability and generaliza-
tion of findings are undermined as mainly data generated in qualitative studies are
heavily impacted by the values and views of the researcher [21, 22]. Nonetheless, some
advocates of qualitative research accentuate that, the weakness of non-generalization
and reliability of qualitative research is overcome when a qualitative research is based
on sound theoretical reasoning [23]. Thus, this study was theoretical underpinned by
the competitive strategy theory by [7] and, the three generic competitive strategies
theory by [2, 3].
Objective 1: to identify the success strategies for competitive advantage in the

Ghanaian construction industry;
In relation to objective one, fourteen (14) success strategies for competitive advantage
in the Ghanaian construction industry were identified. The success strategies consisted
of: the appropriateness of the pricing strategy of the firm, having the appropriate
growth strategy, having the appropriate focus strategy in relation to firm’s size, having
a brand identity in the industry, having a brand image in the industry, having a brand
communication in the industry, sustaining clients’ loyalty in the industry, adopting
service differentiation strategy, adopting the appropriate lean construction strategy,
adopting the appropriate financial synergies, corporate management synergies, being
technological independent, adopting the appropriate operative synergies, and main-
taining cordial firm-client relations. Each of the strategies had a median value fallen
within the range of very high impact or a high impact. The IQD score suggest strong
consensus in the view of the expert panelists.
Objective 2: to determine the relative impact of each of the success strategies for
competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry
The outcome of the analysis as shown in Table 1 informs that, out of the 14 success
strategies for competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry, three (3) of
the strategies had very high impact (VHI: 9.00–10.00) on competitive advantage in the
Ghanaian construction industry, whiles (11) had high impact (HI: 7.00–8.99) base on
the 10 point impact scale this study employed. None of the strategies was found not to
have had an impact on competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry.
More so, the respective IQD scores of the strategies revealed that strong consensus was
achieved for all the (14) strategies as they obtained scores ranging from 0.00 to 1.00.
Furthermore, their respective standard deviation (rx) revealed consistency in the

responses of the experts as their respective (rx) values was at most (1).
Table 1. Success strategies for competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry
Strategies Median Mean Standard Interquartile Mean
(M) (x) deviation deviation ranking
(rx) (IQD)
The appropriateness of the pricing 8 8.13 0.64 0.50 6th
strategy of the firm
Having the appropriate growth 8 8.07 0.70 0.50 8th
strategy
Having the appropriate focus 9 8.73 0.80 0.00 1st
strategy in relation to firm’s size
Having a brand identity in the 8 8.13 0.74 1.00 6th
industry
Having a brand image in the 8 8.07 0.70 0.50 8th
industry
Having a brand communication in 8 8.07 0.59 0.00 8th
the industry
Sustaining clients’ loyalty in the 8 8.00 1.00 1.00 12th
industry
Adopting service differentiation 9 8.73 0.80 0.00 1st
strategy
Adopting the appropriate lean 8 8.07 0.59 0.00 8th
construction strategy
Adopting the appropriate financial 8 8.00 1.00 1.00 12th
synergies
Corporate management synergies 8 8.27 0.80 1.00 4th
Being technological independent 9 8.73 0.80 0.00 1st
Adopting the appropriate operative 8 8.00 0.65 0.00 12th
synergies
Maintaining cordial firm-client 8 8.21 0.70 1.00 5th
relations
Specifically, having the appropriate pricing strategy had a mean value of (8.13)
indicating that it had a high impact on competitive advantage. This is consistent with
the opinion of [3] that, firms that have price advantage in competitive industry have
competitive advantage. More so, having the appropriate growth strategy obtained a
mean value of (8.07) indicating that it had a high impact on competitive advantage.
This supports the findings of [7] that appropriateness of a growth strategy in com-
petitive industry impacts on competitive advantage. In addition, having the appropriate
focus strategy in relation to firm’s size had a mean score of (8.73) indicating that it had
a high impact on competitive advantage. This also supports the revelation by [3] that,
firms whose strategy is to focus on a particular industry, location or a segment of the

production chain tends to have competitive advantage over their rivals in the industry.
More so, having a brand identity in the industry recorded a mean value of (8.13);
whereas having a brand image in the industry also recorded a mean value of (8.07).
Having a brand communication in the industry recorded a mean score of (8.07); and
sustaining clients’ loyalty in the industry also had a mean score of (8.00). Having brand
identity, brand image, brand communication and sustaining clients’ loyalty by their
respective mean values had a high impact on competitive advantage. Thus, supporting
the findings of [24] that brand identity, brand image, brand communication and brand
loyalty significantly impact on competitive advantage [24]. Further, adopting service
differentiation strategy had a mean value of (8.73) indicating that it had high impact on
competitive advantage. This confirms to the study by [3] that, service differentiation
impact on competitive advantage in a competitive industry. In addition, adopting
appropriate corporate management synergies had a mean value of (8.27); adopting the
appropriate financial synergies recorded a mean value of (8.00); adopting the appro-
priate operative synergies had (8.00) mean value. Accordingly, the respective mean
value indicates a high impact on competitive advantage (see Table 1). This supports the
studies by [5, 10] that having the appropriate synergies in business impact on com-
petitive advantage. More so, adopting the appropriate lean construction strategy had a
mean score of (8.07); being technological independent had a mean of (8.73) whiles
maintaining cordial firm-client relations had a mean value of (8.21).
Thus, it is evident from the discussions that, the findings of this study are largely
consistent with the findings of previous studies on firms’ competitive advantage, it is
the relative impact values that each strategy recorded that differed. Therefore, it is
empirically evident from the views expressed by the experts that the strategies for
competitive advantage in other industries do impact on competitive advantage in the
Ghanaian construction industry. Specifically, in the Ghanaian construction industry,
having the appropriate focus strategy in relation to firm’s size; adopting service dif-
ferentiation strategy; and being technological independent jointly emerged 1st among
the various strategies for competitive advantage; whiles strategies such as adopting the
appropriate operative synergies; adopting the appropriate financial synergies; and
sustaining clients’ loyalty in the industry, jointly emerged 12th among the success
strategies for competitive advantage.
5 Conclusions
In relation to objective one of this study, this research concludes that fourteen
(14) strategies constitute the success strategies for competitive advantage in the
Ghanaian construction industry. The fourteen success strategies for competitive
advantage include having the appropriate focus strategy in relation to firm’s size,
adopting service differentiation strategy; and being technological independent. In
relation to objective two, this study concludes that, relatively, in the Ghanaian con-
struction industry, having the appropriate focus strategy in relation to firm’s size;
adopting service differentiation strategy; and being technological independent jointly
emerged 1st among the success strategies for competitive advantage in the Ghanaian
construction industry; whiles success strategies such as adopting the appropriate

operative synergies; adopting the appropriate financial synergies; and sustaining cli-
ents’ loyalty in the industry, jointly emerged 12th among the success strategies for
competitive advantage. It is therefore recommended that owners and managers of firms
should highly prioritize focus strategy, service differentiation strategy, and being
technologically independent since these success strategies for competitive advantage
had very high impact on competitive advantage in the Ghanaian construction industry.
The findings of this study will add on to existing literature on strategies for competitive
advantage; could form the basis for future competitive advantage studies; and inform
decision making by owners and managers of construction firm in Ghana. A future study
that quantitatively validates these qualitative findings will be a novelty.
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Accuracy Influencing Factors for Pre-tender
Cost Estimates for the Roads Sector in Zambia
Chipulu Chipulu1, Erastus Mwanaumo1(&), Balimu Mwiya1,

Lubinda Haabazoka2, and Sampa Chisumbe1
1
2
Graduate School of Business, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
Abstract. Inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates do not only contribute to cost

overruns but also results in failure to implement viable projects. This study
investigated factors that influence the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in
the Zambian roads sector. The methodology adopted was a mixed method which
included the use of both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The study
established that the most severe accuracy-influencing factors for pre-tender cost
estimates were completeness of the project information, which had SI of 87%.
Clarity and details of the drawing as well as the specification having SI 85% was
ranked second. The study therefore, recommends that, more time should be
allocated to the design team to comprehensive prepare drawings and coordinate
various players such as mechanical and civil consultants before the pre-tender
estimate can be sought.
Keywords: Cost estimate Accuracy factors Pre-tender Roads sector

Zambia
1 Introduction
For low-income countries infrastructure investment providing access to energy, clean

water and basic transport may mean the difference between life and death [1]. The
Zambian government recognises that infrastructure development is important in
achieving economic growth and development [2]. However, decisions concerning
financial resources to be set aside for infrastructure development are usually made based
on pre-tender cost estimates of construction project cost [3]. This therefore, places a
demand on the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates used on construction projects.
Evans, Lanham and Marsh [4] defines cost as the expenditure necessary for the
attainment of a goal and cost estimation as the prediction of the cost prior to under-
taking the activity. Enshassi, Mohamed and Abdel-Hadi [5] defines pre-tender cost
estimating as the final costing of the work carried out by a consultant on behalf of a
client before tenders are received. On the other hand, Aibinu, Dassanayake and Chau
[6] defines pre-tender cost estimation as the forecasting of the cost of a project during
the planning and design stage. From these two definitions, one can note that pre-tender
estimates are prepared before inviting bids. Further, consultants on behalf of the clients

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_56
548 C. Chipulu et al.
prepare pre-tender cost estimates during project planning and design. Pasco and Aibinu
[7] indicate that a pre-tender estimate is an important source of information during
project planning and design. This means that pre-tender cost estimates helps the client
to make decisions on whether to make financial commitment to a project or not.
Further, Oladokun, Oladokun and Odesola [8], contend that a pre-tender cost estimate
is one of the important aspect of the clients’ expenditure control. This means it used to
help the client get value for money.
Though clients rely upon pre-tender estimates during budgeting, project selection
and bid evaluation, pre-tender estimates are susceptible to inaccuracies because they are
often prepared within limited timeframe and with limited information about project
scope [6]. Underestimated pre-tender cost estimates can result in a non-viable project
being implemented while overestimated pre-tender cost estimate could lead to viable
projects being abandoned [6]. Therefore, accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates is
critical to construction clients’ decisions to undertake a project. In addition, inaccurate
early or pre-tender estimates can lead to lost opportunities, wasted development effort,
and lower than expected returns [8].
Aibinu et al., [6], contend that inaccurate estimation of uncertainties is the
underlying cause of project cost overruns in construction. However, Ali & Kamaruz-
zaman [9], states that the biggest factor that contributes to overruns of budget is
inaccurate estimation of original cost of a project. Kaliba [11] also added to this school
of thought by contending that insufficient initial cost analysis is one of the major causes
for cost overruns. These three authors all agree that cost estimation significantly
contribute to overruns on construction projects. Cantarelli, Flyvbjerg, Molin and van
Wee [12], further states that inaccurate estimates which includes pre-tender estimates
makes it particularly difficult to manage large projects and often lead to cost overruns
that further increases the burden on the country’s GDP. In Zambia, it is not uncommon
for final construction projects costs to be more than the pre-tender cost [11]. This imply
that cost overruns are common on most construction projects in Zambia. The presence
of overruns suggests the existence of inaccurate pre-tender cost estimates on most
construction projects undertaken in Zambia.
1.1 Study Aim

The aim of this study was to establish the factors that affects pre-tender cost estimates
for roads sector in Zambia.
2 Literature Review
Cong, Mbachu and Domingo [13], in there study of the factors influencing the accuracy
of pre-contract stage estimation of final contract price in New Zealand, established
thirty-seven factors which could influence the final contract price. The three most
influential factors being; poor tender documentation, complexity of design & con-
struction, and completeness of project information. Other factors relating to project,
client and contractor characteristics, design consultants and tendering conditions,
estimating practice and external factors were reported. Concordance analysis indicated
Accuracy Influencing Factors for Pre-tender Cost Estimates 549
high level of agreement among survey participants in the rank ordering of the relative
importance of the identified factors.
Conversely Nor, et al., [14] by investigating the factors affecting construction cost of
industrialised building systems (IBS) projects ranked cost factors regarded as pertinent
by the IBS stakeholders. The key identified factors affecting cost being those associated
with the main project characteristics, contract procedures and procurement methods,
contractors’ and consultants’ attributes and design parameters besides external market
conditions. However, factors grouped under the consultants and design parameters,
external factors and government/authority requirements indicate low RII index while
project/IBS characteristics, contractor attributes, external market conditions denote high
RII index. They further assent that the failure by the cost estimator to consider these
factors during cost estimation could result in inaccuracy of the resulting cost estimate.
Ramabodu [15] uncovered twelve factors that affects the accuracy of a cost esti-
mate. These include building function, type of contract, conditions of contract, contract
sum, price intensity, contract period, number of bidders, good/bad years, procurement
basis, project sector (public, private or joint) and number of price items of drawing.
By administering questionnaires to the clients, consultants and contractors of
Kaduna state of Nigeria, Alumbugu, et al. [16], assessed the factors that affect the
accuracy of pre-tender cost estimate in Kaduna state of Nigeria. This team of researchers
analysed the data collected in this survey using the relative importance index and
correlation analysis. They found that a statistically significant relationship existed
between the clients, consultants, and contractor on the essential factors affecting accu-
racy of pre-tender cost estimate. The study concluded that: Experience and skill level of
the consultants, project teams experience on the construction type, clear and detail
drawings and specification, completeness of cost information, accuracy and reliability of
cost information are the most significant factors affecting accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimate. It was recommended that clients should always engage the services of skilled
professionals to undertake the consultancy services in cost estimating process.
In his study, Ardianto [17] “analysis of the factors affecting the accuracy of early
cost in construction projects” also identified certain factors that affected the quality and
accuracy of cost estimates. Ardianto [17] stated that the quality of cost estimates
associated with the accuracy and completeness of the supporting elements depends on;
nature of the project, the level of data and information available, techniques and methods
used ability of estimator, and other factor considered while preparing the estimate. These
factors were developed into fifty-four (54) variables as the basic elements of the
preparation of early cost estimates. Through the use of multiple linear regression
analysis, significant factors (<0.05) which affects the level of accuracy of the early cost
estimates were obtained, as follows.: Geographical location/Site location; quality level
of the estimator/estimator Expertise; Availability of project information/Documents
used in preparing the estimate; the availability of scope of the project; the availability of
project documents (preliminary and Size of Project/Scope of the project.
Pasco & Aibinu [7] in their study concluded that project procurement method,
location of project and project size are the three most important project related factors
driving the level of bias and inconsistencies in early stage estimates when compared
with the accepted tender sum.
Other authors like Enshassi, et al. [5], using a survey questionnaire in the Gaza strip
identified five critical factors that affect the accuracy of a pre-tender cost estimates.
These are; (1), materials (prices/availability/supply/quality/imports), (2) closure and
blockade of borders, (3) project team’s experience in the construction type, (4) the
experience and skill level of the consultant and (5) clear and detailed drawings and
specifications.
Review of the above pieces of research seems to suggest that different factors are
having impacts in certain region and not the other. For instance closure of the boarders
is a critical factor that affect the accuracy of pre-tender estimates in the Gaza strip
Enshassi et al. [5], but that is not the case for New Zealand were procurements method
are very critical as far as the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimate is concerned (Cong
et al., [13]. While this is true for some factors, it is not the case for others. For instance,
the majority of these scholars agree that the level of skill and competency of the
estimator is a factor that cannot be overlooked when discussing the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates.
There are limited studies conducted on the accuracy influencing factors for the pre-
tender cost estimates in Zambia roads sector. This study endeavoured to cover this gap
by investigating the factors that affect the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates for the
roads sector in Zambia.
3 Methodology
The methodology adopted for this study was a mixed method which included the use of
both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Literature review was used to collect
secondary data while primary data was collected using a self-administered semi-
structured questionnaire. The respondents were purposively sampled, and these
included; road construction clients, consultants and contractors and financiers. This
group of respondents was requested to rate the pre-tender cost estimates unit cost
factors on a five point ordinal Likert scale in which “important” and “very important”
were assigned weights of one and five respectively. The target sample size was 60. This
sample size was purposely selected in order to achieve the aim of the study within the
time of the study. Analysis of collected data through the questionnaire was quantita-
tively undertaken through calculating the severity indices Kaliba [11] using Eq. 1.
Pn
S P
SI ¼ P K K 100
K¼1
ð1Þ
5 nK¼1 PK
Where
SI = is the severity index
Sk = is the assigned severity weight assigned to option k
Pk = is the number of participants who responded in favour of an option k
n = is the Total number of respondents
Internal consistency of the data was measured employing Cronbach’s alpha cal-
culated in SPSS. Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black [18], as cited by Peter and Peter
[19] contends that the Cronbach’s alpha as a measure of internal consistency of items
overcomes the potential problem of half splits. According to Jonsson and Svingby [20],
a Cronbach’s alpha greater than 0.7 indicates a higher degree of internal consistency.
The cronbach’s alpha is usually computed using the Eq. 2 [21].
NC
Alpha ¼ ð2Þ
V þ ð N 1Þ C
Where
Alpha = Cronbach’s alpha
N = the number of items
V = the average variance
C = the average inter-item covariance
4 Findings
The questionnaire survey was conducted between June 2016 and August 2016. The
questionnaire was distributed to Sixty (60) respondents made up of consultants,
clients/client representatives, contractors and financiers. The response rate was 66.7%.
Baruch & Holtom, [22], observed that the average and response rate from surveys that
utilised data from individuals was 52.7% and 35.7% for surveys that utilised data from
organisations. Therefore, a response rate of 66.7 is acceptable. Further similar studies
like the ones conducted by Ali & Kamaruzzaman [10], Jayesena (2005) and Eshofonie
[23] had sample sizes of 30, 62 and 70 respectively. A sample size of 60 can therefore
be relied.
Table 1. Internal consistency reliability test for pre-tender cost estimate accuracy influencing
factors (cronbach’s’ alpha)
Cronbach’s alpha Cronbach’s alpha based on standardized items No of items
0.856 0.853 26
The Cronbach’s alpha calculated was 0.856 as can be noted from Table 1.
According to Jonsson & Svingby [20], a Cronbach’s alpha greater than 0.7 indicates a
higher degree of internal consistency. This therefore implies that the data collected
concerning the factors that affect pre-tender cost estimates unit rates factors was reliable
and had a higher internal consistency reliability [19].
The most severe accuracy-influencing factors for pre-tender cost estimates as

opined by the respondents is completeness of the project information, which had SI of
87%. Clarity and details of the drawing as well as the specification having SI 85% was
ranked second while project size with SI 71% was the least ranked major accuracy-
influencing factor above the seventy percent threshold. The other major factors that
affects the accuracy of pre-tender estimates as opined by the respondents are shown in
Table 2.
Table 2. Factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost estimates in the roads sector in
Zambia
No. Roads pre-tender cost estimate accuracy influencing Severity index Rank
factors (SI) %
1 Completeness of project information 87 1
2 Clarity and details of the drawing and specifications 85 2
3 Experience and skill level of the cost estimator 84 3
4 Complexity of design and construction 84 3
5 Accuracy and reliability of cost information 83 4
6 Experience and skill level of consultants 78 5
7 Geographical location/site location 75 6
8 Estimating practice 74 7
9 Materials (prices/availability/supply/quality/imports) 74 7
10 The time given to developing an estimate 74 7
11 Project team experience on the construction type 73 8
12 Project characteristics (Nature of Project) 72 9
13 Cost estimating techniques and methods used 72 9
14 Insufficient understanding of site conditions 72 9
15 Contract period 71 10
16 Project size 71 10
From the results shown in Table 2, the respondents regarded 16 factors as major.
Comparing these findings with Cong, et al., [13], it can be observed that in both studies
the complexity of design and construction and the completeness of project information
are very essential factors to pre-tender cost estimates’ accuracy. This is so because
incomplete project information may cause the estimator to leave out certain essential
factors as they do not have the whole scope of the project. In addition, for an estimate
to be considered as good or accurate, it must be based on the description of the project
that has a well defined content and which also has identifiable risks areas [24]. The
findings of this study also agree with Alumbugu, et al., [16] in that, both studies
established that the experience and skill level of the consultants engaged in the design
of the structures, Clarity and details of the drawing and specifications, and accuracy as
well as reliability of cost information are critical factors to the accuracy of pre-tender
cost estimates. The failure to consider these factors will result in a poor and inaccurate
estimate because inexperienced consultants are likely to neglect factors which are
seemingly not critical during design but a very essential during construction. Further, as
inexperienced consultants may not be able to understand which information should be
included on the design drawings and specifications, the clarity and details of the design
drawings and specifications would be affected. One can not leave out the quality and
expertise of the cost estimators in the quest for an accurate pre-tender cost estimate.
The US Government Accountability Office [24] and Ardianto [17] both agree with the
findings of this study that the experience and skill level of the cost estimator is a
pertinent consideration in cost estimation. They also agree that the availability and
completeness of project information also affects the quality of the established estimate,
which agrees with the findings of this study.
However, the respondents opined that the type of risk analysis conducted has low
influence on the quality of pre-tender cost estimate as can be noticed from the low
factor importance index. This finding contradicts with the US Government Account-
ability Office [24] recommendations. According to the US Government Accountability
Office [24], risk and uncertainty analysis is very essential to the accuracy of an esti-
mate. Further Mislick & Nussbaum [25] contends that an estimate can not be accurate
if there has been insufficient analysis and subsequent addressing of risks and uncer-
tainities. This is so because, the risk identified determine the amount of contigency
sums to be reserved in order to mitigate the forseen risks and uncertainities. According
to Mulcahy [26] contigency reserves are used to mitigate the known risks which are
specifically identified risks and for unidentified risks, management reserves are used to
cover them. Insufficient risk and uncertainty analysis results in padding of activity
estimates which results in unrealistic contingency reserves. Therefore the failure of any
estimator to conduct a thorough risk analysis may result in a pre-tender cost estimate
which is inaccurate. From the findings of this study, risk analysis is not thoroughly
considered in pre-tender cost estimate development. However the failure to undertake a
comprehensive risk analysis would lead to inaccuracy in the pre-tender estimates
produced.
5 Conclusion
This study aimed to establish the factors that influence or affect the accuracy of pre-
tender cost estimates in the Zambia roads sector. The study established that the most
severe factor that affect the accuracy and quality of the estimate was completeness of
project information. Clarity and details of the drawing including specification, expe-
rience and skill level of the consultant and the complexity of design were regarded as
the second, third and fourth important factors affecting the accuracy of pre-tender cost
estimates respectively. The study therefore, recommends that, more time should be
allocated to the design team to comprehensive prepare drawings and coordinate various
players such as mechanical and civil consultants before the pre-tender estimate can be
sought.
The study was limited to the investigation of factors affecting the accuracy of pre-
tender estimates in the Zambian roads sectors. However, the results obtained can be
relied on when considering the accuracy of pre-tender estimates in other sectors of the
construction industry of Zambia.
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An Investigation into the Critical Barriers
to the Practice of Design for Construction
Safety in Nigeria
Adekansola Labo-Popoola1(&), Abdul-Majeed Mahamadue1,

Patrick Manu2, Clinton Aigbavboa3, and Krzysztof Dziekonski1
1
Department of Architecture and the Built Environment,
University of the West of England, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK
Adekansola2.Labo-Popoola@live.uwe.ac.uk
2
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering,
University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
3
Abstract. The construction industry is one of the most dangerous industries

due to its high accident rates. In Nigeria, higher than average rates of accidents
have been recorded. Several practices have been applied to improve this situ-
ation albeit there remains an appreciably high rate of occurrence of accidents.
Research has shown that the early consideration of the safety risk inherent in
designs can help prevent their occurrence later during the construction of the
facilities. This concept is called Designing for Construction Safety (DfCS).
Despite the advantages of DfCS, there remains barriers that prevent designers
from applying the concept. This study therefore aimed to investigate the barriers
to the practice DfCS in Nigeria focusing on Civil engineers. The study used a
quantitative approach through survey questionnaires for data collection. Results
showed that while there exists a very high level of awareness of DfCS, the
extent of practise is very low. Results further showed that this is attributed to:
designers’ exposure to liability, increased cost and time, designers’ lack of
safety expertise among others. The study made some recommendations that
could help reduce or eliminate these barriers. In general, this study has provided
a pathway for mainstreaming the practice of DfCS in Nigeria.
Keywords: Construction site safety Design Design for construction safety

Nigeria
1 Introduction
Accident prevention and control continues to be a challenge in the construction

industry [1]. This is because the industry remains one of the world’s most dangerous
sectors [2]. Although, several initiatives to improve safety have been identified, sta-
tistically, the construction industry still has one of the worst safety records compared to
other industries such as mining and transportation [1]. All across the world [1–4] it is
reported that construction workers are more likely to be killed at work than those in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_57
An Investigation into the Critical Barriers 557
other industries. Due to this rate, construction site safety (CSS) has become a major
concern in the industry, including developing countries like Nigeria [4]. The situation
in Nigeria is worse than what exists in developed countries due to “lack of concern,
accurate records and statutory regulations on health and safety” [4]. In 2005, more
than 20 workers died within 24 h while constructing a four-story building in Port
Harcourt and with similar incidents being a regular occurrence across other states in
Nigeria [5].
Due to this continuous occurrence of safety problems, several ideas to mitigate
against it have been proposed. One of the advanced initiatives is to involve designers in
considering safety during design [6]. According to Behm [7] the concept of design for
construction safety (DfCS) is “the consideration of CSS in the design of a project”. It
was further defined by Toole et al., [8] as “the deliberate consideration of CSS in the
design phase of a construction project, with the goal of reducing inherent risk to
construction workers”.
Usually, CSS is the responsibility of the contractor [9], however, evidence has
shown that the early decisions made by designers play a major role in the safety of
construction workers on site [10]. In the UK, research has shown that out of 100
construction accidents, 47% of possible accidents would have been reduced if DfCS
was considered [11]. Similarly, in Nigeria, 50% of site accidents have been attributed to
design errors [12]. Therefore, CSS can be improved if designers consider the impact of
construction methods [13].
In developed countries such as the UK, the significance of DFCS is recognized and
provided for in the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations (CDM),
putting the safety responsibilities on all parties of the project [9]. Though the concept
has been identified as a means of improvement, there are still some barriers to its
implementation. In a pilot study to check the viability of DfCS, Gambetese et al., [14]
highlighted some of the barriers to implement DfCS including; construction contract
structure, designers’ knowledge, and safety experience.
DfCS research has been limited to developed countries such as the UK, USA,
Australia, etc. In developing countries like Nigeria, where the state of OSH is more
tragic [15], there is a dearth of research addressing the need for designers to factor
safety of construction workers in their designs. This represents a gap in knowledge
about the practice of DfCS in Nigeria. Hence, proactive measures are needed to reduce
and control CSS issues [4]. DfCS can be a proactive measure, however, it could be
impeded by some barriers [7]. Therefore, it is important to investigate these barriers to
implementing DfCS in Nigeria. This will facilitate proactive improvement within the
industry by promoting and enhancing the implementation of DfCS, hence, improving
CSS. The aim of this study is to investigate the barriers to DfCS in Nigeria among Civil
Engineers. Civil engineers were chosen because despite their contribution to design
most DfCS studies have often focussed on Architects [11, 14] hence leaving a gap. To
address this study (1) investigated the level of awareness of DfCS among Civil
Engineers and (2) the critical barriers for the practice of DfCS in Nigeria.
558 A. Labo-Popoola et al.
2 Designing for Construction Safety
Traditionally, CSS has been the responsibility of the contractor [16]. However, research
has shown that there is a link between the design and CSS [7] and [9]. Many safety
issues have aroused due to lack of design consideration [16]. The European Foundation
for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in 1991 found that lack of
consideration of CSS decisions at design stage resulted in about 60% of fatal accidents
on construction sites [7]. Therefore, the most important stage in the construction
process is the design stage, because, it is where the conceptual ideas are turned into
constructible realities [17]. The link between design decisions and CSS has been well
established in several literatures. While reviewing 224 fatality investigation reports, [7]
discovered that 42% of the reports were linked to the design and the accidents could
have been reduced or eliminated during the project design phase. [18] also discovered
that approximately 22% of 226 injuries that occurred, demonstrated a link between
designs and accidents. Similarly, [11] reviewed 100 construction accidents and dis-
covered that the likelihood of accidents in 47% of these cases would have reduced if
there were changes in the permanent design. In South Africa, [19] revealed that of all
the factors affecting safety, design ranked highest. Therefore, [7] emphasized that
designers have a role to play in the safe delivery of construction projects. Historically,
the concept of DfCS was first conceived in 1985 by the International Labour Office
[20]. The office recognized that there is a need for design professionals to consider
CSS. It was therefore recommended that the safety of workers who will be involved in
the erection of a facility and other civil engineering works, be factored into the design
process [7]. DfCS is a process where design professionals categorically consider CSS
during the design phase of a facility [21] towards the realisation of a safe construction
site [8]. Szymberski, [22] explained that ideally, construction worker safety must be the
priority in the conceptual design phase. He proposed a model of time/safety influence
which indicates that the ability to influence CSS reduces when it is left until the
construction phase. This means that the earlier the potential hazards are identified, the
safer the construction activities will be.
The construction industry in various countries has recognised the effectiveness of
DfCS, to enhance occupational safety [20]. This has led to the release of CDM reg-
ulation in the United Kingdom [7], [17] and [23], and other regulations in other
developed countries [24].
While developed countries like the United Kingdom have been able to put in place
methods to improve CSS, developing countries like Nigeria should embrace this idea of
DfCS. [4] suggested that using proactive methods is a better way to deal with site
hazards and accident. Such proactive method is using the approach of DfCS.
2.1 Barriers to Designing for Construction Safety

It is obvious that the concept of DfCS has its merits if implemented. However, there
remain barriers to the implementation of the concept. Some of these barriers have
resulted in a low level of implementation of the concept [14]. These barriers usually
originated from the designer’s misperceptions and concerns. [25] maintained that the
most critical barriers are designers’ concern about increased liability, lack of safety
expertise and increased cost. Gambetese et al., [14] further noted that other barriers
include; designers’ lack of interest, reduced design creativity and schedules problems.
These barriers are usually attributed to the impacts of the implementation of the
concept [14]. Bello [27] explained that designers are not motivated and willing to
implement DFCS due to the absence of interest. Also, designers’ lack of safety
expertise relates to the absence of the designers’ knowledge of the concept, DfCS
education and training, difficulty in implementing the concept and inadequacy of DfCS
implementation tools and resources. Finally, clashing project cost, time and design
targets could suffer due to reduced design innovations and increased schedule, cost of
DFCS [27]. These are general barriers mostly reported in developed country contexts
or architects and it is worth investigating their role in the uptake and understanding of
DfCS practice in developing countries such as Nigeria and for the civil engineering
context.
To achieve the research aim, this study employed a quantitative approach. To fully
utilize this approach, this study gathered the indicators of awareness and barriers from
literature and reports. The barriers were defined for the respondents to indicate the
extent to which they impede the practice of DfCS using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questions were initially pilot-
tested to determine the appropriateness and clarity and duly amended. The questions
also included respondents’ demographic information, safety education and access to
DfCS tools.
The respondents were selected using purposive sampling. This involves identifying
the needed samples and approaching them for eligibility [28]. Previous studies such as
[29] have been focused on just architect. With civil engineers responsible for 51% of
design errors in Nigeria [12], their assessment is much important. Hence, civil engi-
neers have been sampled. Over 500 invitations were sent to potential participants.
However, 268 confirmed interest in the study. Therefore, a total of 268 questionnaires
were administered to Civil Engineers. The respondents cut across different Nigerian
engineering professional directories. These include the Nigerian Society of Engineers
(NSE), Nigerian Institution of Civil Engineers (NICE) and Nigerian Institute of
structural engineers (NiStructE). A total of 106 questionnaires were returned achieving
a 39.5% response rate. The response rate for norm survey questionnaire described by
Takim and Adnan (2008) is usually 20–30%. Therefore, a response rate of 39.5% is
adequate for analysis in this study. However, 3 questionnaire responses were rendered
invalid due to incompletion. Hence, 103 questionnaires were used for data analysis.
4 Data Analysis
This presents the analysis of the survey carried out among the designers, to determine
the extent of safety design practices, the barriers to the practice of DfCS. The analysis
involved two steps: organising the data for analysis and describing the data
(Descriptive Statistics). The analysis was structured into two main segments: (1) Data
organisation was supported by the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSSv23)
software for the preparation, transformation and storage of the data; and (2) The
descriptive analysis involved describing the basic features of the respondents by
summarising and aggregating the results. The analysis used tables including (fre-
quencies, percentages and means), simple graphs and charts.
5.1 Demographic Information

The result shows that all the respondents are civil engineers. Over 57% and 52% of the
respondents have at least 5 years’ experience in their role and at least 11 years’
experience in the construction industry respectively. Over 80% of the respondents are
members of a professional body. In terms of education, most of the respondents have at
least a BSc. Overall, the demographic information illustrates an experienced group of
respondents and suitable to provide adequate responses.
5.2 DfCS Awareness

From the survey, most designers (92.2%) are aware of DfCS (Table 1). However, 70%
identified that they practice at a very low level. This justifies the study of [7] that
designers do not practice safety in design. It is, therefore, no surprise that 51% of
construction site hazards in Nigeria [12] have been attributed to design issues. From the
data analysis, the barriers responsible for this low extent have been identified and they
are discussed in sections below.
Table 1. Awareness and Practice of DfCS

DfCS awareness The extent of DfCS practice
Awareness of Frequency Percentage Extent of Frequency Percentage
concept (%) practice (%)
Yes 95 92.2 Very low 70 68
No 7 6.8 Very high 33 32
Total 102 99.0
Unspecified 1 1.0
Total 103 100.0 Total 103 100.0
5.3 Barriers to the Practice of DfCS in Nigeria

The top-rated barriers to DfCS in Nigeria are discussed in this section. As shown in
Table 2, the mean values reveal that 9 of the 10 barriers have a mean value of
approximately 3. Therefore, there are 9 barriers to DfCS in Nigeria. These barriers are
discussed below.
Table 2. Barriers to the practice of DfCS

Nos Barriers Mean Ranking
1 Designers’ exposure to liability 3.28 1
2 Project time requirement 3.25 2
3 Project cost requirement 3.24 3
4 Limited designer influence in the selection of a contractor. 3.15 4
5 Project environmental sustainability requirement 3.11 5
6 Your knowledge and understanding of construction site 3.09 6
operations and methods.
7 Possibility of designing for safety to interfere with the 3.06 7
contractor’s methods of construction.
8 Your knowledge and understanding of construction health and 3.03 8
safety issues.
9 Project aesthetic requirement (Innovative Designs) 2.92 9
10 Little or no motivation 2.45 10
Designers’ Exposure to Liability. The findings show that the top-rated barrier to
DfCS in Nigeria is the fear of designers’ exposure to liability. This is in line with the
study of [14], that designers think that DfCS will increase their liability. There are
liability implications in situations where a designer specifies a DfCS measure as an
approach or procedure for the contractor. This is because if a measure is specified by a
designer, in the event of a safety incident, the designer will bear the cause of the
incidents. Therefore, designers believe that it will go against the clause in the contract
by interfering with the contractor’s means and methods.
Project Time Requirements: Another top-rated barrier to DFCS is the likelihood of
increasing the project schedule. The increased project time and schedule may be
because of the time needed to fix additional protective features included in the design
[30]. The time is however dependent on the approach of DfCS used. In cases where a
feature is eradicated, there may be reduced project time, but where there is increased
time, it becomes a barrier [27].
Also, because time will be allocated for safety criteria, there may be an increased
project design time [26]. Furthermore, because of liability concerns, designers will
have to excessively review designs before submission [27].
With the implementation of DFCS, there is a likelihood of increased project delays.
45% of the respondents believe that DfCS will act as a barrier. This is like the finding
of [14] which found out that about 50% of surveyed designers believed that the DfCS
will lead to delays in schedules.
Project Cost Requirements: Implementing DfCS may lead to a rise in direct and
indirect costs [14, 27]. Checked for the impact of designing for safety and 74% of
surveyed designers mentioned increased project costs as an impact. Therefore, it is no
surprise as the cost requirement is rated third barrier in this study. The increased project
costs may be because of additional protective features included in the design [30]. This
cost is however dependent on the approach of DfCS used. In cases where a feature is
eradicated, there may be reduced project costs, but where there is increased cost, it
becomes a barrier [27].
[31] explained the project might generate some savings by removing the need for
temporary protection during construction. The designer would not have to bear the cost
of construction in a traditional procurement system [32]. However, for a design and
build project, the net project cost savings may increase their project boundary. This is
because, in a design and build project, only a firm is approached for both design and
construction [32].
Increase in cost from implementing DFCS may also arise through the training of
staff. This is true as design firms will have to train all their designers about safety
practices in design [26].
Also, because designers become responsible for CSS, they will opt for insurance and
thus resulting in an increased cost for the design firms [27]. This is because regardless
of the circumstance, plaintiff lawyers will claim that the designers are responsible for
construction safety [26].
All these forms of additional costs may drive designers to charge more additional
fees [27]. This will make the design firms less competitive against firms who do not
implement the concept [26].
Designers’ Lack of Safety Expertise: It is crucial that designers possess a certain
level of expertise in awareness of construction processes to effectively contribute to
CSS [26], [27] and [30]. In Nigeria, this study has shown that designers’ lack of safety
expertise and understanding of CSS issues are barriers to practice DfCS. This is like the
study of [14], where it was identified that designers’ lack of safety expertise and
construction experience are the most critical barrier to implement DfCS.
To improve DfCS, designers need to understand the concept and process. Also, it is
important that they have adequate awareness of construction tasks and their coordi-
nation [27]. Designers’ implementation will also be eased by an understanding of
safety standards and regulations, which deal with safety design skills and not designers’
obligations [30].
Another related issue of safety expertise is the limited amount of academic
knowledge of CSS management [26]. Researchers have found that the rate of designers
with academic knowledge of CSS is low. American research in 2002 found out that
only 20% of 75 design firms showed that 50% of their employees had received safety
training, during which 70% showed that less than 25% of their employees had received
safety training [26] and [30]. In Nigeria, this study found out that 75% of the
respondents do not have formal training on DFCS while 41% have received continuous
development training on DfCS. With a low extent of design practices (18%), it is
evident that their level of knowledge is a major barrier but not different from the
context of other designers such as architects in Nigeria [29].
Reduced Project Quality and Innovative Designs: DfCS may lead to reduced pro-
ject quality and innovative designs. Because aesthetic functional features add value to
projects, removing elaborate features to favour construction safety can result in
diminished creativity in design and possibly project quality [27]. In a study by [14],
several surveyed designers said that DfCS would lead to decreased project quality.
Reduction in design quality and project complexity were also identified as barriers to
the concept [14].
6 Conclusions
The barriers to the practice DfCS in Nigeria have been investigated. This has been done
by analysing and discussing the findings from the data. The highlight barriers will
facilitate proactive improvement within the industry by promoting and enhancing the
implementation of DfCS. As discussed earlier, the research sample is limited to civil
engineers in Nigeria, hence these conclusions will be attributed mainly to this sample.
From the findings of this study, it can be concluded that:
The level of awareness of DfCS is very high at 92%. However, the extent of the
practice is very low at only 68% similar to Architects [29] in Nigeria. All indicated
barriers attributed to Liability, Schedule Problems, Cost, Expertise, design creativity
and motivation were rated high thus making them major barriers to DfCS among Civil
engineers in Nigeria.
It is recommended that legislation similar to CDM, UK be enacted to incentivise
mainstreaming of DfCS in Nigeria.
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Determinants of the Petroleum Fuel Supply
Chain Performance in Zimbabwe: A Case
of the National Oil Infrastructure Company
Lovemore Tendedziso1, Erastus Mwanaumo1(&), Nathan Musonda2,

Mwewa Mambwe1, and Lubinda Haabazoka3
1
2
3
Graduate School of Business, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
Abstract. The petroleum fuel supply chain in Zimbabwe has been faced with
multiplicity of challenges from perennial erratic fuel supplies to poor product
lead times. Despite introduction of direct importation scheme for private players,
erratic fuel supplies have remained persistent. The study aimed at identifying
factors affecting petroleum fuel supply chain and propose strategies to National
Oil Infrastructure Company for the improvement of the petroleum fuel supply
chain performance in Zimbabwe. The study exploited a descriptive case study
through a mixed method approach in which semi-structured interviews and self-
administered structured questionnaire were used to collect primary data from
110 respondents constituting 100% response rate. Findings indicated that pet-
roleum fuel sector is highly fragmented with sub-optimal use of the pipeline in
the transportation hence negatively affecting supply. The study concluded that
poor performance of the petroleum fuel supply chain had significant down-
stream effects curtailing the productive capacity of other sectors.
Keywords: Performance Petroleum fuel Supply chain Strategies
1 Introduction
Globally, petroleum fuel supply chains (PFSCs) have exhibited unique characteristics
given the criticality of the commodities they are associated with and have continued to
grow as important energy consumption source world over. The significant role of a
PFSC performance in value chain models have received wider recognition across
various sectors and the world over. Crandall et al., [1] opines that supply chain per-
formance seeks to ensure improved inventory availability, reduce supply lead-times, as
well as exhibit effective and efficient consistent supply of petroleum fuel products to
meet the end-user’s demands. However, the World Bank [2] noted that there exist a
number of bottlenecks with regards to petroleum fuel energy flows particularly in
developing countries that depend on petroleum energy sources.
Over the years, petroleum fuel industry in Zimbabwe has seen greater turbulence
and volatility [3]. The Zimbabwean PFSC has witnessed a number of challenges in the
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_58
Determinants of the Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain Performance 567
past decades, with the country faced with growing erratic petroleum fuel supplies, poor
lead times and market shortages, emergence of parallel markets, product adulteration,
thus, making the PFSC a source of great ambivalence amongst a number of stake-
holders. Hence, the need for the study which sought to identify strategies that can be
adopted by National Oil Infrastructure Company (NOIC), as a case study, and other
stakeholders in order to improve the petroleum fuel supply chain performance in
Zimbabwe. While previous studies have mainly focused on the generic challenges
facing the petroleum sector in Zimbabwe, this study managed to tackle the matter from
a supply chain perspective thus tracking the petroleum value chain.
2 Literature Review
The significant role of the supply chain performance in the conceptualization of the
value chain models has received wider recognition across various sectors. The central
objective of a supply chain is to deliver superior customer value at less cost to the
supply chain as a whole [3]. According to Kojima and Sexsmith [4] when supply chain
is used the objective of its use is to improve performance by augmenting speed,
dependability, quality, cost reflective and flexible delivery of goods and services,
making reliable, flexible and responsive value chain. Nonetheless, that has not been so
globally, because it has not been used to embrace its sustainability concept as a much
wider determinate of performance [5]. Increase in delivery performance is possible if
suitable channel policies are utilised that support the sustainability of a PFSC and
further underlined that fundamental goals for oil companies was to deliver fuel and its
products safely, at the right time with the best price. Nonetheless, Tunio [6] argues that
this is not so, due to the challenges facing the oil and gas industry of untimely delivery
of the petroleum product to the consumer that creates shortages.
World demand for petroleum fuels has been on the increase, affecting delivery as
was reported by the United States Energy Information Administration in its 2011
International Energy Outlook, which further projected that the world’s energy con-
sumption will increases by 53% by the year 2035 as reported by Cohen [7]. Cousins
et al. [8] revealed that petroleum products are widely used in most countries and have
far-reaching micro-economic and macro-economic effects due to the ever growing
demand even though recently they have without supply chains that are value and
sustainable oriented. According to Iovion [9] when complexity arises in a supply chain,
the downstream suffer negative supply chain dynamics resulting in severe or wide
downstream product shortages. This mainly is as a result of poor coordination in the
supply chain that may result in both demand and supply volatility.
Furthermore, lack of adequate equipment or infrastructure in terms of transportation
capacity significantly affect smooth flow of the petroleum fuel prompting panic in the
supply chain [10]. In the Sub-Saharan Africa, Kimani [11] and Mbara and Bryceson
[12] argued that some of the major drivers of illicit supply chains are to do with failure
to meet the demand which causes an increase in prices, hence cause supply shortages of
essential goods like drugs, fuel, food and other consumables.
From various studies reviewed such as studies by Grover and Malhotra [16], Osoro
[13] and Crandall et al. [1] asserted that certain factors that play an important role in
568 L. Tendedziso et al.
determining the success or failure of PFSC performance and include transportation

facilities, infrastructure situational factors such as storage facilities, structure or design
of the supply such as planning, management factors, environmental uncertainty, and
the regulatory framework. Other studies reviewed also indicated information vague-
ness, conflicting objectives and decision variables [14].
According to the Zimbabwe Energy Council (ZEC) [15] the petroleum energy
sector in Zimbabwe is faced with supply chain bottlenecks from erratic fuel supplies to
poor product lead time causing market shortages, while Zimbabwe Revenue Authority
(ZIMRA) [16] also attested that petroleum imports increased by 47% from 207.6
million litres in 2017. Critical supply chain management issues have since emerged
around fuel pipeline utilization in Zimbabwe as can be seen in the surge of road
transport in fuel importation which is currently estimated at 52% compared to rail at
12% and pipeline at 34% usage [17]. Another significant challenge has been that of
intense product adulteration and illicit fuel supply chains that continue to threaten the
sustainability of the formal petroleum fuel supply chain in Zimbabwe. According to
ZIMRA [12] the country losses close to US$1 billion annually as a result of illicit
petroleum fuel supply chains due to shortages.
Additionally, the fragmented supply of petroleum fuel in the sector has been
triggered by poor capacity utilization of the pipeline as small players fail to constitute
economies of scale for its optimal use. Further, the absence of a viable supply chain
framework affects the petroleum supply chain which is under the control of National
Oil Infrastructure Company (NOIC).
3 Research Method
The research methodology used in the study was a combination of both qualitative and
quantitative approach and adopted a descriptive case study design. A similar research
method was applied in exploratory studies by Matveeva [18] who looked at the issues in
the supply chain management in the oil industry and Cousins et al. [8] whose research
was on performance measurement in strategic buyer-supplier relationships as a medi-
ating role of socialization. The target population of the study comprised of operational
and management staff of NOIC. Other key respondents to this study were drawn from
fuel retailers and government regulatory bodies, that is Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory
Authority (ZERA) and ZIMRA. Purposive sampling was applied in the choice of retail
companies to provide clarity, insight and understanding about the study issues while the
sampling used for operational and management staff at the NOIC, was accidental as well
as availability sampling methods respectively. To the information rich segments such
ZERA and ZIMRA, expert and maximum variation sampling was applied.
Data was collected from both management and operational staff at NOIC using a
self-administered structured questionnaire designed using a 5-point Likert scale. This
was to provide freedom from bias and for the respondents to remain anonymous, thus
helping to obtain accurate information as much as possible [19]. Studies by Grover and
Malhotra [20] in operations and supply chain management theory and management,
qualified the use of questionnaire to reduce bias, while the Likert scale provide quality,
increases response rate and reduces frustration levels in answering [19].
Semi-structured interview questions were developed and utilized to gather the per-
spectives and experiences of the fuel retailers, customers and other key stakeholders on
the performance of the PFSC. According to Kimani [11], interviews reveal more than
can be detected or reliably assumed from observing a situation, of which qualitative
data was backed by prose interpretations. The study identified variables. The inde-
pendent variables which are the supply chain factors include supply chain infrastructure
situational factors, institutional situational factors and network strategic factors; while
improved product flows, product supplies and demand responsive supply chain were
dependent variables for supply chain performance. These were modified from the study
by Tunio [6]. Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 was used to
analyse quantitative data to show the distribution of respondents, while qualitative data
was analysed using content analysis and cross tabulation [19].
4 Results
The following are the findings of the study. All response rate on interviews and
questionnaire survey gave 100%. Ten (10) respondents who were interviewed managed
to provide essential data used by the researcher. Hence is credible for further analysis as
the response rate was over 70% [19]. The following are findings to the study on
assessing the determinants of the PFSC in Zimbabwe, with NOIC as a case study.
4.1 Reliability Test of Results

A reliability of at least 0.60 at a = 0.05 significance level of confidence was accepted
using Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient which is a measure of internal coefficient
according to Kimani [11]. This reliability threshold was adopted based on similar
studies by Kojima et al. [4] and Cousins et al. [8] (see in Table 1).
4.2 Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain Profile in Zimbabwe

To gather respondent’s opinion on the level of the PFSC performance in Zimbabwe,
most of the respondents, 45.5% considered the PFSC as being poor, while 23.6%
viewed as very poor. Only 12.7% deemed the petroleum supply chain excellent as
indicated in Table 2.
Further, the study sought to understand the extent to which supply chain practices
used influence the petroleum supply chain performance (See Table 3). The higher the
mean (3,77), the greater the extent of agreement while the greater the standard devi-
ation (1.142), the greater the level of variation in the responses. The results show that
there is limited application and poor implementation of supply chain metrics which
does not meet international standards.
Table 1. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients results for the questionnaire factors.
Mean Standard Cronbach’s Evaluation
deviation alpha based on
reliability Iovion [2]
coefficients
What is the current petroleum 8.6669 2.58068 0.715055 Acceptable
fuel supply chain profile in
Zimbabwe?
Factors affecting the supply 8.99646 3.02830 0.757562 Acceptable
chain performance in Zimbabwe
Downstream effects of the 8.4966 2.51733 0.688859 Acceptable
petroleum supply chain in
Zimbabwe
Strategies of improving the 7.99674 2.007166 0.620156 Acceptable
petroleum supply chain
performance in Zimbabwe
Overall reliability 0.695408 Acceptable
Table 2. Current petroleum fuel supply chain performance rating.

Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent
Valid Excellent 14 12.7 12.7 12.7
Good 12 10.9 10.9 23.6
Neutral 8 7.3 7.3 30.9
Poor 50 45.5 45.5 76.4
Very poor 26 23.6 23.6 100.0
Total 110 100.0 100.0
Table 3. Supply chain performance metrics at NOIC.

Rating by respondents Mean Std. Dev.
Inventory availability in PFSC meet expected levels? 3.77 1.142
Order cycle times are within meet expected standards? 3.60 1.030
Delivery frequency is within expected standards? 3.68 0.238
Delivery reliability meet expected standards 3.61 1.087
Order fill rate meet expected standards 3.75 0.231
Deliveries are made on time and in full (OTIF) 3.46 0.303
There is high information visibility in the PFSC 3.19 0.415
Average 3.58 0.635
4.3 Factors Affecting the Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain Performance

Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Deployment in the PFSC
Industry. About 45.45% affirmatively said that there was need for ICT deployment in
the industry while only 4.55% gave a negative response. This indicated that there is
limited use of ICTs in the PFSC at NOIC (See Fig. 1).
4.55%
4.55%
13.64% Agree
45.45% Strongly Agree
31.81% Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Undecided
Fig. 1. ICT resources as vital factors in PFSC performance
Synchronized Processes as Factors in Improving PFSC Performance. Respondents

views on the process alignment or value added processes help in the improved per-
formance of PFSC at NOIC indicated that 31.8% strongly agreed to the notion while
27.3% strongly disagreed and 36.4% agreed. The above information shows that the
majority understood the importance of supply chain process alignment in the PFSC.
Environmental Uncertainty Contributes to PFSC Performance. The results
showed that the relationship between environmental factors and the PFSC performance
is positive and significant as can be seen in the number of respondents that agreed to
this notion of 35.50% while only 10.90% strongly disagreed to this notion.
Transportation Permits Efficient Product Flow and is Fully Optimised. About
45.5% of the results were non-affirmative that the transport infrastructure permits
efficient product flow and is fully optimised and only 9.10% agreed to this. The modal
share in the PFSC and their level of utilisation was established, of which majority
pointed to the use of pipeline = 39%, road = 48%, Rail = 12% and Air = 1% as
portrayed in Fig. 2.
Transport Modal Split: Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain

60% 48%
39%
40%
20% 12%
1%
0%
Pipeline Road Rail Air
Fig. 2. Modes of transport used in the petroleum fuel supply chain in Zimbabwe
Regulatory Framework and Policy Factors. Majority of the respondents, 36.36%

strongly agreed to the notion that the regulatory framework and policies impact on the
PFSC activities at NOIC. While, 9.09% strongly disagreed to this view. The results
obtained therefore suggest that there is a strong relationship between regulatory
framework and the overall PFSC performance.
4.4 Downstream Effects of the Petroleum Supply Chain Performance

Some of the perceived downstream challenges of the PFSC by the respondents showed
that lack of the supply chain resulted in widespread fuel shortages (25.45%), high fuel
prices, (22.73%), thriving parallel markets (20%), impact on industrial productivity
(11.82%) as well as performance decline in other sectors (6.36%). The results showed
that the petroleum industry has significant downstream challenges.
4.5 Barriers of the Petroleum Fuel Supply Improvement Optimisation

at NOIC
Some of the notable barriers to PFSC performance in Zimbabwe as obtained from the
results include lack of management support (30%), policy barriers (25%), poor supply
chain strategy (22%), poor resource capability (18%) and resistance to change (12%).
Those citing lack of management support and policy barriers pointed corruption and
unethical practices as major challenges undermining the petroleum supply chain
performance.
4.6 Strategies of Improving the Petroleum Fuel Supply Chain

Performance
The strategic options considered as most effective and viable were controllable
variables/factors which stakeholders in the petroleum can effectively pursue as indi-
cated in Table 4. The higher the mean, the greater the extent of agreement while the
greater the standard deviation, the greater the level of variation in the responses.
Table 4. Strategic options for the petroleum fuel supply chain improvement
Statement Mean Standard deviation
Supply chain design/configuration 3.88 0.446
Transportation optimisation 3.73 1.041
Demand management 3.73 1.116
Sector taxation regimes and regulations 4.04 0.038
Investment in alternatives 3.01 2.783
Average 3.68 1.085
With the application of supply chain strategy, managers can make a wise decision
to satisfy customers’ needs at affordable costs and maintain a responsive supply chain.
5 Discussion
One of the objectives of the study was to establish the current PFSC performance profile
in Zimbabwe. From the results, it can be deduced that the PFSC has been failing to meet
the aggregate demand and this has resulted in massive stock outs in the sampled fuel retail
outlets. The PFSC chain is prone to supply chain breakdowns and is notably characterised
by erratic fuel supplies. Christopher [3] equally acknowledged the importance of effective
distribution strategy as a basis for supply chain competitiveness. The likeness of the
results could be attributed to the existing reservations on performance of the current PFSC
especially in terms of demand fulfilment, product pricing and stock or inventory avail-
ability. Sound distribution strategies are premised on high delivery flexibility and relia-
bility competitiveness through logistics as opposed by Misund et al. [17].
According Harrison and Van Hoek [10] on the importance of competing through
logistics, they highlighted the importance of sound distribution strategies premised on
high delivery flexibility and reliability. While Mbara [12] acknowledged the impor-
tance of an effective distribution strategy as a basis for supply chain competitiveness. It
can be said that supply chain optimisation is a product of value stream mapping as it
affects the system-wide performance. Additionally, managing product lead-times is
critical in handling major supply chain disturbances which may culminate into intense
supply chain distortions. The central objective of a supply chain is to deliver superior
customer value at less cost to the supply chain.
The study also revealed that the PFSC had been failing to meet the aggregate
demand resulting in massive stock outs in most retail outlets. These results found
credence in Crandall et al. [1] on effective demand management as well as Tunio [6]
who concurred that managing product lead-times is critical in handling major supply
chain disturbances which may culminate into intense supply chain distortions.
The decline in the performance profile of the PFSC was driven by low capacity
utilisation in the fuel pipeline from Beira, Mozambique to Zimbabwe. Lack of certainty
of supplies is likely to destabilize the entire supply chain. While the use of guaranteed
off-take agreements, forward purchases, options and swaps are some of the critical
measures that can be explored to ensure stability of supplies. In a study conducted by
Osoro [13] it concluded that a well-established and optimised supply chain should
foster growth as well as sustainable operations. The PFSC in Zimbabwe is affected by a
number of supply chain bottlenecks with seamless flow of the petroleum fuel into the
country. To this end, the study has managed to unravel lack of viable framework in the
current PFSC to counter supply chain bottlenecks. Apparently, a number of authorities
such as Kojima et al. [4] Osoro [13] have demonstrated that viable supply chain
framework is critical for an efficient flow and the sustainability of the supply chain.
Ramakrishnan and Ma [5] proposed intelligent ways of supply chain optimisation
by using dynamic simulation and modelling ICT tools that are critical in a supply chain
as they determine the extent to which significant and proprietary information is com-
municated to. The relationship between environmental factors and the PFSC perfor-
mance was found to be a positive and significant, flexible and reliable planning and
control system of the supply chain that reduces uncertainties. Christopher [3] who
stated increasingly ICT capabilities are being used for supply chain optimisation, while
Matveeva [18] opines that ICT tools are critical in a supply chain as it determines the
extent of critical and proprietary information is communicated. Therefore, with a level
of complexity in the environment, supply chain optimisation has a potential to make a
significant contribution to resolve the challenges.
Furthermore, transportation of fuel is not fully optimised and this affects perfor-
mance of the fuel supply chain flow into Zimbabwe. Optimisation also covers good
storage facilities along the supply chain as they are the heart of improved product
quality in oil and gas supply chains. Pipeline was found to be the most dominant form
of transport in oil and gas supply chains followed by bulk rail transport and road
transport. This was also opined by Grover and Malhotra [20] and further proposed for
various digital methods to be used to ensure smooth flow of petroleum fuel. Com-
modities such as oil, gas, and petrochemicals require specific modes of transportation
such as pipelines, vessels or tankers, and railroads.
Some government regulations and policies negatively affect the PFSC. For
instance, the study revealed that the delay in the disbursement of foreign currency by
central bank, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe results in delays in procurement and delivery
of fuel into the country by fuel importers. Christopher [3] insists that the external
dynamics are equally crucial for PFSC performance and that the impact of unplanned
and unforeseen events can have severe financial effects across the network as a whole.
Over the years, the oil and gas industry has continued to face growing challenges, from
stricter government regulation, political risks, competition, emergent new comers and
political hostilities, which has affected price hike and shortages.
The study sought to establish the downstream effects of the petroleum as result of a
lack in supply chain improvement and managed to ascertain that lack of PFSC nega-
tively affect a number of sectors and stakeholders. The results showed that the petro-
leum industry has significant downstream challenges. Majority of the respondents
identified lack of management support, policy barriers and poor supply chain strategy
as major setbacks to the petroleum fuel supply chain improvement in Zimbabwe.
Kimani [11] avers that lack of knowledge as well as financial challenges were some of
the major challenges confronting supply reform efforts in emerging firms.
The purpose of the study was to identify the strategies that can be adopted by NOIC in
order to improve the PFSC performance in Zimbabwe. There is a general poor per-
formance in the PFSC performance by NOIC caused by factors internal to the supply
chain and influenced by external regulations and policies. Nonetheless, the study
deduced strategies that can be adopted by NOIC to improve performance based on the
results and the literature reviewed. These include carefully configuring, planning and
implementing the PFSC according to best practice; redesigning or configuration of the
supply chain; transportation optimisation and maintenance; alignment and streamlining
of the petroleum supply chain processes; management and sound distribution resource
capability; and improved ICT management.
The study recommends that management at NOIC and the government of Zim-
babwe consider transport optimization and dynamic simulation through the use of
pipeline for the movement of petroleum fuel and storage capacity expansion in line
with growing aggregate demand. There is need for a more robust infrastructure man-
agement and maintenance of bulk terminals. The study recommends that the govern-
ment through the Ministry of Power and Energy, invest in more sustainable fuel
alternatives thus substituting the petroleum based energy whose consumption has
nearly doubled in the last three years.
References
1. Crandall, R., Crandall, W.R., Chen, C.: Principles of Supply Chain Management, 2nd edn.
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, New York (2015)
2. World Bank.: Petroleum Product Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa: Comperative Efficiency
Analysis of 12 Countries, Washington D.C.: World Bank (2014)
3. Christopher, M.: Logistics and Supply Chain Management, 4th edn. Pearson Education,
Edinburgh (2012)
4. Kojima, M., Mathews, W., Sexsmith, F.: Petroleum Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa:
Analysis and Assessment of 12 Countries. World Bank, Washington D.C. (2010)
5. Ramakrishnan, P., Ma, Y.: Adaptative Supply Chain Systems: IoT Based Conceptual
Framework, pp. 62–68 (2018)
6. Tunio, W.A.: Supply Chain Practices and Optimisation in Petroleum Industry. Supply Chain
Practices in Oil and Gas Industry, pp. 4–15 (2013)
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relationships: the mediating role of socialization mechanism. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manag.
28(3), 238–258 (2013)
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16(5), 558–572 (2015)
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supply chain, 4th edn. Pretince Hall, Harlow (2012)
11. Kimani, C.W.: Supply chain management challenges in Kenya petroleum industry: case of
national oil corporation of Kenya. Int. J. Soc. Sci. Entrepreneurship 1(3), 231–246 (2013)
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Saharan Africa’s globalisation process. J. Econ. Soc. Geogr. 94(3), 335–349 (2008)
13. Osoro, A.: Challenges affecting performance of supply chain systems in the petroleum
industries in Kenya. J. Energy Technol. Policy, 82–92 (2015)
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ZIMRA, Harare (2016)
17. Misund, B., Osmundsen, P., McMillan, D.: Valuation of proved vs. probable oil and gas
reserves. Cogent Econ. Finance 5(1) (2017)
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Industry (2015)
19. Tashakkori, A., Creswell, J.W.: The era of mixed methods. J. Mix. Methods 1(3), 2–7 (2007)
20. Grover, V., Malhotra, M.K.: Transaction cost framework in operations and supply chain
management research: theory and measurement. J. Oper. Manage. 21, 457–473 (2011)
Ethics and Stakeholder Engagement
for Industry/Construction 4.0:
A Systematic Review
Kamil Okedara1(&), Obuks Ejohwomu1, and Paul Chan2

1
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE),
University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
{Tunde.okedara,Obuks.ejohwomu}@manchester.ac.uk
2
Department of Management, Design and Construction Management,
Deft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
p.w.c.chan@tudelft.nl
Abstract. Industry 4.0 is an offshoot of the first, second and third industrial
revolutions. Which is an indication of its globalization. In the same vein, con-
struction 4.0 which takes its context after the industry 4.0 is expected to lead to
the fourth construction revolution? Ethics and stakeholder engagement have been
individually studies and written about. Both industry and construction 4.0 require
an ethical lens and an engagement pattern towards a rapid realization of their
objectives. This paper quantitatively x-rays researchers’ interests in the fields,
and the subject areas so far covered in their studies. However, little or no studies
have applied the ethical lens and engagement pattern into the revolutionary
concepts. We applied systematic review method (the first in the field), to discover
the linear and the polynomial nature of researches in the fields. This discoveries is
hoped to open up further researches towards the rapid development of the fourth
I&C revolutions through the application of ethics and stakeholder theories.
Keywords: Industry 4.0 Construction 4.0 Ethics

Stakeholder engagement Organizational culture Project
Programme & Portfolio (PPP)
1 Introduction
Every endeavour requires a way to achieving success. This is what we refer to as the
ethics needed for the success. This ethical approach requires an engagement pattern in
achieving the successful outcomes (Okedara et al. [1]). The endeavour could be a
project, programme or portfolio (PPP), it could be a concept such as “construction 4.0”
or “industry 4.0”. This paper, therefore researches into the extent of application of
ethics and stakeholder concepts in both industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 (I&C 4.0) in
order to ensure success of the revolutions. To understand this approach, we will look at
the perspectives of success, engagement and ethics.
Successful business, organizational or project management strategies have been
variously discussed and described. Strategic management success may be measured
through the use of scorecard which supports the alignment and management of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_59
578 K. Okedara et al.
corporate activities to their strategic relevance [2], while Figge et al. [2] highlighted the
importance of strategic management aligning with corporate activities, others have also
come up with various criteria that can cumulatively be necessary for envisaged success.
For instance, it is averred that organizational success depends not only on how the
organization makes the most of human competences, but also how it stimulates
commitment to the organization [3]. The turbulent organizational environment is not
left out of the discourse, this has been attributed to why organizations seek competitive
advantage through organizational learning [4], in line with Namada [4], this learning,
as part of knowledge management orientations, is said to comprise of ‘the personal
knowledge orientation’ and ‘organizational knowledge orientation’ [5]. To further
buttress the significance of business and organizational management success, process
automation involving modelling processes and workflow [6], a fourth industrial rev-
olution phase has been introduced. The term “industry 4.0”, according to [7] was
established ex-ante for a planned “4th industrial revolution”, the term being a remi-
niscence of software versioning Methodology. Industry 4.0 which is also commonly
referred to as the fourth industrial revolution is a name given to the current trend of
automation and data exchange in manufacturing technologies. It includes cyber-
physical systems, the Internet of things, cloud computing and cognitive computing [8].
In the same vein, similar revolutions are being introduced to construction with “the
fourth construction revolution tagged “construction 4.0”. Though industry 4.0
describes the trend towards digitisation and automation of the manufacturing envi-
ronment with potentials to benefits in terms of improvement in productivity and quality
[9], the concept has not gained much attention in the construction industry [9] hence
the need to not only ensure awareness but for researchers to dig deep into the area.
To attempt a broader understanding, ethics and stakeholder engagement will be
presented in perspective of fourth industrial and construction revolutions, also known
respectively as industry 4.0 and construction 4.0. Our definition for the purpose of this
paper will also be stated. Stakeholder engagement and ethics have variously undergone
definitions and perspectives over the years. Ethics could be rightness or wrongness of
behaviour [10]. “The definition of ethics is said to be at abstract level [10] as it is
difficult to have a consensus on what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, ethical or
unethical”. Despite the growth of ethics in business, business ethics researchers are yet
to agree upon ethical perspective for the discipline [11]. [12], in their paper on human
research ethics while quoting OED definition define ethics as “The codes of conduct or
moral principles recognized in a particular profession, sphere of activity, relationship,
or other context or aspect of human life. Attempting a definition for the purpose of this
research, which I hope may transcend industry, project and business. Ethics can be a
way of doing things or as a process culmination or path to an engagement outcome.
This process culmination or path, when tested over time, can become norm in industry,
business or project, it can also translate to culture or governance. When ethics is
measured, sometimes in projects, to have given expected outcome or surpass expec-
tation, the approach becomes adopted and becomes an ethical approach for such
projects or business. This sometimes can become organizational norms or best prac-
tices, deviation from or adherence to those approaches at that point in time, may
become an indication of good or bad practices etc.
Ethics and Stakeholder Engagement for Industry/Construction 4.0 579
Stakeholder engagement on the other hand, has gone through different phases of
definitions, perspectives, and development of topics and terms. Scholars have debated
what it means to be a stakeholder, what obligations, if any, firms owe to stakeholders,
and whether or not shareholders ought to be granted precedence over other stake-
holders [13]. In addition, ‘Many accounts of stakeholder activities focus on the attri-
butes of the organizations (or industry) or the attributes of the stakeholders rather than
on the attributes of the relationship between organizations (or Industry) and stake-
holders’. In the last few years, however, greater attention has been given to thinking
about what it means to engage stakeholders (bracket mine) (Johnson- Cramer et al.
2003). As stakeholder ethics grows in recognition and in being a veritable tool for
project and engagement success, thought about which actions firms or industry must or
must not perform in order to meet philosophical, social, legal or environmental moral
standards (this could be the fourth industrial or construction revolutions), greater
attention is now being paid to relationships between firms and its stakeholders. [13].
This has made approaches to stakeholder engagement to progress through some stages
(Reed, 2008). Theories have therefore moved from awareness of the 1960s [14] to
adding local angle to the debate in the 1970s (Pretty, 1995), from strategies of
engagement in the 1980s to increasing community participation and democratizing
engagement in stakeholder governance [15].
With the above background on ethics, stakeholder engagement, industry 4.0 and
construction 4.0, there is the need to examine the essence of this review and the
research question, the growing trend in industry 4.0 and the consequential increased
interest in construction 4.0. Both industry and construction (I&C) 4.0 can be subjected
to process ethics which will not only enhance their evolution, but also has the tendency
to catalyse growth, replicability and development in the fields. The twin area of ethics
and stakeholder engagement have the capacities to establish proper record of devel-
opments and a path that can be followed and replicated for the realisation of the
objectives of fourth I&C revolutions.
To this end, the following research question, as a preliminary or foundation setting
for further research in the field of ethics, stakeholder engagement, and industry 4.0 and
construction 4.0 are set for this systematic review objective.
RQ1: How has researchers’ interest in the field been growing?
RQ2: How has this growth impacted other subject area and how indeed it has
affected the globalization of I & C 4.0s
Before we venture into answering the research questions, let me quickly add that
this is the first research linking ethics, stakeholder engagement, industry 4.0 and
construction 4.0 and it is also the first systematic review in the fields.
2 Methodology
To answer the research questions in the introduction above, the literatures on ethics,
stakeholder engagement, industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 were systematically
reviewed and synthesised. Other literatures were also studied in other to give an
impactful analysis of the 28 papers under review. Systematic reviews, which originated
from the medical and health sciences, are a thorough and transparent way of mapping
and assessing the evidence in a particular topic area [16]. The adoption was after a
thorough review of other methods such as bibliometric analysis [17] and analysis of
meta – narratives in the literature [18]. These other methods have been stated to rely
“on quantitative methods to identify keyword frequencies and the changing trends of
keyword associations” [19]. To further justify our choice of review, aside from sys-
tematic review being known for its transparency and being an evidence-based
approaches that identify key scientific contributions to a field and differ from narrative
reviews by adopting a replicable, scientific and transparent process (Tranfield et al.
[16]), it also allow researchers to study the strength of the published evidence while
still attempting to remain as natural and unbiased as possible. This is possible because
of the inherent evidences in the review analysis and synthesis. When facts are pre-
sented, scientific conclusions becomes easier. Though the process may be cumbersome
and detailed, systematic review, according to Tranfield et al. [16], is still acknowledged
as the most efficient for identifying and evaluating literatures. In addition, systematic
reviews, aside from not only being important for advancing the field of study, it is also
a veritable tool for advancing and informing management practice [1, 20].
2.1 Systematic Literature Review Approach

In the process of reviewing the empirical evidences in the existing literature, systematic
review was considered as best and comprehensive option for identifying the gaps in
ethic in stakeholder engagement, this was also buttressed by Tranfield et al. and Booth
et al. [16, 21]. This review was done with the protocol in Fig. 1.
Stage I−Planning the review
Phase 0 - Identification for the need for a review
Phase 1 - Preparation of a proposal for a review
Phase 2 - Development of a review protocol
Stage II−Conducting a review
Phase 3 - Identification of research
Phase 4 - Selection of studies
Phase 5 - Study quality assessment
Phase 6 - Data extraction and monitoring progress
Phase 7 - Data synthesis
Stage III−Reporting and dissemination
Phase 8 - The report and recommendations
Phase 9 - Getting evidence into practice
Fig. 1. Stages of a systematic review [Source: Tranfield, Denyer and Smart [16]]
For the purpose of this paper, Fig. 1 has been collapsed to the five steps below,
which the review is subjected to:
• Identification of research;
• Selection of studies;
• Study quality assessment;
• Data extraction and monitoring progress; and
• Data synthesis
The process of arriving at the 18 document for final review is analytically captured
in the flowchart.
Figure 2: Flow chart showing search and analytical process. This makes the pro-
cess transparent and it confirms the rigour and reliability of the systematic review [16].
The coding structure for the systematic review follows the Tranfield protocols. The
basis for the coding, amongst others, is to ensure that all vital information are well
captured in the coding system and hence in the analysis. Microsoft excel was utilized
for the coding step of the systematic review.
The 18 papers were subjected to the coding structure (as in Fig. 2) utilization of
Microsoft excel made the coding easy as well as the analysis. The coding uses the
bibliometric details such as year of publication, details of authors, journal and article
title. In addition, further categorization in terms of the study sector, author’s nationality
Keyword search:
Search databases: Web of science, Scopus and Google scholar yielding (with google scholar returning a
total of 2905)
2,944 results (May 2019)
Removal by elimination of duplicates, in title filter

elimination in Google scholar and unrelated results in
28 studies
Review of abstracts, keywords and titles using

criteria results in (6 had no abstract at all)
18 studies
Analysis of full articles:
Full paper analysis and synthesis including a Wikipedia paper that was
considered relevant to the review
18 studies
Fig. 2. Flow chart showing search and analytical process

and in some cases, sample size of the research. This sometimes makes it easy to
observe saturation trend across research articles. These 28 studies that scaled through to
full analysis and synthesis also scaled through the inclusion and exclusion, as shown in
criteria when subjected it.
The review commenced with identification of research. In order to increase the
credibility of the research, we did not impose any time limitation or be limited to a time
in the past. The result is all the databases could return. To also increase our review
horizon and identify literatures, we did not limit our types of publications. The types
returned were what the databases could return back during each search. Our search
included reviews, journal articles, book chapters, conference papers. This is a standard
practice in review studies, since these sources are considered ‘certified knowledge’ and
enhance the results’ reliability [22]. Our conclusion that this is the first study and
review in ethics, stakeholder engagement, industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 was
enhanced by the outcome of our search results. This further created the need to keep
varying our search keywords (as most databases were returning zero results). In all the
databases, the search strings “ethics” and “stakeholder engagement” and “industry 4.0”
on one hand yielded zero result except for google scholar that brought 75 results but
eventually gave zero when the “in title” option was used and the search strings “ethics”
and “stakeholder engagement” and “construction 4.0” on the other, also yielded zero
results from all the databases. To enhance our review quality, the following combi-
nation of search string was finally adopted “ethics” AND “industry 4.0” on one hand
and “construction 4.0” were separately searched for the review. We applied the search
string to the titles, keywords and abstracts of publications in academic databases. In
particular, we used Scopus, Web of Science and Google scholar databases to search for
all publications whose topics cover at least one keyword from the selected sets of
search string. These databases were chosen for their known broad and multidisciplinary
scope, their popularity in academia and are reputed for being the most commonly used
sources for review studies [23, 24].
2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To arrive at the 18 studies for review, the following inclusion and exclusion criteria
were used. These are captured in table below (Table 1):
Table 1. Table showing inclusion and exclusion 3 Results, Findings

criteria and Discussion
Exclusion Inclusion
No abstract Articles The review, as previously suggested,
Unrelated publications Book chapters brought out series of analytical out-
Conference paper puts that would not just determine the
Review paper future direction of research in the
Workshop output field of ethics, industry 4.0 and con-
Wikipedia
struction 4.0 (ESEI&C 4.0), it also
brings to the fore, relational and
deductive researches that will extensively contribute to both practice and academics
and may lead to rapid development in the field. To quantitatively confirm that devel-
opment and growth in both industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 has not been studied in
relation to the needed ethics and stakeholder engagement approaches, we would begin
with a frequency analysis of our researches in the fields.
3.1 Frequency Analysis

The frequency analysis is a veritable tool to projecting, descriptively and graphically,
the pattern of the review over the past years. This can be an indication of either growing
or declining interest in the discourse of ethics in stakeholder engagement, industry 4.0
and construction 4.0.
The search results from the databases brought the earliest time studies were con-
ducted in the field to be 2015, which is also a confirmation that both industry 4.0 and
construction 4.0 are recent additions into research. From Fig. 3: Frequency Analysis –
Linear below, we can also see that it is an emerging field. The r-square value of 0.6563
is an indication of its still low emergence.
Fig. 3. Frequency analysis – linear Fig. 4. Frequency analysis – polynomial
Above notwithstanding, if we attempt an analysis of Fig. 4: Frequency Analysis –

Polynomial, we would observe that the r-square is higher than Fig. 3: Frequency
Analysis – Linear. This is an indication that the frequency is more polynomial than
linear. This can be attributed to the inconsistency in the interest researcher have shown
in the field. The highest study of 10 studies was in 2018 which was a leap jump from 2
in 2017. Though 2019 has not ended we can’t predict what the 2019 pattern will end up
with (the authors expect an increase because there are already 8 studies in less than half
of the year). The pattern that gave rise to a higher polynomic r-square vale can be seen
from studies from 2015 to 2018 (Fig. 5).
The authors also applied the moving average as shown in Fig. 5 to indicate that
though the field is emerging, the interest researchers are showing in the fields is still low -
with the lowest average being only one study in 2016 and highest of nine studies in 2019.
(Kindly note that these studies are predominantly in education and are not in ethics field).
This makes the subject area analysis necessary to strengthen our conclusions.
Table 2. Review analysis of subject

areas
Review subject area Frequency
Advanced process control 1
Automation 1
Construction 4.0 1
Cybersecurity 1
Construction (dam & steel) 2
Earthmoving machinery 2
Education 3
Hunan-computer interaction 1
Innovation 1
Robotics, AI etc. 1
Sustainable development 1
Fig. 5. Frequency analysis – moving average Not defined subject area 8
Total 23
3.2 Subject Area Analysis
With the frequency analysis in 2 above, there
is the need to analyse further and see the subject areas researchers have been studying
or expanding the frontiers of knowledge in relation to how ethics and stakeholder
engagement are being applied in the field of industry 4.0 and construction 4.0. This will
further show how the field is developing and how researchers are spreading the
application or implementation of industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 to various fields of
study and by implication its level of globalization.
Table 2: Review Analysis of Subject Areas shows the breakdown of subject areas
that both industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 are being studied within the context of the
review. The pictorial analysis of this table can be seen in the figure below
Both Table 2: Review Analysis of
Subject Areas and Fig. 6: Subject
Areas Analysis give a clearer pattern of
emerging subject fields being studied.
The highest study goes to an area the
authors could not readily attribute to a
subject concern hence the tag “unde-
fined”. Let’s quickly add that the
publications without abstracts are
included in this categorization. The
second in the series is the academic or
Fig. 6. Subject areas analysis education field. This predominantly
focus on amending curriculum and or preparing academics with the probable challenges
envisaged by the movement to fourth industrial revolution. This can be seen in the
following included discus: Learning Framework in the Industrial Age 4.0 in Higher
Education [25], Vocational Education and Training of construction machinery operators
in Spain (Corral, [26]), On a Frame Work of Curriculum for Engineering Education 4.0
[27], Fourth Industrial Revolution and the future of Engineering: Could Robots Replace
Human Jobs? How Ethical Recommendations can Help Engineers Rule on Artificial
Intelligence [28]. These titles clearly show the focus of the study in the educational field.
This brings us to the second conclusion that industry 4.0 and construction 4.0 study
requires expansion of fields and subject areas. So far, within the limits of this analysis,
industry and construction 4.0 studies have been restricted to only eleven clearly defined
fields. It may interest us that none of this studies is ethics or stakeholder engagement
related.
4 Conclusion
From the forgoing, the following conclusions can be derived from the systematic
review study:
1. That researchers have not yet shown interest in ethics and stakeholder engagement
in both industry 4.0 and construction 4.0. This therefore calls for concerted efforts at
establishing an ethical approach to both fourth industrial and construction revolu-
tions. Further studies in this field may reveal the path to rapid growth and repli-
cation into other sectors, lesson learnt can be studied as an ethical approach and
developmental tool [29].
2. From the coverage of the subject areas, it can be seen that the highest defined
interest is in the education filed and has more to do with curricular and framework
setting. This is also a clarion call for industrial and construction researchers and
practitioners to look deeper into studies that will enhance the rapid development of
industry and construction 4.0 by bringing out the ethics of engagement in core
industries and construction with a view to enhancing rapid development and
expansion of the fourth industrial and construction revolutions.
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An Assessment of Risks Associated
with the Use of Second Hand Tyres in Zambia
from the Perspective of Enforcement
Authorities
Bridget Kamanga1, Erastus Mwanaumo1(&),

Nathan Sefuka Musonda2, and Mwewa Mambwe1
1
2
Abstract. The study evaluated the effects of driving second hand degraded tyres
and their contribution to accidents in Zambia. A triangulation method was
adopted which consisted of case studies on the dangers of using second hand
tyres and the use of secondary data from Zambia Police. Structured interviews
were applied and a questionnaire was distributed randomly to a sampled popu-
lation of 46 respondents from distributed 66. Data from Zambia Police and Road
Transport and Safety Authority was used to analyze recorded accidents that
occurred in the period 2006–2015. Results revealed that users and second hand
tyre dealers are ignorant of the tyre quality expectations and that they had never
been inspected by Zambia Bureau of Standards which did not have standards on
the use of second hand tyres at the time of the study. The study suggested the
need for authorities to improve safety for all road users by ensuring that imported
second hand tyres meet the manufacturer’s minimum recommendation.
Keywords: Accidents Pressure Prevention Tyre Wear
1 Introduction
Road traffic accidents have been identified among the leading cause of death and dis-
ability in the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) described traffic accidents
as ‘hidden epidemics’ with a forecast to be the 5th leading cause of death worldwide and
the second leading cause of disability in many developing countries by 2030 [1]. In the
Africa region, ten out of over 50 countries account for roughly 70% of all road traffic
deaths [2]. These include Nigeria, Ghana, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, South Africa,
Republic of Congo, Madagascar, Ethiopia, and Mozambique. Consequently, the WHO
declared the period between 2011 and 2020 as a ‘Decade of Action for Road Safety’ [2].
In Zambia, the epidemic is growing. World Health Organisation data shows that death
from traffic accidents increased by 20% between 1990 and 2002 [3].
Motor Vehicle Crashes are the leading causes of injuries and disabilities in Zambia
today [4]. The age group laying between 16 to 35 years had become highly susceptible to

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_60
An Assessment of Risks Associated with the Use of Second Hand Tyres 589
crashes. The road traffic accidents are estimated to be costing the nation millions of
kwacha as was seen from the reports obtained from Zambia Police and Road Transport
and Safety Agency [5]. The report further stated that some of these accidents were caused
by reckless driving such as over-speeding, driving extremely slowly, drunken drivers,
inexperienced drivers, tyre bursts, and ignorance of drivers. Most of these causes of
accidents could be avoided through intervention of government measures and discipline
among road users. The study sought to understand the extent to which the number of
accidents attributed to the use of second hand or defective tyres, and if the state agencies
inspect the condition of tyres both at vehicle inspection centres and at accident scenes.
2 Literature Review
According to Black Circles [6] on the composition of tyres and their identification
parameters, tyres use natural and synthetic rubber as their primary raw material. Other
materials include Sulphur, Zinc oxide, and carbon black which are just a few to
mention [6]. At a glance, all tyres fitted on vehicles have a serial identification number.
This is used to determine the age of the tyre [7]. The date of manufacture of the tyre is
determined by the last four numbers to the nearest week. For example, a tyre with serial
identification of 4809 was manufactured in the 48th week of 2009.
All tyres being manufactured are made with a code that tells the maximum load
capacity of the tyre. Nonetheless, Osueke and Uguru-Okorie [7] and Murray and Lopez
[1] on incorrect load and speed indices, stated that there is a tendency of the illegal use
of the wrong tyres with insufficient load or speed indices. One of the causes of acci-
dents has been ignorance of drivers on the load capacity of the vehicles originating
from the tyres [7]. The speed indices indicated on the tyres tells a lot on how much
speed the vehicle can be subjected to. It also helps the driver to determine what type of
a tyre to use for the vehicle so that it matches with the speed of the vehicle.
Further, the maximum load for vehicles should not be greater than the tyres
maximum load [1] which is indicated on the sidewalls of the tyre. The maximum load
capacity of the tyre is assumed to be operating at the proper tyre inflation. Hence, it is
not recommended to mix tyres on a car with different speed ratings as postulated by the
Road Traffic and Safety Agency in the Lusaka Times [4].
According to Manas et al. [8] bad inflation pressure of tyres either under-inflation
or over-inflation causes tyres to wear easily and increases poor vehicle handling by
drivers. Over or under-inflated tyres traditionally manifested classic wear patterns.
When a person pumps his/her tyre with low pressure, it causes the tyre to collapse
slightly which causes the weight of the vehicle to be carried on the tyre sidewalls than
on the center of the tread [6]. This results in the tread wear to be greater towards the
sides than in the center. Hence, it is important to make sure that one maintains the
correct inflation pressure as indicated on the tyres. This helps to keep vehicle handling
and braking at its best, improves fuel efficiency and tyre life.
In developed countries like Japan, the law stipulates that automobiles must pass an
automobile safety inspection and are allowed to run on Japanese public roads only when
the tread depth of the tyres is 1.6 mm or larger [9]. For tyres seeming to be brand new,
those above 6 years from the date of manufacture should not be comfortably used
590 B. Kamanga et al.
because of the ageing effect and the high risk of causing accidents. More or so, in
Norway and most European Union countries, an extensive programme of periodic motor
vehicle inspection including the state of the tyres which are measured and tested to
verify their roadworthiness [10]. While in the United Arab Emirates, it was found that
5%–9% of traffic accidents are caused by mechanical defects, with the state of tyres,
brakes and lights often being the major factors [11]. A set of inspection surveys help to
collect information on the environmental parameters that could affect the efficiency of
tyres depending on the geographical weather conditions and how they affect the tyres.
A study conducted in South Africa, by Vogel and Bester [12] indicated that from an
average of 404 accident reports analysed 75.4% were due to human errors, 14.5% were
risk factors due to environmental causes and 10.2% were due to vehicle factors. The
vehicle factors comprised of faulty brakes and tyres. They further indicated that the
road traffic burden was becoming a worsening global disaster.
In Zambia, there is no known legislation which restricts the importation of second
hand tyres. Only 28 countries, representing 416 million people (7% of the world’s
population) have adequate laws that address the main five risk factors which are speed,
drink-driving, helmets, seat-belts and child restraints [3]. Tyres are seen lying alongside
the roads in direct sunlight. These tyres have different quality standards and brands.
They range from a low grade to an average high grade [13].
Moreover, there is also an increase in the use of second hand tyres which easily
wear without close monitoring. According to the report by Zambia Bureau of Standards
[14] of the 4, 322 motor vehicles inspected in Lusaka 1,895 (44%) vehicles had to pay
penalties at the point of entry into the country due to their non-compliance to the
standards of roadworthiness including tyres. The second hand tyres have also increased
because of retreading which involves grinding down the surface or casing of a worn
tyre until it is smooth and then gluing a new veneer of tread onto it [15]. There are a
number of dangerous chemicals in tyres amongst them is latex and synthetic rubber.
This means that they cannot be burnt safely and cannot easily be disposed of. Addi-
tionally, Tyre separation is the most common cause for tyre blowouts. This is as a result
of insufficient bonding of the tread in the tyres. Because of this, it causes the tyre to
slowly separate. Some other conditions under which a vehicle tyre can cause an
accident include: inability to grip road in weather; over inflation or under inflation; poor
traction or tread design; cheap road construction having potholes; used or the pro-
longed use of tyres; tread separation; weak outer tyre structure and blowouts according
to Osueke and Uguru-Okorie [7].
A triangulation method was adopted which consisted of case studies on the dangers of
using second hand tyres, the use of secondary data from Zambia Police, and use of
interviews, observations and questionnaire survey. This approach was used to validate
the data obtained by means of secondary sources from Zambia Police on accident
reports and the structured interviews with Road Transport and Safety Agency officers
and Police Traffic Officers. The triangulation approach was also adopted by Bun [16]
and Ponboon [17] in which they both assessed the factors of road traffic accidents.
Triangulation approach was adopted in order to increase credibility and validity of the
research [18]. A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to some selected
government departments. The questionnaire was self-administered in order to reduce
bias, and allow anonymity and honesty in answering the questions. The target group
being the sampled population were divided into four groups including: road users and
bus drivers; tyre resellers and tyre menders; Road Transport and Safety Association and
Zambia Police Traffic officers; and customs officers and Zambia Bureau of Standards
Inspectors. In depth discussions were also carried out with Zambia Revenue Authority
custom officers at Chanida border and Zambia Bureau of Standards concerning the
risks involved in driving passenger vehicles fitted with second hand tyres.
A total of 10 Traffic officers from Zambia Police headquarters participated in the
research through interviews and answering the questionnaires in a rather more detailed
approach. Only 66 questionnaires were distributed of which 46 responses were col-
lected from government departments such as Police Traffic officers, Road Transport
and Safety Agency agents and motor vehicle users. Only 3 inspecting officers from
Zambia Bureau of Standards and 6 Road Transport and Safety Agency traffic officers
and 3 from research and statistics office at Road Transport and Safety Agency were
subjected to an in-depth interview. Secondary data was also obtained using data from
Zambia Police and Road Transport and Safety Agency on the accidents caused by tyres
that occurred in the pass 4–5 years. The study area was in Lusaka province as it
recorded the maximum import of second hand vehicles and tyres.
4 Findings
From secondary data obtained and reviewed, the statistical survey on the number of
second hand motor vehicle importation, it was found that Zambia was amongst the top
third importer of second hand vehicles in Southern Africa in the years 2010 and 2011.
The results obtained indicate that there has been a rapid increase in importation of
second hand used cars, which are normally fitted with second hand tyres (See Table 1).
The data also give a general overview of the number of imported second hand tyres
imported into the country.
Table 1. Vehicle importation statistics in Southern Africa between 2010 and 2011
Name Total
2010 2011
Angola 8 1
Botswana 3151 10256
Congo (DRC) 1227 2613
Lesotho 67 372
Malawi 1002 1656
Mozambique 3524 7890
Namibia 298 591
South Africa 0 41727
Swaziland 808 521
Zambia 3554 9815
Zimbabwe 1167 1725
4.1 Number of Accidents and Fatalities

According to the Road Traffic and Safety Agency on accident statistics obtained during
interviews, accidents and fatalities are linked to the total number of registered motor
vehicles. An estimate of every 10,000 registered motor vehicle indicators shows the
ratio of accidents and fatalities to the number of registered motor vehicles which in turn
establishes the extent to which road crashes contribute towards public health problems.
Table 2 shows that an increase in the number of accidents per 10,000 motor vehicles
and number of fatalities per 10,000 motor vehicles from 135 to 136 and 9 to 10
respectively. As at September 30th, 2015 the cumulative number of registered motor
vehicles stood at 636,378. By looking at these accident statistics, one can tell that there
has been a shady increase in the number of vehicles entering into the country.
Table 2. Number of accidents and fatalities per 10,000 vehicles.

Year Number of Number Number Number of Number of
vehicles of of accidents per fatalities per
registered accidents fatalities 10,000 vehicles 10,000 vehicles
2015 (1st 620,758 7,782 465 125 7
quarter)
2015 (2nd 636,378 8,617 563 135 9
quarter)
2015 (3rd 651,280 8,839 641 136 10
quarter)
Jan to Sept 651,280 25,238 1,669 388 26
2015
Source: Road Transport and Safety Agency [5]
Additionally, during the interview at Road Traffic and Safety Agency, road traffic
accident factors were categorised according to human error; pedestrians; mechanical
failure; road defects; and weather conditions. From this categorisation, contributory
factors caused by mechanical failure highlighted that tyres were ranked highest in
causing road traffic crashes. In the first quarter of 2015 tyres accounted for 66 crashes
out of 132. However, by the third quarter, tyres contributed 62 crashes out of 122 from
the motor vehicle mechanical failure related cases. The second in ranking was motor
vehicle brake failure accounting for 45 cases of 122. This is illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3. Number of road traffic crashes due to motor vehicle mechanical failures.
Contributory factors 3rd quarter 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter
Mechanical failure 2014 2015 2015 2015
Brakes 28 37 33 45
Tyres 76 66 49 62
Steering 10 11 5 2
(continued)
Contributory factors 3rd quarter 1st quarter 2nd quarter 3rd quarter
Mechanical failure 2014 2015 2015 2015
Springs 9 4 2 3
No front lights 7 1 2 0
No rear lights/reflection 1 0 1 0
Unattended vehicle running away 4 10 7 4
Smashed windscreen 2 1 0 0
Vehicle overloaded 4 2 3 6
Total 141 132 102 122
Source: Road Transport and Safety Agency [5]
4.2 Knowledge on Dangers of Using Second Hand Tyres

From the administered questionnaire to understand whether or not users are aware of
the dangers of using second hand tyres, it was discovered that 64.30% of road users
including bus drivers indicated that they did not know the dangers of importing or
driving vehicles with second hand tyres. Meaning more than 50% of the sampled
population are at risk of buying these second hand tyres (See Fig. 1).
80.00% 64.30%
60.00%
Percentage
40.00%
21.40% 14.30%
20.00%
0.00%
Yes No Not sure
Response
Fig. 1. Percentage of user with knowledge on the dangers of importing of using second hand
tyres
Main Causes of Tyre Bursts. Road users including bus drivers interviewed men-
tioned that overloading was the main causes of tyre bursts. Other reasons for tyre bursts
discovered from the interviews are inappropriate tyre inflation, usage of worn out tyres,
extreme temperatures and exceeding tyre limit.
4.3 Understanding the Writing on the Tyres

About the level of awareness on the understanding the meaning of the writings on the
tyres, 72% of the respondents admitted that did not understand. Only 14% had an
understanding of the meaning of the writings (See Fig. 2). On the legal limit of 1.6 mm
tread wear, only 7% indicated understanding of the limit as shown in Fig. 3.
Yes No
Not 14% 14%
sure Yes
14% 7%
No Not
72% sure
79%
No Not sure Yes
Not sure Yes No
Fig. 2. Percentage of respondents who
understand the writing on the tyres Fig. 3. Percentage of understanding the
legal limits of tyres
4.4 Provision of Professional Advice When Selling Second Tyres

On the provision of advice when selling second hand tyres, 61% of the 46 respondents
mentioned that tyres dealers did not provide professional advice when selling the tyres.
This is because they too, did not understand the markings on the tyre. They would only
ask for which tyre size the user is interested in (See Fig. 4).
Yes
38%
No
61%
Not sure
1%
No Not sure Yes
Fig. 4. Percentage values of whether car dealers provide professional advice when selling tyres
4.5 Possible Risks Associated with Second Hand Tyres

The possible risks associated with the second hand tyres were identified through in-
depth interviews with the sampled population from Road Transport and Safety Agency.
It was highlighted that the following risks could highly contribute to motor vehicle
accidents due to the use of second tyres:
Inability to Grip on the Road Due to Wet Weather Conditions. Treads easily finish
making the surfaces smooth and easy for the vehicle to skid off the road at high speed.
Tread Separation. If the tyre was retreaded and bonding was not properly done, the
tyre easily separates at high motion.
Over Inflation or Under Inflation Causing a Tyre to Rapture. Over inflated tyres
bulge, forming cracks in the middle causing burst at high temperatures. Similarly, when
under-inflated, the rim casing rests on the tyre and easily wears causing outward cracks.
Ignoring the Expiring Date of Tyres. It was discovered that the majority of the tyres
which were being sold had the date of manufacture beyond the recommended 4 years
[8] which is the maximum performance threshold.
Chemical Reactions as a Result of the Tyres Exposure to the Atmosphere or
Direct Sunlight. It was discovered that tyre resellers are not knowledgeable of the
proper storage of tyres or their direct exposure to sunlight. Resellers left their tyres in
open direct sunlight which had great effect on the tyre life.
Further, according to the statistics shared during the interviews with the Road Traffic
and Safety Agency, at least 275 recorded accidents between the years 2003 to 2014
were related to tyres as a major contributing factor to road traffic accidents.
4.6 Interview Summary with Zambia Police and Road Transport Safety
Agency
In order to understand the extent, the law enforcement record data on accidents caused
by the prolonged use of second hand tyres, the law enforcers indicated that there was
no record to this effect. This was because there are very few causes of accidents
reported pointing to the prolonged use of tyres, hence they did not check the usage
apart from accident causations.
To understand the extent to which the enforcement agents check for tyre fitness, it
was discovered that the fitness was determined at both vehicle inspection centres and at
an accident scene. Additionally, they mentioned that the guidelines provided in the
Roads and Road Traffic Act Cap 464 of the Laws of Zambia on the physical condition
of the tyre, was followed.
5 Discussion
In this study on the assessment of factors associated with the use of second hand tyres
on light vehicles in Zambia, the critical factor was the link between accidents and
second hand tyres having the minimum recommended tread depth and expired tyres.
Generally, tyres determine the stability and safety of vehicles on the road according to
Murray and Lopez [1]. Since tyres are either designed for cold regions or for hot
regions. In Zambia, the weather is different from other regions and temperature range
between 25 and 35° all year round [4]. From the findings, it was discovered that some
road users do not check for whether the tyre is meant for the hot or cold season. Bun
[16] affirms the notion that when a person uses tyres meant for the cold season in hot
weather, the tyre may rapture. Should the tyre rapture when the vehicle is in high speed,
it may lead to a traffic accident. Results also revealed that authorities need to improve
safety of all road users by ensuring that imported second hand tyres meet the manu-
facturer’s minimum recommendation by checking if the treads are clearly marked and
checking their expiring dates.
In Zambia, most vehicles imported are from Japan, with a small volume being
imported from Singapore, United Arab Emirates (Dubai), England (U.K.), and U.S.A
[14]. These vehicles come with second hand tyres which are manufactured according to
the patterns they are made from. However, the study revealed that quality of the tyres is
not checked at point of entry and only checked for certificate before issuing a clearance
certification, the valuation of the vehicle, model and year of make as it determines the
value of what has to be paid to the receiver of taxes. However, Emuze and Smallwood
[19] postulated that inspections of imported tyres from the point of entry into the
country need to be checked for quality and usability before they are certified for use in
the countries.
Additionally, the Zambia Bureau of Standards reveled that they only inspected
brand new tyres to check for the standards by measuring their tensile strength before
they could be allowed to be sold or used on the roads. The standard which is used to
test for tyres is called Pneumatic tyres specification ZF-437 [9]. However, they further
confirmed that they did not check second hand tyres because the country had no
standards for them at the time of the study. Standards on the use of second hand tyres
are significant as they help the users know the acceptable years and life span before
disposal, which gives the remaining tensile strength before the tyre becomes obsolete
and ready for disposal. This notion was affirmed by Christensen and Rune [10] in
which they said that when the standards are known, it is easy to enforce the require-
ments at the point of importation. Also, the local resellers of second hand tyres would
be informed and advise the user on how long a tyre can be used before it becomes a risk
factor to cause an accident.
Lack of enforcement and control on the importation of second hand tyres increases
the chances of importing substandard second hand tyres. It is important that goods
being brought into any country are controlled whenever they are imported. It is relevant
if such legislation is put in place for controlling the importation of goods. This was
affirmed by the Zambia Bureau of Standards and Road Transport and Safety Agency
[5]. Further, the Zambia Police equally agreed to this view as was suggested by Osueke
and Uguru-Okirie [7]. Zambia Bureau of Standards and Road Transport and Safety
Agency officers admitted that they pay little or no attention in checking for quality of
tyres at the border or during fitness tests.
The treads and the markings should be visible and the tread depth should not be less
than 1.6 mm Yamashita and Yamashita [9] and Zambia Bureau of Standards [14].
When checking for wear and tear. The study discovered that this was not followed in
most cases as most people and second hand tyre dealers were not aware. Other causes
that were highlighted which may lead to an accident include under inflation of tyres,
over inflation of tyres and little to no thread depths on tyres, poor tread design and tread
separation, and prolonged of tyres. These factors were equally affirmed by studies
conducted by Ponboon et al. [17], Schatz [13] and World Health Organisation [3].
Overall results revealed that motorists did not know the dangers of driving second hand
tyres.
Regular checks on tyre dealers should be carried out and improved by the
responsible authorities such as Road Transport and Safety Agency, Traffic Police and
Zambia Bureau of Standards at various locations in the country forming part of the
guideline for the selling of second hand tyres in the country.
The study concluded that the causes of road traffic accidents depend on a list of factors
which can be broadly divided into: vehicle operator or driver factors; vehicle condition
factors; road pavement condition factors and environmental factors. It can be concluded
that there are several risks associated with driving vehicles fitted with second hand tyres
as overall results revealed that users are ignorant of minimum tyre quality expectation.
They do not understand the markings on the tyre, especially on how to check for the
expiry date. In the end, they tend to buy expired tyres which are not road worthy. Results
revealed that authorities need to improve safety of all road users by ensuring that
imported second hand tyres meet the manufacturer’s minimum recommendation by
checking if the treads are clearly marked and checking their expiring dates.
The study recommends that the need for authorities to improve safety for all road
users by ensuring that imported second hand tyres meet the manufacturer’s minimum
recommendations and hence restrict the importation of second hand tyres. Further
recommendations from the study indicates that for quality purposes, there is need to
introduce licenses for selling second tyres and conduct awareness on the markings and
period of usage of the second tyres.
References
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Diseases, Injuries and Risk Factors in 1990 and Projected to 2020. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge (1996)
2. World Health Organisation: Global Status Report on Road Safety. http://www.who.int/
violenceinjuryprevention/roadsafetystatus/2009/
3. World Health Organisation: WHO Road Traffic Injuries: Fact sheet No. 358 (2013)
4. Lusaka Times.: Road Transport and Safety Agency Identifies major causes of accidents
(2013). http://www.lusakatimes.com
5. Road Transport and Safety Agency: Third quarter accidents report for 2015, Statistics and
Research Unit, RTSA, Lusaka, Zambia (2015)
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Int. J. Emerg. Technol. Adv. 12, 54 (2012)
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Eng. 37(2), 538–543 (2009)
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Lusaka Times, Lusaka (2015)
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and Safety, Singapore (2012)
Professional Construction Health and Safety
Agent (CHSA) Practice Issues in the South
African Construction Sector
Claire Deacon(&)
Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Claire.deacon@mandela.ac.za
Abstract. The introduction of professional construction H&S agents (CHSAs’)

in 2013 to the built environment professional (BEP) team are now practicing in
the construction H&S space. The CHSAs’ have specific contributions and
actions that dovetail into the construction life cycle. The CHSA activities on
projects are managed by clients, but more so by BEPs on projects. Despite the
statutory requirements that govern the role of the CHSAs’, a number of issues
relate to the practice of the CHSA at professional and candidate levels on
construction projects.
Research conducted among CHSAs’ indicate BEPs’ lack of H&S knowledge;
tenders are given to non-professional CHS categories of registered persons.
Collectively the findings indicate very high risks to projects, clients, and the
public at large. The CHSAs’ are further deemed to be at risk from the lack of
support by the DoL and clients and in their professional capacity.
Keywords: Built environment professionals Construction

Health and safety Health and safety agents
1 Introduction
In 2013 the SACPCMP required persons practicing as the construction H&S clients
‘agent’ to register with the South African Council for the Project and Construction
Management Professionals (SACPCMP) in a specified category of ‘Professional
Construction H&S Agent’ (PrCHSA), or candidate CHSA (CanCHSA). The two cat-
egories will be referred to as the CHSA for ease of reference.
The roles and responsibilities of the CHSA are legislated in the Construction
Regulations (CRs), and the SACPCMP [1, 3, 6]. The requirement was further rein-
forced by an exemption notice issued by the Department of Labour (DoL) in 2014. As
such, each construction project requires such an appointment as part of the client team
to provide expert H&S input to the professional team and the client. Such appointment
is required to be registered with the SACPCMP [5].
However, there are currently fewer than 240 registered CHSAs’, including candi-
dates that have been registered with the SACPCMP. Given the low number of pro-
fessionals available, one would expect that the professionals would be oversubscribed
with work, as each project over the value of R40 million requires a CHSA to be

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1_61
600 C. Deacon
appointed on the project. As the group of CHSAs professionals are such a small
community who interact together fairly often, a number of aspects were being con-
tinually raised by the CHSAs’, that affect their practice. A number of themes emerged,
that relate to the lack of projects and insufficient work to sustain practice, among other.
The concept and framework of the study was provided by the practice issues
against the prescribed requirements to practice, among other.
2 Review of the Literature
2.1 Statutory Requirements

The practice of construction H&S has two sets of legislation that guides the sector.
The SACPCMP has published through Act 48 of 2000 the registration criteria for those
practicing H&S in the construction sector, at one level. The Construction Regulations
(CRs) 2014 prescribe the requirements of the sector to only use those registered persons
on projects at another level. The requirements are relatively prescriptive in the CRs,
relating to the roles from the client, designer and contractors, and highly prescriptive by
the SACPCMP [4, 6].
2.2 Registration Criteria for the Practice of Health and Safety

with the South African Construction Project Management
Professions Council
South Africa is one of a number of countries in Africa where professional registration
of H&S professionals is required to practice. While such countries are not necessarily
limited to the construction sector, no other countries in the world have such registration
requirements [1].
The SACPCMP is one of six statutory councils that require BEPs to register in
order to practice in their discipline. Each council regulates the registration requirements
and monitors disciplinary aspects where there is risk to the public through registered
persons not adhering to their scope of practice. The PrCHSA practices in all six stages
of the construction life cycle with the client team [6, 7].
In order to meet the registration criteria, a CHSA is required to have a mixture of
formal training, with a minimum of a diploma in H&S and a range of short courses.
Project experience is required which is commensurate with the level of such formal
training. A range of documentation is required to be submitted with each application.
Two reports are required to be submitted that discuss successes and perceived failures
relative to the following nine knowledge areas:
• Procurement Management;
• Cost management;
• Hazard Identification Management;
• Risk Management;
• Accident or Incident Investigation Management;
• Legislation and Regulations Management;
• Communication Management, and
• Emergency Preparedness Management [8].
Professional Construction Health and Safety Agent (CHSA) 601
Each application is reviewed by three assessors for compliance. Successful appli-

cants are invited to an interview to verify their knowledge across the six stages by a
group of peers [6].
There are two other H&S categories that are required to be registered, however
these are generally appointed by the contractors, the criteria are similar, except the
applicants write exams and are not considered professionals, but ‘registered persons’.
The titles for the groups are the construction H&S Manager (CHSM), and Officer
(CHSO). The CHSM and CHSO work from stages four to six of the construction life
cycle [8].
There are six construction stages that are most often used in the construction sector
that have tasks undertaken by the various BEPs throughout a project, dependent upon
their role. The stages, while not entrenched in law, can be related to in a broad sense,
when reviewing the requirements of the CRs. Table 1 indicates the stages of the
construction sector, as well as the three categories of H&S registration and the practice
areas of each category.
Table 1. Project stages and practice areas per SACPCMP registered category of H&S.
Project stage Category practice
areas
CHSA CHSO/CHSM
Stage 1: Project initiation and briefing ✓ N/A
Stage 2: Concept and feasibility ✓ N/A
Stage 3: Design and development ✓ N/A
Stage 4: Tender documentation and procurement ✓ ✓
Stage 5: Construction documentation and management ✓ ✓
Stage 6: Project close-out ✓ ✓
2.3 The Construction Regulations

Any person, or organisation that employs persons, or does ‘work’, is required to
comply with the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA), No. 85 of 1993, and its
regulations (RSA, 1993). The CR’s were introduced originally through statutory pro-
mulgation in 2003 and amended in 2014. The 2014 amendments increased, inter alia,
the requirements for the level of competence and accountability among construction
stakeholders, which includes the client and the BEPs [1, 3].
An agent is defined by the CRs as a person who represents a client [2] and is
responsible for guiding and ensuring that the scope of work relating to the project. The
CRs imply that the CHSA is to be appointed by the client prior to the BEPs who would
be managing the project.
The DoL published a guideline to the CRs where it states that the client may
appoint a CHSA or a CHSM as their agent based on the scope and risk profile of the
project [2].
602 C. Deacon
3 Procurement
Procurement practices in South Africa in the public sector are set out by the National
Treasury, against a number of finance management laws. Treasury supplies standard
forms of contract for government for public sector, that are not only restricted to the
construction sector. National Treasury closely monitors the procurement processes at
all levels of government.
However, in a study at provincial and district levels, Deacon [1] reports that stages 1
and 2 do not result in the inclusion of the CHSA, as the activities really just are costing
exercises, with BEPs reportedly having to ‘thumb suck crazily’ about project costs. The
result in terms of stages 1 and 2 are blurred at best, and mostly an administrative exercise
[1]. Smallwood and Deacon [8], indicate in their study that 27% of CHSAs are
appointed at stage 1, none at stage 2; 18% at stage 3 and 27% at stages 4 and 5. Figure 1
indicates the stages at which each of the categories of construction H&S are appointed
on projects. In most cases the CHSA is appointed from stage 4 to 6; but what is notable
is the number of CHSOs that state they are appointed from stage 2 [1].
Fig. 1. Appointment of construction H&S categories across the 6 stages of work.
4 Competencies in the Built Environment
Smallwood and Deacon [8] cite Smallwood and Haupt who investigated the impor-
tance of 79 knowledge areas and 50 skills relating to the CHSA. The study resulted in 7
composite areas ranked in the following order: H&S project administration, design,
law, management and management of parameters. Construction technology and tech-
nology, planning, and financial management, among other. Given the wide range of
composite areas and statutory requirements, Deacon [1] cites findings where various
stakeholders in the BEP and H&S categories were asked about their levels of confi-
dence (LoC) about H&S and the stages of work. The CHSAs indicated a LoC, as did
the CHSMs and CHSOs relative to their areas of work. The BEPs all indicated low
levels of H&S LoC across the 6 stages. Figure 2 indicates the range of BEPs who
participated in Deacon’s study and their levels of confidence as reported [1].
4.1 Training
There is no specific construction H&S undergraduate training in South Africa for H&S
practitioners in the main, and many who practice in the construction H&S have ‘mi-
grated’ from other industries. As there is a requirement for experience in the sector as
part of the application criteria, the CHSAs generally have many years of experience. As
the criteria require the knowledge of the 6 stages of work, the CHSA is expected to
have a specific level of competence in the area, as reported under heading 3 [8].
The aspects explored relate to the transferring of the statutory framework into the
general practices of H&S. Such practices relate to how the services of the PrCHSA are
procured, and when, and the issues that are encountered in relationship to the BEPs
who are managing projects.
A total of 104 invitations to complete an online questionnaire using Google
Forms© were sent to a convenience sample that was determined by their CHSA status
at the time of the survey. The sample included candidate CHSAs registered with The
Association of Construction Health and Safety Management (ACHASM). The ques-
tionnaire consisted of 17 questions, 3 of which were close-ended and the balance open
ended. The close-ended questions were 6-point Likert scale type questions. The
response rate was 43%.
6 Research Findings and Discussion
A total of 80% of the Respondents were PrCHSAs and 20% were categorized as
CanCHSAs.
Respondents indicated an average of 8 years of experience in the sector, which in
most cases exclude the number of years prior to registration. In most cases the CHSAs
would have between 3 and 7 years of experience in order to meet the minimum
registration criteria.
Respondents indicated that they had worked in other industries prior to construc-
tion, namely: telecommunications, occupational health and medicine, emergency ser-
vices and H&S auditing, environmental health, the South African Defense Force,
mining, chemical, and forestry, among other. The finding supports the literature in
terms of most CHSAs migrating into the sector.
Qualifications of Respondents ranged from Diplomas’ in Safety Management
(NADSAM), Degree in Medicine, Level 5 Paramedic, Bachelor of Technology in
Safety Management and Environmental Health, Master of Science, National Diploma
of Electrical Engineering, Project Management, and a PhD.
604 C. Deacon
CHSAs mainly source their work from both the public and private sector, but
Respondents indicated that they needed to obtain work from wherever they could.
Figure 1 indicates the Respondents indication of which stage they are appointed
across the 6 stages. A total of 57% agree/strongly agree that they are appointed from
stage 1, with 38% not in agreement of being appointed during the early stages. The
outcome partially supports the findings by Deacon [1].
Fig. 2. The appointment of the CHSA is from stage 1.
A total of 85% of Respondents believe that clients expect the CHSA to accept
responsibility for all stages, even when not appointed for the previous stages. The
National Treasury tender documents are standardized and issued as such with minimal
changes by client bodies.
A total of 85% of Respondents believe that the reason they don’t have enough work
is that projects are awarded to the lower levels of registered persons. As the DoL has
issued a Guideline to the CRs (2014), CHSMs are able to apply for projects, which
indicates that there will be fewer projects being awarded to the CHSA category.
A total of 87% of respondents indicating that the LoC of BEPs is inadequate for
projects. The study by Deacon [1] indicated that the BEPs themselves indicated that
their knowledge was very limited in terms of H&S. The findings, while not from BEPs
themselves, is further confirmed by the H&S categories of the BEPs.
A total of 84% of respondents agree that only the CHSA categories should be
accepted to represent clients on projects. The scope of work and level of liability
carried by the CHSA categories requires competence and experience, which the lower
levels of registered persons do not have. Project risk is increased when inexperienced
persons are placed on projects.
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
The CRs require the CHSA to be appointed by the client, as the liability of a project
rests on the shoulders of the CHSA. The requirements of the CRs and the SACPCMP
scope of work, the PrCHSA should be appointed at stage 1, however, most only get
appointed at stage 5, which increases project risk and liability for the client.
In most public sector tender documents the service level agreement will expect the
CHSA to accept responsibility for stages 1–6, even though all the preliminary work has
been completed with no H&S input.
Clients are noted as lacking the required knowledge relating to H&S and therefore
prefer to divest themselves of the responsibility of the H&S issues on a project.
It is strongly recommended that ongoing training and development is undertaken
for the BEPs and clients. Further awareness is required to change the procurement
processes and ensure the responsibilities are aligned to the stage of appointment, and
project specific. Ongoing awareness among clients, the DoL and statutory bodies of the
practices occurring, and addressing risk issues to limit liability and project risk. Further
research among the CHSM and CHSO on their perceptions and aspects relating to
issues is needed to identify if similar issues are prevalent.
References
1. Deacon, C.H.: The effect of the integration of design, procurement, and the effect of the
integration of design, procurement, and construction relative to health and safety. Ph.D. thesis,
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (2016). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.21197.
74726
2. Republic of South Africa: Construction Regulations, 2014: Guidelines. Government Printer,
Pretoria, South Africa (2017)
3. Republic of South Africa: Construction Regulations. Government Printer (2014)
4. Republic of South Africa: CR_2014_Exemption_2_aug 14 re CHSA CHSO reg.pdf
5. Republic of South Africa: Notice regarding Application for Construction Work Permit of
Construction Work in terms of the Construction Regulations 2014. Government Printer,
Pretoria (2015)
6. SACPCMP: Registration Rules for Construction Health and Safety Agent (PrCHSA) (2013)
7. Smallwood, J., Deacon, C.: Construction ergonomics: construction health and safety agents’
(CHSAs’) perceptions and practices. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing,
pp. 477–485 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96068-5_54
8. Smallwood, J., Deacon, C.: The performance of construction health and safety agents. In:
ISEC 2017 - 9th International Structural Engineering and Construction Conference: Resilient
Structures and Sustainable Construction (2017)
Author Index
A Banson, Kwamina Ewur, 1

Abiola-Ogedengbe, Diekolola, 34 Bremer, Tascha, 512
Ade-Ojo, Comfort Olubunmi, 188
Adesina, E. Aladeloba, 505 C
Adisa, Solomon, 71 Chan, Paul, 577
Afolayan, Akintade Samuel, 215 Chipulu, Chipulu, 547
Aigbavboa, Clinton O., 297 Chisumbe, Sampa, 529, 547
Aigbavboa, Clinton Ohis, 1, 538 Clinton, Aigbavboa, 179
Aigbavboa, Clinton, 82, 90, 373, 450, 556 Cobbinah, Joe Frederick, 1
Aiyetan, Ayodeji Olatunji, 459, 468 Crafford, Gerrit, 337
Ajayi, Oluwaseun Damilola, 287
Ajayi, Oluwaseyi, 327 D
Akanmu, James, 327 Das, Dilip Kumar, 252
Akinlolu, Mariam, 43 Das, Dillip Kumar, 168, 485
Akinradewo, Olusola Festus, 22, 419 Deacon, Claire, 599
Akinseli, Ainlolu, 34 Deacon, Henry, 512
Akinsiku, Olusegun, 327 Debrah, Caleb, 12
Akinsomi, Omokolade, 287 Didi, Thwala, 179
Alabi, Bimpe, 412 Dlamini, Bhekinkosi, 82
Alade, Kehinde, 62 Dlamini, Sitsabo, 380
Amoah, Christopher, 112 Duah, Daniel Yaw Addai, 225
Antwi-Afari, Prince, 12 Dziekonski, Krzysztof, 556
Arijeloye, Bamidele Temitope, 90, 419
Ashok, Naidoo, 468 E
Awodele, O. A., 188 Edwards, David John, 12
Awuzie, Bankole O., 450 Ejohwomu, Obuks, 577
Awuzie, Bankole, 252, 337 Els, Mart-Mari, 428, 512
Azege, Innocent Shima, 252 Emere, Chijioke, 521
Emuze, Fidelis, 337, 477, 485, 497
B
Babatunde, Oluwayomi Kayode, 90 F
Babatunde, Oluwayomi, 158, 305, 316 Fapohunda, Julius, 71, 412

C. Aigbavboa and W. Thwala (Eds.): CIDB 2019, The Construction Industry in the
Fourth Industrial Revolution, pp. 607–608, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26528-1
608 Author Index
G Nokulunga, Mashwama, 179

Godwin, I. Idoro, 505 Nosipho, Moloi, 205
O
H
Offei-Nketiah, Justice Kwame, 225
Haabazoka, Lubinda, 547, 566
Oke, Ayodeji E., 297
Hamma-adama, Mansur, 401
Oke, Ayodeji Emmanuel, 34, 56, 100, 124
Haupt, Theo C., 43
Okedara, Kamil, 577
Okorafor, Chikezirim, 485
I Okoro, Chioma, 521
Ikuabe, Matthew Osivue, 56 Oladokun, Michael, 477
Olugboyega, Oluseye, 133, 144
K Omokolade, Akinsomi, 205
Kajimo-Shakantu, Kahilu, 364 Omoraka, Alexander Ejiro, 22
Kamanga, Bridget, 588 Opawole, Akintayo, 364
Kamudyariwa, Xebiso, 345 Osazuwa, Edosa Mark, 100
Kouider, Tahar, 401 Oshodi, Olalekan S., 305
Kwofie, Titus Ebenezer, 225 Oshodi, Olalekan Shamsideen, 82, 90
Kwofie, Titus, 373 Osunsanmi, Temidayo O., 297
Otasowie, Osamudiamen Kenneth, 124
L Owusu-Manu, De-Graft, 12
Labo-Popoola, Adekansola, 556 Ozumba, Obinna, 276
Lefoka, Mochelo, 355
Liphadzi, Murendeni, 373 R
Llale, Josephine, 197 Ramafalo, Rotondwa B., 450
Lufele, Sikhumbuzo, 265 Ramruthan, Kimera, 241
Root, David, 197, 276, 345
M S
Mahamadue, Abdul-Majeed, 556 Scelo, Mhlongo, 459
Makgobi, Gladness, 179 Setati, Matleko, 197
Mambwe, Mwewa, 566, 588 Shakantu, Winston, 112
Mangese, Xoliswa, 428 Shani, Ziev, 241
Manu, Patrick, 556 Simbanegavi, Prisca, 241
Mare, IG, 512 Simpeh, Fredrick, 71
Masimula, Gcinithemba, 380 Smallwood, John, 497
Mavunda, Success, 197 Somiah, Matthew Kwaw, 538
Mollo, Lesiba George, 497
Monyane, Thabiso, 337 T
Moraba, Yolanda, 158 Temidayo O, Osunsanmi, 505
Musonda, Innocent, 521 Tendedziso, Lovemore, 566
Musonda, Nathan Sefuka, 588 Terblanche, Rolien, 276
Musonda, Nathan, 529, 566 Thwala, Didibhuku, 373
Mutale, Bwalya Helena, 529 Thwala, Wellington Didibhuku, 1, 82, 538
Mwanaumo, Erastus, 529, 547, 566, 588 Toba, Lindelwa, 440
Mwiya, Balimu, 547
W
N Watkins, Justin, 241
Ndlovu, Thando, 197 Wembe, Paulin, 197
Nnaji, Chidozie Charles, 390 Windapo, Abimbola, 62, 133, 144, 355

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Clinton Aigbavboa · Wellington Thwala

The Construction Industry

ISBN 978-3-030-26527-4 ISBN 978-3-030-26528-1 (eBook)

A Systems Thinking Approach to Construction

Evaluation of Safety and Security Measures: Preliminary Findings

Awareness of Green Building Prerequisites for Skill Development

Construction Education’s Simulation Study in the Fourth

Supplementing Quantity Surveying Traditional Services

Success Strategies for Competitive Advantage in the Ghanaian

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607

Joe Frederick Cobbinah1(&), Clinton Ohis Aigbavboa1,

Abstract. Construction projects plays an important role in nation’s development.

Keywords: Construction projects Project management Systems thinking

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Despite advances in project management methodologies many projects continue to

1.1 Systems Thinking

1.2 Systems Archetypes

1.3 Causal Loop Diagrams

Fig. 1. Feedback learning laboratory [19].

3 Results and Discussion

Fig. 2. CLD of the construction industry

3.2 Escalating Archetype

Lower Bid By Lower Bid By

Fig. 3. Escalating archetype

3.3 Fixes that Fails Archetype

3.4 Limit to Growth or Success

Fig. 6. Limit to growth archetype

3.5 Shifting the Burden Archetype

Fig. 7. Shifting the burden archetype

convenience, self-depended or private consultation as a answer is vital. Dealing with a

3.6 Success to Successful Archetype

Fig. 8. Success to successful archetype

To many construction project managers, a complex project seems to be a labyrinth with

De-Graft Owusu-Manu1, Caleb Debrah1(&), Prince Antwi-Afari1,

Keywords: Bonds Construction Ghana Investors Project ﬁnancing

Traditional means of ﬁnancing infrastructural development remain important, but pri-

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

2.1 Construction Risk

2.2 Currency Issues

2.3 Rating Ceilings

2.4 Industrial Expertise

2.5 Political Risk

A total of 63 questionnaires were distributed among sampled branches in Kumasi

N being the overall respondents; A - Higher response integer (5); W - weighting

Table 1. RII of the challenges or barriers of project bond initiative

Olusola Festus Akinradewo(&) and Alexander Ejiro Omoraka

Department of Quantity Surveying,

Abstract. Successive administrations in Nigeria have expended several efforts

Keywords: Cost performance Housing project Nigeria

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

2 The Traditional Procurement Route (TRD)

3 Public Private Partnership (PPP)

availability of additional resources to meet the increasing needs of investment in

Cost performance is evaluated through the comparison of ﬁnal cost of a completed

Planners, Land Surveyors, Estate Surveyors, and Engineers working as in-house

6.1 Factors Influencing the Cost Performance of TRD Procured Housing

Table 1. Background of respondents

Table 2. Factors Influencing the Performance of TRD PHP

6.2 Factors Influencing the Cost Performance of PPP PHP

Table 3. Factors influencing the cost performance of PPP PHP

8 Conclusion and Recommendations

Ayodeji Emmanuel Oke, Diekolola Abiola-Ogedengbe(&),

Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Akure,