Geophysics and The IGY: Proceedings of The Symposium at The Opening of The International Geophysical Year (1958)

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Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of

the Symposium at the Opening of the
International Geophysical Year (1958)
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Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the Symposium at the Opening of the International Geophysical Year
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.


Geophysical Monograph Number 2
Geophysics and the IGY

Proceedings of the Symposium at the Opening of the
International Geophysical Year
Conducted by the
UniTEp STatTeEs NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR
THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
WASHINGTON, D. C.
JUNE 28-29, 1957
Edited by
HuGH QODISHAW AND STANLEY RUTTENBERG
GEOPHYSICAL MONOGRAPH SERIES

Watpo E. SmitH, MANAGING EDITOR
AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION

OF THE
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES—
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
Publication No. 590
1958

Geophysical Monograph No. 2

GEOPHYSICS AND THE IGY
COPYRIGHT 1958 BY THE

AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION
1515 MASSACHUSETTS AVENUE, N.W.
Wasuincron 5, D. C.
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-60035
PRINTED BY THE Lorp BALTIMORE PReEss, INC.

BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

Table of Contents
Preface 00.0 eee eee Joseph Kaplan
UPPER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS

Solar Terrestrial Relationships......................0 0.0.0.0 0005. Walter O. Roberts
The High Atmosphere...............0.0.00000 ccc tenes N. C. Gerson
Instrumentation for Global Observation of the Sun during the IGY...... John W. Evans 21
Whistler Studies at Dartmouth..................0.......0 00.0055. Millett G. Morgan 31
Whistlers and Very Low Frequency Emissions........................ R. A. Helliwell 35
Probing the Ionosphere............................ A. H. Shapley and Ralph J. Slutz 45
Upper Atmospheric Winds, Absorption and Other Special Projects
in the U. S. Program in Ionospheric Physics...................... Harry W. Wells 49
Background and Technical Objectives in Geomagnetism
Elliott B. Roberts and David G. Knapp 55
New Experiments Concerning the Geomagnetic Field Extending
into Interplanetary Space............00.0.00 cece eens J. A. Simpson 65
Significance of Cosmic-Ray Monitor Observations.................. Robert L. Chasson 71
High Altitude Cosmic-Ray Measurements during the IGY
E. P. Ney and J. R. Winckler 81
Visual Observation of the Aurora ................. 0.00000 e eee Carl W. Gartlein 92
The Night Airglow............000 00.00.0000 ee Franklin E. Roach 97
The Rocket as a Research Vehicle........................ 00.0000 0 000 P. H. Wyckoff 102
The U. §. Pre-IGY Rocket Program............................. Herbert Friedman 108
The Satellite Launching Vehicle—Placing the Satellite in Orbit.......... John P. Hagen 119
The United States Satellite Tracking Program ..................... W.. H. Pickering 133
Scientific Instrumentation of the Satellite ....................... James A. Van Allen 142
THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE AND THE EARTH

Sun, Sea and Air: IGY Studies of the Heat and Water Budget
of the Earth.......0000.000000
000 en Roger R. Revelle 147
Synoptic Meteorology and the IGY............................... Morton J. Rubin 154
U. S. Special Meteorological Studies for the IGY...................... Sigmund Fritz 161
Synoptic Studies in Oceanography............................. Columbus O’D. Iselin 169
The Seasonal Budget of Water.....................0.0..00 00.0005. Walter H. Munk 175
U. S. Polar Ice and Snow Studies................................. .....Henri Bader 177
Mountain Glaciology...............0..00.0. 00.00. eee George P. Rigsby 182
The Crust and Mantle of the Earth ............................... Maurice Ewing 186
Seismology and the IGY....................000...0. 00000. eee Jack E. Oliver 190
Gravity Observations during the IGY ................. ....... George P. Woollard 198
THE POLAR REGIONS

The U. S.-IGY Program in the Antarctic........................ Laurence M. Gould 203
The United States IGY Arctic Program.............................. John C. Reed 207


Preface
The present volume assembles a group of papers covering a wide variety of

topics in geophysics. These papers were presented at a special symposium, June 28
and 29, 1957, conducted by the U. S. National Committee for the International
Geophysical Year just before the IGY program formally began.
The papers are not only of general and historical interest, but many of them
contain reports on early results of the IGY. Although the IGY formally began
on July 1, 1957, a number of our own projects had been initiated considerably
before that time; moreover, certain geophysical research which formed the basis
for the IGY departure is also encompassed in this volume. Finally, the papers
provide not only the status of our projects at the beginning of the IGY but often
present reviews of the general status of a discipline. For all of these reasons, the
Committee believes that the present volume may be of value to geophysicists
broadly.
On behalf of the U. S. National Committee I wish to express our deep appre-

ciation to the participants in the symposium and especially to the authors who
were able to prepare manuscripts for inclusion in this volume. I also wish to
acknowledge the extensive and imaginative efforts of Hugh Odishaw, the Com-
mittee’s Executive Director, and Stanley Ruttenberg, Head of the USNC-IGY
Program Office, in arranging the symposium itself and in preparing the material
for publication. The Committee is also appreciative of the interest of the Ameri-
can Geophysical Union in the IGY program and for cooperation in publishing
this volume, and our thanks are due Waldo Smith, the Union’s Executive Secre-
tary, for his able assistance in seeing Geophysical Monograph No. 2 into press.
JosePpH KAPLAN
Chairman, USNC
Washington, D. C.
June 6, 1958


Solar-Terrestrial Relationships
Water Orr ROBERTS
Introduction—Thirty-two years ago the Inter- living things, and generally regulates the course
national Research Council recognized the grow- of daily affairs by the geometrical effects of day
ing importance of solar-terrestrial relationships and night and of the seasons.
by organizing a committee to report regularly There are, nonetheless, important irregular
on new knowledge of the Sun’s influences on the variations in the Sun’s electromagnetic and cor-
Earth. The resulting reports chronicle a steadily puscular output, variations in differing time
expanding sphere of research into the nature of scales from minutes to centuries. These varia-
solar emissions and the physics of their effect on tions, moreover, are of such character that their
the Earth. consequences are often important to man far
Back in 1925 solar influence on geomagnetism out of proportion to their meager energy. They
and auroras were considered to be well estab- lie at the extremes of the long and short wave
lished though not well explained. Today we are length ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum
still far from understanding how these auroral and in the corpuscular emission. Thus they are
and geomagnetic influences operate. We know, particularly influential in the Earth’s upper at-
however, of a great number of additional, reliably mosphere where radiations like this are absorbed.
established solar effects on Earth, some of which Our knowledge of the real nature of the
are more thoroughly understood than auroras or ‘anomalous’ solar radiation, as the irregularly
geomagnetic storms. The purpose of this paper varying component is sometimes called, derives
is to outline the principal known effects, to list from scant and indirect evidence, though it is a
some additional possible solar-terrestrial effects happy fact that the newer developments of space
whose relationships are not conclusively estab- physics are rapidly bringing us to the time when
lished, and to discuss briefly the possible physi- we shall be able to observe the Sun’s anomalous
cal mechanisms by which the Sun-Earth effects variations directly from rockets and satellites.
are transmitted. Solar physics and Earth physics are inextricably
entwined in the study of solar variation. More
of our information on the character of solar
NATURE OF SUN’S EMISSIONS
variability has come from study of the terrestrial
Electromagnetic radiation—The Sun _ emits effects of solar variation than from direct ob-
electromagnetic radiation over a wide range of servation of the Sun.
wave lengths from x rays of about one Angstrom The Sun varies, nonetheless, in many ways
wave length to very long radio waves of many that are directly visible, sometimes spectacularly
meters. The Sun also appears to emit clouds of so. Figures 1-4 show some of the more promi-
ions with a wide range of velocities from ‘slow’ nent variable solar phenomena. The modern
corpuscles of a few hundreds of kilometers per solar physicist recognizes some dozen and more
second to cosmic-ray particles possessing a con- individual and distinguishable features of the
siderable fraction of the velocity of light. The Sun that change in characteristic ways and each
steady, unvarying radiation of the ‘normal’ Sun signals a significant physical process in the solar
contains the overwhelming predominance of the surface or atmosphere. The difficulty comes,
Sun’s emitted energy. The emission resembles however, when he attempts to put together the
that from a black body at 6000° K, a figure that different bits of observational information into
closely approximates the surface temperature of a self-consistent theoretical picture of the physics
the 864,000-mile solar sphere. There is good of solar fluctuations. Thus far such efforts have
evidence, nowadays, that short-term fluctuations led into a morass of inconsistencies and un-
in this steady heat flow, if there are any, do not explained side-effects.
exceed 0.3 pct of the energy output. It is this For example, modern observations of solar
unvarying flux of energy that warms the Earth, flares reveal wide breadths of spectral lines lead-
drives the winds, provides the vital energy of ing to rather firm conclusions that the gases are

W. O. ROBERTS
Fic. 1—A large solar flare photographed at Sacramento Peak Observatory in the light of
hydrogen-alpha; such flares frequently rise to maximum brightness in less than five minutes
quite opaque and possess a kinetic temperature values to be reconciled? And without a physical
of the order of a few tens of thousands of de- theory embracing the two apparently inconsistent
grees K at the height of the radiating surface. facts, how are we to estimate the importance
But when the associated coronal spectra are con- of the radiated x ray emission of the flare? If
sidered, the line widths reveal kinetic tempera- we believe the coronal temperatures, perhaps,
tures, apparently in the same locations, well the flare’s ionospheric effect is caused predomi-
above the coronal surroundings and thus well nantly by x rays; if we believe the prominence
above the normal one to two million degrees K. values, it is more likely to be caused by ultra-
How are these widely discrepant temperature violet line-emission.

SOLAR-TERRESTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS 3
Fic. 2— A giant surge prominence photographed in hydrogen-alpha with the Climax coronagraph of
High Altitude Observatory; this prominence was traveling at several hundred kilometers per second
away from the solar surface; such ejections undoubtedly represent a part of the solar corpuscular
emission
Fic. 3—A solar prominence of the type associated with severe active regions and with strong
meter-wave solar radio noise; photographed in hydrogen-alpha at Climax
Cor puscular radiation—Concerning the Sun’s_ the near-Earth physics of ion clouds encounter-
high-speed corpuscular emission, recent re- ing the geomagnetic field, physical theory is grad-
searches have revealed direct associations be- ually pointing the way to understanding larger
tween cosmic-ray emission and solar flares. The fragments of observed behavior of magnetic field
‘slow’ corpuscular emission (velocities from 300 fluctuation, auroral streamer formation, and in-
to 3000 km/s) also receives its share of attention duced ionospheric electrical currents. Progress
nowadays; and, with the greater power lent us_ in understanding both the ‘slow’ emission and
by developments in hydromagnetic theory, that is, | cosmic rays depends critically, however, on pro-
applied not only to the solar atmosphere but to viding the support and the proper climate for

4 W. O. ROBERTS
Fic. 4— A photograph of the great solar active region of the west solar limb of November 22, 1956;
photographed in the monochromatic light of the green emission line of the solar corona at
Sacramento Peak Observatory
vigorous advances in fundamental theory. With- of widespread character, and a simultaneous

out this, the newly possible solar and geophysical crochet. The following years brought successive
observations are going to be inefficiently exploited. examples in abundance. Today we recognize the
relation of flares and fadeouts as the most nearly
SOLAR TERRESTRIAL CONNECTIONS invariable of solar-terrestrial relationships.
There is no doubt that the effects are the re-
Solar flares—Solar flares (Fig. 1) produce the
sult of shortwave solar radiation in the ultra-
most direct and clear-cut of all Sun-Earth ef-
violet or x ray region (or perhaps both) asso-
fects. When a large solar flare occurs there are
ciated with the solar flare. Most probably a
instantaneous upper atmosphere effects in the
substantial part of the flare emission is in the
D region of the atmosphere of the sunlit hemi-
fundamental line of the hydrogen spectrum,
sphere. The effects include: (1) a rapid aug-
Lyman-alpha at 1216 A. The magnetic crochet
mentation of the ionization, (2) a lowering of
is now believed to result from the quickly
the height of reflection of the appropriate wave
changed conductivity of the D region, whose
length of radio signal, and (3) a fadeout of
ionization is enhanced by the flare radiation.
other frequencies due to complete signal absorp-
Nonetheless, riddles still abound. When small
tion. The effect of flares on radio was first dis-
covered about 1927 independently by Dellinger flares are examined, some exhibit pronounced
and by Mogel, and was extensively explored in fadeouts, others none at all. There are no ap-
the 1930’s. Mogel also noted the connection of parent differences between flares with or without
these fadeouts to characteristic disturbances of fadeouts, except, as H’arwick [1955] has sug-
the Earth’s magnetic field known as crochets, gested, in the height of the flare in the semi-
first detected in 1859 by the British astronomer opaque solar atmosphere. Severny and Shaposh-
Carrington. nikova [1954] have also stated that for such
The British Polar Year Expedition to Tromso, flares, the abrupt ones tend to have larger in-
Norway, in 1932-33 expanded our knowledge to tensity. Records of D region ionization made at
embrace the intimate connection between weak- the High Altitude Observatory with new IGY
ening of radio signal reflections and auroral instruments suggest that the ionospheric effects
activity, which was in turn strongly suspected of abrupt flares appear to be larger than those of
to have a solar origin. The first really clear more gradual flares of equal area and brightness.
example of these flare-induced phenomena, how- Flares of very large size (July 26, 1946, No-
ever, was discovered on April 8, 1936, when the vember 19, 1949, February 23, 1956) have some-
Mount Wilson Observatory noted a very in- times produced measurable cosmic-ray increases.
tense solar flare, accompanied by a radio fadeout In one famous instance (February 23, 1956)

SOLAR-TERRESTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS 5
cosmic-ray intensities, integrated over the whole thermal conduction in the solar corona. As with
atmosphere and estimated at the top of the at- corpuscular emission, this energy will be chan-
mosphere, rose by a large factor. There was nelled towards terrestrial polar regions by the
evidence that the flare-produced cosmic rays geomagnetic field. No direct experimental con-
actually stimulated large ionospheric effects firmation of this effect is known, but IGY re-
some 15 minutes after the radiational effects of searches have good prospects of gathering rele-
the flare reached the Earth. These flare effects vant evidence.
extended throughout the night hemisphere of the An important possible cosmic-terrestrial effect
Earth in high latitudes. has also been suggested recently by Bowen
Tonospheric effects—Many ionospheric effects [1956], who has offered data purporting to show
are found to correlate with the average level of that meteoric dust introduced in the Earth’s
sunspot, flare, and other solar activity (Figures atmosphere increases world rainfall on certain
2, 3, and 4). Ionospheric storms are signifi- annually recurrent key days. This interesting
cantly more frequent during solar maximum new idea opens a wide field of speculation about
than during minimum, and critical frequencies conceivable astro-geophysical relationships origi-
of E, F,, and F, region radio-reflections all nating far beyond the Sun.
appear to be influenced. Obviously the Sun’s
activity alters the electrical state of the upper Rote or IGY
atmosphere in a profound manner. Today’s re-
The role of IGY in advancing the state of
search indicates that variations of the F, and F,
knowledge of solar-terrestrial relations can
regions of the ionosphere are under rather direct
scarcely be exaggerated. We approach a better
solar coronal influence, while the E layer is
knowledge of solar phenomena by means of
more strongly controlled by chromospheric phe-
rocket and satellite observation of radiations
nomena, and the D region by chromospheric dis-
from the sun accompanying various solar events.
turbances and by photospheric (steady) radiation.
The experiments of the Naval Research Labora-
‘Sunspot cycle’ effects—Space will not permit
tory groups directed to x ray and Lyman-alpha
even a brief summary of all of the reasonably
observation during solar flares are one example
well established solar-terrestrial effects. Most
of this. On the other hand, the vastly improved
of these, however, exhibit the general 11-year
observations of the terrestrial effects of observed
‘sunspot cycle’ variation. Some are more subtle,
solar phenomena will allow many critical tests
however. A few relations are more pronounced
of the theories of the production of the responsi-
in years of declining sunspot activity, such as the
ble solar emanations. Simultaneous Arctic and
long-sustained magnetic storms generally re-
Antarctic observations will be particularly useful
ferred to as M-region storms. The M-region
for improvement of our theories of the effects of
storms and their associated auroras are rather
solar corpuscules on aurora, earth magnetism and
unusual in that they have no obvious visible
weather. Thus, we can expect a far better un-
solar source.
derstanding of the sun from our IGY look at
Other relations—The Earth is certainly not Earth.
only bathed in variable short-wave electromag-
REFERENCES
netic radiation and impulsively changing cor-
puscular energy but is also subjected to rapidly Bowen, E. G., An unorthodox view of the weather,
changing solar radio noise. It seems highly Nature, 177, 1121-1123, 1956.
CHAPMAN, S., Notes on the solar corona and the
improbable that the radio noise produces any terrestrial ionosphere, Smithsonian Cont. to As-
material atmospheric or terrestrial changes, but trophysics, 2, 1-12, 1957.
possible effects cannot yet be entirely ignored. SEVERNY, A. B., AND E. F. SHAPOSHNIKOVA, Investi-
Chapman [1957] has also recently suggested gation of the development of chromospheric
flares, Izv. Krim. Ap. Obs., 12, 3, 1954.
a further possible solar influence on the upper Warwick, C. S., Flare height and association with
atmosphere. It arises from variable amounts of SID’s, Astrophys. J., 121, 385-390, 1955.
energy transmitted to the Earth’s upper at- High Altitude Observatory, University of Colorado,
mosphere, perhaps at the F, ionospheric level, by Boulder, Colorado

The High Atmosphere

N. C. Gerson
Introduction—Although man is most con- exists between the upper atmosphere and today’s
cerned with its lowest six feet, the Earth’s at- technological era. This region allows and con-
mosphere stretches away from the planet for trols practically all long distance radio trans-
some thousands of kilometers. Even with this missions.
vast extent, however, half of the mass is con- Although in many respects the conventional
centrated below six kilometers, and only about meteorologist ignores them, the higher atmos-
one-millionth remains above 100 km. At the pheric strata impress themselves more and more
diffuse boundary with interplanetary space, the upon his and the layman's consciousness. Radio
temperature is about 1500°K; hot enough to communications, electronic navigational systems,
boil off helium and hydrogen but cool enough to radio guidance, and, to a minor extent, even the
retain atomic oxygen. Although tenuous, the familiar compass navigation are affected by
atmosphere acts as a protective cushion to life events in the high atmosphere.
at its bottom. It absorbs harmful radiations, A study of the upper atmosphere falls rather
both of corpuscles and photons, meteors, cosmic naturally into the electromagnetic group of geo-
dust, cosmic rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light, etc., physical sciences: auroral physics, cosmic rays,
thereby permitting life as we know it to exist on geomagnetism, ionospheric physics, and _ solar-
this planet. terrestrial relationships. The sections which
follow attempt briefly to describe the importance
The direct effects of the high atmosphere in-
of these fields and some of their characteristics.
clude the occasional meteor or meteor shower,
the northern lights, the colorful nacreous and
ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE
noctilucent clouds, etc., which today are remem-
bered for their esthetic value rather than the The atmosphere, far from being a simple
supernatural appeal of yesterday. Superficially, gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth, is a
there seems little direct contact between the churning, complex medium. Several terminolo-
upper atmosphere and man’s daily pursuits. gies have been proposed to describe its gross
Nevertheless, a link of tremendous importance structure, as indicated in Figure 1. All classifi-
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Fic, 1 — Structure of the terrestrial atmosphere from the surface of the Earth to the exosphere
6

THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 7
cation systems consider the atmosphere to be Rocket Panel, 1952; Warfield, 1947]. Consider-
composed of a series of non-concentric, super- ing the ground temperature as the first maxi-
posed shells called ‘-spheres’ separated by transi- mum, a second temperature maximum occurs
tion zones termed ‘-pauses.’ near 50-60 km (Fig. 1). A second important
Everyday weather dominated by water vapor minimum is found near 80 km. The temperature
in its three phases is confined to the troposphere. decreases at a rate of about 3°K/km between
Weather is the result of complex hydrodynamic about 50 km and 80 km. The distortion of
and thermodynamic processes occurring in the meteor trails, the movement of noctilucent clouds,
air. Very generally, existing weather patterns and drifts of ionospheric irregularities imply the
over the globe arise from (a) unequal absorp- existence of winds and turbulence above 50 km.
tion of solar energy from equator to pole, (b) The D ionic layer is found near 80 km. The
influence of a rotating Earth upon moving air emissions of sodium, molecular oxygen, hydroxyl,
masses, and (c) latitudinal distribution of source and atomic oxygen begin below 80 km and ex-
and sink regions for minor constituents. For the tend to higher altitudes [Chamberlain, 1956].
latter category, for example, more water evapo- The relatively large ionic densities found in
rates from tropical oceanic areas while more the ionosphere seem stratified into layers. These
condenses and precipitates in middle latitudes. ionic layers allow the reflection of radio waves
The Earth’s surface is heated daily through having a frequency less than about 30 mc/s. Most
the absorption of solar short-wave and atmos- meteor trails appear in the altitude range 50-
pheric long-wave radiation. The energy retained 150 km, and by far the most common location
by the solid Earth, however, eventually returns of the lowest boundary of auroras is found near
to the atmosphere or to space. The solar ultra- 100 km.
violet and terrestrial infrared emissions are Important changes in atmospheric composition
selectively absorbed by some of the atmospheric occur near 100 km. Molecular oxygen dissoci-
constituents. In most cases, the maximum in ab- ates into the atomic form, lowering the average
sorption is confined to a relatively narrow alti- molecular weight of air from 28.90 to 23.95 (for
tude range because of (a) the exponential incomplete dissociation of O,). A large number
crease in atmospheric density with decreasing of contaminants (proportionately minute in com-
altitude, and (b) the approximately exponential parison to the principal atmospheric constituents)
increase in absorption with increasing penetra- is introduced by meteors. The contaminants may
tion of the radiation. be of great importance in view of their possible
Infrared radiation of the Earth or Sun is ab- influence on the physics and chemistry of the
sorbed largely by the water vapor, carbon stratum above 50 km. The electrical current
dioxide, and ozone of the troposphere and strato- systems that cause geomagnetic variations are
sphere (where these constitutents have their generally believed to exist either near 80 km
greatest concentration). As both the Earth and or high in the ionosphere. The absolute number
the atmosphere reflect or reradiate practically density of electrons above 400 km is less than
all impinging energy, the net energy budget of that found in the ionosphere, but proportionately
the planet is essentially zero. greater than that occurring below 400 km. Solar
Although the stratosphere has always been radiation, especially in the far ultraviolet, is
idealized as an isothermal region, innumerable intense in the upper regions of the ionosphere.
observations have disclosed appreciable departure At very high altitudes, a fraction of the neu-
from the isothermal model. This region is tral atoms and molecules moving upward never
thickest over the poles and thinnest or even experiences a collision within the atmosphere.
absent over the equator. The lower stratosphere Particles travel outwards in very long orbits,
contains meandering jet streams, appreciable but eventually return to the atmosphere under
clear air turbulence and the highest cirrus the influence of gravity. The center of this col-
clouds. lision-free zone is known as the critical level
In thermal structure, the troposphere roughly [ Mitra, 1948]. Above it exists the isothermal
conforms to an adopted temperature decrease exosphere or the outermost fringe of the atmos-
of 6.5°K/km, while the stratosphere is deemed phere. The mean free path of molecules at an
roughly constant [Minzner and Ripley, 1956; altitude of 1000 km is of the order of tens or

g N. C. GERSON
hundreds of kilometers, and increases very and bacteria. Isotopes of carbon, oxygen, and
rapidly with increasing altitude. other elements in detectable amounts are also
The propagation of very low frequency radio present. With increasing altitude above the
waves channeled along the Earth’s magnetic tropopause, some of the polyatomic molecules be-
lines of force occurs through the ionosphere, come dissociated, while new compounds are
exosphere, and interplanetary space. Radio formed (during daylight) through photosynthe-
energy at these long wave lengths may propagate sis. It is believed that a veritable host of new
by this means whether it originates by lightning, compounds are photochemically created at alti-
extraterrestrial effects, or by man-made trans- tudes above 30 km [Paneth, 1937, 1954].
mitters. These frequencies may also originate In addition, many foreign particles constantly
in the Sun or in solar ejecta, and be focussed rain upon the atmosphere and remain as con-
towards the Earth by the magnetic fields carried taminants. Some of the elements injected by
along with the ejected material. meteoroids, cosmic dust, cosmic-ray primaries,
or auroral primaries include Fe, Si, Mg, N, S,
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION Ca, Al, Co, Na, Cr, Mn, K, P, Ti, Cl, Cu, H,
O, and C. Insofar as cosmic-ray primaries are
The principal components of the dry atmos- concerned, all elements in the periodic table up
phere below about 80 km are, by volume: N,, to the atomic weight of Fe, and many beyond,
78 pet; O,, 21 pet; A, 0.94 pet; and CO.,, 0.03 pet. have been detected. Of the auroral primaries
The remaining identified constituents, existing only H has been observed, but others are an-
in percentages of 10-3 or less, include Ne, He, ticipated. Obviously the total integrated per-
CH,, Kr, H,O, HDO, N,O, Xe, O,, I,, dust, centage of the contaminants in the atmosphere
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Fic. 2— Infrared absorption spectra of the atmosphere and some of the
atmospheric constituents

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is minute. Nevertheless, their importance as

f TROMSO
possible catalytic or quenching agents for some 0.30 U
types of chemical reactions in the atmosphere
should not be minimized. 025 , AROSA N
NN
The atmosphere behaves as a gigantic ab- POA AROSA
sorption cell placed between the Earth and
extraterrestrial radiations. The properties of
020 Act
this telluric absorption cell have never been
duplicated fully in the laboratory. Analysis of
: l/
:
Mh ar
the solar absorption spectrum in the infrared,
0.10
particularly with high-dispersion spectrometers,
has allowed the identification of several trace
0.05
atmospheric compounds. (Indeed, infrared spec-
troscopy of the Sun is an important tool for
detecting small concentrations of unsymmetrical 0
JAN. FEB MAR. APR MAY JUN. JUL. AUG SEP OCT. NOV, DEC.
molecules in the atmosphere of either the Earth
Fic. 3 — Distribution in the concentration of ozone
or the Sun.) The infrared atmospheric absorp- at Troms6 and Arosa during the year; units
tion spectrum is shown in Figure 2 which also are in 10° cm of ozone
contains the spectra of some of the most im-
portant absorbers [Shaw, Oxholm, and Claassen, rather narrow zone near 100 km. A summary
1951]. Absorption of infrared is mass dependent, of several determinations of ozone density as a
resulting in most of the absorption taking place function of altitude is revealed in Figure 4
in the lower atmosphere. where both balloon and rocket results are
The most important of known photochemical graphed. The difference between the various
reactions occurring in the atmosphere below observations undoubtedly is a true difference
about 120 km are: (a) formation of ozone, (b) existing in the atmosphere at the place and time
dissociation of H,O, (c) dissociation of CO,, of observations.
(d) probable formation of NO, and (e) dissocia-
tion of molecular oxygen. Undoubtedly the ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
relative concentration of any of these products Like the oceans, the fluid atmosphere at all
is a function of altitude, latitude, solar zenith altitudes is subject to forces and stresses that
angle, and solar activity. However, only in the result in rather complicated motions. The pres-
case of ozone has the distribution with space or ence of small- and large-scale circulation pat-
time been investigated, and then but partially. terns is well known in the troposphere. Similar
The distribution of the minor photochemically conditions found at higher altitudes were first
produced or dissociated compounds, CH,, CO, suspected from the violent contortions observed
NO,, O,, and O in the oxygen dissociative in persistent meteor trains [Whipple, 1952].
region, at any given altitude probably varies Additional examinations of the high atmosphere
over the globe with time of day and time of have revealed that winds or drifts also occur
year. Their concentration is influenced by diffu- to at least 400 km, the present maximum altitude
sion and transport within the atmosphere in that can be studied. The methods utilized to
addition to being controlled by changes in the determine drifts above 20 km are summarized
intensity of solar radiation. An indication of the in Figure 5. Some indication of the general cir-
global distribution of the only minor constituent culation around the planet may also be obtained
measured, ozone, is given in Figure 3. Appre- by tracking the movement of radioactive debris
ciable variations in the ozone concentration occur remaining at definite altitudes.
over the Earth, and similar variations may be A summary of the drift components at various
expected in the concentration of other minor altitudes has been made by including the many
constituents. The maximum concentration of different techniques utilized in deriving the drift
ozone occurs in the altitude range 20-25 km speeds. In general, a monsoonal effect (that is,
[Bates, 1954; Regener, Paetzold, and Ehmert, a change of direction with change of season)
1954]. Oxygen dissociation takes place in a is indicated for middle latitudes. At most alti-

10 N. C. GERSON
60
| -o-—o—e—e- 168 FEB 1930 WEISSENAU

50 ——--. —— 3 JULY 1934 STUTTGART _
25 FEB 1950 ALBUQUERQUE
BALLOON | ___.___ 4 mAR 1950 .
| —— —— — 16 MAR 1950 "
| ------ 18 APR 1950 "
y — <= == 10 OCT 1946 WHITE SANDS
RocKeT | “Om=On 2 APR 1946 "
40 + f 14 JUNE 1946 " 7
=
x
W
a
>
—
F
5
<
0 a | I |
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
OZONE CONCENTRATION (CM 03 STP/KM AIR)

Fic. 4— The concentration of atmospheric ozone as a function of altitude
tudes above 20 km, winds during summer moved

800
from the east and, during winter, from the west.
Some difference in the planetary flow pattern
400F F tome. oO ene RECORDINGS FROM
RADIOSTARS =p
~ may be anticipated from one solstice to the other
ROCKETS: because of the marked change in the amount of
~
= 300
CSECTEO MATERIAL
OREWADE radiation absorbed by different atmospheric
= SMOKE AND VAPOR TRAILS
layers. At the winter pole, for example, no direct
F solar radiation reaches the lower atmosphere for
q 200 METEORS periods of months, and even at 100 km sunlight
4
YY.4 sporanic € COMPRESSIONAL is absent for about two months. The lack of
100 y @ WAVES J
4Y, 4
solar short-wave radiation for such a period of
Z)
(A —sCNOCTILUCENT
CLOUDS
BALLOONS = SMOKE
A
time may allow appreciable changes to occur
0 D in the concentration of minor constituents below
Fic. 5 — Techniques utilized to deduce winds and
100 km. One hypothesis envisions a winter in-
drifts above 20 km crease in ozone density below 30 km, particu-

larly in polar regions. As ozone is a strong tain solar and lunar tidal components. In some
absorber of radiation, the more intense layer instances, consistent diurnal drift variations may
presumably is then warmer in winter than in be related to these tides. At 100 km the magni-
summer. tude of the lunar-tidal oscillation may be 100
In general, wind speeds increase with increas- times greater than that observed at the ground.
ing altitude. Also, during winter, greater speeds Some suggestions have been made that winds
occur at the higher latitudes, while during sum- at altitudes of 80 km or more can affect the
mer, greater speeds occur in middle and low lower atmosphere, perhaps by dragging it
latitudes. The prevailing direction of drifts de- through viscous coupling. This suggestion seems
duced from studies of sporadic E and noctilucent dificult to accept. Over 95 pct of the atmos-
clouds (at about 100 km and 80 km, respectively) pheric mass lies below 20 km, and over 99 pct
is from the east during summer. below 100 km. The prospect of motions in the
A model of the high altitude atmospheric cir- ionosphere affecting the lower atmosphere seems
culation proposed by Kellogg and Schilling [1951] remote.
contemplates a complete reversal in wind di-
rection between summer and winter. Equinoctial AURORA AND AIRGLOW
months represent a transition period. This General—One of the foremost objectives of
monsoonal effect is ascribed to a greater energy the International Polar Year of 1882-83 was a
absorption during winter by a more concen- better understanding of the aurora borealis and
trated polar ozone layer. The model also con- its variation with latitude. Observations of the
siders subsidence (arising from a convergent First Polar Year allowed the confirmation of a
flow) over the winter pole, and upward move- map showing the isopleths of auroral occurrence
ments (arising from a divergent flow) over the over the northern hemisphere; this map has not
summer geographic pole. However, this particu- been appreciably modified since its preparation.
lar problem is not yet solved. Serious study of the aurora was pioneered by the
High-altitude drift speeds have been derived Norwegians in the early period of the twentieth
from examinations of the movement of auroral century. Thus, up to about 1940 most auroral
and airglow patterns across the sky. Whether research had been undertaken by Norway with
the resulting motions are true winds, the move- noteworthy contributions from France, Ger-
ment of excitation patterns, or other types of many, and Great Britain. In recent years Can-
non-air mass movement is not settled. Auroral ada, the USSR, and the United States have in-
motions may indicate the successive arrival of tensified their investigations of this phenomenon.
bursts of auroral primaries into the atmosphere, The initiation and continuance of the aurora
each burst being slightly displaced in time and is attributed to bombardment of the terrestrial
space from the previous one. atmosphere by solar particles. After their ejec-
The determination of movements or drifts in tion from the Sun, a stream of corpuscles may
the ionosphere has been attempted by several engulf the Earth. The Earth’s magnetic field
techniques; namely, observations on sporadic-E is assumed to divert some of the onrushing
trajectories, observations on the motion of ionic stream to the polar regions. The particles then
irregularities, observations on the drift of ionized rain upon the Earth in the two auroral zones
meteor trails, etc. As in the troposphere, move- which encircle the north and south geomagnetic
ments in the ionosphere may be local or large poles, respectively. In spectroscopic analyses of
scale. In studying the general planetary circula- the aurora, protons are the only non-atmospheric
tion pattern at high altitudes, Gerson [1956a, b] atoms thus far observed.
has indicated that movements up to 200 km may In penetrating the atmosphere, auroral pri-
be very similar to those found at lower levels. maries encounter atmospheric atoms and mole-
Thus, cyclonic and anticyclonic systems and jet cules. The latter may then be excited (bound
streams may be present from the troposphere to electrons being raised to higher energy states)
the ionosphere. Above 400 km motions become or ionized (an outer electron being lost entirely).
predominantly hydromagnetic, with the Earth’s Returning to their normal energy states a frac-
magnetic field exercising a strong control over tion of a second later, excited atmospheric parti-
the fluid movements. High-altitude motions con- cles emit their characteristic radiations. The

12 N. C. GERSON
continuing flux of incoming auroral primaries of molecular nitrogen, the atmospheric band
allows a repetitive excitation-deexcitation proc- systems of molecular oxygen, and some transi-
ess; this mechanism is one means of producing tions of the hydroxyl molecule (OH). Investi-
the constantly changing patterns of an auroral gations of the atmospheric absorption spectrum
display. The principal auroral emanations arise of the Sun similarly yielded data from which
from nitrogen and oxygen. the constants of the carbon dioxide molecule
Most, if not all, visible auroras are accom- and the structure of the ozone molecule were
panied by an invisible ionized aurora. The determined.
‘electrified curtain’ or ionized aurora on many The faint, non-auroral emissions of the night
occasions cuts through the normal ionic layers atmosphere have been termed the night airglow.
which usually reflect radio waves. However, the Its intensity is considerably weaker than that
ionized aurora may act to absorb high-frequency of an aurora. (A bright aurora on some occa-
(HF) radio waves. The absorption of radio sions may have an intensity equaling that of the
energy during periods of auroral or geomagnetic full moon.) Night airglow radiations may arise
activity is known as a polar radio blackout. Such from the release of solar energy stored by the
blackouts are fairly common in polar regions atmospheric atoms and molecules during sun-
(particularly during the peak of the sunspot light. These emissions may also arise from the
cycle) where they may persist for days, until constant peppering of the high atmosphere by
the spray of solar bombarding particles and cosmic dust or interplanetary ions. The intensity
their after effects cease. of the night airglow is a function of four-space;
Considerable effort is still required before a it varies appreciably with time and location over
full understanding of all physical processes asso- the globe and at any location the color and
ciated with the aurora is at hand, or before a brightness of the night airglow change constantly.
complete prediction of (a) the occurrence of Studies of the aurora and airglow also have
auroras, and (b) their influence on radio wave importance in other fields. The general back-
propagation is obtainable. ground light intensity of the atmosphere and sky
Auroral investigations may be undertaken (the background ‘noise level’) is collectively
photographically, spectroscopically, or by means known as the sky visibility. Knowledge of the
of radio-wave probings. Analyses of these ob- variation in sky visibility throughout the 24-hour
servations provide statistical and descriptive in- period is of great importance to astronomers,
formation (height, color, forms, presence by for example.
hours of the day and seasons of the year, etc.); Airglow—On a clear, dark, moonless night,
spectral studies disclose those atmospheric parti- some light falls upon the Earth from the sky.
cles which are excited during an auroral display. This night skylight is composed of blended
These studies also give insight into the excitation radiations from both terrestrial and extraterres-
conditions and indicate the temperatures of the trial sources. The latter include, for example,
excited atoms and molecules. Spectroscopic ex- zodiacal light, galactic light, and starlight (re-
aminations have proven that solar protons invest solved or unresolved). Airglow comprises the
the Earth and trigger many auroras. In general nofauroral atmospheric luminosities emitted
all studies are complementary, and together in- above about 60 km. As a rough guide, the ratio
crease the fund of knowledge regarding the high of intensity of sunlight: moonlight: night sky-
atmosphere. light is 10%:1:10-8.
Observations of aurora and airglow are im- The airglow is emitted continually during day
portant to many sciences: for example, chemi- and night. However, it cannot be seen from the
cal kinetics, electrodynamics, spectroscopy, and ground in daylight because of the intense scatter-
atomic physics. The upper atmosphere provides ing of sunlight by the lower atmosphere. At-
many unique experimental conditions which have tempts to measure the brightness of the day
not yet been duplicated in the laboratory. The airglow by rocket borne experiments have not
first discovery of several emission lines was made been too conclusive. Theoretical considerations
from analyses of auroral or airglow spectra indicate that the airglow should be much more
[Meinel, 1951b]. These studies allowed, for ex- intense by day than by night. The stronger
ample, identification of the Meinel band systems radiations are expected because of the presence

of sunlight: absorption of short-wave solar strongly in twilight. An enhanced line in the

emissions causes resonant and fluorescent excita- green portion of the spectrum has been attrib-
tion of the atmospheric particles. uted to atomic nitrogen.
During twilight the intensity of some airglow Airglow emissions are characterized by their
features changes from, for example, the very spatial lack of homogeneity. On most occasions
high daylight values to the low background level a patchy appearance is found, with relatively
found ‘at night. These nocturnal emissions may bright and dark areas moving across the sky.
arise from the release of the potential energy The average intensity of the background lumi-
of sunlight (stored by atmospheric particles on nosity over the sky varies from day to day, with
being raised to higher energy states). They also latitude, and with season.
may arise from the scattering of ultraviolet light Emission altitudes of specific airglow radia-
back into the atmosphere by _ interplanetary tions are somewhat controversial. Most tech-
atomic particles. Other airglow radiations un- niques utilized in determining the altitude have
doubtedly are produced independent of solar possessed deficiencies; the assumptions utilized
energy; that is, collisional excitation of atmos- to overcome the deficiencies unfortunately influ-
pheric atoms and molecules by cosmic material enced the results [Chamberlain and Meinel,
(dust and ions) penetrating the atmosphere. 1954]. However, recently determined altitudes
This mechanism may account for the strong of the emitting layers are: sodium, 80-310 km;
sodium emanations. Herzberg bands of O,, 200-350 km; atmos-
The strongest radiations of the night airglow pheric bands of O,, 70-300 km; hydroxyl bands,
arise from two trace constituents present in the 70-300 km; atomic oxygen (red), 65-1000 km;
atmosphere in rather minute concentrations: and atomic oxygen (green), 62-1000 km. (These
sodium and hydroxyl. In general, contributions to altitude ranges include the extremes of values
the night airglow include the infrared emissions reported in the literature.)
of OH, the atmospheric and Herzberg bands Auroral statistics—Observations of the polar
of molecular oxygen, the green and red lines aurora have shown that it appears most fre-
of atomic oxygen, and the sodium doublet. It has quently in two primary auroral zones located
been suggested that the Schumann-Runge bands about 23° from the geomagnetic poles. Although
of molecular oxygen are also present. Hydroxyl observations have not yet confirmed its existence,
bands have been identified well out into the a secondary, inner auroral zone has been postu-
infrared (to two microns) [Chamberlain and lated. The secondary zone is thought to occur
Meinel, 1954]. Although band systems of mo- at higher latitudes than the primary zone.
lecular nitrogen seem to be absent, the first Most information regarding the aurora has
negative band may occur. Stellar absorption been obtained from studies of the aurora borealis.
lines have been identified in spectra of the night Much less is known about the aurora australis
skylight. although in most, if not all, respects the two
Examination of the continuum, that is, the should be very similar. With relatively few
blue and violet regions of the airglow spectrum, exceptions, the height of the lower border of an
has received considerable attention, but only aurora in or near the auroral zone is about
recently has a reasonable explanation been found. 100 km. Low-latitude auroras exist at higher
A detailed comparison of the night skylight altitudes. The greatest altitude at which auroras
spectrum with other stellar and galactic sources have been observed (the top of sunlit auroras)
indicates that the continuum probably arises is about 1100 km [Stérmer, 1955].
primarily from zodiacal light and _ starlight. Several different auroral forms are known:
Nevertheless, a very weak continuum radiated homogeneous arcs, homogeneous bands, pulsat-
from the Earth’s atmosphere itself may still be ing arcs, diffuse luminous surfaces, pulsating
present [Chamberlain and Meinel, 1954]. surfaces, glows, arcs with ray structure, bands
The greatest difference between the twilight with ray structure, draperies, rays, coronas, and
and night airglow radiations is found in the flaming auroras. Homogeneous arcs and a few
red lines of atomic oxygen and in the sodium other types frequently are oriented along, or at
doublet. Both are enhanced during twilight. a small angle to, the magnetic latitude. Observa-
The first negative bands of N,* also appear tions have shown that auroral features drift

14 N. C. GERSON
across the sky sometimes reversing at local mid- 25 tT T T t T T T T t T
night. However, it is not clear whether this AURORAL

INTERACTION
——
etcoces
(1949-1951)
1951
drift is a true motion of air. 20 g

STUDIES —77 1950
— 1949
“
An ionized aurora, whose presence may be

determined by radio-wave probing techniques,
tT
a
usually is associated with the visual aurora.
NUMBER OF DAYS
Electron concentrations in the ionized aurora
v
3
may easily attain 108 to 10°/cm*. Thus, radio
waves at frequencies up to 100 mc/s could be re-
T
a
flected back to Earth rather than escape into
space, as happens when they are incident upon
the regular ionosphere. Radio amateurs have MONTH
reported reflections at frequencies near 220 mc/s
but still higher frequencies should be usable. Fic. 6 Frequency
— of occurrence of the ionized
aurora; the seasonal occurrence of the luminous
Radar reflections from the aurora at a frequency aurora is practically identical with that of the
of over 500 mc/s have also been reported. ionized aurora
The seasonal distribution of the visual and
ionized auroras are very similar. The maximum graphically localized magnetic activity. There
of occurrence is found during the equinoctial are also numerous instances where magnetic
months and the minimum during the solstices activity is unaccompanied by auroras, and others
(Fig. 6) [Gerson, 1953]. Although radio-wave when strong magnetic storms are accompanied
probings allow the ionized aurora to be kept by vigorous auroras.
under surveillance throughout the 24-hour period, Radio noise at a frequency of about 3000 mc/s
the results, surprisingly enough, confirm those has been radiated by some auroras. In general,
obtained from studies of the visual aurora. however, the entire frequency range (a) at
Auroras occur mainly during darkness with a which noise radiation takes place, and (b) at
maximum between about 22h 00m to Olh 00m which radio reflections are possible is not known
local time, as shown in Figure 7. The ionized for the ionized aurora.
aurora seems to be least evident from about Auroral activity is closely linked to the state
06h 00m to 12h 00m local time. On many occa- of the Sun. Auroras are most numerous, most
sions, auroral activity is accompanied by geo- intense, and extend to lowest latitudes at or
80
—=—— TOTAL- ENTIRE PERIOD

” = @ovccece APRIL
Ww ---- OCTOBER
< —— JANUARY
oO
uw | 22 fe ee
oO
x 40
qa
=
>
z
00 “04 08 12
TIME (EST)
Fic. 7 — Auroral interaction studies, 1949-1951, inclusive; diurnal

distribution of the ionized aurora

somewhat after the maximum in solar activity. somewhat weak except in the case of auroras
The aurora is considered to be initiated or pro- penetrating well below 100 km. Emissions of
duced by a neutral stream of charged particles molecular nitrogen are plentiful. The strongest
ejected from the Sun. In the vicinity of the are the first positive bands. The second positive
Earth the stream interacts with the Earth’s and Vegard-Kaplan bands are present. The first
magnetic field. In the interactions, some of the negative and Meinel bands of N.* have been
particles are deflected towards the polar regions identified. —The atmospheric bands of O, and the
where they penetrate the atmosphere to form first negative bands of O,” have been confirmed.
the luminous aurora. The spectrum of any two auroras may differ
The general problem of the aurora may be [Meinel, 1951a]. The differences arise because
subdivided into four portions. The first portion auroras may appear at different altitudes (where
is astrophysical in nature and concerns the the atmospheric temperature, density, and com-
mechanics of ejecting material from the Sun. position, for example, are dissimilar), and also
The second portion is in magnetohydrodynamics because the energy of the bombarding particles
and includes a study of the movement of the may vary.
neutral solar stream (of charged particles) from
the Sun to the outer limits of the Earth’s THE IONOSPHERE
atmosphere and its interaction with the solar, The ionic layers—There are several ionic
galactic, and terrestrial magnetic fields. The layers or regions, the D, E, Fl, and F2 layers,
third is spectroscopic, and comprises the colli- as shown in Figure 8. A G layer has been re-
sional excitation of the terrestrial particles by ported occasionally as existing in the tropics (at
the bombarding solar particles, and the result- an altitude of about 400 km) but its presence
ing deexcitation processes. The final portion is is doubted. The average altitudes of the E, FI,
electromagnetic and embraces the collisional ion- and F2 layers are about 100 km, 200 km, and
ization of the atmospheric atoms and molecules, 300 km, respectively. In addition to these regular
the diffusion and dissipation of the resulting layers, cloud-like and abnormal areas of high
ionized aurora and the influence of the ionized electron density also exist. The best known is
sheets on incident radio waves. sporadic E ionization (E,) but auroral E and
Because of the basic differences in their ex- meteor produced ionization is also found. Di-
citation, spectra of the aurora and airglow differ urnal and seasonal statistics on the heights and
in many respects. However, because of the com-
plexity of the auroral spectrum, a correct identi-
fication of all auroral radiations has been diffi- WW
S- =
cult. In many portions of the spectrum atomic - =
a “”
and molecular emissions overlap. Still further DARKNESS q DAYLIGHT
confusion may arise when important atomic F

2 900
005
lines are obscured by strong molecular bands. oo OF F, 200, ° °35

2° 20,
Among the strongest radiations of the aurora ° Eo, . Lo,
° ° “Dd D "THEoe 2°
are the green and red lines of atomic oxygen °
o
6
.
5
90°
9
90°
“6XNo
.
°5e.
eo
°
at 5577A, 6300A and 6364A. Several other atomic °

°
a»
x OOF
oN,
o
% 4 G
oxygen lines may be present but ground based ° ¥
a °o
oF 2.
° a
o
ej
©
observations do not allow a positive determina-

°
Qo
. 3b
op
18
oO °
tion. Many lines of atomic nitrogen, and the °

°
°°
&
ok
°6
ob
lo
/P
o
S
°
°
©
sodium doublet have been identified [Chamber- °

° e XN
«3 °Sbo
9% °°
jo x, Oo
7 G
lain, 1956]. The Balmer lines of hydrogen seem °
° °o -90° -90°
Vv
Py
of
°
fe
irrefutable; from the doppler broadening of the

Q ° °
° Re ° 9% o
° Re, O D o9%6~ Ad
hydrogen lines, the speed of the incoming solar
° ° ° o°
°o E o° 3°,
° 556° °°
° 2 ° oO
protons near the end of their trajectory was SOF F,
oe?
of
F,0000°
determined as 3 x 10% cm/sec. 400
IONIC LAYERS
The most prominent molecular features of the
aurora are emitted by neutral and ionized nitro- Fic. 8 — Pole to pole cross section through the
gen. Radiations of molecular oxygen appear ionosphere during equinoctial noon

16 , N. C. GERSON
average electron densities are best known for greater the electron density. Thus along the
the E and F layers. noon meridian the electron density in any layer
The regular layers are formed by solar ultra- decreases with increasing latitude (measured
violet or x-ray radiations. Generally, the normal from the sub-polar point). During winter in
layers may be considered to be formed by the either hemisphere the duration of daylight
normal Sun, and the disturbed ionosphere by a decreases with increasing latitude; this effect
disturbed Sun. Just as any given weather pat- directly influences the daily ‘lifetime’ and electri-
tern is never identically repeated, so the condition fication of the ionic layers.
of the Sun (and the state of the ionosphere) The lowest layer detectable with modern prob-
never is the same as it was on some previous ing techniques is the D region. Its electron
occasion. Similarities, however, do exist. The density is of the order of 10,000/cm? or less.
concept of daily variation in weather holds for During some flares the increased solar short-
the ionosphere and higher atmospheric shells wave emissions penetrate to 80 km and produce
exactly as it does for the troposphere. a greater ionization in the D region. Since the
The identity of the particular atom or mole- collisional frequency of electron and neutral
cule ionized to form any given ionic layer is un- particles is rather high at this level, the D layer
certain. It is generally believed that molecular then absorbs most impinging radio wave energy.
oxygen may be ionized to produce the E layer, This mechanism is believed to be responsible for
but the particles involved for the higher layers producing sudden ionospheric disturbances (SID)
are unclear. The original theory of ionic layer and radio fadeouts.
creation was proposed over two decades ago by Several types of ionization found in the iono-
Chapman [1931]. The effect of solar zenith sphere are not produced directly by solar action.
angle (including both time of day and time of Meteoric ionization, which can be employed for
year), and absorption of radiation, were con- communication purposes, is caused by meteors
sidered. It was then found that the electron in passing through the stratum between 50-150
density in a layer should be symmetrical about km. Auroral ionization may be considered as
noon, essentially becoming zero at sunrise and the remnants of ionized auroras which dissipate
sunset. Further, the altitude of maximum elec- with time. The diurnal and annual variation in
tron density should change slowly with time, meteoric ionization closely follows the diurnal
becoming a minimum at noon (and a maximum incidence of meteors upon the Earth and the oc-
at sunrise and sunset). currence of meteor showers.
On comparing the behavior of the actual ionic Sporadic E ionization also does not seem to
layers with the theory, it was found that the be under immediate solar control. In middle
E layer conforms remarkably well, and the F1 latitudes, it exists in large cloud-like masses
layer shows some deviations. However, the F2 which on some occasions may cover appreciable
region is highly irregular if not erratic. Only portions of a continent. Studies have been made
rarely does it follow the simple theory. Predic- of its genesis, growth, and dissipation. However,
tion of its future state is extremely difficult on its origin is still unknown. Studies have shown
many occasions. The electron density of the E that it may suddenly appear, grow rapidly at
and F1 layers is fairly symmetrical about the the rate of thousands of square kilometers per
subpolar point. However, the F2 region is hour, and finally begin its dissipation. During
markedly asymmetric. In general, the F2 layer the growth period it may move rapidly. Indi-
appears to be under much stronger geomagnetic vidual clouds have been observed for periods of
control than the other regions. Typical electron from a few minutes to about a day. Sporadic E
concentrations found in the ionic layers are displays a strong seasonal dependence with a
shown in Fig. 1. However, it should be remem- marked maximum in summer and a weak sec-
bered that with abnormal solar conditions, or in ondary maximum in December (northern hemi-
different seasons, the ion densities may vary ap- sphere). The intense form makes its appearance
preciably from those shown. generally during the evening. Radio-wave prob-
Observation has shown in accord with the ings from many stations allow the size of a
theory that the greater the solar zenith angle sporadic E cloud and its trajectory to be deter-
(that is, the closer the Sun to the zenith), the mined. Average speeds of about 250 km/hr+

_ eee
50 km/hr seem to be common although much However, the rate, character and implications
higher speeds have also been found [Gerson, of most fluctuations are incompletely under-
1951, 1953]. stood. It also has been proposed that the drift
The intense form of sporadic E will allow of ionized trails caused by meteors may induce
radio-wave reflection at frequencies of 50-150 measurable magnetic changes at the Earth’s
mc/s at low power. When very large clouds or surface; however this hypothesis seems doubtful.
several small clouds appropriately spaced exist, The magnetic field is not only subject to the
multihop communication to distances of 4000- irregularities and fluctuations mentioned above,
6000 km is possible. but also to certain regular changes that arise
from solar and lunar tidal effects. Although they
THe Macnetic FI1eELp are small, the atmospheric tidal motions move
Background—Knowledge of the Earth’s mag- the charged particles of the ionosphere in a pre-
netic field is of practical interest in surveying, determined fashion. Statistical analyses of geo-
navigation, mineral exploration, radio-wave magnetic or ionospheric data gathered at a given
propagation and land-line or radio-telephone station over a long period of years allows the
communication. Its study is indispensable to the tidal movements to be isolated. Slow, predictable
interrelated sciences of ionospheric physics, cos- daily changes in the direction of the compass
mic rays, auroral physics, and solar-terrestrial needle, as regular as the usual heating and cool-
associations. Although important to so many ing of the lower troposphere during sunlight
sciences, the magnetic field is known chiefly and darkness, are caused by action of the tidal
through its intimate connection with the compass. systems.
The directional indication of the compass Some magnetic disturbances seem to travel
needle is the simple manifestation of geomag- over the globe after their origination in the polar
netism. An undistorted magnetized needle sus- regions. The propagation of these phenomena
pended by a thread will take a final position in around the Earth may be linked to ionospheric
line with the magnetic lines of force. Use of changes and ionospheric current systems. With
the compass on this planet is possible because respect to ionospheric-geomagnetic interrelation-
of the existence of the geomagnetic field, the ships, one of the most reliable precursors of
main portion of which resides within the solid short-term ionospheric modifications is a change
earth. Superimposed upon the main field are in magnetic activity. It might be mentioned that
fluctuations and variations which are believed magnetograms from stations near the auroral
to originate in electric current systems flowing zone are typified by the continuous superposition
in and beyond the atmosphere. The atmospheric of irregular and erratic variations. The cause of
currents are probably located in the ionic layers these fluctuations is attributed to many local
between 70-400 km, and are most intense over current systems occurring in the auroral zone.
the polar caps. The interaction of (a) the The magnetic field—The source of the Earth’s
magnetic fields of the atmospheric and extra- main field is unknown, and its origin constitutes
terrestrial current systems, and (b) the main one of the major unsolved problems in geo-
field produces the continuous, innumerable mag- physics. It undergoes long term, secular varia-
netic fluctuations which are so pronounced in tions which may be caused by (a) hydromag-
high latitudes. At most, the fluctuating com- netic effects associated with slow convective
ponents of the magnetic field comprise but movements in a possible conducting fluid core
several per cent of the total; the main field of the Earth; or possibly (b) slow, directed
contribution exceeds 95 pct. movements of holes in a semi-conductor plane-
The extraterrestrial or ring current has been tary core. Although recent work favors the
proposed to clarify certain features of a mag- former concept, the problem is by no means
netic storm and the origination of auroras. The resolved.
ring current is visualized as flowing around the Examinations of rock magnetism indicate that
Earth at a distance of about 30,000 km and as the principal northern dip pole has shifted its
becoming enhanced during auroral displays. The position with time. According to some studies,
ionospheric and ring currents are considered to this pole migrated during geologic time from the
produce the general geomagnetic fluctuations. western Pacific Ocean to its present location

18 N. C. GERSON
Fic. 9 — Static anomaly in the Earth’s magnetic field near the principal northern dip pole

Le ee
near the central Canadian Arctic Coast. Today, tion with charged particles, the geomagnetic
its position is considered as an average position; dipole is invariably utilized. Needless to say, the
it seems to wander diurnally and seasonally. In geomagnetic poles are extremely useful in inter-
general, the magnitude of the wandering is preting auroral, ionospheric, and cosmic-ray
small, but on some occasions (near the dip pole) observations.
the declination can go through 360°. These rela- Because of the presence of the terrestrial mag-
tively short-time changes probably arise from netic field, certain investigations of space in the
the atmospheric current systems. vicinity of the Earth are possible. One type of
Although the exact height of the currents caus- study utilizes the interactions between the mag-
ing the fluctuating components is uncertain, cer- netic field and charged particles traveling to-
tain studies indicate that they may be concen- wards or in the vicinity of the Earth. In general,
trated mear the E ionic layer. The currents the greater the speed and mass the less the inter-
giving rise to the disturbance daily variations action. Cosmic-ray primaries generally being of
have been idealized as flowing east and west high energy ‘see’ the Earth’s field at considerable
along the equator, and north and south along distances from the planet. Thus, the existence
the noon meridian. They are of the order of of average, large-scale temporal or spatial in-
100,000 amperes in middle and low latitudes, at- homogeneities that are not clearly evident at the
taining values of about 475,000 amperes over the Earth’s surface may be detected from selected
polar caps. The current systems responsible for observations on cosmic-ray primaries. One such
the storm time variations have been depicted as study recently completed involves a determina-
increasing with latitude, from very small values tion of the cosmic-ray equator; that is, the
at the equator to about 150,000 amperes at the
magnetic equator as seen by cosmic rays. If the
poles. As would be expected, these theoretically
Earth’s field were uniform and could be re-
deduced currents become seriously modified dur-
duced to a true magnetic dipole whose center
ing the periods of geomagnetic storminess. As
was at the center of the Earth, the cosmic-ray
would be expected, the tidal changes are super-
equator and the geomagnetic equator would be
imposed upon the disturbance variations and
identical. However, preliminary results reveal
storm time fluctuations.
that the two are different. Investigation of this
The location of the two principal magnetic
difference will reveal additional information on
dip poles, which are not diametrically opposite,
the character of the magnetic field at great dis-
is at 76°N, 102°W, and 68°S, 148°E, respectively.
tances from the Earth.
A remarkable feature of the magnetic field is
the marked static anomaly which exists in the Another type of study is an examination of
northern hemisphere as a ridge of high hori- whistlers, clicks, dawn chorus, etc. Each is an
zontal magnetic intensity extending from the onomatopoeia for a particular radio noise clearly
northern principal dip pole across the Arctic audible when using special receivers. Whistlers
Ocean into Siberia (Fig. 9). The absolute value have their origin in lightning discharges. The ra-
of the magnetic field near the dip poles is close diated low-frequency radio wave energy (1]—30
to 0.6 gauss, and near the equator, about 0.3 kc/s) may be channeled along the magnetic line
gauss. of force from its point of radiation to the conju-
Analysis of the magnetic field recordings meas- gate point in the opposite hemisphere. Many
ured during a given year (or epoch) at many successive reflections may occur (over fifteen
points on the Earth allows the strength of the have already been reported) as the energy trav-
equivalent magnetic dipole to be derived. As- els from one hemisphere to the other. As some
suming that the equivalent dipole is located at magnetic lines of force extend outwards from
the center of the Earth, the intersection of the the Earth for tens of thousands of kilometers,
dipole axis with the Earth’s surface defines the analysis of the whistler train and its dispersion
geomagnetic poles. On the basis of the last de- furnish more information on the characteristics
termination, the geomagnetic poles were located of interplanetary space. Further study of these
at 78.6°N, 70.1°W, and 78.6°S, 109.9°E, re- phenomena at very high magnetic latitudes may
spectively. In considering the Earth as a mag- indicate emissions which originate in the Sun or
netic dipole in space, and the magnetic interac- in interplanetary space itself.

20 N. C. GERSON
REFERENCES model atmosphere, USAF Surveys in Geophys.,

no. 86, 1956.
Bates, D. R., The physics of the upper atmosphere,
Mitra, S. K., The upper atmosphere, 2nd ed., R.
The Earth as a planet, Univ. Chicago Press, Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, Calcutta, 1948.
1954.
PANETH, F. A., The chemical composition of the
CHAMBERLAIN, J. W., Theories of the aurora, Ad-
atmosphere, Q. J. R. Met. Soc., 63, 433, 1937.
vances in Geophysics, 4, Academic Press, New
PANETH, F. A., The chemical analysis of atmos-
York, 1956.
pheric air, Rocket exploration of the upper at-
CHAMBERLAIN, J. W., AND A. B. MEINEL, Emission
mosphere, Pergamon Press, London, 157-158,
spectra of the twilight night sky and aurora, The 1954.
Earth as a planet, Univ. Chicago Press, pp. 514—
REGENER, E., H. K. PAETZOLD, AND A. EHMERT,
568, 1954. Further investigations on the ozone layer,
CHAPMAN, SYDNEY, The absorption and dissociative
Rocket exploration of the upper atmosphere,
or ionizing effect of monochromatic radiation in
Pergamon Press, London, 202-207, 1954.
an atmosphere on a rotating Earth, Proc. Phys. ROCKET PANEL, Pressures, densities, and tempera-
Soc., 43, 26-45, 1931.
tures in the upper atmosphere, Phys. Rev., 88,
Gerson, N. C., Abnormal E region ionization, Can. 1027-1033, 1952.
J. Phys., 29, 251-262, 1951. SHaw, J. H., M. L. OxHotm, ano H. H. CLAAssen,
Gerson, N. C., A note on auroral interaction, The solar spectrum from 7-13 microns, Ohio
J. Atm. Terr. Phys., 4, 81-88, 1953.
State Univ. Res. Found., Rept. IA-4, 103, 1951.
Gerson, N. C., General circulation of the high at- STORMER, C., The polar aurora, Clarendon Press,
mosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 61, 351-353, 1956a.
Oxford, 1955.
Gerson, N. C., The atmosphere, USAF Surveys in
WarFizLp, C. N., Tentative tables for the prop-
Geophys., no. 75, 1956b.
erties of the upper atmosphere, Nat. Adv. Comm.
KeELLocc, W. W., ano G. F. ScHILLINnG, A proposed
Aer., TN 1200, Washington, 1947.
model of the circulation in the upper atmosphere, Wuippce, F. L., Exploration of the upper atmos-
J. Met., 8, 222-230, 1951.
phere by meteoritic techniques, Adv. in Geophys.,
Meinet, A. B., The spectrum of the airglow and 1, 119-154, 1952.
aurora, Rep. Prog. Phys., 14, 124, 1951a.
MEINEL, A. B., The analysis of auroral emission U. S. National Committee for IGY, National Acad-
bands, Astrophys. J., 114, 431-437, 1951b. emy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., now Trapelo
MINZNER, R. A., AND W. S. RipLey, The ARDC Road, South Lincoln, Massachusetts

Instrumentation for Global Observation of the Sun during the IGY

JoHN W. Evans
Introduction—In the IGY, solar observatories ports will simply give eye estimates of importance
throughout the world are using an extraordinary according to the criteria established by the Inter-
array of instruments exemplifying the greatest national Astronomical Union, along with times
refinement and ingenuity in the exploitation of and positions. Each station is assigned specific
the technical advances of the past decade. Many hours of observation during which photographs
of these were constructed specifically for pro- are taken at intervals of three minutes or less.
grammed IGY projects. Others are for less The assignments are, of course, arranged to
formal but equally important non-routine proj- insure a full 24-hour coverage, with a generous
ects, stimulated in large measure by the prospect overlap provided in the hope that at least one
of world-wide observations of geophysical re- station will be observing with clear weather at
sponses to solar activity. all times.
Solar flare patrol—Perhaps the most promis- The flare patrol represents a fairly modest in-
ing of the IGY projects in solar observations is vestment in equipment and the full time of at
the 24-hour-a-day flare patrol. About 30 ob- least one observer for each participating station.
serving stations, well distributed in longitude, The enormous potential value of the results
keep the Sun under continuous photographic when combined with extensive geophysical ob-
observation for the purpose of detecting all servations has fired the enthusiasm of solar
flares that appear on the visible disk of the Sun. astronomers everywhere, and the IGY flare pa-
Each station is equipped with a heliograph of trol probably represents the most extensive and
standard optical characteristics similar to those best coordinated international cooperative effort
of the original flare-patrol telescope which began in astronomy that has ever been attempted. A
operation as an experimental instrument at the list of the cooperating stations will be found in
High Altitude Observatory in 1950. A number the CSAGI Manual for Solar Activity pub-
of ingenious variations, usually designed for lished in 1957.
adaptation to an existing mounting or building In addition to the flare heliographs, I could
or some other matter peculiar to the station, present a most impressive list of new instru-
have been made at different observatories. Al- ments for solar observation. Since they are very
though they are very diverse in physical setup, well covered in a report by Roberts [1957] I
they are all optically equivalent, and fit into shall avoid repetition and concentrate on the de-
the network plan for homogeneous observations. velopments which have made the new instruments
Probably the most elegant of these is the Lyot possible. Most of this equipment is built around
Heliograph of the Meudon Observatory (Fig. one or more of five basic devices. They are the
1), which has been adopted as a prototype. Sev- solar tower, the Lyot coronagraph, the bire-
eral of the stations have exact reproductions fringent filter, large and greatly improved dif-
of this instrument. fraction gratings, and solar radio-noise receivers
Basically the flare patrol heliograph consists of three types.
of a 3- to 6-inch equatorial telescope, usually Solar tower—The solar tower cannot be
guided on the Sun by a photoelectric servo sys- classed as a new type of instrument since there
tem, equipped with a birefringent filter and are a few which have been in operation for sev-
35-mm cine camera. The filter transmits a band eral decades. One of the most modern is de-
0.5 to 0.75 A wide, centered on the H-a line of scribed by McMath [1953]. The solar tower
hydrogen. The standard solar-image diameter consists of a vertical telescope, which may be
of 16 mm is sufficient for the easy detection and either a reflector or a refractor, into which
classification of all flares of importance 1 or sunlight is reflected by a pair of flat mirrors.
more. Photometric standards are impressed on The optical parts are supported by a tower 50
all films for subsequent analysis of particularly to 150 ft high, and the light passes down a verti-
interesting flares and plages, but the daily re- cal tube to form a stationary non-rotating image
21

J. W. EVANS
eS)
to
Fic. 1—Lyot heliograph of Meudon, adopted as the prototype for the

flare-patrol instrument
of the Sun on the slit of a spectrograph or other it is quite sufficient to submerge the corona com:
instruments near ground level. This arrange- pletely in a bright instrumental background, and
ment has proved to be one of the most con- increases the difficulties in prominence observa:
venient and productive forms of telescope for tion.
solar observation, allowing the use of very large Lyot coronagraph—For work at the limb the
accessories solidly mounted on stable piers. Its coronagraph is unsurpassed. It was Lyot’s solu-
continued excellent reputation is indicated by tion to the long-standing problem of observing
the fact that the new solar equipment of the the corona without the benefit of an eclipse.
Crimean Astrophysical Observatory is built The problem is to see the corona immediately
around a solar tower. adjacent to the disk of the Sun which is roughly
In spite of its great advantages the solar tower a million times brighter. The observer is faced
has one fault which precludes its use for the with a difficulty analogous to that of seeing the
most delicate observations at the solar limb, license plate of an oncoming car on a foggy night
The unavoidable flat mirrors are incorrigible in the face of a pair of glaring headlights. The
light scatterers. The scattered light is not ex- atmosphere of the Earth scatters light into a
cessive and does not appreciably affect observa- halo surrounding the Sun. At most sea-level
tions of the phenomena of the solar disk, but locations this halo is normally more than a thou-

IGY SOLAR INSTRUMENTATION 23
sand times as bright as the corona, and quite image-forming lens behind the diaphragm re-
completely hides it. The history of efforts to imaged the occulting disk and the surrounding
see the corona: without an eclipse is mainly the corona in the final focal plane. Lyot’s original
search for locations where the atmospheric halo design embodied all of the known. scatter-
is greatly reduced. Such sites were found, where reducing devices, and remains basically un-
the halo was at times less than ten millionths of changed in all coronagraphs constructed since.
the surface brightness of the Sun, but the corona By itself the best coronagraph in the best
remained invisible. It was then realized that location is still not sufficiently scatter-free to
the atmosphere was not the only villain. The show the corona. Fortunately, the composition
observing instrument itself scatters light from of coronal light differs from that of scattered
the solar disk in a diffuse haze over the entire light originating in the photosphere. It consists
field. A good refractor might scatter no more of emission lines and white light that is strongly
than one part in a thousand, but this is still a polarized along the direction of the solar radius.
thousand times the brightness of the corona. Both of these characteristics permit us to dis-
In terms of our car-driving analogy, the scatter- criminate between coronal and scattered light.
ing telescope is the equivalent of a dirty wind- In a spectrograph, the continuous scatter spec-
shield between the observer and the headlights. trum is diluted by a large factor, and the emis-
The problem looked hopeless, and one eminent sion lines of the brighter parts of the corona
astronomer declared quite unequivocally that stand out in strong contrast (Fig. 3). This
the corona could never be observed outside of spectroscopic method is by far the easiest and
eclipse. Almost simultaneously, in 1931, Lyot among the most useful forms of coronal ob-
made the first such observations with his corona- servation. With somewhat more difficulty, the
graph. form of the emission-line corona can be photo-
The coronagraph [ Lyot, 1939; Evans, 1953] is graphed in detail through a birefringent filter
a highly specialized telescope ingeniously de- with a two or three angstrom pass band cen-
signed to eclipse the Sun artificially and reduce tered on one of the stronger emission lines
the scattered light from the solar disk to a mini- (Fig. 4), exactly as the prominences are photo-
mum. Scatter originates in optical imperfections graphed in light of the H-a line. The corona-
on the surfaces and in the material of the ob- graph for direct photography and the flare-patrol
jective lens, and in the diffraction of light from telescope at the Sacramento Peak Observatory
the disk at the edge of the objective. Lyot used are shown in Figure 5. Still more difficult is the
an objective consisting of a simple lens made detection of the polarized component of the white
of the most perfect glass obtainable and polished light of the corona. For this work a sensitive
far beyond normal requirements (Fig. 2). The photoelectric polarimeter is attached to the co-
solar disk was eclipsed by an occulting disk in ronagraph and the polarization of the light at
the focal plane of the objective. Diffracted light the solar limb is charted. The sensitivity re-
from the disk was trapped by forming an image quired approaches the attainable limit and
of the edge of the objective with a field lens the uncontrollable disturbances in polarization
behind the occulting disk. Since the scatter ap- caused by the atmosphere are large. Fortunately
pears to emanate from this edge it could be the latter are systematically different from co-
eliminated by diaphragming its image. A second ronal polarization and can be largely eliminated.
Fic. 2— Diagram of Lyot coronagraph optical system; A, entrance diaphragm; B, simple lens objective;
C, occulting disk ; D, field lens; E, diaphragm to eliminate diffracted light; F, image forming
lens; G, target to occult doubly reflected light in objective; H, final focal plane

24 J. W. EVANS
During the IGY spectrocoronagraphs operate

at a dozen or more stations. The Sacramento
Peak Observatory will continue to take motion
pictures of the emission corona whenever sky
He 5015
conditions permit, and the High Altitude Ob-
servatory and possibly the Pic du Midi Observa-
He 5047 tory will make regular observations of the co-
ronal polarized light.
False line Birefringent filter—Like the coronagraph, the
birefringent filter [Lyot, 1944; Evans, 1953] has
been in use for some years and can be regarded
as a standard tool of solar astronomy; it was
invented by Lyot in 1935. By an ingenious use
b group
Mg, Fe of the interference of the fast and slow com-
ponents of polarized light traversing birefrin-
gent crystals (usually quartz or calcite) a series
of sharp widely spaced wave-length bands are
transmitted, and the remainder of the spectrum
is absorbed. The designer may choose the wave
length of one transmission band, the band width,
Fe XIV 5303
and, roughly, the separation of the adjacent
bands in the spectrum. With a little ingenuity
and some good luck he can design a filter with
transmission bands coinciding with two or more
lines of special interest. Lyot discovered a quite
fortuitous basic design now widely used, which
transmits no less than six lines of solar interest
including Ha, 4 6374 of the corona, D3 of helium,
He ll 5411
dX 5303 of the corona, a magnesium line of the
b group, and HB. ‘Tunable’ filters which can
Ca XV 5445
be adjusted to transmit any wave length are
theoretically possible and have been designed,
but they call for exceedingly complex mechanical
Fic. 3 — Spectrogram showing bright coronal and
prominence lines, taken through a four-inch adjustments and a considerable increase in opti-
spectrocoronagraph cal complication. To the best of my knowledge,
no fully tunable filters have yet been made.
Most of the filters now in use have transmission
Fic. 4— Solar corona photographed through a combination of six-inch

coronagraph and birefringent filter in light of \ 5303 of FeXIV

Fic. 5 — Six-inch coronagraph with birefringent filter (top) and flare-patrol

heliograph (east side) carried on a single mounting; a four-inch
spectrocoronagraph is carried on the west side of the spar
bands centered on Ha, with an effective width The purpose of the birefringent filter is to tune
from 0.5 to 5 angstrom units. on the wave length emitted by the solar feature
A birefringent filter is constructed in the form under observation and to eliminate the static
of a multiple sandwich of alternating layers of composed of white light, which would otherwise
polaroid film and birefringent crystals. The drown the object out. It performs the function
optical retardations (thickness multiplied by the of a spectroheliograph in the photography of
birefringence) of the crystal layers form a disk phenomena (Fig. 6) like flares, plages, fila-
geometric progression in powers of 2, and a ments, and prominences at the limb (Fig. 7). It
1 A filter would normally require six or seven generally gives better definition and is much
elements of quartz and two of calcite, with a faster, but lacks the flexibility of the spectro-
total length of about 20 cm. heliograph in the choice of band width and wave
Many solar features radiate or absorb se- length. Although it is a complicated little device,
lectively in particular lines of the spectrum and the filter is compact and reliable, qualities which
can be seen only by isolating or tuning on these admirably fit it for use with modest telescopes
lines. Their observation is analogous to the re- and by comparatively unskilled operators. The
ception of a radio station on a particular fre- flare-patrol network for IGY, for instance,
quency. A radio which accepted all frequencies would hardly be feasible without it. Combined
simultaneously would be quite useless, singe all with the coronagraph, it is the ideal instrument
stations and all static would come in at once. for observing prominences, and the only device

J. W. EVANS
Fic. 6 — Photograph of the solar disk in an active region, on large scale; this was taken with the 16-inch
coronagraph of the Sacramento Peak Observatory through an H-alpha birefringent
filter of 0.65 angstrom pass band


=»
Fic. 7— Solar prominence photographed through a birefringent filter in H-alpha light
available for direct photography of the emission course, but the astronomers of the 1860’s must
corona. have reveled in the unexpected and un-
Roberts [1957] estimates that at least 50 filters dreamed of power of the new tool that came
with pass bands of | A or less are now in use, so suddenly into their hands with the discovery
10 or 15 of them in the USSR. Most of these of the laws of spectrum analysis. Modern astro-
will contribute in some measure to the IGY physics dates from that time, and the central
observations of solar activity. importance of spectroscopy has steadily grown
A new type of birefringent filter has been de- since its inception. The demand for more and
veloped during the last three or four years by more powerful spectroscopic equipment has kept
Sole in Czechoslovakia. It is simpler than the pace with the increased knowledge of the sig-
Lyot type in having crystal elements all of the nificance of fine detail in the spectrum, and the
same thickness, but more complicated in that end is not in sight. In the present state of the
there are a great many more of them. The most art, the most important observational task of
attractive feature, however, is that only two solar spectroscopy is the accurate measurement
polarizers are required; the transmission of the of the profiles of the absorption and emission
filter must therefore be very high. Although lines of the disk, chromosphere, prominences, and
prominence photographs have been obtained with corona. The most powerful instruments of
these filters, the optical theory has not yet been today are adequate to provide plenty of food for
fully worked out, and it is not certain that they theoretical ruminations, but the theoreticians are
are suitable for the much more exacting task never fully satisfied and would welcome still
of showing monochromatic details on the disk of more spectroscopic power.
the Sun. At present we cannot look to the Solc In solar research, power is a complicated func-
filters for a large contribution of solar observation of spectroscopic resolution, purity of spec-
tions during IGY. trum, and speed, in combinations which vary
Spectroscopes—The most fundamental of all widely with the problem in hand. Whatever the
the instruments of solar research is the com- combination, however, the ultimate limiting fac-
bination of telescope and spectrograph. Solar tor is inevitably the dispersing element of the
spectroscopy began with the identification of spectrograph, which usually means a grating. All
the chemical elements in the solar atmos- the other components of the optical system can
phere. We now accept this as a matter of be made better than the grating by quite routine

28 J. W. EVANS
optical shop procedures, but the ruling of a good the Climax Station of the High Altitude Ob-
grating is a fantastically difficult mechanical servatory. Ihe improvement of these instru-
problem, which has been solved in only a few ments over pre-war spectrographs represents a
laboratories in the world. near discontinuity of power, and the impact on
Diffraction gratings—Briefly stated, the prob- the study of solar activity in the next few years
lem is to rule 15,000 grooves per inch in a metal will be enormous. Further increases in the
surface over the greatest possible distance [ Har- power of gratings can be expected in the next
rison, 1949]. This in itself would be a stiff job few years, as Harrison at MIT develops his
for an ordinary instrument shop, but it is only interferometric ruling engines for the production
the beginning of the problem. In order to achieve of still larger gratings to standards of quality
anything approaching theoretically perfect re- fully as rigorous as or better than those already
solving power and freedom from scattered light, attained. The first experimental eight-inch Har-
comparable with that of a quite ordinary lens, rison grating to be used in solar research has just
the spacings of the grooves must be uniform. been mounted in the 43-ft spectrograph at the
Periodic errors accumulating to more than a Sacramento Peak Observatory, and is now un-
tenth of the wave length of the light (about two dergoing its first tests in service.
millionths of an inch) with a root mean square Solar radio-noise observations—The introduc-
accidental error of more than a twentieth of a tion of radio observation in astronomy [Pawsey
wave length are intolerable. Anyone who has and Smerd, 1953; Wild, 1953] resembles the
required mechanical work with tolerances of less inception of spectroscopy, in that it provides a
than one ten-thousandth of an inch will have new and significant form of data of a nature
some conception of the magnitude of the difficul- entirely different from anything available before,
ties. Ruling engines are inherently perverse adding a new dimension to our description of the
mechanisms which creep and bend, and expand universe. It is as though we had suddenly ac-
and contract perhaps a hundred times the per- quired a new sense. We are still in the exciting
missible ruling tolerances. Harrison has likened process of early exploitation, the skimming of
the problem of ruling to that of painting a the cream of fundamental knowledge opened up
miniature portrait with a whitewash brush in- by a new and powerful technique. Although we
securely attached to a six-foot length of rubber can be certain that the radio observation of the
hose for a handle. Matters are further com- Sun during future sunspot maxima will far sur-
plicated by the need for a very definite groove pass the present efforts, it is impossible to
shape with flat sides at rigidly specified angles. exaggerate the significance of the present work
This is the condition for high light efficiency, an for the aims of IGY. The generation of radio
item of the utmost importance even for the ob- noise is basically a simpler process than the
servation of an object as bright as the solar emission of light, and the measurements can
photosphere. be much more readily interpreted. Furthermore,
In view of all these obstacles, the magnificent the tremendous observable frequency range of
six- and eight-inch gratings produced during the four decades, from 15 to 15,000 mc, provides the
last few years by Babcock at Mt. Wilson, Strong means for the study of physical conditions in the
at Johns Hopkins, and the Bausch and Lomb Op- optically difficult regions extending from the
tical Company rank as true prodigies of mechani- photosphere out through the corona. This region
cal art, and we hear of comparable gratings is the only observable part of the Sun where
being made in Russia. In resolution they are the temperature reaches a million or more de-
hardly distinguishable from theoretical perfec- grees, and much of the radiation that affects the
tion, and scattered light has been reduced to terrestrial atmosphere must originate in it. In
negligible levels. general, the height of origin of the radio waves
These grating are now the basic elements in increases with the wave length. Thus an analysis
at least six new solar spectrographs ranging in of the radio spectrum is an analysis in height
size from the high resolution 50-ft vacuum spec- in the solar atmosphere.
trograph fed by the McGregor tower telescope Compared to the optical refinements, radio
of the McMath-Hulbert Observatory, to the observations of the Sun are rather crude. Usu-
elegant little five-foot coronal spectrograph at ally the integrated radiation from the whole

solar disk is measured at some well-defined fre- the end of IGY. At present the only ones taking
quency. Measurements of this sort in light continuous observations are Wild’s instrument
would yield no useful information on solar ac- in Australia and the excellent Fort Davis,
tivity, since the total enhancement of light caused Texas, spectrometer of the Harvard College
by an active region is too small to detect. Mat- Observatory, which sweeps the range from 100
ters are very different at radio frequencies, how- to 600 mc three times per second. The results
ever. Here the contribution of a temporary from both these instruments during the present
activity may be thousands of times the steady- sunspot maximum are very exciting and puz-
state radiation from the whole disk, and the zling, indicating solar radio disturbances which
simple measurement of the integrated energy is rise with velocities of the order of 500 km/sec
very significant. through the corona and occasionally appear to
This fact has led to the establishment of a return downward with comparable speed. A
world-wide network of 200 mc radiometers simi- quite separate event appears to be a disturbance
lar to the flare-patrol network. In fact, many which shoots out at 10,000 or more km/sec, pos-
of the stations are the same. The stations are sibly associated with the emission of cosmic rays
well distributed in longitude and are now keeping from the Sun.
the Sun under a 24-hour-a-day watch. Like the Radio interferometers—Directional resolution,
flare patrol, the establishment of a 200 mc radio- by means of which the positions of radio sources
meter requires a relatively modest outlay in are located on the Sun, is achieved by the use
money and manpower. Enthusiasm for the proj- of radio interferometers, which are rather exact
ect is high, promising thorough coverage and analogies of optical interferometers. Angular
important results. resolution is simply the angle subtended by one
In a sense the 200 mc patrol is a speculation, wave length at a distance equal to the total
because at present the true significance of the aperture. Since useful resolution is about 0.001
radio-noise outbursts at this frequency is not radian (one tenth the solar diameter), the re-
really understood. There can be no doubt about quired antenna array must be about 1000 wave
the soundness of the speculation, however. Any lengths across. Some of the most interesting
local phenomenon with an output of any form activity occurs at wave lengths greater than one
of radiation which exceeds that of the whole meter, calling for an array of the order of one
steady-state Sun is sure to be important and kilometer wide. Matters are further complicated
deserves most careful attention. by the need for resolution in two dimensions. It
The present development in solar radio astron- is not surprising, therefore, that rather few
omy is directed toward two goals. They are the observatories have had the resources for high-
recording of the radio spectrum over broad resolution radio work. Several very effective
bands of frequency, and the increase of resolving one-dimensional interferometers are in use, how-
power at a fixed frequency to determine the ever, and at least one two-dimensional inter-
positions of radio sources on the solar disk. ferometer, a Mills Cross, is being set up at
Excellent progress in both fields has been made, Stanford by Bracewell. Since the latter instru-
and the logical next step, the combination of the ment may not be completed until near the end of
two, is in the thinking stage. IGY, the radio interferometer coverage of the
Radio spectrometers—The electronic problem Sun will not be entirely satisfactory, but the
of sweeping the spectrum was brilliantly solved results from existing equipment will add tre-
by Wild in Australia, who first determined the mendously to the value of both the 200 mc and
time-frequency variations of outbursts from 60 the spectrometer observations.
to 130 mc in 1950. The instrumental difficulties Other instruments—Although I have been able
are formidable and radio spectrometers have to skim only the most basic of the instruments
been slow to appear at other observatories. for solar observation during IGY, there are
However, several are in the process of construc- many others which are perhaps less imposing but
tion, at University of Michigan, at the Institute which can be expected to yield very substantial
for Theoretical Astrophysics in Norway, at results. Photometric devices for photoelectric,
Meudon, and at the Crimean Astrophysical Ob- photographic, and visual measurements of light
servatory, and will probably be operating before intensities, devices for the rapid determination

30 J. W. EVANS
of velocities across and along the line of sight, REFERENCES
the solar magnetograph of the Babcocks, and Evans, J. W., The coronagraph, The Sun, G. P.
rapid data reducing systems like direct intensity Kuiper (ed.), Univ. Chicago Press, pp. 635-643,
recording microphotometers and isophotometers, 1953.
to name a few, will make most important con- Evans, J. W., Birefringent filters, The Sun, G. P.
tributions. Kuiper (ed.), Univ. Chicago Press, pp. 626-634,
1953.
Significance of the program—All of the instru-
Harrison, G. R., Production of diffraction gratings,
ments described are only tools which will provide I, development of the ruling art, J. Opt. Soc.
data for the intellectual activity of interpreta- Amer., 39, 413, 1949.
tion, from which new knowledge will flow. By Lyot, B., The study of the solar corona and
themselves participating institutions could doubt- prominences without eclipses, Mon. Not. R. -4s-
less use their equipment to good effect. But the tron. Soc., 99, 580, 1939.
important ingredient of the IGY is a form of Lyot, B., Le filtre monochromatique polarisant,
Ann. d’Astrophysique, 1, 31, 1944.
cooperation which will multiply the results far
McMatn, Rosert R., Tower telescopes and ac-
beyond the number of institutions involved. As cessories, The Sun, G. P. Kuiper (ed.), Univ.
far as possible all observable features of a given Chicago Press, pp. 605-626, 1953.
solar event and the geophysical responses will be Pawsey, J. L., ano S. F. Smerp, Solar radio emis-
observed simultaneously at the different stations. sion, The Sun, G. P. Kuiper (ed.), Univ. Chicago
Of course the exigencies of weather and instru- Press, pp. 466-531, 1953.
mental readiness will interfere with the securing Roserts, W. O., Ninth Report of the Commission
for Study of Solar Terrestrial Relationships, Int.
of a really complete picture in many cases, but Council Sci. Unions, 1957.
if only a few outstanding events are thoroughly Witp, J. P., Techniques for observation of radio-
covered, the results more than justify the effort. frequency radiation from the Sun, The Sun,
This is the immediate purpose of IGY, and solar G. P. Kuiper (ed.), Univ. Chicago Press, pp.
astronomers everywhere welcome the opportunity 676-692, 1953.
to participate and benefit from a scientific co-

Sacramento Peak Observatory, Geophysics Research
operative effort on a scale they have never Directorate, AF Cambridge Research Center,
experienced before. Sunspot, New Mexico

Whistler Studies at Dartmouth College

MILLettT G. Morcan
Introduction—The broad program of synoptic the Earth and down again to the symmetrical
observation of whistlers which the United States point in the opposite hemisphere, taking a second
has undertaken for IGY, had its beginning in or two to make this very long trip. The lower
1952 in Sydney, Australia, at the Tenth General frequencies travel slower than the high so that
Assembly of the International Scientific Radio the original impulse is spread out into a swish
Union. J. A. Ratcliffe reported there on the or whistle of descending pitch when it is received.
recent work of one of his doctoral candidates Storey’s support for this thesis was very strong
at Cambridge University. What Ratcliffe had except that, for the guiding to be maintained
to report was exciting to the imagination and thousands of miles above the Earth so that the
“not something one quite dared accept.” R. A. wave would not escape, a minimum electron
Helliwell of Stanford University, H. E. Dinger density of about 400 electrons/cc is required.
of the Naval Research Laboratory, and the Our knowledge of the rate at which the atmos-
author, each heard this presentation and reacted pheric density lapses with height is very limited,
in somewhat similar fashion: What an ideal but an extension to so great a height would leave
object of basic research combining interest in nothing like 400 particles/cc.
radio wave propagation, geophysics, and solar- When the publication of Storey’s work was
terrestrial relationships! Each of us has been in proof, the results of a photoelectric study of
amply rewarded in the five years which have the zodiacal light came to his attention. This
passed since that time. At Dartmouth we were is the sunlight that is scattered into the dark
engaged in high-frequency studies for the U. S. hemisphere. It is called zodiacal because it is
Navy Bureau of Ships and it was by their in- concentrated in the ecliptic plane. From their
dulgence that we got started. observations, the authors of this work had de-
Whistlers are audio-frequency radio waves duced that 600 electrons/cc were present to pro-
arising from lightning flashes. To hear them, duce the observed scattering. Of course this
one need only apply the electric or magnetic field independent deduction strengthened Storey’s case.
of the wave to an electro-mechanical transducer, Simultaneous observations at Hanover, N. H.,
such as a headphone, to convert the electro- and Washington, D. C.—By early 1955, the three
magnetic signal to a sound wave. Of course of us in America who had been working with
amplification is usually needed, but I have heard whistlers since hearing about them in Sydney,
them on our telephone at home, picked up on five were beginning to get results. In order not to
miles of two-wire open line. Supplying amplifica- miss any periods of good activity, I had intro-
tion usually leads to trouble: oscillation and duced the whistler receiver into our household
interference from harmonics of the power-line and had my wife wearing earphones as she went
frequency. Once these matters are overcome, about her household duties. One of our best
and an antenna of suitable size and match to records was obtained when one of our daughters
the amplifier is arranged, whistlers will be heard (then 6) woke us up early Sunday morning
virtually every day in the geomagnetic latitude because there were “wonderful whistlers” com-
belt 45-55° north or south. ing in. In March of that year, there was out-
Ratcliffe’s graduate student, Storey [1953] standing activity, and Dinger and I obtained
(now with the Canadian Defence Research some very good simultaneous observations. Anal-
Board in Ottawa), extended the theoretical ysis of the records showed that the characteristics
work of Eckersley, done fifteen years earlier, of individual whistlers heard in Hanover and
and combined it with extensive experimental Washington were identical [Morgan and Dinger,
observations. Storey deduced that whistlers re- 1956].
sult from the propagation of the very low fre- Conjugate point experiment—What was needed
quency energy radiated by a lightning flash, along to clinch matters, was the setting up of suitably
the flux of the Earth’s magnetic field far above placed stations in the northern and southern
31

32 M. G. MORGAN
hemispheres to make simultaneous observations, Gallet of the National Bureau of Standards

and we set about in 1955 to perform such an and R. A. Helliwell have put forth a theory of
experiment. Starting from a point in the northern the generating mechanism which is having grow-
hemisphere where whistlers are observed, and ing success in explaining the various vlf emission
following the flux of the Earth’s magnetic field phenomena which are observed.
to the southern hemisphere, one invariably lands Multiple whistlers—We have continued the
in the ocean. Going at it the other way around, Unalaska station in routine operation since its
one again lands in the ocean or on land physi- original installation. The whistler activity there
cally inaccessible. Since the exercise in spherical is very high. The whistlers are predominantly
trigonometry required for each try is rather of the short or one-way type; that is, they
tedious, we scribed a set of geomagnetic coordi- originate in the opposite hemisphere. It is not
nates on a globe to see where the best possibili- uncommon to have a lightning flash produce two
ties lay and then performed calculations to place Or more separate whistlers. Usually the multi-
the stations accurately. In this manner, sites in ple whistlers are closely spaced in arrival time.
the Aleutian Islands and New Zealand were Because the spacing within successive groups is
selected. constant during a given period of activity, it is
By a fortuitous circumstance, G. McK. All- concluded that this is certainly due to the exist-
cock (New Zealand Dominion Physical Labora- ence of separate propagation paths.
tory) was thinking along similar lines at the In analyzing an Unalaska record taken on
same time although he had not selected a path. Nov. 11, 1956, I was unable to account for the
With his cooperation, the experiment was per- details of an echo train. Curtis pointed out that
formed in August and September 1955. H. W. the first two whistlers were unusually wide-
Curtis of Dartmouth went to Unalaska where spread multiples and that the succeeding echoes
the U. S. Army Signal Corps made facilities could be explained by successive propagation
available to us. After about a week of operation, over these paths in various sequential combina-
the observers heard whistler trains; that is a tions. One of the original pair was stronger than
whistler followed by a train of echoes. Inde- the other and from this he inferred that its path
pendently they sent one another cable messages had the smaller attenuation and would be pre-
which crossed in the mail. The messages con- ferred in the echoes. The record showed this to
tained times of occurrence which made it very be true.
clear that corresponding signals had been heard Visual observation of lightning and whistlers—
at both ends of the path. Subsequent spectro- After many failures, we have recently been fully
graphic analysis revealed that the details of successful in correlating visual observation of
Storey’s postulates had been proven, including lightning with whistlers. On May 27, 1957, I
his most tenuous one: that there can be as many observed a period of an hour or more in which
as 400 electrons/cc thousands of miles above the visible lightning and audible thunder were oc-
Earth [Morgan and Allcock, 1956]. curring, with every flash producing a strong
Arctic observations—We commenced observa- whistler with echoes. There had been an un-
tions in the auroral zone at Knob Lake, Quebec, elucidated report of such an observation years
in 1955. In the summer of 1956, Curtis made ago, but since many attempts by Dinger and
observations at higher latitudes at Frobisher Bay ourselves over a period of several years had been
(Baffin Island), at Séndre Strémfjord, Green- totally unsuccessful until now, this was a very
land, and on the Greenland Icecap east of Thule. significant experience.
Weak whistlers are occasionally heard at Knob Visual observation of aurora and vlf emis-
Lake but none were heard at any of the places sions—With the knowledge that vlf emissions
which Curtis visited inside auroral zone. and aurora are both strongly correlated with
The dawn chorus is observed at Hanover and geomagnetic disturbance, it is reasonable to seek
Knob Lake, and was heard by Curtis at Fro- a direct correspondence between vlIf emissions
bisher Bay and Sgéndre Strémfjord but not at and visible features in the aurora. Storey and I
Thule. This phenomenon is believed to be a vif have both sought this without success. However,
emission produced by the precipitation of solar my wife has detected a correlation which she
particles upon the outer atmosphere. R. M. and I now find in every notable display of

WHISTLER STUDIES AT DARTMOUTH COLLEGE 33
TO Co er
»'th ‘ole
es a
eee
Ay oh» ch BoM).
a a) ~ ar 4
rnin asa ON -eye side.
S@ Sit
kaka
Fic. 1 — Audio-frequency spectrum analyzer for whistlers; a 32-channel spectrograph presenting the
output of each channel on a one-inch cathode-ray tube has been developed at Dartmouth College for the
rapid analysis of whistler data recorded during IGY; records are produced on continuously moving
35 mm photographic film on which the image of the row of tubes is focused; the instrument was de-
veloped by H. W. Curtis of the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth
flaming auroral rays. The observation appears IGY preparations—Routine whistler data re-
to be consistent with the Gallet-Helliwell theory corded every three hours at Unalaska; Dunedin
of vif emissions. and Wellington, N. Z.; Knob Lake, Que.,
The solar flare of February 23, 1956—In the Canada; Hanover, N. H.; Washington, D. C.;
daytime, very low frequency radio waves are and Gainesville, Fla.; have been collated at
reflected from the ionosphere at a height of Dartmouth and exchanged with many stations.
about 70 km. At night, the ionization at that An agreement has recently been reached insuring
level disappears rapidly and the reflection height that all participants in the coordinated western
rises to about 90 km. The daytime absorption hemisphere group. recording whistlers during
of the waves is much greater because the de- IGY, will use a uniform reporting sheet for
tached electrons, which are set in motion by the the daily log of aural monitoring of the tapes.
electric field of the radio wave, make more To provide guidance and insure standardization
collisions with air molecules in the denser atmos- for all countries participating in IGY programs,
phere at the lower level. the Special Committee for IGY (CSAGI) ar-
At night, when the ionospheric absorption is ranged for the preparation of manuals in each
low, the very low frequency radio pulses from field. The author prepared the manual on
lightning discharges bounce back and forth many whistlers and dawn chorus.
times between the Earth and the ionosphere. We have undertaken responsibility for a chain
This imparts a musical character to them and of thirteen stations, from the Arctic to the Ant-
they are called ‘tweeks.’ Tweeks last somewhat arctic, for IGY. We will continue our Aleu-
less than a tenth of a second. They descend tian— New Zealand observations on a limited
rapidly in frequency to a limiting lower value scale as an experiment outside the synoptic
determined by the ionospheric reflection height. program.
On rare occasions, solar flares produce strong Equipment—In addition to refinement of the
cosmic-ray bursts, and ionospheric effects on the whistler receiving equipment, automatic pro-
dark hemisphere of the Earth. The flare of gramming and recording equipment has been de-
February 23, 1956, was such an event and the signed. This provides timing to 0.05-sec accuracy
results were noted at many observatories. Day- so that events recorded simultaneously at widely
time propagation conditions for very low fre- separated stations can be identified and cor-
quency waves were suddenly manifest in the related.
dark hemisphere. At the suggestion of J. M Because of the varying quality of radio recep-
Watts of the National Bureau of Standards, tion of time signals on a continuous basis, it was
we analyzed our records of tweeks for that recognized that the maintenance of a_ local-
period and substantiated the findings of others station standard is essential. A standard which
deduced from radio transmission circuits. does not require adjustment more than about

34 M. G. MORGAN
twice a month has been adopted. By placing REFERENCES
time marks on the magnetic recording tape, re-

Morcan, M. G., anno H. E. DinGer, Observations of
liance upon constant tape transport speed is whistling atmospherics at geomagnetically con-
eliminated. The calibration of the overall system jugate points, Nature, 177, 29-30, 1956.
sensitivity is automatically recorded on each Morcan, M. G., ano G. McK. ALLcock, Observa-
schedule. tions of whistling atmospherics at geomagneti-
cally conjugate points, Nature, 177, 30-31, 1956.
Curtis has undertaken the development of a
Storey, L. R. O., An investigation of whistling at-
multi-channel audio-frequency spectrum analyzer mospherics, PAil. Trans. R. Soc., 246, 113-141,
for the rapid analysis of data (Fig. 1). Records 1953.
are produced on continuously moving 35 mm
photographic film on which the image of the row Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College,
of 32 small cathode-ray tubes is focused. Hanover, New Hampshire

Whistlers and Very Low Frequency Emissions

R. A. HELLIWELL
Introduction—The exosphere, an enormous re- means of the ground wave or by reflection from
gion of nearly empty space beyond the regular the ionosphere are often referred to as sferics.
ionospheric layers, is the subject of a unique One particular form known as a tweek has a
program of radio measurements to be carried somewhat musical sound resulting from a long
on by the IGY Panel on Ionospheric Physics. A train of pulses produced by different numbers
remarkable class of naturally occurring radio of reflections between Earth and _ ionosphere.
waves is used to measure the density of ioniza- An unusually long tweek (50-100 milliseconds)
tion and other characteristics in this little-known may sometimes be mistaken for a_ whistler.)
region surrounding the Earth. The signals to They include warbling and chirping sounds
be used are known as ‘whistlers and vlf emis- known as chorus, risers, hooks, hiss, and various
sions’ and are of unusually low frequency, rang- more complicated signals.
ing from less than 1000 cycles to more than The property that makes these odd-sounding
30,000 cycles. They can be heard with the aid signals so interesting and potentially useful is
of an ordinary audio amplifier connected to a that their paths through space are bound to the
large antenna. Those called whistlers, long de- curved lines of force of the Earth’s magnetic
scending whistles lasting one to three seconds, field through the action of hitherto unsuspected
are produced by the dispersion of energy from quantities of ionization. These flux-line paths
lightning discharges. Those classed as vlf emis- may extend as far as 30,000 mi beyond the sur-
sions appear to be generated somewhere in the face of the Earth into regions virtually inac-
exosphere, but the mechanism is still uncertain. cessible by any other means presently at hand.
(The term ‘vlf emissions’ was first proposed by Their general nature is shown in Figure 1, which
R. M. Gallet of the National Bureau of Stand- is a plot of the dipole field of the Earth for
ards. These together with whistlers come under every ten degrees of geomagnetic latitude. The
the more general classification of atmospherics. dotted area close to the earth represents the
Those atmospherics which are propagated by known regions (E and F2 layers) of the iono-
& — 7
ia Rr ma,
af ‘N
4
H —~-+ n + \ 4 4. aA.
} , 2 | s 3 é ? é 3
b Z /
/
CAPE HORN 4 ”
SS J a ll
Fic. 1 — Lines of Earth’s dipole magnetic field for each ten degrees of
geomagnetic latitude; dotted area represents the known ionosphere;
dashed line is assumed path of NSS echoes
35

36 R. A. HELLIWELL
sphere which, it is easily seen, contain only a frequently heard many whistling sounds of de-
small fraction of each flux-line path with the scending pitch, each lasting one second or more.
exception of those close to the equator. He recognized these as a new natural phe-
Why is such a near-void as the exosphere so nomenon, to which he gave the name whistler
important? The reason is that it is a vital link | Barkhausen, 1919]. Eckersley [1928] and his
between events occurring on the Sun and subse- co-workers of the Marconi Company reported
quent effects in the Earth’s atmosphere. It is a positive correlation between whistler occur-
in the exosphere that streams of ionized gases rence and solar activity. They made the im-
generated during periods of sunspot activity are portant observation that whistlers frequently
deflected by the Earth’s magnetic field. The occur in trains preceded by a loud click, with a
resulting motions of these ionized particles set spacing of about three seconds between click and
up currents which are believed to cause the the first whistler and between whistlers of the
magnetic field variations known as magnetic train. Eckersley [1931] reported a nighttime
storms. Penetration of the solar streams into observation by Tremellen during a summer
the Earth’s ionosphere causes auroras, disrupts thunderstorm in which every visible flash was
radio communications, and may even affect large- followed by a whistler. This was the first direct
scale weather phenomena. The mechanism by evidence that whistlers were produced by ordi-
which these solar outbursts produce their pro- nary lightning. (A. Glenn Jean at Boulder,
found effects is still uncertain; new knowledge Colorado, has reported, privately, that on a
of the exosphere is almost certain to be of help morning in April 1955 he saw several cloud-to-
in reaching an understanding of these puzzling ground strokes each of which was followed by
phenomena. Whistlers and vlf emissions offer a whistler.) The Marconi workers also dis-
intriguing possibilities for calculating the discovered another type of atmospheric which
tribution of free charge in the exosphere, for sounded like the warbling of birds at dawn.
exploring the far reaches of the Earth’s mag- This they called the ‘dawn chorus’; it is discussed
netic field, and for measuring the velocities and later on in this paper.
densities of solar corpuscular streams. Knowl- Using the newly developed Appleton-Hartree
edge of these phenomena obtained during IGY magneto-ionic theory, Eckersley [1935] derived
will have an important bearing on studies coming a dispersion equation which explained the whis-
under other IGY disciplines such as solar ac- tler’s descending pitch. He assumed loss-less
tivity, aurora and airglow, geomagnetism and propagation entirely along the direction of the
cosmic rays. Earth’s field and that the wave frequency was
During the IGY more than thirty specially small compared with the plasma frequency and
designed recorders, spread widely over the
gyrofrequency. In this case the group velocity
Earth's surface, capture the electrical ‘sounds’
is given by
of whistlers and vlf emissions automatically. At
precisely 35 minutes past each hour, synchronized vy =2ef
in f'/fo
where
electronic clocks start the tape recorders which
then record any incoming signals for a period c=velocity of light
of two minutes. Shortly after recording, the f= wave frequency
fn= gyrofrequency (proportional to strength
tapes are monitored by ear, and logs are made of Earth's field)
of their contents. Summaries of occurrence sta- fy=plasma_ frequency (proportional to
tistics are prepared for correlation with other square root of electron density)
IGY data. Most of the tapes will be preserved
The first quantitative measurement of fre-
for later quantitative spectrum analysis.
quency variation was made by Burton and
Boardman [1933] in the United States from
HistoricAL BACKGROUND
recordings taken in Ireland. They published a
Our subject began, oddly enough, while the frequency time curve of two overlapping whis-
German scientist Barkhausen was eavesdropping tlers known as a whistler ‘pair.’ Eckersley
on Allied telephone conversations during World analyzed these data and found that their results
War I. Using a sensitive audio amplifier con- confirmed his dispersion theory which required
nected to a pair of separated ground rods, he the whistler frequency to be proportional to the

WHISTLERS AND VLF 37
reciprocal of the square of time after the initial whistler energy was localized within an area of
impulse. dimensions comparable with the station spacing,
Although the source and shape of the whistler in good agreement with Storey’s theory. The
were now explained, the problem of the path next test of Storey’s theory was made between
followed by the whistler was still a mystery. Stanford and the USS Atka during her trip to
The path hypothesis which is the basis of the the Antarctic in December 1954. Loud ‘tweeks’
present IGY program was developed relatively recorded on the Atka while she was near Stan-
by Storey [1953]. He showed, with both theo- ford’s conjugate point correlated in time with
retical arguments and new experimental data, short whistlers recorded at Stanford. With aid
that some of the electromagnetic energy from a of WWYV time signals recorded on both tapes
lightning discharge penetrates the ionosphere and it was found that the Stanford whistlers were
guided by the lines of force of the Earth’s mag- delayed with respect to the correlated Atka
netic field (Fig. 1) into the opposite hemisphere. tweeks by about one second, as required by
He concluded that about 600 electrons/cc were Storey’s theory [Crary and Helliwell, 1956].
required to account for his results. It was discovered that the causative sferic was
In Storey’s theory groups or trains of whistlers readily detectable on the Stanford record. In
of uniform spacing are the result of repeated September 1955, correlated whistler trains were
reflections of the whistler at the two ends of recorded at Unalaska and its geomagnetic con-
the path. Since the delay of a whistler at a given jugate at Dunedin, New Zealand, by Morgan
frequency, measured quantitatively by the dis- and Allcock [1956]. Their results, further con-
persion, depends on the length of the path, each firming the theory, showed several whistler
successive hop should show a delay which is an trains with the 1:3:5: ... dispersion ratios at
integral multiple of the first hop delay. With one end of the path and 2:4:6: ... ratios at
source and observer in opposite hemispheres, the the other end together with the preceding sferic.
first whistler would have traveled once over the The predicted nonoccurrence of whistlers near
path, the second three times, the third five times, the geomagnetic equator was confirmed by
etc. The ratios of dispersions, or time delays, Koster and Storey [1955] in a three-year study
in this case would then be 1:3:5: . .. Con- at Achimoto, in what is now the nation of
versely, if the source were in the observer’s hemi- Ghana in West Africa. These tests, although
sphere, a loud click would be heard followed by adding nothing substantially new to the picture
a train of whistlers in which the dispersion ratios of whistler propagation, nevertheless provided
would be 2:4:6: ... Storey confirmed experi- much needed confirmation of Storey’s remarkable
mentally that (1) whistlers preceded by clicks theory of the path of propagation.
(which he called long whistlers) were dispersed
about twice as much as those which were not
RECENT New DIscoverigs
(called short whistlers); and that (2) the dis-
persion ratios of echo trains preceded by strong Nose whistlers—After the main features of
clicks were even integers, while for the others Storey’s theory were checked, attention was di-
the ratios were odd. rected toward a more detailed study of the
Since all of Storey’s whistler observations theory and the experimental data. The first new
were made at a single location, he was unable fact to be uncovered was the existence of whistler
to check his prediction that whistlers should be components above the previously assumed upper
confined to an area of about 1000 km radius. limit of ten kilocycles. Recordings made at
The first test of this point was made between Stanford with wideband equipment revealed that
Stanford, California, and Seattle, Washington, whistler components occasionally could be de-
a distance of 1140 kilometers [Crary, Helliwell, tected up to 30 kc, or more. Spectrum analysis
and Chase, 1956]. The times of occurrence of of such high frequency whistlers showed a small
whistlers at the two locations were recorded but definite discrepancy between the frequency-
two hours each week for one year, and the re- time curve and the Eckersley dispersion theory.
sults showed that about 25 pct of the observed These together with similar discrepancies ob-
whistlers were coincident at the two stations. served by Storey prompted a study of the Eckers-
This result was interpreted to mean that the ley law which had been obtained by assuming

38 R. A. HELLIWELL
that the whistler frequency was always small parabolic-shaped traces, with rising and falling
compared with the electronic gyrofrequency. parts extending about 1500 cycles on either side
When this restriction was removed a different of the starting frequency. Because of the char-
equation was obtained which predicted a most acteristic shape of the individual whistler trace,
surprising characteristic [Helliwell and others, this particular kind of whistler has been called
1956]. Assuming sufficiently large plasma fre- a ‘nose whistler’ and its starting frequency the
quency, the group velocity is approximately ‘nose frequency.’ (In this theory, ordinary whis-
tlers are simply the lower branches of nose
Vy =f) (fu —1)°"/fufo (2)
whistlers.) It can be seen that the several nose
which reduces to (1) when f,, is large compared whistlers form a train in which the nose fre-
with f. It shows that when the whistler frequency decreases with time. These particular
quency becomes one-quarter of the gyrofrequency whistlers recorded by Pope were the first evi-
the group velocity reaches a maximum (corre- dence of whistlers at high latitudes, and it was
sponding to minimum time delay) and decreases dificult to know whether they were in fact a
for either increasing or decreasing frequencies. confirmation of the new dispersion theory or
The new theory thus predicted a double whistler whether they might be a special type of whistler
with simultaneous falling and rising components. characteristic of high latitudes.
Experimental confirmation was obtained at ap- The theory predicted that the nose frequency
proximately the same time from records made would occur at ever increasing frequencies as
ty J. H. Pope of the Geophysical Institute, the latitude was reduced, since the gyrofrequency
College, Alaska (geomagnetic latitude 65°) increases as the latitude is reduced. To test
[ Helliwell and others, 1956]. A spectrogram of this point, wideband recordings were made at
one such record is shown in Figure 2a. It is a Seattle, Washington (geomagnetic latitude 51°),
plot of amplitude, measured by the relative dark- from which nose whistlers of the predicted type
ness of the display, as a function of frequency were obtained. A spectrogram of one of these
and time. (The origin of the time axis is arbi- is shown in Figure 2b, with the direct signal
trary since the causative sferic, believed to have from the causative discharge appearing at t=0.
originated in the southern hemisphere, could not This whistler consists of three main parts, the
be identified.) It clearly shows several roughly first of which looks very much like other medium
UO
x
<
~ a j
> ;
2 0 ) | a 3
O pt i lly py ——— pS eee
eS
i (a) TIME IN SECONDS

~
Li
12
TIME IN SECONDS
Fic. 2— Nose whistler spectrograms; (a) College, Alaska, nighttime, July 10, 1955; (b) Seattle,
Washington, nighttime, April 4, 1956

latitude whistlers. However, the next two 1000 km across, there was no detailed informa-
clearly show noses at 0.83 sec and 1.0 sec. The tion on the differences in the recordings at spaced
magnitudes of the corresponding nose frequencies stations. The first definite evidence of significant
(14.2 ke and 12 ke, respectively) and their de- differences was obtained from simultaneous re-
crease with time are in accordance with the cordings of the same whistler train at Stanford,
prediction of the new dispersion theory. Follow- California, and Boulder, Colorado [Stanford
ing the announcement of the theory in December University, 1956]. The spectrograms are shown
1955, nose whistlers were identified in records in Figure 3. (Spectrograms courtesy of J. M.
taken earlier by Dinger [1956] in Washington, Watts, of the NBS Boulder Laboratory.) The
D.C. Recently, trains of nose whistlers were ob- top pair was made at normal tape speed and
tained at Boulder, Colorado, by R. M. Gallet covers the frequency range 0-8 kc, although in-
and J. M. Watts and are similar in shape to the formation below about 2 kc was cut-off by hum
Seattle nose whistlers shown in Figure 2b. filters. Each recording shows the causative
The discovery of the nose whistler is an im- sferic, believed to have originated in the southern
portant windfall for the IGY whistler program. hemisphere, followed by the whistler and four
The reason lies in the effect of the gyrofrequency echoes. The dispersion ratios are clearly 1:3:5:7,
on the characteristics of whistler propagation. characteristic of a ‘short’ whistler. At the lower
For the relatively low values of gyrofrequency left are the 0-16 ke spectrograms of the first
encountered near the tops of whistler paths, the whistler of each train, made by playing the
gyrofrequency effect tends to become separated tapes at half speed. This is a clear indication
from the effect of electron density. As a result of the fine structure differences between two
the shape of the nose whistler contains informa- stations. The Stanford record shows two main
tion on the magnitude of the gyrofrequency (and components, characteristic of the so-called whis-
hence the Earth’s magnetic field) as well as in- tler pair, while the Boulder record shows no
formation on the distribution of ionization. With such pairing and exhibits a greater range of
this added information it is theoretically possible time delays. (On the Stanford record, the two
to place limits on the location of the path of additional traces with greater time delays are
propagation and, in addition, to obtain the distri- harmonics of the strongest whistler component,
bution of ionization along the path. With ‘clas- resulting from equipment overloading. Har-
sical’ whistlers it would be possible only to de- monics and cross-modulation products appear in
termine the integrated value of the ionization several places on the spectrograms where the
over an assumed path of propagation. whistler components are very strong.) The
A further extension of the dispersion theory cause of the whistler pair and the differences in
has been made by Storey [1956] for the purpose fine structure is not definitely known; it has
of using whistlers to detect the presence of been suggested that the separate whistler com-
ionized hydrogen in the outer atmosphere. He ponents result from the concentration of energy
has shown that because the gyrofrequency of along particular paths of different lengths [Stan-
hydrogen ions (about 600 cycles in the iono- ford University, 1956]. Such concentration might
sphere) is comparable with whistler frequencies, be caused by irregularities in the ionosphere or
there should be a small departure of the dis- field-aligned columns of ionization in the exo-
persion curve from that with electrons only. sphere. The radiation pattern of the source will
He points out that the effect should be readily likewise modify the amplitude distribution. The
detectable at about 45° magnetic latitude and at synchronized space-station recordings during the
frequencies below about two kilocycles. Such IGY should provide a sound basis for studying
measurements require low-noise locations and a such fine structure effects. Their understanding
maximum of precision in the recording tech- may well be one of the important clues to the
niques, but should yield information of extremely mechanism of formation and dissipation of ion-
great value relative to the concentration of hy- ization in the exosphere.
drogen in the exosphere. Recent work by Jfaeda and Kimura [1956]
Whistler paths—Although the Stanford-Seattle shows that the whistler path may depart mark-
coincidence tests demonstrated that a given edly from the magnetic field-line path, particu-
whistler could be heard over an area at least larly at low latitudes. However, there is yet no

40 R. A. HELLIWELL
WHISTLER MAY 4.1956 0441°27G
STANFORD
Rt oi. ee it
IN KC
} t a if if ; '
& OO
.
7m
weet + Spe ges. +” - _

FREO
; ' 1} 4 : i. imeii. :
4 8 l2 ‘6 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 84 68 92 396 HOO 04 OB 2
TIWE IN SECONDS
BOULDER
r
IN KC
@
a
FREQ
~
bee - a ee eb a aa @ae..s as
c
46 52 56 60 64 68 32 36 00 04 OB 2
TIME IN SECONDS
STANFORD
Bs
z=
y*
22
= § = 16
eoa6 eg“0 °
0 2 4 6 ” Lo 2 i4 66 18
TIME IN SECONDS TIME IN SECONDS
BOULDER BOULDER
ulé _ 32
Ee ; '
s: | '
=.
<..
,| '
= \6
Oo °o
ca “0
c 4 6 § 0 2 \4 i6 18 2 3 a 5 6 7 8 9 to «(CO 2 -Wut-r.
TIME iN SECONDS TIME IN SECONDS
Fic. 3 — Stanford-Boulder simultaneous whistler spectrograms, May 4, 1956, 04h 41m 27s GMT
experimental confirmation of their calculations. test were unusual in that their peak energy ap-
Careful measurement of the locations of both peared at frequencies near five kilocycles, while
ends of the path appears to be necessary. most of the other sferics observed showed peaks
Very little is known about the effect of the much closer to ten kilocycles. Second, whistler-
location of the source on the properties of the producing lightning discharges tended to occur
whistler. If each whistler component travels more frequently over sea than over land. Third,
along certain preferred flux-line paths, as sug- the time of origin derived from the Eckersley-
gested above, then only their relative intensities, law interpretation of the whistler was up to
and not their dispersions, would depend on the 0.4 sec after the observed time. Such a large dis-
discharge location. Clearly, the locations of the crepancy increases the difficulty of identifying
causative discharges are required in the study of the causative sferic from time measurements.
whistler paths. It has been explained in terms of the breakdown
Energy spectrum—The energy spectrum of of the Eckersley law [Smith and Helliwell,
the source is required if the energy spectrum of 1957]. In most cases, the waveforms of the
the whistler is to be interpreted in terms of the whistler-producing sferics were so unusual that
properties of the transmission medium. A new it was possible to predict the occurrence of the
technique for measuring the location and the whistler in several cases by observation of the
waveform of the impulse preceding whistlers sferic waveform only. However, this does not
was successfully tested in September 1956 [ Helli- mean that the more typical sferic cannot produce
well, Taylor, and Jean, 1958]. Waveform re- a whistler, only that it is less likely to do so
cording techniques developed by the NBS Boul- because its energy content in the whistler band is
der Laboratories and broadband direction finding lower.
techniques developed at Stanford were applied for Controlled experiments—The most recent de-
the first time in a two-station study of the sferics velopment of significance to the IGY whistler
which precede whistlers. From this test, three program is the successful completion of an ex-
new results were obtained. First, the lightning periment to detect a whistler-mode signal from
discharges causing the whistlers observed in this a man-made source [Helliwell and Gehrels,

WHISTLERS AND VLF 4]
1958]. Special pulse signals transmitted from the 2 kc to 4 kc, and chorus, which is the series of
Navy station NSS at Annapolis on 15.5 ke were short rising bands extending from about 4 to
received near Cape Horn, South America, where 7 kc. Some of these phenumena appear to be
there is no detectable man-made noise. The related to whistlers and they all show a high
regular ionosphere-reflected or ‘direct’ signals correlation with magnetic disturbance [// atts,
from Annapolis were received strongly at all 1957|. They are most prevalent at high latitudes,
times. Signals traveling over the whistler path, but a recent study indicates that they do not
or what has been called the magneto-ionic duct, extend to the geomagnetic pole [Curtis and
were 10 to 30 decibels weaker than the direct Morgan, 1956].
signals. The assumed path is shown by the Recently a theory has been advanced to ac-
dashed line on Figure 1. The measured time count for these unusual electromagnetic signals
delays averaged about 0.7 sec, in close agreement [Gallet and Helliwell, 1957]. It is based on
with delays measured from whistlers recorded selective traveling-wave amplification of noise
at the same time. The corresponding electron energy present in the medium. Energy for the
density for a constant density model is about 5000 amplification process is provided by streams of
per cc., a value many times higher than that ionized particles which come from the Sun and
found by Storey. travel along the lines of the Earth’s magnetic
Double echoes were sometimes observed indi- field. These streams are assumed to penetrate
cating definitely that more than one path exists the ambient ionization of the exosphere with
in the outer ionsphere. A surprising new result relatively little interaction. The mechanism of
was obtained from measurements of the ampli- amplification is assumed to be similar to that in
tude which, during some periods, varied in a ordinary traveling wave tubes except that the
fairly regular way, over a ratio of ten to one. slow wave circuit (provided by the helix of the
The fading period was somewhat less than one tube) is the ambient ionization of the exosphere
minute and indicated a systematic variation in in the presence of the Earth’s magnetic field.
the properties of the medium of propagation. In such a dispersive medium the velocity of an
Such data may yield new insight into the short- electromagnetic wave is reduced and becomes of
period fluctuations of ionization in the exosphere. the same order of magnitude as the velocity
Vif emissions—Although there are many un- (order of one-tenth the velocity of light) of the
answered questions concerning whistler propaga- streams coming from the Sun. This is the neces-
tion, it is far better understood than the other sary condition for the transfer of energy from
types of naturally occurring audio frequency sig- the incoming stream to the electromagnetic wave.
nals generally described as vif emissions. A Certain quasi-steady signals, such as hiss and
typical spectrogram is illustrated in Figure 4, and constant tones, are thought to result from a
shows hiss, which is the dark band from about relatively steady stream of solar particles. The
IN
FREQUENCY
+ ate is Brocade mt “A “want A? A ee

Fire re ter bah 2 POPSET re reets te 4 FFF yes RENEE Pei.
deed ted ed Lhe RL iete eee. Stee c eesoT
Fic. 4— Spectrogram of hiss and dawn chorus recorded at Boulder, Colorado, May 15, 1956,
12h 35m U.T. (courtesy of R. M. Gallet and J. M. Watts)

42tnd
R. A. HELLIWELL
transient signals, such as the dawn chorus shown determine local-time effects on the distribution
in Figure 4, are more difficult to explain. It is of ionization of vif emissions in the exosphere,
postulated [Gallet and Helliwell, 1957] that the several stations well spaced in longitude are also
same amplification mechanism applies, but that included.
the ionized stream is broken up into bunches There is good reason to believe that the paths
which excite each frequency for a relatively of whistlers may depart appreciably from the
short time. lines of the Earth’s field [Maeda and Kimura,
Using this theory, R. M. Gallet and A. Hess- 1956]. Furthermore the exact form of the
ing [1957] have calculated the shape of the vif Earth’s field at large distances from the Earth
emissions to be expected from a bunch of charge is not known. Groups of conjugate-pair stations
passing through the region just above the F2 have been arranged to provide data on the loca-
layer. These shapes are remarkably similar to tions of the end-points of whistlers which execute
certain hook-shaped emissions observed during two or more hops. Equally important in the
periods of magnetic disturbance. study of the position of the path is the location
An important part of the IGY whistler proof the causative lightning discharge. It is meas-
gram is the study of vlf emissions for the pur- ured with vif direction-finders at a limited num-
pose of testing the traveling wave theory or ber of stations.
developing new theories of their origin. The phe- The energy spectrum of whistlers may contain
nomena may provide a new way to measure the valuable data on losses and focusing effects along
densities and velocities of solar streams. the path. However, the whistler spectrum is of
little use unless the source spectrum is also
PrRoGRAM REQUIREMENTS known. The source spectrum is obtained from
recordings of the waveform of the causative
Broadly speaking, the main objective of the
sferic.
IGY whistler program is to determine the oc-
With these requirements in mind an integrated
currence and characteristics of whistlers and vlf
network of 27 stations was established, 23 of
emissions at regular intervals and at many loca-
which are operated by United States, three by
tions on the Earth’s surface. However, recent
Canadians, and one by Danish scientists. They
new discoveries have led to certain revisions in
are listed in Table 1 according to coordinating
the specific requirements which were envisioned
institution. The stations at Stanford and Boulder
in the early planning stages. At many of the
also make DF and waveform measurements
stations the upper limit of the frequency range
using new wide-band techniques. DF data for
has been increased from 10 ke to 30 kc in order
the whistlers-east group are made available by
to obtain essential nose whistler data. Storey’s
the Air Weather Service of the U.S. Air Force.
proposed hydrogen-ion experiment has empha-
sized the need for high-quality data at the low
INSTRUMENTATION
frequencies, the present lower limit being set at
400 cycles. Its effect is further to stiffen the Automatic whistler recorder—Although whis-
requirements for low-noise sites. The correla- tlers can be detected with the most elementary
tion of spaced-station data on whistlers, and par- equipment (for example, a long-wire or loop
ticularly vif emissions, requires high timing antenna, a phonograph amplifier, and a set of
accuracy. Time standards accurate to better earphones), the requirements which have been
than 0.1 sec are needed and represent one of the described can be met only with specially designed
main items of equipment expense. wide-band equipment. The basic prototype for
The location and size of the effective area for the antenna and low-noise pre-amplifier de-
both whistlers and vIf emissions are needed for veloped by L. H. Rorden [Stanford University,
locating the end points of the paths and meas- 1956] has been adapted to the IGY requirements.
uring the amount of focusing produced by the A simplified block diagram of the Stanford auto-
Earth’s magnetic field. For this purpose small matic whistler recorder is shown in Figure 5.
groups of stations are set up with a minimum A one-turn loop antenna is mounted in a vertical
station spacing of about 500 km. Latitude effects plane supported by a single pole or tower. The
are studied with a chain running all the way loop is connected to a balanced low-impedance
from the geomagnetic equator to the pole. To pre-amplifier which is supplied with direct cur-

TasB_e 1— Locations of IGY whistler stations
U. S. whistlers-east U. S. whistlers-west Canada Denmark

(Dartmouth College) (Stanford University) (Defence Research Bd.) (Mr. Ungstrup)
Thule, Greenland College, Alaska Saskatoon, Sask. Godhavn, West Green-

land
Frobisher Bay, NWT Kotzebue, Alaska Ottawa, Ontario
Knob Lake, Quebec Anchorage Alaska Halifax, Nova Scotia
Father Point, Quebec Unalaska, Alaska
Hanover, N. H. Seattle, Washington
Battle Creek, Mich. Boulder, Colorado*
Washington, D. C. Stanford, Calif.*
Bermuda Is. Wellington, N. Z.”
Gainesville, Fla. Dunedin, N. Z.°
Cape Horn, Argentina MacQuarie Is.‘
Port Lockroy, Antarc-
tica*
Ellsworth Station,
Antarctica
*Sferics DF and waveform recorder in addition to whistlers.

" By cooperation of New Zealand.
* By cooperation of Australia.
“By cooperation of the United Kingdom.
rent only and is located at least 250 ft from the The time signals from WWV_ (1000 cycles)
recording station to reduce power line inter- overlap those from the local standard and thus
ference. At the recording station the output of provide for its automatic calibration. Voice time
the pre-amplifier is mixed with two sets of time announcements from WWY are included as a
signals, of 0.1 sec duration, derived from a 100-kc check on the computed hour of the run.
crystal standard. One, at about 500 cycles, is Direction-finder and waveform recorder—At
repeated every second and the other at about Stanford and Boulder direction-finding and
300 cycles, every ten seconds. These low fre- waveform recorders are installed at each whis-
quencies were chosen so as to avoid interference tler station. Two mutually perpendicular loops
with whistler frequencies. The local standard are used and their outputs, after passing through
also controls a master clock which automatically the pre-amplifiers, are fed to the x and y ampli-
programs the operation. In addition to starting fiers of the direction-finding oscilloscope. A
and stopping the tape recorder, the clock switches separate vertical-antenna channel supplies ‘sense’
in WWYV for the first nine seconds of recording signals for the DF and also the waveform
followed by a short amplitude-calibration signal. which is displayed on a separate oscilloscope.
A 35 mm camera photographs both the DF and
waveform scopes whenever a sferic is received
which exceeds a certain selected amplitude. The
time to the nearest second is photographed on
each frame. To correlate sferics film recordings
with whistler tape recordings, a special pulse is
generated at the time the sferics recorder is
triggered. This pulse is mixed with the whistler
signals from one of the loop channels. When the
spectrogram is made, this pulse can be identified
Fic. 5— Block diagram of Stanford automatic and used to determine the exact time of occur-
whistler recorder rence of the sferic relative to any whistlers on

44 R. A. HELLIWELL
the tape. In this way, most large impulses which Dincer, H. E., Whistling atmospherics, Naw. Res.
cause whistlers can be identified and their direc- Lab. Rep. 4825, Sep. 14, 1956.
Eckers.eEY, T. L., Letter to the editor, Nature, 122,
tions and waveforms obtained.
768, 1928.
Spectrum analysis—All data are recorded on EcKERSLEY, T. L., Developments in the study of
magnetic tape, which will be stored for later wave propagation, Marconi Rev., July-Aug.,
analysis. Presently available methods for the 1931.
EcKERSLEY, T. L., Musical atmospherics, Nature,
spectrum analysis of these signals are relatively
135, 104, 1935.
slow, requiring more than five minutes for each GaLueT, R. M., ano R. A. HELLIWELL, A theory of
two seconds of signals. It is hoped that more the production of VLF noise (so-called dawn
rapid equipment can be obtained before it is chorus) by traveling-wave amplification in the
necessary to analyze large amounts of tape. An exosphere in the Earth, Symposium on the pro-
pagation of VLF radio waves, pap. 20, Boulder,
analyzing system typical of those in use at the
Colorado, January 23-25, 1957.
present time has the following features. The GALLET, R. M., AND A. HeEssinc, Numerical com-
‘Sonagraph,’ a spectrum analyser, repeatedly putations from the theory of VLF noise emissions
scans a 2.4-sec section of signal recorded on a and their comparison with observations, Com-
rotating magnetic drum. A marking stylus is mission 3, URSI Meeting, Washington, D. C.,
May, 1957.
geared to a bandpass filter which slowly changes
HELLIWELL, R. A., J. H. Crary, J. H. Pope, AND
frequency as the drum rotates. With each rota- R. L. Smiru, The ‘nose’ whistler, a new high
tion of the drum the amplitude is plotted, in latitude phenomenon, J. Geophys. Res., 61, 139-
terms of the relative darkness of the record, as 142, 1956.
a function of time. During rotation, the filter HELLIWELL, R. A., W. L. Taytor, AND A. G. JEAN,
(letter to the editor, accepted for publication),
frequency changes slowly so that at the end of
Proc. IRE, 1958.
one rotation the frequency has been increased HELLIWELL, R. A., AND E. GEHRELS, Observations of
and the stylus moved slightly upward on the magneto-ionic duct propagation using man-made
paper. The final record is then a plot of ampli- signals of very low frequency, Proc. IRE, 46,
tude versus frequency and time. The spectro- 785-787, 1958.
Koster, J. R., AND L. R. O. Srorey, An attempt to
grams of Figures 2, 3, and 4 were made with
observe whistling atmospherics near the magnetic
such an instrument. equator, Nature, 175, 367, 1955.
The study of spectrograms made from the Maepa, K., AND I. Kimura, I, A theoretical investi-
IGY whistler recordings should answer many gation on the propagation path of the whistling
questions raised by earlier experimental and atmospherics, Rep. lonosphere Res. Japan, 10,
theoretical work, and provide the first compre- no. 3, 105-123, 1956.
MorcaNn, M. G., ano G. McK. ALLcock, Observa-
hensive view of the exosphere of the Earth. tions of whistling atmospherics at geomagneti-
Furthermore, it is reasonable to expect that the cally conjugate points, Nature, 177, 29-31, 1956.
program will lead to further discoveries in this SmituH, R. L., AND R. A. HELLIWELL, Calculation of
comparatively new field of investigation. the electron density of the outer ionosphere using
whistlers, Symposium on the propagation of V LF
radio waves, pap. 22, Boulder, Colorado, Janu-
REFERENCES
ary 23-25, 1957.
BARKHAUSEN, H., Zwei mit Hilfe der neuen Ver- STANFoRD University, Low-frequency propagation
starker entdeckte Erscheinungen, Phys. Zs., 20, studies, pt 1, whistlers and related phenomenon,
401-403, 1919. final rep., Contract AF 19 (604)-795, June 15,
Burton, E. T., anD E. M. BoarDMAN, Audio-fre- 1953, to September 30, 1956.
quency atmospherics, Proc. IRE, 21, 1476, 1933. Storey, L. R. O., PhD. dissertation, Cambridge
Crary, J. H., R. A. HELLIWELL, AND R. F. CHASE, University, England, and PAil, Trans. R. Soc. A.,
Stanford-Seattle whistler observations, J. Geo- 246, 113-141, 1953.
phys. Res., 61, 35-44, 1956. Storey, L. R. O., A method to detect the presence of
Crary, J. H., ano R. A. HELLIWELL, Experiments ionized hydrogen in the outer atmosphere, Can.
on whistlers and associated atmospherics, URSI J. of Phys., 34, 1153-1163, 1956.
Paper, Spring Meeting, Washington, D. C., May Watts, J. M., An observation of audio-frequency
1956. electromagnetic noise during a period of solar
Curtis, H. W., AnD M. G. Morcan, Whistler and disturbance, J. Geophys. Res., 62, 199-206, 1957.
dawn chorus occurrence above the auroral zone,
URSI Meeting, Berkeley, California, October 11, Radio Propagation Laboratory, Stanford Univer-
1956. sity, Stanford, California

Probing the Ionosphere

A. H. SHAPLEY AND RALPH J. SLUTZ
Introduction—While the existence of ionized observing stations and the careful selection of lo-
layers in the atmosphere was postulated in 1902 cations for newly installed stations, the pos-
by Kennelly and Heaviside to explain the possi- sibility arises for shifting the emphasis to re-
bility of transatlantic radio communication as gional or global studies of the ionosphere.
demonstrated by Marconi in 1901, it was not di- In this paper we are examining some of the
rectly observed by experimentation until 1925. very early results from parts of the IGY net-
Then Appleton and Barnett reported tests using work of vertical sounding stations and the po-
a frequency modulation technique which dis- tentialities for other phases of this large-scale
tinctly showed the existence of a reflecting layer, experiment.
and in 1926 Breit and Tuve independently re- Diurnal variation of F2 in polar regions—One
ported similar results from the reflection of of the questions asked very early in the planning
radio pulses. These experiments showed that stages for the IGY was whether and in what
the ionosphere consisted of not just one but sev- way the F2 layer ionization is maintained during
eral reflecting layers, and that their characteris- the polar night when for several months there
tics changed markedly with time, both regularly would be no ion production by means of direct
throughout each day and irregularly when sud- solar radiation. The north-polar flights with
den disturbances or ionospheric storms take an airborne ionospheric sounder by Gassman
place. [1956] in 1954 and 1955 showed that there was a
The experimental techniques used in these very appreciable electron density still remaining
studies went on to become the forebear of in the F2 layer during the long winter night.
modern radar. The data recorded concerning the However, these observations were necessarily
ionosphere were found during the 1930’s to be too fragmentary to give evidence about the
of marked value in the planning and operating source of this ionization or how it was main-
of long-distance communications. This practi- tained. Very preliminary reports of ionospheric
cal application to communications resulted in soundings taken at the newly-established South
much more attention to radio sounding of the Pole station confirm the existence of a dense
ionosphere than would have been the case had F2 layer near the time of the winter solstice and
it been a pure geophysical experiment. With the gave evidence of major fluctuations in rather
pressure from communication needs, the use of short periods of time. It is interesting that the
radio sounding has been continuously and ac- mean values of foF2 for the South Pole (Fig.
tively developed. Many successively improved 1) show a very probably significant diurnal vari-
models of sounding equipment have been de-
signed, and during 1955 there were some 90
stations throughout the world recording iono- Or
spheric sounding data on a regular basis.
—MEDIAN foF2, JUNE 2-16, 1957
gl ~~~ foF2, JUNE II, 1957
As more and more is observed about the
ionosphere it has been found to be more and
my,
more complex. Having its origin largely in 6 ik
solar radiations, its characteristics vary ex- foF2
tensively throughout the day, throughout the (Mc) 4 i
year, throughout the eleven-year solar cycle,
cf
and with latitude and longitude on the Earth’s 2F-
surface. Previous to the IGY, the major empha-
sis has been on detailed study of the time varia- 0 | l i l l
tions of the maximum electron density over in- 00 04 408 i2 16 20 OO
dividual stations. The IGY program includes GCT
the possibility for improved studies of this kind Fic. 1 — Vertical incidence ionospheric sounding
but because of the vastly increased number of from the South Pole station
45

46 A. H. SHAPLEY AND R, J. SLUTZ
ation, even though the solar zenith angle is con-

stant (and greater than 90°) throughout the foF 2 it
(Mc) BAKER LAKE }
24-hour period. The maximum of foF2 occurs lof O=74NN |
at about 7h UT. Since this is approximately
4
WILKES (MAY 18,
@:795S 1957)
noon of geomagnetic time, it seems probable
that the mechanisms which produce this aver-
age diurnal variation are under geomagnetic
control. It should be emphasized that the fluc-
tuations within a day are often of greater mag-
nitude than the mean diurnal variation shown.
Another feature of the South Pole reports thus
far received has been the large percentage of
the time when the F region echoes were so dif- 0 6 l2 is 24
fuse that no measurement of critical frequency LOCAL TIME
could be made. This feature, which is consistent Fic. 2— Comparison of ionospheric soundings from
North Polar and South Polar regions
with Gassman’s brief observations on his North
Pole flights, may seriously bias the results shown the Earth’s magnetic field. According to the
in Figure 1. simple picture of the Earth’s field, the field
North-south polar ionospheric relationships— should tend to be vertical at great heights at the
Until the installation of IGY stations, there geomagnetic poles. The new IGY station at
was very little information on the equivalence of Thule, less than 2° from the north geomag-
ionospheric characteristics in the two polar re- netic pole, has obtained many soundings which
gions. This is a subject which will require de- are typical of these magnetic conditions. Figure
tailed study of original ionograms which are not 3 shows the appearance of the Z component in
yet available. A clue, however, comes from the the echo traces from all layers, which is often
data fragments received from the U. S. Wilkes observed under these magnetic conditions, in ad-
Station (Fig. 2) where it appears that the F2 dition to the ordinary and extraordinary com-
electron densities during the brief winter day ponents. With a number of higher-powered
compare well with equivalent northern hemi- equipments, such as the Thule C4 ionosonde in
sphere measurements. The comparison during use during the IGY, considerably more obser-
the night hours seems so far to be poorer. vations of this type can be expected.
Geomagnetic effects—lonospheric soundings North-south auroral relationships—Another
made in polar regions can also give us some question being asked of the IGY observations is
information on the three-dimensional form of whether short-lived auroral phenomena, or their
BS BENG Lil rm
Fic. 3 — Thule ionogram for April 27, 1957, 15h 27m local time, showing complete O, X, and Z traces

PROBING THE IONOSPHERE 47
25
7 KEY i
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a 05
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2
ooh o4h ogh igh igh 2oh qh

TIME
Fic. +— Plot of ionospheric critical frequencies showing three brief periods of high absorption

48 A. H. SHAPLEY AND R. J. SLUTZ
ionospheric and geomagnetic counterparts, occur

simultaneously in the northern and southern
hemispheres. Assuming that these phenomena
are produced by streams of solar particles im-
pinging on the Earth, simultaneity in the two
hemispheres would indicate that the stream was
of roughly uniform density in cross section and
that it was not polarized. If phenomena do not 4|--+— NOON MEDIAN foF2, JAN. 1956 PA
-e-- NOON foF2, JAN. 16, 1956 2 ee
occur simultaneously, then it should be concluded -*— NOON foF2, JAN. 19, 1956
the details of auroral and geomagnetic phenom- 2\--*- NOON foF2, JAN. 20, 1956
ena in the auroral zones were more strongly in- | i ! [| i J l I l
fluenced by terrestrial conditions. It will be diffh- $s 90° 7? SO? 30° ior oO” 10° «=—30" 80° )=— 70") = 80°N
LATITUDE
cult to carry out this experiment with the aurora
itself, because there are very few common hours Fic. 5 Latitude
— variation of observed noon foF2
along 75° W chain of ionosphere stations
of darkness in the two auroral zones. The ex-
periment, however, can be made in a less precise
fashion using the ionospheric sounding observa- curve, are open to some question. This is fur-
tions since the typical ionospheric effect of a ther emphasized when the observations for in-
discrete auroral outburst is increased absorption dividual days are examined and the dissimilarities
of radio waves. Figure 4 shows an f-plot for from one day to the next match. It is hope-
Fairbanks, Alaska, upon which appears three less to try to solve this question with the pre-
different short intervals of very high absorption. IGY distribution of stations but now that the
These phenomena do not occur very often and gaps are being filled this is a question which
can be used as a first approach to answering the can be studied in detail. The detailed mecha-
question of simultaneity. Reports are already nism of geomagnetic control of F region electron
being received from the South Pole station on densities and the amount and nature of hori-
phenomena of this sort but out of the first six zontal transport of ionization should emerge
cases no clear instances of simultaneity with from these IGY observations.
instances on the North Polar cap have been These are examples of the ways in which
found. probings of the ionosphere by vertical soundings
Network studies—In the IGY network of can help form a picture of the ionosphere on a
vertical sounding stations, deliberate emphasis global scale and settle many uncertainties about
has been placed on installing any new stations the interaction of the Earth’s magnetic field with
at locations which will give a concentration of ionospheric regions. Such problems will be also
stations from pole to pole along selected me- aided by more precise experiments at fewer
ridians. This is perhaps the nearest one can locations which will be undertaken during the
come to making a planned worldwide experi- IGY, and are described in the United States
ment with ionospheric vertical soundings, for program. The vertical soundings network, about
it will allow the delineation of latitude profiles, ten stations in 1939 and now 165 stations during
while minimizing the number of factors influ- IGY, provides the foundation for our concepts
encing the ionospheric electron densities and of the global ionosphere and its variations and
specifically aid in the untangling of the coupled for these more specialized studies.
effect of solar and geomagnetic control. An
example of this kind of experiment is shown REFERENCE
in Figure 5, showing an_ empirically-derived GassMAN, GeorGE J., Airborne ionospheric measure-
latitude variation curve of foF2 using median ments in the North Pole area, J. Geophys. Res.,
observations from pre-IGY stations along the 61, 136, 1956.
meridian passing through the Americas. The
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, National
details, even the whole form of the empirical Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado

Upper Atmospheric Winds, Absorption, and Other Special Projects in

the U. S. Program in Ionospheric Physics
H. W. WELLS
Introduction—The International Geophysical by the IGY program. Most of them will sprout,
Year is a sequel to the Second International grow, and bear fruit. Some will mature or ripen
Polar Year of 1932-33. In fact, the present term within a year, while others will develop more
‘Geophysical Year’ was adopted after favorable slowly. Both the national and international sci-
world-wide reaction made it apparent that the entific harvest will be greatly stimulated by the
use of ‘Polar Year’ would be too restrictive a concentrated effort of many research workers
description of the international program. Re- over the world.
sults of the research activities in the Polar Year Our atmosphere has been referred to as a
of 1932-33 stimulated further exploration of the sensitive link between Earth and Sun. It is also
upper atmosphere and provided a groundwork a protective blanket and screen which filters out
for important discoveries which have greatly harmful ultraviolet radiation and protects us
advanced knowledge of the Earth’s outer at- from bombardment by particles or waves from
mosphere and of the Sun. The initial impetus outer space. We now know that our normal
which was given to stations such as the Huan- outer atmosphere contains several banks or
cayo Observatory (Peru) and the Geophysical layers of electrons and ions at heights from 60 to
Institute, College (Alaska) has aided their de- 200 or more miles above the Earth. This region
velopment into important facilities in the present is known as the ionosphere. The electrified
IGY program. The period following the Inter- particles are produced by the impact of solar
national Polar Year of 1932-33 was one of radiation on the gases in our rarified atmos-
gradual but vast changes in basic concepts of phere. When the Sun is disturbed, as by sun-
many areas of geophysics. As technological de- spots or related activity, its radiation can be
velopments led to greatly improved instruments greatly increased for periods lasting for several
for research, many isolated or strange results minutes to hours. One effect of a solar eruption
began to form a distinctive pattern. For ex- is the production of another bank of ions, this
ample, our concept of the outer atmosphere, or time at a level substantially lower than normal.
ionosphere, gradually evolved from that of a We realize that the undisturbed ionosphere sup-
static shell of ionized gas surrounding the Earth ports, and in fact makes possible, long-distance
to a dynamic envelope—sensitive link between high-frequency communications (Fig. 1). But
Earth and Sun—with clouds, winds, tides, the solar-disturbance type of layer causes partial
storms, and other disturbances. to complete absorption of the high-frequency
In the IGY program, there are several spe- signals with interruption to communications.
cial projects in areas of ionospheric physics You may ask, why does one layer of ions cause
which are designed to fill in gaps in our knowl- reflections while the other causes absorption? A
edge of unusual properties of our outer atmos- partial answer rests in the fact that the solar-
phere. A simple recital of these special projects disturbance ion bank is produced at substantially
—absorption, winds, true heights, etc.—would lower heights than normal. At these lower
not stimulate much enthusiasm. However, the heights, the energy in the radio waves is dissi-
following paragraphs will describe the scientific pated because electrons, which are set in motion
interests and objectives. In building this techni- by the radio waves, collide with gas particles
cal foundation, it is necessary to draw on the which are much more numerous at the lower
prior work of many scientists without adequate height. The result is absorption of the explor-
personal recognition. Their collective results ing radio waves (Fig. 2). The above remarks
form a degree of ‘status quo’ from which the are admittedly over-simplified, but the principle
IGY program takes over in order to extend our is sound.
frontiers of scientific knowledge. These special In addition to waves, the disturbed Sun may
projects are like seeds which are being watered also emit particles which are subsequently at-
49

50 H. W. WELLS
~700
PATH OF HIGH FREQUENCY

__ —————___. -600
(MOST PENETRATING)
~500
400 %
hy
$
=
300
:=
Fy
-200
PATHS OF INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCIES -100
PATH OF LOW FREQUENCY

(LEAST PENETRATING) -0O
~~ TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Fic. 1 — Paths of radio waves of different frequencies in the ionosphere,

normal conditions
Tf
- ; f ;
‘('S?@
‘PR, f;
My 3 : :
7 ’ ; ; ¢
P uf
4
»)
=>
“
feeb
ay
2
-OUT
3
Se eer TT] ee
—_rery ee ee |
°° oon
| : 1
/ i
7
8
_ } nm
6
i vy CO
i ry
/a
! keet 20
/
_ if
GREENWICH MEAN HOURS
Fic. 2— Radio fadeouts resulting from solar flares (the radio signals are absorbed in temporary layers
of ionization produced by the solar flare)

SPECIAL US-IGY IONOSPHERIC PROJECTS 51
tracted into polar regions by the magnetic field Alaska, and at Pennsylvania State University.
of the Earth. The particles travel much slower The ionospheric-absorption apparatus operated
than light and require about a day in transit by the University of Alaska utilizes a principle
between the Sun and Earth. One result of such which has recently been developed, known as the
particle bombardment is the well-known aurora. ‘cosmic-noise method.’ They measure the ‘rela-
Associated with aurora is another form of ab- tive ionospheric opacity’ and name their instru-
sorption which makes normal high-frequency ment a riometer. It measures the intensity of
radio communications subject to frequent inter- radio noise from outer space, cosmic noise
ruptions. In addition to the absorption produced (Fig. 3). The cosmic radio signals, which re-
by such particle bombardment, clouds of intense semble a very weak hiss, reach the receiving
sporadic ionization (above the absorbing level) antenna after penetrating through the entire
have been linked with the aurora-type bombard- atmosphere of the Earth. The normal level or
ments. We find, therefore, that radio-wave ab- intensity of cosmic noise is quite stable and un-
sorption in our outer atmosphere is a sensitive changing. However, any temporary increase in
finger on the pulse of solar activity. Knowledge absorption by our atmosphere produces a de-
of the absorption and its vagaries establishes a crease in the received signal level. A_ recent
valuable aid to radio communications. It obvi- report states, ‘“Tests have shown that the equip-
ously stimulates studies of solar-terrestrial rela- ment is capable of continuous measurements of
tionships and usefully extends knowledge of the the relative ionospheric opacity to a high degree
Earth’s upper atmosphere and magnetic field.
of accuracy provided interference-free channels
exist.”
MEASUREMENTS
The 13 instruments being acquired are to be
A bsorption—During the IGY, programs for installed at sites in Alaska, Canada, United
absorption measurements are being conducted States, Greenland, and Sweden. Their proto-
at the Geophysical Institute, University of type riometer is being operated in a routine
tee Core er Anos C ts — = yee Cem te
— - s x —r —~ > en SSS oe .
see — _ — _ > » —\ - ke ea al i
, ’ : ‘
Senetaan
' ' a ; : .
, \ ‘
' : ; \
_— _——_—_ —__—_+ $i
Th
Tae
tu peel ‘
4
-
Piha.
Tb
TT)
-
LTT
'
hab
TTA Aa iaitite rh
4
’
+ one)
Fic. 3 — Radio noise from quiet Sun and disturbed Sun (a disturbed Sun also showers the Earth with
noise-like radio signals)

52 H. W. WELLS
manner near the University of Alaska. Initial being swept through the upper atmosphere at
reports are very satisfactory and several periods velocities of from 200 to 800 mi/hr. The scintilla-
of strong absorption have already been observed. tions are predominantly a nighttime effect. The
At Pennsylvania State University, the program cloud dimensions are irregular but average from
for measurement of absorption uses a different one to six miles. These drifts seem to take place
principle which may be considered somewhat at heights approximately 300 mi above the Earth,
more conventional. A short radio pulse is trans- but there is not uniform agreement concerning
mitted vertically and the intensity of the reflected this altitude. During magnetic and auroral dis-
signal or echo is recorded. Observations during turbances, the scintillation rate is much faster,
normal or undisturbed days establish a basis of suggesting a corresponding increase in drift
reference and any significant reduction in echo velocity (Fig. 4).
intensity may be used as a measure of absorption Measurements of winds by scintillation meth-
over the path of the exploring radio waves. We ods require the use of a network of ground sta-
find that Canada plans to operate a chain of five tions, preferably three, which are spaced not
absorption measuring stations of this type which, more than a few miles apart. The radio-star
along with the stations at Pennsylvania State scintillation observed at one station will show a
University, will extend measurements from similarity to that of an adjacent station but with
temperate to arctic regions. Preliminary meas- a small time-displacement which is used to calcu-
urements are already underway, well in advance late a component of velocity and direction. The
of the IGY. combination of observations over different base-
Winds and drifts in the upper atmosphere— lines establishes the apparent velocity and direc-
Now let us examine another special project; tion of movement of the cloud producing the
namely, that of winds and drifts in the upper scintillation. Admittedly, there are some compli-
atmosphere. At first glance, our specific effort in cating factors which enter into the analyses, since
this area appears to be rather meager, but an the shape of the irregularity must be taken into
examination of composite programs in several consideration. However, the basic principle is
IGY disciplines shows that much information as described above. Upper-atmospheric winds
on this subject will evolve as a by-product from are being observed by this method at the Uni-
other programs. Although the term winds has versity of Virginia and at the University of
been somewhat loosely applied to drifts or other Puerto Rico.
movements in the upper atmosphere, one must The installation at the University of Puerto
not be misled to assume that winds in the con- Rico is a liaison activity, being sponsored by the
ventional sense are always implied. It is difficult Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Force
to think of winds blowing in a vacuum. AIl- Cambridge Research Center, which reports that
though a comprehensive discussion of upper- substantial progress has been made and that a
atmospheric movements is beyond the scope of successful observing program is anticipated dur-
this report, it may be useful to make brief men- ing the IGY. We have also been advised that
tion of the present state of knowledge of this the University of Puerto Rico is planning an-
subject. The meteor-Doppler methods used in other type of wind measurement, based on a fad-
the United States, England, and Australia show ing technique which requires the use of one
drift velocities between 100 and 200 mi/hr. There transmitting station and a triangulation of re-
are large semidiurnal components, and the drift ceiving stations. These observations will give
direction rotates clockwise, with time, in the data of ionospheric movements at heights which
northern hemisphere but counterclockwise in the can be rather well specified. Hence, the simul-
southern hemisphere. Heights are, of course, taneous operation of instruments probing two
limited to meteor levels roughly corresponding different levels in the upper atmosphere should
to the E-layer of the ionosphere at 60 to 70 mi. be especially valuable.
Radio-fading methods for E-layer winds give Propagation under unusual conditions—In an-
velocities in the same range, 100-200 mi/hr, other special activity sponsored by the IGY, the
show a strong semidiurnal component, and clock- Air Force Cambridge Research Center has en-
wise rotation in the northern hemisphere. listed the cooperation of over 1000 amateur radio
Radio-star scintillations appear to establish operators in Japan, Central America, and South
that similar clouds or patches of electrons are America, in addition to many in the United

SPECIAL US-IGY IONOSPHERIC PROJECTS 53
Fic. +— Signals from radio stars, quiet and scintillating (the rough appearance of the lower record is
due to twinkling or scintillation of the radio star caused by winds or drifts
about 300 mi above the Earth)
States. The whole-hearted cooperation of the True height computations—Another special

American Radio Relay League is responsible for project has perhaps less observational glamour
the great progress and organization which has but is a fundamental requirement for both theo-
been completed. The participating radio ama- retical and practical progress in a complete un-
teurs are encouraged to report all strange or derstanding of the Earth’s outer atmosphere. I
unusual signals or periods of communication. refer to the work at Pennsylvania State Uni-
There are many effects, especially at this period versity for the determination of true heights. All
of high solar activity, which create temporary of the methods of radio exploration of the outer
but extremely unusual communication conditions. atmosphere provide apparent or virtual heights.
For example, amateurs communicating on a The exploring radio wave is often substantially
band which is normally useful for line-of-site delayed in its progress through the ionized re-
ranges may suddenly find themselves establishing gions. Hence, the heights which are determined
two-way communications over vast distances. At from a method of measuring time-delay between
times, their signals may be bounced off of auroral pulse and echo are often very much greater than
curtains, at other times clouds of sporadic-E the actual or true height of the reflecting region.
ionization will provide the reflecting medium, or An adequate description of the methods would
perhaps the scatter of signals from meteor be too involved for this report. However, one
showers may be the mechanism of propagation. should note that the normally tedious calcula-
Other strange communication conditions, such tions are to be greatly expedited in the Pennsyl-
as the occasional contacts between amateurs in vania State University program through the use
the northern and southern hemispheres over of specially developed electronic computers. The
distances of 4000 or 5000 mi, are still relatively results of this activity are bound to have a long
unexplained, in view of the fact that the fre- continuing influence on both theoretical research
quency band in use is normally limited to short- and practical applications involving our outer
range operations. The central headquarters for atmosphere.
this propagation project will sift and partially
CoNCLUSIONS
analyze all of the incoming reports so that the
information may be utilized later to develop The preceding remarks describe some special
our understanding of many strange events which IGY activities in the field of ionospheric physics
occur in the upper atmosphere. in very broad and general terms. It is impossible,

54 H. W. WELLS
of course, to do justice to the human element in- important but isolated discoveries. However,
volved. In these as well as other IGY research the really sound and basic advances to be
programs, there are many hours of planning, achieved in the IGY are bound to be the result
many hours of burning the midnight oil, before of concentrated efforts and a pooling of data by
the real opportunity of marking the specific meas- scientists in this country and in other nations of
urements gets under way. Often these are ac- the world. Without reservation, I feel we can
complished under adverse and difficult conditions. look forward to the IGY as a period of rich
The overall progress will result from an inte- enhancement of scientific knowledge leading to
gration or summation of all the contributions better relations with our neighbors in other
made by the thousands of individuals who are countries of the world.
sweating away at specific activities. The com- Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegic
bined outcome will undoubtedly include a few Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C.

Background and Technical Objectives in Geomagnetism

E.tuiott B. Rosperts AND Davip G. KNapp
Introduction—Magnetism, and its specialized do not seek the basic physical theory of magnet-
form we call terrestrial magnetism, or geo- ism which has eluded man’s systematic scrutiny
magnetism, were among the earlier mysteries of through the ages. We intend in fact to deal with
nature. Ancient man, fascinated by the proper- only a small part of one special magnetic field,
ties of lodestones and by their affinity for iron that of the Earth; and not to ask what it is, but
objects, speculated endlessly but never found why it changes as it does.
good answers to his questions. His perplexities Geomagnetism is a complex phenomenon. By
were compounded in later times with the dis- far its greater part is relatively stable, consisting
covery that magnetized objects, when floated on of fields generated within the Earth, complex
water or suspended freely by a thread, sought in form, and with only a slow secular change
to align themselves closely with the meridian whose cause still rests in the realm of specula-
(Fig. 1). In the writings of an oriental scholar tion. Perhaps five per cent of the field observed
of the eleventh century, we find the following: at the Earth’s surface consists of highly variable
components associated with electrical current
“A geomancer rubs the point of a needle with
the lodestone to make it point to the south, but it streams in the atmosphere. It is this transient
will always deviate a little to the east... . To use part of the field that we will seek out for study.
the needle, it may be put on water ... on the nail The search is part of a whole body of investiga-
of a finger, or at the lip of a bowl, but . . . the best
tions in related fields including ionospheric
method is to hang it up by a thread where there is
no wind. ... And no one could as yet find the physics, aurora and airglow, radio-wave propa-
principle of it.” gation, cosmic-ray patterns, terrestrial effects of
solar activity, and meteorology.
Modern man, though he knows much of the
New techniques have been developed. Stations
effects of magnetic fields and though he has
have been laid out in arrays more dense than
literally revolutionized his life by their use, still
ever before. Some sixty-six nations are joined
does not know what magnetism is, except that
in the search. We expect to learn much of the
we know that it is one facet of the broad cate-
mature and causes of geomagnetic time fluctua-
gory of electromagnetic effects. It may be said
tions.
that a magnetic field is but a manifestation of an
electric field in motion; but this is merely an- HIsTory
other description, not an explanation. The isolated passage quoted above has often
In the IGY, we will continue man’s long been taken to mean that the Chinese knew of
search for more knowledge of this force. We magnetic declination before its discovery in
Europe. This, however, is scarcely warranted,
since the same author seems to say that if per-
fectly performed the experiment would disclose
the true south. It appears that a real knowledge
of declination arose during the first half of the
fifteenth century in western Europe. As a mat-
ter of fact, Columbus is frequently credited with
the discovery of magnetic declination, more par-
ticularly of the fact that it differs from place to
place. Although this is debatable, he was among
the earliest navigators to visit regions of large
compass declination and he speculated much on
his difficulties in the reading of the compass.
The story of magnetic investigations is to a
Fic. 1— Medieval floating compass as shown by
Athanasius Kircher, Magnes sive de arte great extent tied to that of Arctic expeditions.
magnetica, 1643 It is now 400 years since Stephen Borough's voy-
55

56 E. B. ROBERTS AND D. G. KNAPP
age to Kara Strait brought back the first knowl- century until the association was finally estab-
edge of magnetic declination in high latitudes. lished beyond question by George Back during
Many other explorers have added to this store his exploration of the Canadian Arctic in the
in the course of the long history of Arctic ex- 1830’s, and by Lottin and Bravais at Bossekop in
ploration, but their findings were for the most the North Cape area of Norway in 1838-1840.
part devoted to mapping the permanent field, This, of course, was after the existence of a
until the discovery of transient fluctuation physical relation of magnetism and electricity
around the end of the seventeenth century. had been clearly established in the laboratory.
The mapping of the permanent field is the Meanwhile, Sabine had made the first protracted
theme of a long and arduous chronicle, punctu- series of high-latitude magnetic observations in
ated by stories of heroism and sacrifice that only 1819-1820, at Winter Harbour on the coast of
a Homer could adequately portray; but that Melville Island. In 1819 the Swedish astronomer
story is not of direct concern to the IGY effort. Hansteen published the first comprehensive
It remained for the discovery of the daily varia- treatise on all the then-known phenomena of
tion of declination in 1685 to disclose for the first geomagnetism.
time one of the aspects of geomagnetic phe- While Poisson and Airy, and later Archibald
nomena which have become the subject of our Smith, were delving into the mathematical basis
present efforts. In that year, a party of French of compass deviation and the magnetism of
missionaries, guests of the King of Siam, recorded ships, there was a great upsurge of experimen-
a succession of declination observations which tation and discovery in the newly opening field
failed to agree, the reported results of seven of electromagnetism. Basic laws began to emerge
observations showing a spread from 16’W to in rapid succession. It became clear that the
38’W. All the observations were made at the Earth’s magnetic field afforded a convenient
same place in Lop-Buri, Thailand, hence they working medium on which to base the measure-
may be regarded as the first disclosure of what ments of electric current, but the measurement
we now call transient fluctuations, though the of the magnetic field itself was in an unsatis-
Jesuit scientists may not have been aware of the factory state, because all intensity readings were
significance of this. directly dependent on the strength of magnetiza-
Credit for the actual identification of this tion of the needles used, a shifting and uncer-
fluctuation belongs to a London clockmaker and tain factor. This handicap was brilliantly dis-
amateur philosopher named Graham. In 1722, pelled by the work of Karl Friedrich Gauss of
after many hundreds of observations, Graham Gottingen. He developed, along the lines of sug-
made a definite announcement of his discovery. gestions by Poisson, a method of measuring both
His findings were verified and amplified by the the horizontal intensity of the Earth’s field and
Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, using a the magnetic moment of the magnet, by a co-
special needle. Other investigators followed. ordinated experiment involving oscillations and
Celsius and his colleague and successor Hiorter deflections with a single instrument. In most
of Uppsala, Sweden, discovered the existence of every respect the Gaussian technique was far
sporadic and chaotic types of magnetic activity superior to the older methods, and it placed in-
(Fig. 2). The seasonal change in the daily varia- tensity measurement on a uniform basis such
tion of declination was brought to light by Can- that henceforth the determinations of different
ton in 1759, and its inversion in southern lati- observers, made apart, could be directly com-
tudes by John MacDonald in 1795. pared and coordinated.
Whereas the Swedish observers had noticed Gauss was one of the first to perceive the
the striking coincidence of magnetic perturba- importance of making continuous observations
tions with the aurora, observers in lower lati- of daily variation and other transient phenomena
tudes, who saw the aurora less frequently, main- of the Earth’s magnetism, particularly in re-
tained a healthy skepticism toward what must gard to a host of minor features that had not
have seemed a fantastic notion, a connection be- been discernible in the earlier, grosser measure-
tween apparently unrelated phenomena. The ments. He shares with Weber, Humboldt, and
English astronomer Edmund Halley had sug- Sabine the credit for promoting the establish-
gested a theoretical connection on other grounds; ment of magnetic observatories at widely sepa-
nevertheless, the point remained in dispute for a rated points.

GEOMAGNETISM TECHNICAL OBJECTIVES 57
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> \ j 1 4] . r 6 - } | ; ail MI i , My x | hulha AA A \, \
\ | | | | \ | ‘ Wen it vie fl | i Nyy ws mM } 1 ili,/ Vil? |
2 } ip \ | | on al | | thy !
= ‘ t Ad _ _ aaieceeaelll eisai ates i ul =
|
"
Fic. 2— Contrasting magnetic variation records, portrayed by (a) a typical quiet day recorded at
Honolulu, and (b) a day of magnetic storm recorded at Sitka; straight lines on magneto-
grams are base lines for use in scaling values
Gauss and Weber established a magnetic ob- Magnetic observatories were established at
servatory in 1832 at Gottingen, to this day a widely separated points to secure simultaneous
great center of geomagnetic investigation, and data regarding the variations of the Earth’s
to make their investigations meaningful they magnetism. Some of them were soon discon-
developed suitable instruments for observing the tinued, but others continued in operation much
variations of declination and horizontal inten- longer, some (as the one at Toronto, Canada)
sity. It is interesting to compare the bifilar even to the present day. Thanks to the zeal of
variometer of that day, having a magnet more Alexander Dallas Bache, later superintendent
than three feet long that weighed 25 Ib, on a of the Coast Survey, a magnetic observatory
suspension 17 ft long, with a modern instrument was operated at Girard College, Philadelphia,
having a magnet no longer than a carpet tack, from 1840 to 1845, and some variation observa-
suspended on a filament of quartz less than six tions were made in Washington from 1840 to
inches long. 1842. One of the meteorological and magnetic

observatories established by Russia, at Sitka, William Island; this remained for nearly 50
Alaska, was in operation from 1842 to 1867. In years the nearest approach of such an operation
spite of the cumbersome instruments then avail- to the North Magnetic Pole.
able, the operation of these observatories served Antarctic expeditions, too, have contributed
to establish the principal features of the short- importantly to our knowledge of geomagnetic
period variations of the Earth’s magnetism. transients, although the geography of the Antarc-
Arctic work took on an increasingly promin- tic continent does not favor more than a frag-
ent role as the baffling complexities of the mag- mentary or piecemeal assault on the important
netic-storm effects came to light during the auroral-zone localities. The German South
work of various expeditions collaborating in the Polar Expedition of 1901-1903 under von Dry-
20-year search for the lost Franklin expedition. galski operated an observatory at Kerguelen
In 1872-1874, newly designed instruments were Island; others were established by the British
used in the Franz Josef Archipelago on an Southern Cross Antarctic Expedition of 1898-
arduous program of eye-readings that lasted 1900 under C. E. Borchgrevink (Cape Adare),
more than three months. It was Karl Weyprecht the National Antarctic Expedition of 1901-1904
of this expedition who perceived the need of under R. F. Scott (McMurdo Sound and Cape
coordinated, simultaneous work at the whole Adare), the Scottish National Antarctic Expe-
network of Arctic stations. It was his initiative dition of 1903-1905 under W. S. Bruce (South
that led to the International Polar Expedition Orkney Islands), the French Antarctic Expedi-
of 1882-1883, the progenitor of IGY. tion of 1903-1905 under J. B. Charcot (Palmer
In this first Polar Year, photographic record- Peninsula), the British Antarctic Expedition of
ing was out of the question for remote outpost 1910-1913 under R. F. Scott (McMurdo Sound
stations. This meant that the data obtained and Cape Adare), and the Australasian Antarc-
represented a tremendous expenditure of effort tic Expedition of 1911-1914 under D. Mawson
to maintain a 24-hr schedule of hourly or even (Cape Denison). The work at Cape Denison
more frequent readings by eye. The effort, how- was the basis of an extended study by Charles
ever, bore fruit. These data yielded important Chree to examine the relations of southern and
statistical knowledge of some of the features of northern perturbations, although the lack of
polar magnetic perturbations, and they were a concerted data at many stations meant that the
great stimulus to further study devoted to the study was necessarily confined to statistical
development of similar data for localities other aspects.
than those of the Polar Year expeditions. All these activities led inevitably to the Second
For Greenland alone, we have such material International Polar Year 1932-1933, when for
from Nanortalik by C. Holm, from Scoresby the first time there were simultaneous photo-
Sund by C. H. Ryder, and from Umanak Fjord graphic recordings at a widespread net of ob-
by H. Stade. Other observers in this category servatories in high latitudes, chiefly in the Arctic.
were A. R. Gordon, who occupied a station on This achievement remains as the primary basis
Hudson Strait, J. H. Turner, H. M. W. of our present understanding of magnetic storms.
Edmonds, and J. E. McGrath in the Yukon Since then, geophysical knowledge has been
country, von Toll along Siberian Arctic shores, gained apace. The equatorial singularities have
and members of the Russian-Swedish expedition become apparent, and the probability of syste-
to Svalbard in 1898-1899. Scandinavian geo- matic relationships between Arctic and Antarctic
physicists have taken a leading part in the manifestations is now urgently in need of more
growth of knowledge about geomagnetic transi- detailed scrutiny. Vast theories of upper-at-
ents, and in 1902-1903 K. Birkeland of Norway mosphere physics have been erected and they
was responsible for the operation of a net of demand test and observation. Radio astronomy
four observatories stretching from Iceland to opens new vistas that have vital bearing on the
Novaya Zemlya. Birkeland was thus enabled phenomena of the region skirting the Earth's
to achieve advances in magnetic-storm theory atmosphere, as well as the remotest realms of
that still stand as an important part of the the observable universe. As we attain to more
subject. At the same time, the Norwegian ex- insight into the probable nature of things, it be-
plorer Roald Amundsen succeeded in operating comes ever more necessary to observe and study.
a magnetic observatory for 23 months on King Geophysics is worldwide, and the joint effort of

66 nations is not too much for our present needs. the protons are deflected toward the east and
The logical successor to the First and Second the electrons toward the west. The particles are
Polar Years is naturally our present IGY. believed to be banked up in such a way as to
form a girdle or belt that may completely sur-
round the Earth. Since the protons and elec-
TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROBLEM
trons are streaming along this path in opposite
The geomagnetic IGY program is directed directions, the net effect is an electric current,
toward some of the problems of the electric and and the fluctuations of this supposed current are
magnetic phenomena of our atmosphere, and of observable as changes in the geomagnetic field.
space beyond, particularly as influenced by solar This equatorial ring current is probably at a
activity. A comprehensive exposition of the considerable distance from the Earth, say several
theory of transient fluctuations being not yet Earth radii, and should not be confused with the
possible, a brief outline of some of the simple ionospheric currents previously mentioned; spe-
current concepts may help to explain our IGY cifically not with the equatorial ‘electrojet.’
interest in these phenomena. The reality of such an equatorial ring current
It is known, of course, that intense ultraviolet is another problem. Unlike the ionospheric cur-
radiation is involved, and that under such ex- rents mentioned before, this current is supposed
citation the thin gases of the high atmosphere to maintain its direction and strength undimin-
are ionized in layers or zones comprising the ished in all longitudes, but it undergoes temporal
ionosphere. At least one such layer is electrically changes of several kinds. Its behavior can be
conductive and may convey currents of great tailored to account for the depression of H dur-
aggregate magnitude, with attendant magnetic ing a magnetic storm, the subsequent gradual
fields. Solar activity such as spots, flares, and recovery or post-perturbation effect, and the
other events vary the rate of ultraviolet radia- well-marked simultaneity of a great deal of the
tion, with dramatic effects on the ionosphere. fine structure exhibited by low-latitude observa-
There are numerous observable effects, some tory records during magnetic storms. The only
of which, however, do not occur until many trouble is that a suitable distribution of sheet
hours after observed solar events. For several current in the ionosphere could produce these
reasons it is thought that the Earth is also under effects, and no experiment has been carried
bombardment by streams of slower moving cor- out to settle the matter. This is one of the rea-
puscles, presumably protons shot out violently sons for the satellite program and rocket ex-
from the Sun. It is difficult, however, to account periments. By reason of the general expansion
for the high energy and systematic motions of of observatory facilities, the patterns of the
such particle streams. phenomena that the equatorial ring current is
The magnetic fields existing at the Sun’s sur- supposed to explain will be clarified and mapped
face and in the corona must play an important out in greater detail then ever before.
role in the behavior of such streams, and it The streams of gas from the Sun can penetrate
has been suggested that configurations of such much closer to the Earth in polar regions, by
fields may provide a mechanism for the escape following the lines of force of the Earth’s main
of the gas, which consists chiefly of protons and field. When these particles reach the atmosphere,
electrons. One theory has it that some emission they produce increased ionization and magnetic
is a normal feature of relatively ‘quiet’ areas of changes, and luminous discharges which we
the solar disk, but that certain disturbances of know as the aurora. The magnetic effects are
the magnetic field associated with the Sun’s known, in their severest form, as magnetic
corona may intensify the emission in certain di- storms. Many of the effects are so highly con-
rections and suppress it in others. centrated along the auroral zones as to merit
The density of this material is no doubt re- the designation of auroral electrojets. But our
duced as it traverses interplanetary space. It knowledge is scant, because most of the storms
may also be deflected by the magnetic fields of that have been observed did not occur at times
coronal and interplanetary gases. But once it when there was adequate recording in high lati-
encounters the Earth’s magnetic field, there are tudes. It seems likely that electric fields gener-
highly important new effects, though of great ated in such latitudes produce complex world-
complexity. One generalization seems to be that wide current systems in the ionosphere. These

systems would be responsive to rapid changes in one of the problems of the IGY program is to
the initiating mechanism. trace out this equatorial ‘electrojet’ as it has
Daily variation. Daily variation appears to been called, and to obtain enough data on its
have a more understandable physical basis than behavior for a reasonably confident attack on
other features of geomagnetism. It is primary these intricate collateral effects.
a daytime feature, greater in certain magnetic General activity—General activity or ‘unrest,’
latitudes, and generally greater in summer than which goes on more or less all the time, has long
in winter. For declination, the morning and been classified by various systems of activity
afternoon changes are in reversed direction in indices which have been checked and catalogued
the southern hemisphere. It is generally accepted for many years from numerous parts of the
that the cause of this daytime effect is to be world. A well-marked 27-day recurrence tend-
found in the daily atmospheric tides, involving ency is evident, and is one of the proofs of a
both heating and ionization of the upper atmos- solar origin. This activity derives from a variety
phere. The mechanism is in brief a dynamo of causes including continuous minor disturbance
action based on horizontal motions of conducting of the ionospheric current streams. It is gen-
gases across the vertical component of the main erally more pronounced in the high magnetic
field. The amplitudes are greatest at the times latitudes where agitation of the ionospheric
of maximum sunspot activity, and thus afford region is greatest. For the IGY, a special
a useful index to the fluctuations of solar ultra- system of quarter-hourly activity figures has
violet emission. Harmonic analysis indicates that been established for the very frequent reporting
perhaps 75 pct of the daily variations are di- of general activity, particularly from _polar-
rectly due to causes outside the solid Earth, region stations.
presumably these upper-atmosphere electric cur- Although standard magnetic instruments are
rents; the other 25 percent are due to induced unresponsive to activity at the higher frequen-
Earth crustal currents. cies, it is known that magnetic fluctuations are
Early pioneers of magnetic observatory work, continually evident in many frequencies ap-
on discovering the hemispheric reversal of daily proaching those of radio. ‘The nature of these
variation of declination, quite properly reasoned audio- and subaudio-frequency fluctuations is
that there should be an equatorial zero line. little understood, although there is reason to
A search for this line was responsible for the believe they are in part the result of lightning
establishment of several equatorial observa- discharges. Only meager information as to their
tories. No such definite line exists, but there areal distribution is now available. An observa-
is a transitional belt where the effects vary tional program employing induction-type detec-
seasonally or otherwise from time to time. Al- tion instruments is to be operated with several
though the real situation is too complex to admit stations in the United States. The results of
of easy explanation, the search for such an this work together with similar observational
equatorial line was fruitful in other respects. evidence from other countries may serve to
A similar problem exists with regard to the explain much about these presently little-known
daily variation of magnetic horizontal intensity. fluctuations.
Certain equatorial stations show a far greater Magnetic Storms—Magnetic storms comprise
amplitude of this curve than do stations in other a specialized and highly intensified category of
locations. This seems to be confined to a nar- magnetic activity. Although the name is analog-
row zone, possibly governed by the magnetic ous with meteorological storms, there is no
equator. It is as if the overhead current system established correlation with the weather. Mag-
in the ionosphere shows a pinch effect that is netic storms are widespread phenomena, gen-
most evident where its equatorial portions cross erally worldwide in fact, whereas ordinary
the noon meridian. Furthermore, there are weather is predominantly of local or regional
strong indications that not only normal varia- character. Magnetic storms are related to solar
tions, but also irregular activity, such as solar- emanations, probably of both ultraviolet and
flare effects and sudden commencements of corpuscular types.
magnetic storms, are also enhanced under similar Magnetic-storm intensities increase toward
circumstances. This relationship has an im- the high magnetic latitudes. As an extreme ex-
portant bearing on magnetic-storm theory, and ample, in the storm of April 2, 1944, the total

range of declination at Cheltenham was less A given magnetic storm may show, in low
than one degree whereas at Sitka, Alaska, it latitudes, a typical ‘sudden commencement,’ an
was more than nine degrees. In the tropics, abrupt and sustained rise in horizontal intensity,
magnetic-storm effects are greatest in horizontal followed by irregular activity. Yet in high lati-
intensity and least in declination. tudes the same storm commencement may be
Magnetic-field changes on the Earth’s surface characterized by a long train of pulsations and
during magnetic storms have three main parts: a sharp increase in their amplitude at the time
(a) a part proceeding according to time meas- in question.
ured from the commencement of the storm, There are a number of special forms of
known as storm-time variation; (b) enhanced magnetic disturbance, of which the first to be
diurnal variation of a distinctive pattern known given special recognition was the bay. This is a
as disturbance-daily variation; and (c) irregular departure from an otherwise undisturbed record
effects especially characteristic of high latitudes. in the form of a V or a bay of the sea, from
In the study of areal distribution of storm ef- which it gets its name. Most bays have no ap-
fects, the times of commencement are important. parent relation to ionospheric and auroral activ-
While this is sometimes difficult to ascertain, ity, but a special kind of bay is associated with
there are many occurrences of abrupt character auroral displays and radio fadeouts. This is the
known as sudden commencements. As far as ‘crochet’ which can usually be related to solar
is known, these occur simultaneously or at least flares observed visually at the same time. It is
within a few seconds throughout the world. hence designated as a solar-flare effect, and is
A great deal of study has been given to the believed to result from a strong influx of ultra-
characteristics of magnetic storms and certain violet light emitted by the Sun.
general trends have become evident. There are Micropulsations—Micropulsations have long
important, yet not entirely consistent, relation- been a major puzzle. These long trains of quasi-
ships between solar conditions, particularly sun- sine waves can be found in observatory records
spot occurrences, and the occurrences of mag- almost anywhere with sufficiently fine-grain re-
netic storms, ionospheric disturbances, difficul- cording. An interesting discovery that grew out
ties of radio communication, and auroral dis- of the Second Polar Year was that at certain
plays. times and places there are particularly large
Present knowledge of magnetic storms is micropulsations, which have been given the
weighted unduly by the records obtained during quaint name ‘giant micropulsations.’ During the
a single storm of the Second International Polar IGY, widespread use of rapid-run magneto-
Year of 1932-1933. It is clear that the gross graphs is expected to yield a great mass of perti-
features of a magnetic storm comprise a tumul- nent data on micropulsations and other short-
tuous and disordered influx of electrically ex- time effects.
cited corpuscles flowing earthward along the
lines of force, and thereby funneled into two THE IGY GEOMAGNETIC PROGRAM
‘collars’ which are visibly apparent as the auroral
zones. It cannot be stated with assurance It has been seen that the majority of the
whether this emanation represents a sort of transient change effects are directly related to
leakage from the ring current, or whether it the electric current streams believed to be char-
comes by a more direct route from the Sun, or acteristic of the ionosphere, perhaps also to more
indeed whether it might not consist of atmos- remote ring currents and other discharges as-
pheric ions thrown out to great distances by sociated with particle streams in space. It is also
reason of an excess of absorbed solar energy. clear that the physical nature and morphology
But in any event, it is becoming increasingly evi- of these streams of electrical current have the
dent that the intricate details of a particular utmost significance in the study of all aspects
magnetic storm present puzzles far beyond the of upper-atmosphere phenomena.
scope of the generalized patterns of statistically As is the case for other major IGY programs,
averaged storm systems. Surges of current have the geomagnetic program is primarily designed
been observed which produced virtually opposite to disclose more information about the currents
pulses in the magnetic field at stations only a we have discussed. The difficulty in the past has
few hundred miles apart. always been a gross insufficiency of observa-

tions. For the observation of highly transient ential magnetograph, developed by J. H. Nelson
phenomena, moreover, there are needed not only of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, on the sug-
large numbers of observations, but coordination gestion of Sydney Chapman.
to provide simultaneous timing. The IGY The differential magnetograph consists in es-
promises vast improvement in these respects, sence of a central recording instrument at the
using regular and temporary observatories of Survey's College Observatory near Fairbanks,
standard type, and semi-automatic recording in- to which are connected, by electrical cable, two
struments of nearly equal quality of results outpost instruments about seven miles distant
(Fig. 3). in the magnetic south and west directions. The
In Alaska, magnetic registration is carried joint operation of the connected instruments
out at ten well-distributed points across the results in a record of the magnetic field differ-
northern auroral zone. At every one of these ences between the central and outpost instru-
stations, continuous records are made of all the ments. Thus the magnetic field gradient in each
field components necessary for full definition of of two normal directions is disclosed. This in-
the field. Five of the installations constitute formation should provide better clues to the
standard observatories, including those at the location and perhaps the form of ionospheric
extreme locations of Barrow and Sitka. A re- currents than ever before available.
cording instrument is operated at an Arctic An added feature of the instrumental array
Ocean ice-floe station, in addition to those in centered on Fairbanks is a pair of standard
interior Alaska. Not only does this provide the magnetic observatories, at points about 80 mi
fullest array of observation points ever to exist south and east of the central station, constitut-
in a region of such singular magnetic impor- ing a similar tripartite array designed to dis-
tance, but in addition a completely new ob- close field gradients over an area greatly larger
servational principle is used. This is the differ- than that of the differential array. Though not
aes
™ -
na
Fic. 3 — Askania variograph, used by many nations at temporary IGY

stations; the United States employs 22 of them; compact and portable, this
instrument nevertheless produces magnetograms approaching the quality of
those from standard observatories

electrically connected, and therefore not ar- array of magnetic observation points should
ranged to record the differences directly, highly provide a wealth of pertinent data for a scrutiny
accurate time control is provided, permitting de- of this elusive question.
tailed comparison of the records. At many standard observatories, both regular
Perhaps the next most important undertaking and temporary, additional equipment for ‘rapid-
is the intended scrutiny of the equatorial electro- run’ recording has been installed, to provide
jet. For this purpose no less than ten stations records of great detail. These supplement the
are employed in the equatorial Pacific area. work of regular instruments, particularly for
A three-station array is to be operated for a the fullest scrutiny and appraisal of the fine
period of at least one year, centered on Jarvis characteristics of magnetic storms and other
Island, 1200 mi south of Honolulu. Jarvis has features of the records. Rapid-run instruments
the distinction of being the only land on Earth at built for the United States program represent
a junction of the magnetic and geographic a distinct advance over earlier types in that
equators. Two companion stations, at Palmyra they provide a more open record of much finer
and Fanning Islands, outside the presumed path optical quality, giving full detail and stronger
of the electrojet, will function as control or assurance of complete fidelity during the most
comparison stations. All will consist of the so- interesting periods of records.
called semi-automatic recording instruments. An important indirect contribution to the
The United States also operates a standard maintenance of high performance standards in
magnetic observatory on Koror Island in the the IGY program lies in the use of a special
western Carolines, situated precisely upon the array of coils at the Fredricksburg Observatory,
magnetic equator with a companion station of permitting adjustment and testing of instruments
similar character at Guam, some hundreds of designed for use in other parts of the world.
miles to the northeast. In Peru, in association In addition to the photographic recording ap-
with the Huancayo Geophysical Observatory, paratus, there are supplemental recorders at
a north-south chain of five recording stations certain key stations, generally where ionospheric
is operated in an array providing a cross section records are operated. Thus an immediate ink
of the entire electrojet region. The Huancayo record, usually of horizontal intensity, will be
Observatory, established many years ago by the produced which can be inspected at any time.
Carnegie Institution of Washington for its
This will be of help in deciding on special alerts
proximity to the magnetic equator, was the first and World Days for intensified programs in case
of several stations providing data that led to the
of magnetic storms or other special events.
discovery of the equatorial electrojet.
Four stations are operated in Antarctica, of
which three are standard observatories. These IMPLICATIONS
are distributed in relation to the southern
Among the major problems that we may hope
auroral zone so as to provide as much collateral
to attack with the aid of IGY data is that of
information about overhead currents as_ pos-
clarifying the effects of electric currents that
sible in that relatively unknown region. A princi-
develop in the approaching stream of solar mat-
pal contribution of the Antarctic stations will lie
ter, as distinguished from these produced in the
in their comparison value with simultaneous
ionosphere. As for the latter, we can be confi-
records in the North Pole regions. Many theo-
retical questions will be advanced by fuller in- dent of a better understanding of numerous sub-
formation as to the similarity, simultaneity, and ordinate features such as the Schmidt vortices
general correspondence of observed effects at that produce certain types of bays and oscilla-
these two opposite ends of the Earth. tions, and other current patterns that give rise
In the west central part of the United States, to small, rapid pulsations over limited regions.
seven recording stations, arranged in a general From studies of the airglow, it appears that
east-west pattern, are operated for a distinctly a patchy structure in the ionosphere is subject
different purpose, that of seeking evidence of to drifts which may show up in the records of
correlation between magnetic and meteorological the east-west chain of magnetic stations in the
events. Since the progress of weather changes western United States. Another interesting
is generally in east-west orientation, such an problem is concerned with the use of sharp

pulses in the geomagnetic record to study the portance of solar-flare effects in relation to the
electrical properties of the Earth’s crust. other transients is another question with many
It may well be that new advances will come ramifications.
with the use of hydromagnetic theory in ex- In summary, the United States IGY Program
pressing the behavior of matter in the Sun’s is geomagnetism is expected to develop funda-
corona and in the space bordering on the Earth’s mental information on the electric currents of
atmosphere. The role of electric fields in in- the high atmosphere, possibly also of the dense
terplanetary space is important in Alfvén’s treat- lower atmosphere and of outer space.
ment. Singer has stressed another important
class of phenomena in this region, namely those Division of Geophysics, U. S. Coast and Geodetic
associated with shock waves. The relative im- Survey, Washington, D. C.

New Experiments Concerning the Geomagnetic Field Extending into

Interplanetary Space
J. A. Stimpson
Since cosmic-ray particles begin to interact Earth’s magnetic field beyond the surface of the
with the terrestrial magnetic field at considerable Earth. The analysis of the data is not yet com-
distances from the Earth, these particles provide plete but, because of current interest in these
important information concerning the descrip- questions, we give here some preliminary results
tion of the magnetic fields extending beyond the of the new measurements. These most recent
surface of the Earth. In earlier publications experiments were performed in_ collaboration
[ Simpson, 1956] we have discussed the relation- with Peter Meyer of the Enrico Fermi Institute
ship between magnetic field and cosmic-ray infor Nuclear Studies (University of Chicago),
tensity measurements in the equatorial zone and and with Ludwig Katz and John F. Butler of
have shown how the high-energy charged cosmic- the Cambridge Geophysical Research Direc-
ray particles act as probes for exploring the torate [Katz, Meyer, Simpson, in press].
shape of the Earth’s magnetic field. We defined A nucleonic component monitor composed of
the line of minimum cosmic-ray intensity around two separate neutron detectors and recording
the Earth as the geomagnetic field equator effec- circuits was transported by aircraft at constant-
tive for cosmic-ray particles (the cosmic-ray pressure altitude (corresponding to 18,000 ft
equator). This is an equator extending outward altitude) around the equator according to the
from the Earth into the interplanetary medium. route described in Figure 1. The elapsed time
In 1954 we initiated experiments which were for the 12 equatorial crossings was 43 days in
concerned with the following basic questions 1956, during which time there were only small
regarding the terrestrial field. Is the magnetic primary cosmic-ray intensity variations. Cor-
field which interacts with cosmic-ray particles rections for these variations were provided by
adequately represented by: (a) the centered or the neutron monitor data at Huancayo, Peru.
eccentric dipole approximation derived from the Preliminary latitude curves derived from the 12
spherical harmonic analysis of surface magnetic equatorial crossings are given in Figure 2. From
field data (see, for example, the analysis of these data both the equatorial longitude effect
Gauss, Chapman, Bartels, and others), or (b) and the position of the minimum cosmic-ray in-
the local measured fields at the surface of the tensity as a function of longitude may be in-
Earth, or (c) for example, partly by a magnetic vestigated.
field distribution extending into the volume The longitude effect at the equator—The in-
around the Earth which arises from the inter-
tensity at the minimum of each latitude curve in
action of the rotating permanent field with the
Figure 2 was measured for 12 longitudes. The
ionized medium surrounding the Earth?
deviations from mean intensity around the Earth
The first of these questions was clearly
are shown in Figure 3. This is the longitude
answered by preliminary experiments [Simpson,
effect at the effective geomagnetic equator. The
1956] by showing that the effective equator for
following points are of special interest:
cosmic rays was not represented by the classical
(1) There is a remarkable symmetry in the
equator derived from geomagnetic dipole field
curve. The maximum and minimum intensities
analysis, and that these differences extended to
intermediate latitudes as shown by the longitude are nearly 180° apart and the areas under the
effect. In these preliminary experiments we two halves of the curve are approximately equal.
could only justify approximating the experi- There are no large contributions from functions
mental points by a sine curve on a Mercator which have a period different from 2n.
projection, and the answers to questions (b) (2) The peak-to-peak amplitude is 25 pet.
and (c) remain for further investigation. We This demonstrates that the equivalent magnetic
have recently undertaken additional experiments center of the Earth is eccentric with respect to
which more clearly define the nature of the the axis of rotation. A preliminary calculation
65

66 J. A. SIMPSON
. ®e,
an ee
.
.
*.
**
c.
Cone
oh 3s No
€ = LE
Pe
{
(
'
Fic. 1— Route of aircraft carrying neutron intensity monitor at 18,000 ft pressure altitude; the solid line
portions of the route correspond to the latitude curves shown in Figure 2

NEW GEOMAGNETIC FIELD EXPERIMENTS 67
rected for this effect, the tentative location of

minima shown in Figure 2 are plotted in Fig-
ure 4. A smooth curve was drawn to represent
the principal features of the cosmic-ray equator
derived from the new data. The amplitude
shown in Figure 4 is substantially less than given
by the geomagnetic dipole approximation. The
S6°E intersections of the curve with the geographic
128°E equator are not 180° apart. If this curve were
to represent the surface points common to a
97°E
plane intersecting the Earth, then the results
7a°e
shown here imply that the equatorial plane of
53°E
the magnetic field does not pass through the
Cosmic Roy intensity ——»
geoid center. In Figure 5 we show how this

asymmetry in the mercator projection in Figure 4
might be represented. Of course, the representa-
LV
tion of the data by a plane is rough, and Figure 5
KS is not to scale.
In Monograph No. 1 [Simpson, 1956] we
showed how the cosmic-ray results compared
24°w with both the eccentric dipole field equator and
the magnetic dip equator for the 1945 magnetic
52° survey. In Figure 6 the same magnetic equator
curves are shown for comparison with the new
79°w cosmic-ray data.
Returning to the three questions raised above,
the new experimental results reported here
show conclusively that the traditional descrip-
eae
toc rreee rat rererer tiers
tion of the geomagnetic field by spherical har-
monic analysis does not represent the field distri-
vcateatectepeessspetepesopose
30°S 20°S 10°S oO 10°N 20°N 30%

Geograptuc Lotiude
bution which is effective for the deflection of
Fic. 2— Latitude curves for the 12 equatorial cosmic-ray particles. It also appears that the
crossings shown in Figure 1; these curves have observed surface magnetic fields near the equa-
not yet been corrected for the longitude effect
tor, although in closer agreement with the loca-
gives approximately 300 km as the separation of tion of the cosmic-ray equator, do not completely
describe the effective field distribution. For ex-
the magnetic and geoid centers.
ample, the cosmic-ray equator appears to lie
(3) The peaks of the curve are displaced ap-
proximately 40° west of the cosmic-ray longitude slightly west of the surface magnetic-field equa-
tor. However, the permanent field of the Earth
curve predicted from the dipole terms of the
spherical harmonic analysis, and in the direction should be described at distances beyond the sur-
of the maximum and minimum surface mag- face of the Earth by an equator lying between
netic fields. It is interesting to note that these the position of the surface equator and the geo-
new results resolve the uncertainty in the longi- magnetic-field equator, and not outside these
tude effect observed by Vallarta [1936]. limits, as we find for the cosmic-ray results.
The effective equator for cosmic rays—Meas- Thus, there remains the question of how im-
urement of the location of the minimum intensity portant are external magnetic-field contributions
depends to some extent upon the slopes of the which might be derived, for example, from the
latitude curves in Figure 2. The slopes are gen- rotation of the Earth in an ionized medium.
erally different in the two hemispheres; part of Recently, Rothwell [in press] has suggested
this asymmetry arises from the longitude effect that only the surface magnetic field is important
introduced by crossing the equator obliquely for determining the cosmic-ray intensity distri-
(see Fig. 1). Although we have not yet cor- bution, if one takes into account the 1955 mag-

68 J. A. SIMPSON
" , rt Longitude Effect ot the

- / \ Cosmic Ray Equator (1956)
Ho / \ © — Neutron intensity
Per Cent Deviation of Cosmic Ray intensity From Mean intensity at the
wo
+
2
Cosmic Ray Equator
oO
N 74”
oS
\
‘\
7
Neo
a
I
\
»
3
L
‘
wy a bt Degrees Geographic Longitude
Fic. 3 The
— longitude effect for the nucleonic component at the cosmic-ray equator
20
x 10°f— 20ee tee —{10°N

- = *
a = -.
oO =
oe
2 re, °,
- *.
<—— o°
4 E
uw =
S =
Ep — oo eeees ECCENTRIC DIPOLE FIELD EQUATOR —hoes

< E br e eee’ — COSMIC
RAY EQUATOR
oS - NEUTRON INTENSITY DETECTORS:
2 E 3-18,000FT. PRESSURE ALTITUDE DATA
a c OBTAINED WITHIN 45 DAY PERIOD (1956)
a -30,000 FT, PRESSURE ALTITUDE (1948
o — -SEA LEVEL (1954 - 1956)
Ww xr bee
Or F-
>oO CE ae
w” a
30*}-—-~
Lele epdliclisrtlirtirliclip tists ba ta

1e0° 150° 20" 90° 60° 30° oe e 60° 90° 120° soe 10°
WEST GEOGRAPHIC LONGITUDE © EAST
Fic. 4— The smooth curve represents the cosmic-ray equator; experimental points have not been corrected
for the longitude effect

NEW GEOMAGNETIC FIELD EXPERIMENTS 69
Plane
Center of
Geoid
In the V Plane "m-n" Meridian
Fic. 5— Schematic explanation (exaggerated scale)

of the asymmetry of the cosmic-ray equator
shown in Figure 4
20°
=m
10°
NORTH
BA
L
LATITUDE,
10°
GEOGRAPHIC
20°(—
i —-—- COSMIC RAY EQUATOR
F —— ECCENTRIC DIPOLE FIELD EQUATOR
— ——— DIP EQUATOR (O*INCLINATION) 1945 SURVEY
30°/—
SOUTH
Chit trplirrtirtirtlip tip tirtir tip tit.

woe 150° 120° 90° 60° 30° O° 30°. 60° 90° 20° 150° 160°
WEST EAST
GEOGRAPHIC LONGITUDE ©
Fic. 6— A comparison of the cosmic-ray, dipole, and dip equators

70 J. A. SIMPSON
20°(_
xf
to® —1tO°N
e fF
2 o£
A SY
ots °°
=) =
Ww -
oO —
> =
=me tort
— N X. / —hors
a = S, o
oO - -7
z O&
<t =
S 20°T_
o f[- —— COSMIC RAY EQUATOR
- ---- DIP EQUATOR (0° INCLINATION) 1955 SURVEY
x =
>30°!T_
©
”
Chee ditlisptisptiplip tip titi lial

180° 180° 120° 90° 60° 30° oO 30° 60° 30° 120° 180° 1e@°
WEST EAST
GEOGRAPHIC LONGITUDE ©
Fic. 7— A comparison of the preliminary cosmic-ray equator with the 1955 dip equator
netic equator instead of the 1945 dip equator. REFERENCES

In order to compare our new cosmic-ray equator
Katz, L., P. MEYER, AND J. A. Simpson, Further
curve in Figure 4 with the 1955 dip equator, we
experiments in the geomagnetic field effective for
have plotted this dip equator using coordinates cosmic rays, Nuovo Cimento, in press.
published by the Hydrographic Office, U. S. ROTHWELL, P., Nuovo Cimento, in press.
Navy, which are almost identical with the Ad- Simpson, J. A., Cosmic-ray experiments devised
miralty Charts used by Rothwell. The curves from recent U. S. Antarctic expeditions, Geophys.
are compared in Figure 7. Monogr. no. 1, Amer. Geophys. Union (Nat.
Acad. Sci. no. 462), 107-123, 1956.
Acknowledgments—It is a pleasure to thank the
VaLLarTA, M. S., Longitude effect of cosmic radia-
Strategic Air Command, U. S. Air Force, for their
tion and the position of the Earth’s magnetic
excellent support and assistance. The organization
centre, Nature, 139, 24-25, 1936.
of the expedition by Major George J. Ott and his
staff was deeply appreciated. This research was
assisted in part by the Office of Scientific Research
and the Geophysics Research Directorate, Air Furico Fermi Institute of Nuclear Studies and De-
Force Cambridge Research Center, Air Research partment of Physics, University of Chicago, Chi-
and Development Command, U. S. Air Force. cago, Illinots

Significance of Cosmic-Ray Monitor Observations

Rosert L. CHASSON
Introduction—In the past several years we transit. Such a location, on the other hand, re-
have witnessed a major change of emphasis in sults in a transient dilution factor that makes it
the objectives of cosmic-ray studies. There is more difficult to make reliable quantitative state-
still much to learn about the composition and ments about the energetics and numbers of cos-
spectrum of the primary radiation and the details mic rays that have come from other sources
of its fate as well as of its progeny after it has within or outside of our galaxy. Recent and
entered the atmosphere. There is, however, continuing studies by Meyer, Parker, and Simp-
substantial agreement that we now have a very son [1956] of the solar-produced radiation and
adequate working knowledge of the radiation the outside radiation as it is affected by the Sun
itself, making it possible to study it with the are yielding fruitful results. There has been
objective of ascertaining dynamic conditions in some success in the attempt to deduce from these
the interplanetary and, perhaps, galactic environ- observations various conditions in interplanetary
ment. This brings cosmic-ray studies into the space in which there seem to be transient turbu-
realms of solar physics and astrophysics and may lent magnetic fields (10-° to 10-* gauss) amid
provide another way of investigating the ma- clouds of charged material particles. We hope
terial and electrodynamic conditions in cosmic to be able to infer eventually something about
space. the nonsolar component, which composes the vast
In this cosmic laboratory, time intervals of majority of the particles and contributes the high
interest range from milli-millimicroseconds to energy fraction of the cosmic rays reaching the
billions of years, and transient phenomena, such Earth.
as supernovae, give results that may be detect- It is easiest to study the solar and solar-in-
able for many millenia. We are anxious to fluenced cosmic rays because there are so many
establish the mechanism that gives rise to the other direct quantitative and qualitative observa-
cosmic radiation and how it is accelerated to its tions of solar behavior that lend themselves to
extremely high energy. These are primarily correlation studies with cosmic-ray data. We
astrophysical problems, with cosmic rays seem- have the flare patrol, sunspot count, coronograph,
ingly a fortuitous phenomenon that may give plage, magnetograph, radio noise, and other re-
better insight into the structure of the universe. lated solar data with which to work, and there
We have only a small flux of particles to study is vigorous cooperative interaction between solar
and must await the occurrence of interesting physicists and cosmic-ray observers. Such a
periodic and nonperiodic phenomena that may possibility for correlation does not yet exist,
give clues to the origin of the radiation and the other than by inference, with regard to our
conditions of space within the accelerating and knowledge of the behavior-in-time of other stel-
intervening regions. The best estimates give the lar sources, of which the Sun may be a prototype.
mean energy density of cosmic rays in space as Of similar importance in complete cosmic-ray
about equal to that of starlight, and we can studies are the results obtained by the meteorolo-
observe on a continuous basis only the radiation gists, geomagneticians, and those engaged in
that is able to reach us after coming through the studies of the physics of the highest reaches of
great magnetic deflecting field of the Earth and the upper atmosphere.
is capable of yielding secondary particles that Some details of the experiments devised to
are energetic enough to penetrate at least study the solar component and the ensuing ac-
through the atmosphere. complishments will be discussed below. Also to
We exist near enough to the Sun to be able be described are selected experiments designed to
to sample low-energy cosmic rays leaving the observe possible sidereal effects and general
Sun after they have traveled only a short dis- properties of the cosmic-ray flux as it is asso-
tance and have not been able to experience ciated with other solar-geophysical phenomena.
interstellar accelerating processes during the General remarks concerning monitor experi-

72 R. L. CHASSON
ments—A monitor experiment is designed to possible the strategic triggering of special dy-
operate for long uninterrupted periods of time namic experiments during times when the moni-
and to record faithfully all fluctuations of tors detect unusual events. There are also interim
cosmic-ray intensity. The data must then be dynamic experiments which will serve as controls
studied for possible correlation with any evi- and provide continuity in the search for changes
dence available from related cosmic-ray studies and the causes of change of the primary spec-
and all other types of astronomical, solar, and trum and flux of cosmic radiation.
geophysical information gathered during the The problem of meteorological effects—An ex-
same epoch. tremely important and independent factor affect-
Such experiments of arbitrarily long duration ing the intensity of cosmic radiation, as observed
comprise the static class of cosmic-ray studies. at appreciable depths in the atmosphere, is the
The dynamic class of experiments consists of air mass distribution and the complex of mete-
observations of necessarily short duration, ac- orological changes. The geomagnetic field serves
complished with the aid of rockets, balloons, and to control the primary flux reaching the top of
aircraft. Dynamic experiments are relatively the atmosphere, but to understand the radiation
free from the necessity for atmospheric correc- observed near the surface of the Earth, it is
tions, a factor which is a normal complication of necessary first of all to study the fluctuations
data obtained at fixed monitor stations, including that occur during solar and geomagnetic stable
those at mountain altitudes. periods; these then are correlated practically
The following are the general types of instru- exclusively with meteorological changes. A great
ments that are commonly used for cosmic-ray deal of work has been done throughout the his-
monitor purposes: (a) counter telescopes for tory of cosmic-ray research to correlate intensity
detecting charged particles (Geiger-Miiller changes with barometric pressure fluctuations,
counters, proportional counters, Cerenkov count- atmospheric temperature and mass distribution
ers, and scintillation devices); (b) ionization changes, and fluctuations of the altitude of vari-
chambers; (c) neutron detectors; (d) Wilson ous upper-atmospheric constant-pressure levels.
cloud chambers; and (e) nuclear emulsions. The correlations are by no means complete nor
The monitor measurement generally lends it- have there been devised completely satisfactory
self to the observation of unpredictable and im- ways of correcting the cosmic-ray data for these
portant rare events and to the study of the sys- atmospheric influences.
tematics of the cosmic-ray flux. Data of high The ideal is to obtain an unambiguous correc-
statistical quality are secured because of the long tion system that, after application to the raw
duration and almost arbitrarily large size of the data, would leave a record whose fluctuations
experiments. Since, however, the experiments are reflected completely those experienced by the
confined to locations relatively deep in the atmos- parent primary radiation. This goal is reached
phere, one may not use them for direct observa- rather easily where the low-energy nucleonic
tion of primary effects but must look at the component is being counted; unstable particles
secondary products and extrapolate their fluc- are not observed in such experiments and, there-
tuations back to primary fluctuations by means fore, only a simple barometric correction is re-
of our knowledge of the detailed behavior of the quired. Absorption proportional to the total
generations of particles composing the atmos- mass of air above the detector is thereby taken
pheric cascade. Only the dynamic experiments into account.
give the possibility of satisfactory observation of To observe charged particles and then to cor-
the behavior of the primaries before they have rect the record for atmospheric changes calls for
penetrated very deep into the atmosphere. The an extensive set of calculations that somehow
statistical quality, however, is somewhat reduced takes into account mass absorption changes as
by the shortness of operable time and generally well as fluctuations introduced by changing the
small size of the recorders. Satellite observations relative importance of radioactive decay effects
will bridge the gap caused by the limitations in- and the probability of collisions that lead to
herent in each of the two existing classes of unstable meson production. Changes of intensity
experiments. associated with such stochastic processes are ex-
Already in effect and planned more extensively plained primarily in terms of changes of atmos-
for IGY are cooperative alert systems that make pheric mass distribution.

COSMIC-RAY MONITOR OBSERVATIONS 73
The extent to which the meteorological effects three are included in the analysis; seemingly re-
can be eliminated at the present time is limited quired are barometric pressure, some reference
by the accuracy of available radiosonde data. height at or above the tropopause, and some
Also, in order to be able to apply complete reference temperature. The physical validity
atmospheric corrections (other than simple baro- of the various correction models is not equal,
metric) to monitor data, at least four or perhaps however, and the results of the regression analy-
six radiosondes must be flown per day in the ses show greater and greater internal consistency
vicinity of the cosmic-ray station. Such exten- as higher and higher regions of the atmosphere
sive local meteorological observations are not are considered.
presently available near most cosmic-ray stations. Other correction methods have been devised
In Figure 1 [Chasson and French, 1955] may [Dorman and Feinberg, 1955; Olbert, 1953]
be seen the effect of applying various statistical which are based on a phenomenological model of
systems of meteorological corrections [Duperier, the cosmic-ray cascade in the atmosphere, but
1949] to 79 cosmic-ray datum periods selected their complexity does not lend them easily to a
from geomagnetically quiet times. The percent- practical application of any extensive nature.
age deviation from the mean intensity of the For most practical purposes the statistical tech-
group is plotted, with the raw data appearing in nique of meteorological corrections is apparently
the top graph. The measurements, of mu mesons adequate. In contrast, however, a thorough
that were able to penetrate through 20 cm of understanding of the mechanism of the solar
lead absorber, were made at Lincoln, Nebraska, diurnal variation (0.2 pct amplitude) requires a
52° N geomagnetic latitude, at an altitude of correction system that has considerably more
350 m above sea level. Succeeding graphs express accuracy and is made on a detailed physical basis.
the smoothing due to the application of correc- Summary of important time and spatial varia-
tion factors that included the following groups tions of cosmic-ray intensity—Several types of
of terms: 1B, barometric pressure; 2B, baro- cosmic-ray variations have been discovered that
metric pressure, height of 100-mb level; 3B, depend upon time or location or both: (a) non-
barometric pressure, height of 100-mb level, mean periodic variations which include geomagnetic
temperature in region between 100-mb and storm (Forbush) decreases, meteorological ef-
200-mb levels; and 4B, barometric pressure, fects, and solar-flare increases; (b) periodic time
height of 50-mb level, mean temperature in variations which include 27-day recurrence tend-
region between 50-mb and 200-mb levels. ency, solar diurnal effects, semi-diurnal effects,
Subsequent work has shown that the smooth- seasonal effects, annual effects, and sidereal di-
ing effect is practically indifferent to the em- urnal effects; and (c) spatial variations which
pirical correction parameters used if at least include latitude effect, longitude effect, zenith-
RaW BATA (501.28)

[| . a’ a AA et pee A A a A
VY wTVV vw Ts ww ia
ods
18 (6°0.70) A*0.03 .
x. a od - A Be ee Pee eve ~~ tn tet,
FROM MEAN INTENSITY
b NASON NG NI - a -
PERCENT DEVIATION
obbeestgoverhovebhon
86 (3-00.62) R°0.07
as. anf, a eet a he atte a Oe,”
nen
Be ($0.53) 2°0.9
eseenensaeaneth ~~. aan acne
40 (6°0.82) A°0.9%
i i 1 iL i
a0 80 60 70 te
OATUM PERIOD
Fic. 1 — Smoothing of fluctuations of the penetrating component of cosmic radiation near sea level
achieved by application of various schemes of statistical corrections for meteorological effects [Chasson
and French, 1955]; S is the standard deviation of points of the group and R is the multiple correlation
coefficient

74 R. L. CHASSON
angle effect, altitude dependence, and east-west particles would be randomized by collisions with
asymmetry. interstellar matter and with widely scattered
These spatial variations are found to be time but extensive weak magnetic fields. The sources
dependent also; the time variation of the latitude are assumed to be distributed rather uniformly
effect is especially important in the study of the within the galaxy. Isotropy and time inde-
allowed primary spectrum and its relationship pendence are idealizations, the very violations of
to solar activity [Meyer and Simpson, 1954]. which present us with some of the most interest-
Time variations also have spatial fluctuations. ing and important bits of information concerning
It must be emphasized that the list given above the general role of cosmic rays in nature.
is one of operational convenience and that many For example, there is tentative evidence that
of the ‘different’ effects are associated with one strong extragalactic sources may exist, as de-
another. They are, in various ways, manifesta- duced from the observation of extensive showers
tions of interaction of the radiation with matter of particles with a total energy of the order of
and with changing local and remote electric and 107* to 10'® ev [Clark and others, 1957]. It is
magnetic fields. They are subject to fluctuations considered that such energies as these could not
of source strength and distribution, and they be imparted to particles confined within our visi-
depend especially upon the charge and momen- ble galaxy, assuming that magnetic fields are
tum spectrum of the radiation, which may vary responsible for the accelerations and storage of
with time and position. All of them are subject particles in the galaxy [ Fermi, 1949, 1954; Mor-
to an intensive worldwide check during IGY. rison, Olbert, and Rossi, 1954; Parker, 1957].
The seasonal and solar diurnal variations Then they must have come from an extragalactic
have been linked largely to atmospheric causes. source or from some portion of our galaxy lying
The annual variation corresponds with that of outside the visible disc. In support of the latter
the geomagnetic field strength; annual variations possibility, there is radioastronomical evidence
of intensity in the north and south geomagnetic for a gas corona surrounding the galactic disc
hemispheres are in opposite phase. The semi- [see Burbidge, 1956, for references]. If the
diurnal wave is attributed largely to a noniso- extragalactic alternative is not accepted, then
tropic primary distribution. The zenith-angle the assumption that the Sun is a prototype source
effect and altitude dependence are due to atmos- must perhaps be modified. Such a corona would
pheric absorption and its relation to production conceivably contain transient weakly magnetized
and loss of secondary particles in the atmosphere. clouds of ionized material affording a vastly in-
Some present considerations derived from creased intragalactic space for acceleration to
monitor studies—Monitor studies over the past extremely high energy and storage of cosmic rays
twenty years have given strong indications that produced initially within the galaxy. The ques-
the primary intensity is relatively independent of tion is an open one, and it should be remarked
time and that the spatial distribution of particle also that the assumption of extragalactic sources
trajectories is virtually isotropic. Such deduc- leads to an expectation of anisotropy, particu-
tions are possible only after accounting, at least larly at extremely high energies.
in part, for fluctuations arising from meteoro- There is some substantial direct evidence that
logical causes. The essential isotropy itself is the radiation is not completely isotropic. A small,
deduced from the success of the Lemaitre- but apparently statistically real, sidereal diurnal
Vallarta theory and its extensions in explaining variation has been observed, as is shown in
the observed dependence of intensity upon geo- Figure 2 [Lange and Forbush, 1948; Elliot and
magnetic coordinates. Dolbear, 1951|. These observations were made
Isotropy and time independence would be char- during a period of low solar activity; Elliot and
acteristic of radiation having a general galactic Dolbear plotted sidereal time-dependent differ-
origin since it seems plausible for such special ences between simultaneous recordings of a
conditions to exist only if the radiation is born north-pointing counter telescope, which essentially
far enough away to have spent of the order of a aimed constantly at one part of the celestial
million years in reaching us, providing an essen- sphere, and a telescope whose axis was at 90°
tial storage of particles within the galaxy. Thus, to that of the first one and thus swept approxi-
after leaving the source, the direction of the mately through a celestial great circle as the

CUSMIC-RAY MONITOR OBSERVATIONS 75
celestial sphere [Sekido, Yoshida, and Kamiya,

1956]. The trajectories of such particles would
waans |
| !
be relatively free of geomagnetic field deflection,
and the measurements were made at 80° zenith
angle to insure that field-sensitive particles were
wt} | E} NLA
absent from the data collected. This is an ex-
ample of exploiting atmospheric absorption ef-
fects to give data of greater purity, although the
40-05 Ht counting rate of the Sekido experiment was ex-
A
oF!
Hy ,
t
I
oe cyt ; 1
428
ceedingly low. Diffusion of source direction is
caused by encounters of the observed particles
with weak interstellar magnetic fields. There is
some ambiguity in the results obtained thus far,
-O.05 ; however, and these studies continue with further
—. refinements of techniques. If they are unam-
: WK, pe atte
biguously established, these two sidereal effects
would be especially indicative of the possible
existence of strong galactic ‘point’ sources of
cosmic radiation (for example, Crab Nebula?).
A third possible indication of anisotropy is the
variation with the solar cycle of the east-west
00° 08 GI asymmetry of the penetrating radiation at high
Sroereal rime latitudes as shown in Figure 3 [Jacklyn and
Fic. 2—Sidereal diurnal variation; curve A is Fenton, 1957]. From the original observations
south minus north variation [Elliot and Dolbecar, of the east-west asymmetry, in conjunction with
1951]; curve B results from combining ionization the Lemaitre-Vallarta theory of the allowed
chamber data taken in the northern and southern
hemispheres, thus eliminating a spurious effect in-
cone of radiation, it was deduced that most, if
troduced by seasonal changes in amplitude and not all, of the primary charged-particle cosmic
phase of the solar daily variation; curve C is from radiation was positively charged. This conclu-
ionization chamber data taken near the geomag-
netic equator, where seasonal changes of the solar
daily variation should be small [Lange and For- wee
bush, 1948]
Earth turned on its axis. The complications

of having to make atmospheric corrections were
avoided in this work. The Lange-Forbush ex-
ny
periments were done with Carnegie ionization

chambers shielded with 12 cm of lead, with cor-
240
Asymmetr. y
rections for annual variation applied between

Numbers
the two sets of high-latitude data. Uncertainty

Lp
v
of the reality of this effect is traced to the possi-

g
Relotive Sunspot
ble introduction of a spurious sidereal diurnal

variation that results from regular seasonal
changes, both in amplitude and phase, of the to
solar daily variation. Such an apparent sidereal

effect can appear when the data from a single
station are averaged over a whole year. —ea7 eh leap 1850 19s) esa 19sa ese 19ss 1086
Further evidence of possible departure from Fic. 3— Variation of east-west asymmetry at

isotropy is gained from the observation of a high latitude; circles represent the asymmetry for
small but significant variation of the intensity the observing period in each year, with standard
deviations [Jacklyn and Fenton, 1957]; solid points
of extremely high-energy particles when studied (connected) indicate the Zurich annual mean rela-
with respect to the direction of view into the tive sunspot number

76 R. L. CHASSON
sion has since been abundantly verified by direct taneously for the high-energy radiation; the ra-
observation of primaries in dynamic experiments. tios between the changes of the two components
If the radiation were isotropic, one would not have ranged as high as two orders of magnitude.
expect the east-west asymmetry to vary with Also, the spectrum of the flare particle radiation
solar activity although absolute intensities would is much steeper than the spectrum observed dur-
change due to changes of interplanetary material ing ordinary times.
and magnetic screening conditions. The super- Figure 4 is the record made at Chicago
position of an anisotropic primary component [ Meyer, Parker, and Simpson, 1956] of the fluc-
of variable intensity would have an asymmetrical tuations of the low-energy nucleonic (solar)
effect at the recorder. component during the epoch of the great solar
Departures from time independence on a short flare of February 23, 1956. The observations
time scale are much easier to observe, and they were made with a Simpson neutron monitor
occur with periodic, quasi-periodic, and random pile, which is a means of counting neutrons com-
character. A most important random change ing from nuclear evaporation stars produced in
that has been seen (only five times in the history the pile materials (a lattic of lead with paraffin
of cosmic-ray studies and most recently on Feb- moderator) by incoming neutrons, protons, and
ruary 23, 1956) is the sharp increase of intensity a few pi-mesons. Latitude and longitude studies
occurring in conjunction with great solar flares. have been made of this flare effect, enabling the
That the Sun is a source of cosmic rays, if not calculation of the flare-particle spectrum and
the only type of source in existence, is clear from comparison with calculated trajectories of solar
these infrequent phenomena. The increases of produced cosmic rays [see Lést, 1957, for ref-
intensity of the low-energy nucleonic component erences|.
are greatly in excess of those observed simul- The postflare trend has been analyzed with
(a)
Exponded Scale Near 8
5s e000 | = wor &

WT) Time of Flore Onset <
iz
—e Cf §
8 )
ie® 000+}| 2000 soo- | Section of Intensity Curve 1415-1900 U.T.
: ren p= =--- Preflore Cosmic Roy Intensity- ---- == -------- 22sec cereen seen
wo
. |
| 6000 ++ 3
soo &
~~ LLEpes 0 i ttt | Lt | Lt oa |
we
,
:
=~
i415 1500 1600 1700 1g00 i900
Lb Hours Universal Time
#5000 aI <>a e
eo) o~
® 29
3 B2 >
|
5 sooo F
groorr bg E5
go
> a SZ 5
a ZZ = §
B s000 5e 3 z
ci T /} / Ss
Zz me é
! /
2
>
-_ LP
c a ay i &
a , /
ee a fo it 3
| Ba)a 2onw QB 2
¢7T >
o Fe 3 233 0 S 3
2
faa
B 1000 Universal Time
uJ
WW =
ofp a bt bt Pl tl
0300 0400 0500 0600 0700 0800 0900
HOURS - UNIVERSAL TIME
Fic. 4— Increase of low-energy nucleonic component of cosmic rays measured at Chicago during
the solar flare of February 23, 1956 [Meyer, Parker, and Simpson, 1956]

respect to the alteration of conditions in inter- this figure has continued to date, but the 27-day
planetary space in relation to solar activity: recurrence tendency is most pronounced when
screening and albedo effects imposed upon the the Sun is in an especially disturbed condition.
lower-energy solar cosmic rays. Such effects Such was the state of affairs during the several
arise from the emanation of large quantities of months period bracketing the time of the great
charged debris from the disturbed regions of the solar-flare event of February 23, 1956. A maxi-
Sun, carrying along tangled magnetic fields. The mum effective partial screening of the incoming
time dependence is explained by the migration of nonsolar cosmic rays is achieved when the source
the clouds away from the Sun, with the eventual of the clouds is on the visible hemisphere of the
transient permeation of the interplanetary space Sun and the debris is preferentially emitted into
with the charged, magnetized material [ Meyer, the region of space between Sun and Earth.
Parker, and Simpson, 1956; unpublished work of Thus a 27-day periodicity would be expected,
Morrison, Gold, Hayakawa, and Cocconi]. corresponding with the solar synodic rotation
There is considerable uncertainty regarding the period, and the periodicity would appear mark-
persistence of the state of disorder of these edly only during times of appreciable solar ac-
clouds as they migrate away from the Sun. tivity. Overlapping of 27-day variation cycles
Beside these rare solar-flare events, regular has been observed, as would be expected during
and quasi-regular time variations have been times when there is in existence more than one
correlated with solar activity and associated geo- great solar active region.
magnetic disturbances. Such effects seem to stem Confirmation that active solar regions affecting
from the same general mechanism that would cosmic rays are of a special nature (the strong
explain the tail of the solar flare trace seen in unipolar M-regions first postulated by Bartels
Figure 4; it is, namely, a fluctuating modulation to relate solar activity to geomagnetic stormi-
or screening or trapping of the incoming galactic ness) is found in the results obtained by means
cosmic-ray beam by alteration of electromagnetic of the remarkable solar magnetographic tech-
and material conditions existing in the local space nique developed by Babcock and Babcock. The
available to streams or clouds of solar produced magnetograph results indicate that normal solar
ionic and particle debris. Figure 5 shows such activity does not cause appreciable changes in
a solar induced modulation as it is manifested terrestrial cosmic-ray intensity. A question that
in the 27-day recurrence tendency [Meyer and has yet to be completely answered is connected
Simpson (Forbush), 1954]. It is seen that the with the intrinsic nature of the 27-day phe-
amplitude of the 27-day variation changes almost nomenon: Is the variation an addition to, a
synchronously with the sunspot number and ex- subtraction from, or a modulation about some
hibits the well known 11-year periodicity charac- level or average intensity? The best evidence
teristic of solar activity. The trend shown in thus far seems to favor the subtraction ex-
planation.
AMPLITUDE OF 27=DAY VARIATION:
A rather clearcut species of screening effect is
AT
HUANCAYO ION CHAMBER]
TATION
o = | CHELTENHAM ION CHAMBER
the Forbush type of worldwide intensity decrease
“ . « 6 CHRISTCHURCH ION CHAMBER observed to occur in association with some pe-
CLIMAX NEUTRON PILE CHICAGO NEUTRON PILE
@ —-==ZURICH SUNSPOT NUMBER w riods of geomagnetic storminess. Such cosmic-
B~ [ LancesT PROBABLE ERROR OF FONTS zZ
2q Qs ray decreases may have several initial charac-
é af, oN, [8eB
5 r-)
teristics; they may begin suddenly or slowly,

BOL
OF . pe ! \ 432 and the onset may occur simultaneously with,
5 ask 4 a ° al \. =4 s
before, or after the advent of a detectable geo-
Sas} 'e, 425
s
gas i
/
~ :
magnetic storm. The magnitude of the decrease
«
~Q2 ,
/
A b \° a! and its starting characteristics are not related in
bat ? \ b any particular way to the amplitude or the type
LA ww Nd
1950 1954 of commencement of the storm, and in about
SOLAR YEARS
80 pet of the cases of serious geomagnetic field
Fic. 5 — Time dependence of the amplitude of disturbance, the cosmic rays do not show any
the 27-day recurrence tendency from revised analy-
sis of Forbush ionization chamber data and neutron detectable change. In cases of Forbush decreases,
monitor data [Meyer and Simpson, 1954] the recovery to normal cosmic-ray intensity may

78 R. L. CHASSON
take many days or weeks, depending upon the which the charged magnetized clouds of solar
disturbed condition of the Sun. Examples of debris will deflect or trap cosmic rays approach-
prestorm cosmic-ray decreases, including an event ing the Earth, offers a more plausible and con-
with a sharp front and one with a gradual front, sistent explanation for the Forbush effect; fur-
may be seen in Figure 6 [Chasson, 1954]. These thermore, the flexibility of the possible spatial
data were taken with a counter telescope ac- distribution of the clouds both at source and
cepting the penetrating radiation. The effects within the interplanetary region, lends itself to
were much more pronounced in neutron monitor explaining the various manifestations of start
recordings. and trend of Forbush decreases, including geo-
It was formerly thought that the Forbush magnetic events with which there are associated
effect could be explained by an alteration of the no detectable cosmic-ray effects.
Lemaitre-Vallarta allowed cone possibly caused It is difficult to guess as to the full implications
by augmentation of ring currents flowing in the of the few studies described so briefly above, but
equatorial plane of the Earth and having ring it is quite clear that there is much to learn, via
radii several times that of the Earth [ Chapman, cosmic rays, regarding the systematics of stellar
1937]. The alteration of the magnetic dipole and interstellar processes.
field so produced could conceivably affect the Cosmic-ray monitor studies during the IGY—
allowed entry of cosmic rays, and the ring- The cosmic-ray monitor experiments that are in
current model has been quite successful in ex- operation during IGY are largely improved ver-
plaining auroral phenomena. Detailed calcula- sions of well-established monitor experiments
tions [ Treiman, 1953; Hayakawa and others, that have operated successfully for many years.
1950] have shown, however, that the ring- One of the most important special developments
current theory and reasonable modifications of has been the standardization of basic types of
it would predict the wrong sign or too small a equipment for worldwide observation. The effect
magnitude for the cosmic-ray effect at inter- will be to minimize ambiguity in making com-
mediate latitudes. The screening hypothesis, in parisons amongst basic data taken at the various
WAS STORW (408 GAMA) mae STORM (307 Gawma)

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a
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ara 106i (P37) may 1961 (PST)
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(FOr GMT Abe 7, 1060 0626 GT Ale Bh, 196) WETAILS WOT RNOWN)
TOTAL
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2 3: 4 8 @© ¥ @ 9 © 1 #2 «#53 4 & © IF 19 20 81 22 82 86 B86 27 288 wlll! #66786 98

JUNE 19S: (PST) AAY 01 = PET)
Fic. 6 Magnetic
— storm decreases of the penetrating component (Forbush effect) accompanying the
great sunspot activity of May and June, 1951; variation of the character of the beginning of the cosmic-
ray storm may be seen as well as its variability with respect to the time of onset of the measurable geo-
magnetic disturbance. Some 27-day wave characteristics may also be seen [Chasson, 1954]

meee OT
stations. Lack of standardization in pre-IGY independent data. A central electronics rack

studies, except for that achieved privately contains a master time control for data record-
amongst small cooperative groups, has been a ing, electromechanical controls for adjusting the
constant handicap in studies of worldwide effects. data-recording time interval and count scaling
Standardization of cosmic-ray equipment for ratio during epochs of unusual intensity fluctua-
IGY has been achieved largely as a result of tions (for example, solar flare and geomagnetic-
longtime studies of the Sub-Committee on Cos- storm effects), and a precision differential count-
mic Ray Intensity Variations of the Cosmic Ray ing rate meter which is used to provide a written
Commission of the International Union of Pure record (on a recording meter) of departures
and Applied Physics. from average intensity. There is also another
There are essentially two types of standard rate meter which serves as detector of unusual
equipment: (a) triple coincidence counter tele- events and, consequently, to control the electro-
scope (10 cm lead absorber) with cubical geome- mechanical alarm system.
try and minimum prescribed counting rate and Cosmic-ray monitor observations for the of-
sensitivity for detection of penetrating particles ficial IGY program are by no means limited to
(mesons); and (b) neutron monitor pile (Chi- the standard ones. In addition to the neutron
cago design) for detection of the low-energy monitors and cubical meson telescopes, there are
nucleonic component. The neutron monitor ar- ionization chambers, shower detectors, counter
rangement at the University of Nebraska con- telescopes for deep underground studies of the
sists of six boron trifluoride (enriched) neutron very high energy particles, vertical narrow-angle
counters immersed in a latticework of lead and counter telescopes, east-west and north-south
parafin. Three of the counters feed one elec- tilted telescopes, and several shipboard experi-
tronic registration system, and the other three ments to complement those at fixed stations.
feed a second system, thus giving two sets of Figure 7 is a photograph of a multiple meson
Fic. 7— Array of IGY meson telescopes, with associated equipment, in-

cluding two standard cubical telescopes, two vertical narrow-angle tele-
scopes, and an east-west pair of narrow-angle telescopes (University of
Nebraska)

80 R. L. CHASSON
telescope arrangement (University of Nebraska). CHAPMAN, SYDNEY, Cosmic rays and magnetic
At the bottoms of the two metal towers are storms, Nature, 140, 423-424, 1937.
CHASSON, R. L., Cosmic-ray intensity fluctuations at
seen the three counter trays of the international sea level, Phys. Rev., 96, 1116-1123, 1954.
standard cubical telescopes. At the top of each CuHasson, R. L., anp W. R. FRENCH, JR., Meteoro-
tower is another counter tray which acts in logical effects for cosmic-ray mu mesons at sea
coincidence with the bottom three to give, in level, Proc. Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., (unpublished)
Guanajuato, Mexico, 1955.
each framework, a vertical narrow angle four-
Ciark, G., J. Eart, W. KRAUSHAAR, J. LINSLEY,
fold coincidence telescope (10° opening angle to B. Rossi, AND F. ScHERB, An experiment on air
zenith). Between the towers is an additional showers produced by high-energy cosmic rays,
tray which acts in coincidence with the top tray Nature, 180, 353-356 and 406-409, 1957.
Dorman, L. I., AND E. L. FEINBERG, Survey of work
of one tower and the bottom tray of the other,
done in USSR regarding atmospheric effects on
giving two narrow-angle tilted telescopes that cosmic radiation, Proc. Int. Cosmic Ray Conf.,
lie in the geomagnetic east-west plane. The axes (unpublished) Guanajuato, Mexico, 1955.
of these two telescopes are at 45° to zenith. In DuperierR, A., The meson intensity at the surface
the left background is seen equipment which will of the Earth and the temperature at the produc-
tion level, Proc. Phys. Soc., A, 62, 684-696, 1949.
be used as an unshielded wide-angle counter E.uiot, H., anno D. W. N. Do.pear, Directional
telescope to measure fluctuations of the total measurements of the diurnal variation of cosmic
meson intensity. ray intensity, J. dtmos. Terr. Phys., 1, 205-211,
As indicated previously, the primary objective 1951.
Fermi, E., On the origin of cosmic radiation, PAys.
of the IGY cosmic-ray monitor program is to
Rev., 75, 1169-1174, 1949.
make a synoptic study on a worldwide basis of FerMI, E., Galactic magnetic fields and the origin
the systematics of the cosmic-ray flux, both in of cosmic radiation, Astrophys. J., 119, 1-6, 1954.
time and in space, as it reaches the Earth. HayAKawa, S., J. NISHIMURA, T. NAGATA, AND M.
Standardization of equipment affords a means SUGIURA, The effect of the equatorial ring current
on cosmic-ray intensity, J. Sci. Res. Inst., Tokyo,
to make unambiguous comparison of results re- 44, 121-137, 1950.
ceived simultaneously at different locations, and JACKLYN, R. M., ano A. G. FENToN, Changes in
accompanying special experiments provide an the high-latitude east-west asymmetry of cosmic
opportunity to make simultaneous concentrated rays, Phys. Rev., 106, 809-811, 1957.
Lance, I., AND S. E. ForpusH, Cosmic-ray results
studies of particular facets of the cosmic-ray from Huancayo Observatory, Peru, June, 1936-
geophysical problem. December, 1946, Car. Inst. Wash. Pub. 175, 14,
It is thus to be hoped that there will be 1948.
achieved a durable and reliable continuing system Lust, R., Impact zones for solar cosmic-ray parti-
cles, Phys. Rev., 105, 1827-1839, 1957.
of cosmic-ray studies that will serve a primary
Meyer, P., AND J. A. Simpson, Changes in ampli-
function in the group of fundamental geophysical tude of the cosmic-ray 27-day intensity variation
and extrageophysical scientific disciplines. with solar activity, Phys. Rev., 96, 1085-1088,
1954.
Acknowledgments—The author is deeply grate- Meyer, P., E. PARKER, AND J. A. Simpson, Solar
ful for the encouragement and support accorded to cosmic rays of February, 1956, and their pro-
him by the United States National Committee for pagation through interplanetary space, Phys.
the International Geophysical Year. He would also Revw., 104, 768-783, 1956.
like to thank the Research Council of the Univer- Morrison, P., S. OLBERT, AND B. Rosst, Origin of
sity of Nebraska for grants in support of work cosmic rays, Phys. Rewv., 94, 440-453, 1954.
which led to participation in IGY and for later OLBERT, S., Atmospheric effects on cosmic-ray in-
equipment grants made to permit the inclusion of tensity near sea level, Phys. Rev., 92, 454-461,
narrow-angle telescopes in the IGY meson work. 1953.
Construction of the new laboratory for the IGY Parker, E. N., Acceleration of cosmic rays in solar
work was made possible through funds allocated flares, Phys. Rev., 107, 830-836, 1957.
from the proceeds of the State of Nebraska Institu- SEKiIpO, Y., S. YOSHIDA, AND Y. Kamiya, Search for
tional Building Levy. point source of cosmic rays, Nature, 177, 35-36,
1956.
REFERENCES TREIMAN, S. B., Effect of equatorial ring current on
cosmic-ray intensity, Phys. Rev., 89, 130-133,
Bursipce, G. R., The halo distribution of radio 1953.
emission and extended magnetic fields in our
galaxy and M31, Astrophys. J., 123, 178-181, The Brace Laboratory of Physics, University of
1956. Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska

High Altitude Cosmic-Ray Measurements during the International

Geophysical Year
E. P. Ngy Ano J. R. WINCKLER
Introduction—In 1947 plastic balloons became electric field of the nuclei of the material through
available which were capable of carrying equip- which the particle passes, it is possible to deter-
ment to altitudes in the range of 100,000 ft. The mine both the identity of the particle and its
capability of these balloons was such that loads energy. One of the interesting results of these
of the order of 50 lb could be elevated to high early experiments was the discovery by the Uni-
altitude. Because of measurements which had versity of Minnesota and the University of
been made deeper in the atmosphere, it was Rochester groups that primary cosmic rays con-
known that only 10 to 20 pct of primary cosmic sisted of the nuclei of many of the elements in
rays would be altered by nuclear interactions in the periodic table in addition to the protons
the air above equipment which was flown at which had previously been supposed to constitute
100,000 ft. For this reason, it became evident a majority, if not all, of primary cosmic rays.
that equipment to observe cosmic rays flown at The early experiments showed as well that in
such high altitudes would indeed measure pri- the range of energies represented by cosmic rays,
mary cosmic rays with very little secondary electrons constitute a very small fraction of the
contamination. This was in great contrast to incoming high energy particles. It was clear then
the situation at lower altitudes, for example, at that primary cosmic rays represent a sample of
sea level, where only one out of 100,000 particles some portion of the universe and for this reason
could be expected to represent primary cosmic they have become an interesting tool for astro-
rays. Actually, most of the sea-level particles physical work. In the years that have passed
are u-mesons which, because of their finite life- since the discovery of cosmic rays, considerable
time, could not travel appreciable distances in effort has been expended in the attempt to deter-
space and must, therefore, be produced in the mine their exact composition and the energy
atmosphere. The initial high-altitude experi- spectrum of the individual components. Much
ments were carried out with cloud chambers and of this work was carried out by studying cosmic
photographic emulsions as well as with counters. rays at various latitudes and assuming that the
During the past decade the major part of re- Earth, as a magnet, could be counted on to
search on primary cosmic rays in the United separate the particles into energy groups much
States has been supported by the Office of Naval as the well-known mass spectrometer does in
Research through the development of balloon atomic physics. It was further assumed that the
facilities and grants for the scientific investiga- field of the Earth that affects primary cosmic
tions at many universities. rays could be inferred from the Earth field
For an exploratory study, both the cloud measurements obtained by magneticians. The
chamber and the photographic emulsions have a orbits and cutoff energies for cosmic rays were
distinct advantage, in that they allow one to worked out by Stormer, Lamaitre, and Vallarta
observe visually the effects of the passage of for the case of a simple dipole magnetic field.
charged particles through matter. The cloud A note of the relative abundances of elements
chamber gives this information through the in cosmic rays is perhaps of interest. The most
formation of water droplets, whereas the nuclear abundant element is hydrogen, which is ap-
emulsion shows visually the track of the particle proximately five times as abundant as helium.
by the formation of developed grains. The num- The principal uncertainty in the ratio of hydro-
ber of grains in a photographic emulsion along gen to helium in cosmic rays comes from un-
the path of a particle gives the measure of the certainty in the knowledge of the number of
ionization of that particle. By measuring the incident primary cosmic-ray protons, which can
density of the ionization, and one other param- easily be confused with other singly charged
eter, such as the magnetic curvature, the range, particles which originate in the Earth’s atmos-
or the multiple scattering of the particles in the phere or just outside of it. Beyond helium, the
81

82 E. P. NEY AND J. R. WINCKLER
elements lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitro- per nucleon, and the relative number of alpha
gen, and oxygen are approximately in equal particles at either lower or higher energies drops
abundance. This is in great contrast to astro- off. These data are presented in Figures 1, 2,
nomical abundances in which lithium, beryllium, and 3. Although the knee in the latitude curve
and boron are known to be almost nonexistent. led people to suspect some kind of cutoff for
It is currently believed that the high abundance low-energy particles, it was quite unexpected to
of lithium, beryllium, and boron represents an discover that instead of a sharp cutoff there
effect caused by the passage of cosmic rays existed a rather broad maximum in the differen-
through space. The other elements in the pe- tial energy spectrum. Whether this maximum
riodic table up to iron appear in cosmic rays, represents an effect caused by the transmission
with iron very abundant as it is in cosmic abun- of cosmic rays through the interplanetary me-
dance. No cosmic-ray nucleus heavier than iron dium, or whether it exists because of the ac-
has been found to date and it is believed that less celeration mechanism is not at present known.
than one in a thousand cosmic rays have an It is probable, however, that low-energy cosmic
atomic number greater than 26 or 28, that is, rays will be the ones, if any, affected by solar
iron or nickel. There is approximately one iron activity. Exact knowledge of the form of the
nucleus for every thousand primary protons. In alpha-particle energy spectrum is a starting point
short, the abundance of cosmic rays is very for comparison of the alpha particles during a
similar to that inferred for an average cosmic solar minimum and a solar maximum (Fig. 4).
abundance from astrophysicists, with the dis- The experiment in which the energy spectrum
tinguishing feature that the iron to hydrogen was determined was carried out at Saskatoon,
ratio is perhaps higher in cosmic rays than it Canada, at a time when the Sun was at its
would be expected to be. lowest ebb of activity, in 1954. Once the energy
Recent studies of the primary cosmic-ray spectrum is known at high latitude, it is possible
helium—An advantage of the heavy elements in to determine the geomagnetic effects, that is,
studying cosmic rays is that they can be rather the energy at which the Earth cuts off cosmic
positively identified and not confused with the rays at a given latitude, by carrying out the
albedo particles in the atmosphere which make Saskatoon-type experiment at lower and lower
difficult the measurement of the primary hydro-
gen. Although the intensity of cosmic radiation
at the top of the atmosphere is approximately
60 times greater than at sea level, the number of
particles is still relatively small. Approximately
one primary cosmic ray passes through each
square centimeter at the top of the atmosphere
per second at high latitude. This means that in
sm® SEC
studying some property of cosmic rays, it is

desirable to choose as abundant a component as
possible. Naturally, primary helium satisfies
this requirement well and helium is now the
most accurately measured component of primary
OF
cosmic rays. It has been with primary helium

nuclei that the first study of the energy spectrum
of cosmic rays has been carried out down to
very low energies, without relying on geomag-
netic theory.
2 4
This alpha-particle energy spectrum at very ENERGY IN BEV/NUCLEON
high latitudes shows the extremely interesting Fic. 1— The energy distribution of primary
property that the differential spectrum, that is, helium incident on the Earth at Saskatoon, Canada,
the spectrum of the number of particles per unit June 18, 1954, at solar minimum; the spectrum has
area per unit time, per unit energy interval, is a maximum at an energy of 300 million electron
volts per nucleon of helium and falls away rapidly,
a maximum at about 300 million electron volts especially on the lower energy side of the maximum

Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the Symposium at the Opening of the International Geophysical Year wee See
IGY HIGH ALTITUDE COSMIC-RAY MEASUREMENTS 83
INTEGRAL FLUX OF ALPHA PARTICLES

400
300
Ww
TEXAS
130& PARTICLES
200
?
CAFLUX = 9728 PETERS
wl 6 © 2
qo 4
TRACK DENSITY
100
80 \
60 \
rc \
MISSOURI
1410 PARTICLES
QAFLUX = 249220 PETERS
FAST LI
OF PARTICLES
30 \
6 t2 4 6 18
TRACK DENSITY
\
20
ENERGY PLATE=300 400300 200 ISO 100 50
MEV/n ti ot I | I
TOP OF —570475 380 300 260 230 205
ATMOSPHERE
NUMBER
IOWA | 2 3 4 5 6 78910
(54 & PARTICLES TOTAL ENERGY IN BEV/NUCLEON
QL FLUK = 255220 PETERS
FAST LI Fic. 3— The total flux expressed in particles/
m’ sec unit solid angle of primary helium having
energies greater than the values plotted below
6 12 4 6 18 20
| as I
s 22 (integral spectrum) over most of the region of
ENERGY
TRACK
PLATE=500
DENSITY
400 300 200 150 wo be]
energy affected by the Earth's magnetic field
MEV/n | j j j i |
TOP OF -e-530430 336 246 202 165 (33
ATMOSPHERE
latitudes. This was carried out at Minneapolis,
Minnesota; Waukon, Iowa; Kirksville, Mis-
SASKATOON souri; and San Angelo, Texas. It was found that
214 & PARTICLES
& FLUX = 290 ¢ 20 PETERS °
the energy spectra in Minneapolis and in north-
ern Iowa were identical with that at Saskatoon
and that the Earth’s magnetic field did not cut
6 (2 14 16 8 20 22 off particles until the latitude of northern Mis-
TRACK DENSITY
souri was reached. This allowed one to deter-
ENERGY PLATE@=500 400 300 200 150 100 $O
MEV/n \ I
TOP OF ~530 430 336 246
|
202
I
£65
I
(33
mine the effective cutoff produced by the Earth’s
ATMOSPHERE field and led to the startling conclusion that the
Fic. 2— Primary helium measured at Texas, effective latitudes which one must use to compute
Missouri, Iowa, and Saskatoon, Canada; the num- cosmic-ray cutoff energies in the United States
ber of particles in each increment of track density are four degrees higher than one would expect
in the nuclear emulsion is plotted; the energy of
the a particles corresponding to the observed density
from the geomagnetic coordinates. The general
of ionization is indicated below; the lowest energy features of the Earth’s magnetic field in deter-
arriving at Missouri is about 300 mev; according to mining cutoff energies are shown in the set of
surface magnetic survey analysis, the cutoff should curves of Figure 2 which show the relative num-
have occurred at Minneapolis four degrees of
latitude farther north ber of particles of various energies observed at
the latitudes previously referred to. In Texas,

DENOTES FLARE
INCREASE
>
0 80
x
vo
EXPERIMENTS
x
=)
N
FIRST
SASKATOON
*
1935 1940 1945 1950 1955
OATE
Fic. 4— The Zurich sunspot numbers showing the growth and decay over
the two most recent solar cycles; large cosmic-ray increases occurred at times
indicated by asterisk accompanying solar flares
because of the high cutoff energies, essentially all also of secondary origin. These secondary and
the particles are at very high energy. background particles make it extremely difficult
One might summarize the knowledge obtained to extract directly an energy spectrum of the
concerning the alpha particles in the following primary protons in the manner used for helium,
way. We now know their differential energy even in the low-energy region where this is in
spectrum at low energy during the time when principle possible. One therefore has to use the
the Sun has minimum activity. We also know best knowledge of geomagnetic theory to deter-
the effect of the Earth’s magnetic field in im- mine the cutoff energies at each latitude, and to
posing a cutoff on the primary cosmic rays, that measure the singly charged particle flux at very
is, we know what latitudes have been associated high altitudes over a range of latitudes from the
in the past with definite vertical cutoff energies. pole to the equator. Such measurements made
The primary cosmic-ray hydrogen—Hydrogen with Geiger counter coincidence trains, or ‘tele-
is the most abundant component of the primaries scopes, are shown in Figure 5 over a range of
and constitutes about 85 pct of the total primary latitudes. These simple detectors include many
particles. This result is based on somewhat in- of the undesirable secondary effects discussed
direct evidence because of the experimental dif- above. The effect of lower-energy secondaries
ficulties of identifying primary protons. For ex- as well as fast particles coming back up from
ample, photographic emulsions from the moment the atmosphere below may be measured and
of manufacture accumulate a background of eliminated by using a device called a Cerenkov
tracks from fast sea-level cosmic rays which are counter which consists of a high sensitivity photo-
indistinguishable from primary singly charged multiplier tube connected to a block of lucite.
particles. This background exposure is further Because of the index of refraction, a charged
increased during the ascending portion of a particle may travel in the lucite faster than the
balloon flight. At high altitude both emulsions speed of light waves, and create an electromag-
and counters record secondary singly charged netic bow wave which travels with the particle
particles generated in the atmosphere and others like the shock wave attached to a bullet. The
which appear to come from outside the Earth signal reaches the phototube only if the particle
but are really ‘albedo’ particles spiralling in the is moving towards the tube through the lucite
magnetic field just above the atmosphere and are block. The primary-particle intensities corrected

| Lp Earth-field magnetic-rigidity cutoff is the same

at any particular point on the Earth’s surface.
Th | suaLL TELESCOPE —>/']

6/cea® STOPPING POWER
This spectrum shows a gradual flattening to-
wards lower rigidities. The curve shifted to the
left is based on geomagnetic cutoff values de-
rived from direct alpha-particle measurements
as discussed under Recent studies of the primary
jo
Ps
|
l
cosmic-ray helium. These curves of Figure 6
are representative of the period of minimum
solar activity in 1955 (Fig. 4).
g,
w
TJ
LOW LATITUDE EFFECT 1
Primary intensity variations—One very fas-
2 LARGE TELESCOPE) / cinating topic is how the primary cosmic rays
= 0.20}— o- change during solar disturbances, and intensive
a 3.3 6/cmt /
2 STOPPING POWER study will be made of this during the Interna-
a os-—— 33
tional Geophysical Year. In the past, measure-
ments carried out over a period of years with
ionization chambers on sounding balloons near
2 Ze LATITUDE CORRECTED the geomagnetic pole by H. V. Neher of Cali-
a | ie ——}— CERENKOV DETECTOR — fornia Institute of Technology show that when
the solar activity, indicated by sunspot numbers,
3 «0 80 ta) 70 o 0 reaches a maximum on the Il-year cycle, the
GEOMAGNETIC LATITUDE
cosmic-ray intensity decreases. This may be due
Fic. 5 The
— total flux of particles at the top of to clouds of magnetic material thrown into
the atmosphere measured with Geiger-counter tele- space by the Sun, or possibly the setting up of a
scopes (upper two curves) over two regions of
latitude; the lower curve is the result when atmos- ring current around the Earth one or more
pheric secondary particles are eliminated by use Earth radii above the surface.
of a Cerenkov detector In addition to these intensity decreases, spo-
radic increases probably caused by direct pro-
by this device are shown in the lowest curve of duction of cosmic rays by the Sun during large
Figure 5. In Figure 6 these measurements are solar flares are observed. The largest such on
translated into the distribution of particle mag- record occurred on February 23, 1956, and was
netic rigidities for total primaries, which includes recorded world-wide. A balloon sounding made
protons and heavy nuclei. The magnetic-rigidity during this flare at the University of Minnesota
spectrum is used since for all particles the is shown in Figure 7. The particle flux at the
FLUX - PARTICLES /CM2/SEC /STER
°
f
GEOMAGNETIC COORDINATES
2
[~ GEOMAGNETIC COORDINATES +4° ——~

7
.
;
oO ) jt 1 l 1 } l J 1
O.t iO
MAGNETIC RIGIDITY BV
Fic. 6— The total number of cosmic-ray primaries having rigidities

greater than the values plotted below measured in billion volts; if the geo-
magnetic coordinates are shifted north by four degrees of latitude as sug-
gested by a-particle results, the displaced curve results

top of the atmosphere is five times normal 17

hours after the start of the flare. It is estimated
that the cosmic-ray maximum intensity reaching
the Earth was one thousand times normal during
this flare at Minnesota. Only five such large
flares have occurred in the last two solar cycles.
Another example of a smaller, short increase ob-
served during balloon flights at Minneapolis and
simultaneously in northern Manitoba is shown
in Figure 8. Continued observations with this
< | FEB. 23, 1956 apparatus (a small Geiger counter coincidence
= train flown on sounding balloons) show that the
~ (UNCORRECTED)
y~)
hae
primary cosmic-ray intensity at Minnesota in
= May of 1957 has dropped to nearly half of the
=
QO value measured during 1956 with the same ap-
oO
paratus. Typical soundings are illustrated in
Figure 9. The points represent counts per
minute obtained from cosmic-ray particles at
29, I956
various heights up to 100,000 ft. At that alticude
the largest relative effect appears.
JULY - Balloon program for the International Geo-
Tt | 1955 physical Year at Minnesota—The IGY program
at Minnesota was conceived with the idea of
—G/CM*
monitoring the primary cosmic rays at high alti-
tude and at one location. It was decided to use
Fic. 7 — Record of the counting rate of a Geiger constant-level plastic balloons floating at about
counter coincidence train sent from sea level (1000 100,000 ft and remaining aloft for about 24
g/cm”) to 100,000 ft (10 g/cm’) towards the end of
the great cosmic-ray increase of February 23, 1956; hours. Fifty to 70 flights distributed over the
normal soundings are shown in the lower curves; IGY period are planned. The apparatus was
these cosmic rays were accelerated near or on the chosen to reveal short- and long-term primary
Sun and probably diffused to the Earth by greatly
intensity changes, and to give as much informa-
extended paths in magnetic fields in the solar
system tion as possible about what components of the
primary beam wave were changing. The com-
ponents of the system are (Fig. 10 and 11):
COUNTS / MIN
GMT
Fic. 8 — Record of two increases observed one hour apart at Minneapolis
(geomag. lat. 55°) and at Flin-Flon, Manitoba (geomag. lat., 64.5°)
August 26, 1955

(a) A plastic balloon of modern design, made records the total ionic charge produced by cosmic
of very lightweight polyethylene or the newer rays per second, and therefore the total energy
} mil mylar plastic, of volume 60,000 to 150,000 influx on the Earth’s atmosphere. Indirect in-
cu ft and weighing 50 lb or less. (b) A single formation about relative primary ionization and
Geiger counter unit with scaling-down circuit. fluctuations in heavy nuclei may also be obtained.
The counter responds equally to particles from (d) An emulsion package which is carried to
all directions, and gives the total omnidirec- the ceiling in a horizontal position, and when the
tional particle flux (Fig. 12). (c) A spherical balloon has reached its ceiling altitude, is allowed
integrating ionization chamber (Fig. 13). This to acquire a new position in which the plate stack
360
N
N
3201- N
ao
N
N Z
2801-
\N
24
= 20 -
=
o
ta)
S _
a
p \ ———————
za
—
5 L =
Oo
12
- -
8
-—— # -_
40 of?
0 |
1000 800 300 200 100 50 30 20 10
PRESSURE IN MILLIBARS
Fic. 9 — Record of the depression of cosmic-ray intensities at high altitude
at Minneapolis in May 1957 (lower curves) compared to a similar period
in 1956; this decrease comes at the peak of the sunspot cycle and precedes
the beginning of IGY by several months

and pressure instruments, and terminates the

flight after a predetermined length of film has
run through. The load then descends by para-
chute. The telemetering uses a modified Weather
Bureau radiosonde unit, and transmits the
counter, ion-chamber, and pressure records. The
radiosonde receiving and recording system auto-
matically tracks the flight and records the angu-
lar position of the balloon while it is within
—=»—-————- LOAD RELEASE SqQui68
radio range.
a
Preliminary work began about one year ago,
I = PARACHUTE and in the course of developing the equipment
occasional test flights, flown as hitch-hike loads
on other balloons, were made. In the course
of this preliminary work with the IGY ion
chambers, counters and plates, the large de-
creases in primary intensity noticed with the
other cosmic-ray detectors mentioned earlier was
measured.
AERIAL CAMERA, RECORDER
AND BATTERIES Figure 15 shows the results of two IGY-type
measurements made in September 1956 and April
NO TELEMETERING TRANSMITTER 1957. The total particle flux and total ionization
have decreased by 3 in that period, marking the
arrival of maximum solar activity. These curves
(Fig. 15) show only a portion of the data
obtainable from one such flight. The nuclear
emulsions flown require a longer time to evalu-
ate, so that relative changes in the light and
A NUCLEAR EMULSIONS heavy components of the cosmic-ray primaries
have not yet been determined. It will indeed be
Fic. 10 — Flight train for IGY cosmic-ray moni- extremely interesting to determine whether or
toring; the balloons had a volume of from 58,000
not the Sun has a direct or modulating effect
to 150,000 cu ft and carry the load to 100,000-ft al-
titudes; after approximately 24 hours of flight, the on the alpha-particle component of primary
load is released by firing the squibb electrically cosmic rays. This is a component which can be
from the recorder package; the entire load train definitely associated with cosmic rays themselves,
then drops to the ground by parachute for recovery and about which we now have enough informa-
tion so that studies during the IGY will indicate
is in a vertical direction. By using this technique
changes from the state of affairs which existed
one can be sure that the alpha particles studied
are those which came in under a fixed atmos-
at the solar minimum.
pheric depth. We will study the alpha-particle The balloon launchings on this Minnesota
plates at those times when the counter or ion program will be timed when necessary to coin-
chamber shows that the overall intensity is cide with other high altitude cosmic-ray measure-
abnormally high or abnormally low. Because of ments in balloons and rockets. Launchings may
the rather large amount of time required to do be made swiftly following indication on ground-
an alpha-particle experiment, it will not be level monitors that a flare increase has occurred.
possible to examine in detail each pack of plates Such a monitor with a warning system is now
flown. (e) A recording and telemetering package available at the University of Minnesota cosmic-
containing a small aerial camera for mapping ray laboratory. In the event of a large flare,
the balloon trajectory by down photos. Figure we will fly a number of balloon flights of the
14 is a typical balloon trajectory constructed standard IGY type, in the hope of measuring
from the down photos, and illustrates the great the abundance of the heavy elements during
accuracy of this method of tracking. This such occasions. A very important result which
camera also records the counter, ion chamber, would be obtained from such a measurement

Fic. 11— Dissembled view of load equipment; left front, emulsion package and can; left rear,
telemetering transmitter, battery box, camera, and pressure recorder; right, transistorized
single counter and spherical ion chamber
iy many ae 4 ‘|
Fic. 12 — Geiger counter with transistorized scale of 512 and 1000V power
supply; unit is pressurized in the one-gallon can

Fic. 13 — Spherical integrating ion chamber with battery and transistorized

circuit for recording and telemetering
would be the knowledge of composition of ele- the less spectacular events such as the present
ments on the Sun, in particular one might be general low intensity described above.
able to measure the hydrogen to helium ratio on Further balloon development during the IGY
the Sun, as well as the carbon, nitrogen, and —There is at the University of Minnesota a
oxygen abundances, and allow us to determine joint program of the Army and Office of Naval
something about the type of nuclear energy Research for the study of balloon physics and
furnace which the Sun is. Since the large solar atmospheric physics. One of the consequences of
flares are quite rare, one must however be will- this work which very nicely complements cosmic-
ing to be satisfied with the possibility of studying ray and IGY research has been the development

4600; - ~T ——_ —1— ————
IGY FLIGHT B | \
18 SEPT 1956 tO aR
te: a
| 30
1
xv
45°30 _._*
i
“*
en
v
|
t
>
BALLOON a
..: 7 a |
eee MT hy CAMERA
St 06 os FRAME NUMBER
Abe (4 MINUTES
/ FRAME)
450d Wo
wa ay
wi
aN tes 7°
way 180
wo MSs
40
96° 98° ga° os
Fic. 14—A typical flight trajectory in summertime; the balloon was

launched from north central Minnesota and drifted southwestward; the load
dropped in western Minnesota; the camera frame numbers are given, with
one exposure taken every four minutes; the balloon altitude on this trajec-
tory was 115,000 ft
of various unique balloon capabilities. Because

of its probable use during the IGY and for IGY
flights, we mention here a unique and interesting
balloon design which was the result of this
TT a atmospheric physics work. The balloon is called
6 OCTOGER 1956 a tetroon, and has roughly the shape of a
4_<f=—f|_
.
AP
™N tetrahedron. It is constructed of 4+ mil mylar

= CEICER COUNTER NI} plastic and has performance capabilities greatly
N in excess of the skyhook balloons which were
as
r
——s
NN
N
constructed of polyethylene one mil thick. Be-
cause of the smaller weight per unit area of the
-— $5
7
@?
‘sy
j
plastic, it is of course important to design the

/ SEC
/ SEC 110? of COUNTS
equipment which is flown to a minimum weight.

To give an example of the possible performance
acquired with mylar balloons, one may quote
results of a flight carried on in the atmospheric
physics program in which a 160-ft gore length
PULSES
mylar tetroon was flown to an altitude of 145,000

ft or a residual pressure of two millibars. The
balloon for this flight carried an instrumentation
load of 25 lb, had a volume of 1,000,000 cu ft and
a weight of only 100 lb. The + mil mylar tetroon,
when compared with a similar shape and equal
size one mil polyethylene balloon, will fly at an
altitude 32,000 ft higher than the polyethylene
balloon, or will carry a small load to a residual
pressure which is three times less than that
which would be reached with the polyethylene
Fic. 15 — Change in primary cosmic-ray in-
tensity recorded with preliminary IGY measure- vehicle. We hope it will be possible for us to
ments at high altitude; the total omni-directional use a large number of balloons of this type in
particle flux and the total ionization at high alti- our IGY series of flights.
tude have dropped 31 pct between the dates shown;
the decrease coincides with time of maximum sun- Physics Department, University of Minnesota,
spot numbers for the present cycle Minneapolis, Minnesota

Visual Observation of the Aurora
C. W. GaArRTLEIN
Introduction—The aurora has been observed the visual observer can write down only a
visually for hundreds of years, but its scale was limited description, he can not be sure he is
not appreciated until the last century. Cata- recording what is most important. He looks for
logues of the dates of occurrence showed that a regular course of events in the bewildering
it was widespread on some dates and it came variety and asks what the sudden changes mean.
to be regarded as a polar-zone phenomenon. The oldest measurements of heights was made
The work of Loomis [1860], and especially that by visually measuring elevation angles. The
of Fritz [1873], showed that there was a zone work of Loomis in patching together many ob-
of maximum frequency of appearance. This zone servations from the September 1859 display gave
was found to be centered about the axis of the lower heights of about 100 km and maximum
magnetic dipole field of the Earth. It was then tops to over 600 km. The photographic meas-
clear that the aurora was caused by charged ures, principally by Stérmer [1955], give reliable
particles coming into the Earth’s atmosphere. heights from about 70 to 1100 km. An important
The work of the earlier investigators was refined fact is that the lower edge of the aurora almost
by Vestine [1944]. While the zonal character always lies at 100 to 110 km above the Earth,
was always shown, the data were insufficient to and the height of a given form is quite constant
give a curve of frequency of overhead occurrence. along its length. Certain forms, narrow faint
It gave only the frequency of visibility. A prin- white arcs and red arcs were at 200 to 300 km,
cipal goal of the IGY is to refine this frequency and isolated rays often extended from a height
curve and answer questions such as: If the of over 300 km to 1000 km. The height measures
aurora has moved south of the zone, has it also in Norway, Alaska, New Zealand, and New
moved inward? Does it play a role in a given York show a close agreement, apparently quite
display or is it only a long-time average sta- independent of latitude variations.
tistical effect? The visual observations long ago showed that
Early work—In spite of the volumes of data, the aurora increased in its intensity and fre-
the number of careful moment-to-moment rec- quency as magnetic activity increased. The slant
ords is quite small, and the number of simul- of the rays and the position of the corona showed
taneous records over a wide area is still smaller. the inclination of the Earth’s field and its change.
One of the first organized groups covering a Recent work—Since 1930 several observational
large area began in 1825 in New York State and programs have run more or less continuously.
continued until about 1851. The academies (high A group began in New Zealand in about 1934,
schools) of New York were required to observe and has continued. Their work is in the process
the aurora as part of their meteorological ob- of summarizing now. It has given a number of
servations. Comparison of reports from several good descriptions and approximate rules of be-
stations showed that the appearance of a given havior. A group in England of the British Astro-
display changed little from place to place. The nomical Association has been in operation since
great variability of the forms of the aurora made 1940, but most active since 1952.
classification difficult, but by 1929 the usual classi- The group in northern United States and
fication contained twelve standard forms, based southern Canada reporting to Cornell University
on the appearance and supposed meaning: glow, began in 1938 under the sponsorship of the Na-
homogeneous arc, homogeneous band, rayed arc, tional Geographical Society. It later had support
rayed band, drapery, rays, corona, flames, pulsat- of the U. S. Signal Corps and the U. S. Informa-
ing arc, pulsating surface, and diffuse surfaces. tion Agency. The group consisted of volunteer
However, the definitions were far from exact. observers from amateur and professional astro-
This has plagued the setting up of the present nomical societies and had help from certain U. S.
international auroral watch. There has been Weather Bureau Stations. The present IGY
difhculty with deciding what is important. As program of the United States and Canada is an
92

VISUAL AURORA OBSERVATION 93
outgrowth of this program. Many reporting gram retains most of the advantages of the
methods have been tried and found wanting. punch-card system, but in a graphic form ap-
In the first scheme the observer listed the plied to the entire sky. The sky chart is an
forms in order of appearance in a space for adoption of that used for many years by Millman
each hour of the night and specially noted times in a Toronto newspaper series on astronomy.
of change in the aurora. The report sheet gave The observer is asked to report what he sees on
a space for each night hour during one month. the quarter hours by sketching the auroral forms
Many observers wrote descriptions. Transcrib- in their apparent positions in the quadrants rep-
ing the data showed the need for having the resenting the sky. The divisions in the sky at
data on separate sheets for shorter time inter- 62°, 32°, 21°, etc. indicate distances from the
vals, say one night. In the second manner of observers of 4°, 14°, 24°, etc. for the lower
reporting the observer wrote descriptions in borders of auroras at 100 km height. The ob-
successive lines on a sheet for a given night. The server can use words or abbreviations if he
sheet was ruled into columns for time, intensity, chooses. The data can be sorted easily and
elevation, form, and remarks. This was not plotted directly on the map. The number of
entirely satisfactory either, I think, because one reporting forms has been reduced from 12 to 8
could not outline the observing procedure well and the definitions improved. The forms are
enough, and especially because relating a part unclassified arcs, homogeneous arcs, rayed arcs,
of the aurora seen at one time to its earlier isolated rays, pulsating forms, flaming forms,
appearance is very cumbersome. glows, and spots or patches.
In 1951, Kimball and Gartlein devised a The Canadian and United States programs
graphic form for observers from the American are identical and a plotting map was produced
Association of Variable Star Observers. The for the program by the Surveys and Mapping
report form was a series of tall rectangles set Branch of the Canadian government. In addition,
side by side. Each rectangle represented the north the observers of the North American program
sky and was divided into several angular inter- are provided with a filter to detect aurora and
vals. The observer entered his observation by an inclinometer to measure angles. The Hand-
plotting schematic representations at the proper book for Reporting Auroras contains detailed
angular elevations. Observers had no difficulty instructions. The observers in this program
with this and it was easy for the analyst. number over 200; they range from southern
The IGY program—In 1955 a system of California to northern Maine (Fig. 1).
mark-sense reporting was initiated as a trial run About 100 U. S. Weather Bureau stations and
for the IGY. The observer reported principally 16 in Alaska report once per hour on simple
the appearance along his meridian. He first mark-sense cards. This program has been in
measured the angular height of the lower borders operation since early March 1957 and there are
of the aurora by sighting with an alidade. After no serious difficulties. The data from this pro-
he made a mark along the sighting edge and gram will form the basis for the first-run syn-
labeled it with the form name. This card prop- optic maps.
erly marked constituted a valid report for a In the Antarctic the observers use the 1955
specific time, but the observers were asked to mark-sense program, but have means to adopt
transcribe these observations to a mark-sense the graphic system at any time. A program of
card which could be made into a punch card observation was run at Little America and Mc-
automatically in the collecting office. Many ob- Murdo Sound by aerologists of Deep FReEEzE I.
servers found this difficult and we got nothing Weather Bureau mark-sense cards were used.
from them, but the results from the remaining The methods of the visual program can be used
group are impressive. A great virtue of this to read data from the all-sky camera films. An
mark-sense card is that in effect it asks the ob- IBM punch card has been designed for use in
servers questions, such as: Did you see a rayed the North American program. Electric punching
arc between 20° and 32°? Was any lower border or mark sensing can be used as seems best when
red, if so where? It offered the possibility of a we get into the detailed work.
kind of universal language also. The visual program should produce more im-
The present United States—Canadian pro- portant results than the older programs have

94 C. W. GARTLEIN
eSgies
or |_-
EP 4
Po
eee
&
- © ALL-SKY CAMERA
° USWB
. * VOLUNTEER
Fic. 1— Map of IGY Auroral Coverage—United States
done. They have shown that (1) the brightness

of lower latitude auroras increases with in-
creasing K number, (2) auroras go farther south
as K number increases, (3) the aurora is farthest
south near midnight, (4) ray forms go about 2°
of latitude farther south than arc forms (Fig. 2),
(5) the cross section of the auroral zone can be
defined and the zone moved south about 2°
during the years 1955 and 1956 (Fig. 3), and
120;
(6) visual observations can show the sign of the
incoming charged particles.
OF AURORAS
Though this last result is so new and all the

8
100 1 1
EDMONTON Ss
O:HA
NUMBER
75, %ER A 60
l,
» 7
7 /
TOTAL
50 4. 40
25 -;
y | 7 Ae 20
0 516 526
VA
S36 S46 556 566 576 64 +62 60 38 56
L 54 52
|
SOUTHERN EXTENT GEOGRAPHIC LATITUDE GEOMAGNETIC LATITUDE
Fic. 2— Frequency of occurrence of ray forms and Fic. 3— The number of auroras which occur at
arc forms as a function of geographic latitude and south of a given geomagnetic latitude

VISUAL AURORA OBSERVATION 95
applications have not been made, it appears to

be a great aid to our understanding, and these Yeo SHEARING ACTON LV
results are presented so they can be used and
checked by any observer.
2
AMPLIFIED
Theoretical considerations—We must now IRREGULARITES
consider the meaning of these auroral forms. To

do this we will consider laboratory work on a HOOKS
subject far from geophysical research, a study

of how electron beams behave in a laboratory
vacuum tube. Workers on high frequency radio
~o—
FROM ABOVE
SPIRALS
“eC
FROM BELOW
transmitting tubes, apparently traveling wave
tubes, have known that the tubes failed to work Fic. +— Distortion of beams of protons moving
when the beam became too intense. Various in a magnetic field
workers had this difficulty, but the nicest study

Thus the ends of the beam are slanted. Every
is that by KyhAl and Webster [1956] of the
one of these seen in the aurora photographs is
General Electric Laboratory. In their tube a
slanted right to left as seen in the north.
beam of electrons is emitted into an electric-field
If the beam is not quite uniform, or it has
free space, but along a magnetic field. The beam
traveled farther, the more intense parts will
usually starts down the tube as emission from
begin to curve into an S shape figure as we look
a narrow circular slit, though flat beams have
along the beam. If the intensity is raised, these
been used. They have used pulse techniques to
curves go into spirals. Pictures of these spirals
study the beam. They found that the beam
have been taken at Ithaca and Saskatchewan.
maintains its circular cross section as it travels
We must remember that these changes are
when the charge density is small. But if it
going on as the beam moves in space, and the
travels far enough it will gradually fly apart,
final light of the aurora reveals this cross section
not in a helter-skelter fashion but in spiral
of the beam.
and curve formations. If the beam intensity is
This breaking of the sheet into narrow rays
raised, the same curves result in a shorter travel
is an intensity effect, or an effect of greater
distance. They studied the mathematical equa-
travel distance. A sheet of charge is not a stable
tions of this beam and published the report cited.
configuration. It does not depend solely on the
H. F. Webster and G. Branch, other workers
absolute charge density. The same pattern oc-
in this field, discussed this with Gartlein and
curs in a weak beam after more extended travel.
Sprague at Cornell in January 1956 as they If there are only short pieces of beam, the east
suspected these curves might occur in the aurora.
end will bend north.
We examined still pictures and movies of the
Some general remarks characterize these phe-
aurora and at once saw the relation to the
nomena: (a) wide beams will not bend in sharp
aurora. The sign of charge is reversed. A de-
curves; (b) in a given formation the brightest
tailed application of this experiment to the
parts will become most curved; (c) the break-
aurora must be made. We have been able to
up into rays will occur at the time of maximum
spend only four hours conferring on this and
brightness or before; (d) broad beams may not
not many hours in thinking about it.
break into rays; (e) the narrower the beam or
Since we have only a short time to discuss this, the higher the brightness, the more sure the
let us consider a beam of protons moving down- breakup; (b) when short sections of beams are
ward along the lines of magnetic force (Fig. 4). left after breakup, they will rotate clockwise as
The beam is assumed focused into a flat sheet we look up in the sky.
outside the Earth’s atmosphere. This beam is The calculations, considering the beam as
constrained by the magnetic field so protons ex- protons, give curves of a size found in the
panding outward to north will curve toward aurora. We therefore conclude, on the basis of
west, while those moving out toward south will the theory and the photographs examined, that
bend toward east. If the beam is wide in north- the aurora, from the time of arc formations
south, then there is a general drift to west on until well after the time of ray formation, is the
the north side and to east on the south side. expected effect of a sheet of protons moving

96 Cc. W. GARTLEIN
along a magnetic field. This theory requires Those of us involved now feel we understand
that the curves in the southern hemisphere be much of what we see. It seems to explain so
reversed. There a spiral would appear twisted much in such a straightforward fashion. It also
in the anticlockwise direction. The only solid certainly points toward the existence of a focus-
evidence we have on this is that characteristic ing region or a forbidden zone envelope at a
pictures drawn in New Zealand are reversed considerable distance from the Earth. It strongly
from ours. suggests that changes of the spectrum are largely
At minimum, this gives another direct evidence atmospheric.
of the entry of charged particles into a magnetic
field shown by the curved forms. This theory
REFERENCES
also may enable us to detect the cases where
electrons play an important role, as possibly in Fritz, H., Verzeichnis beobachteter Polarlichter,
flames or pulsating aurora. The theory suggests Akademie Wien, 1873.
Kyu, R. L., ano H. F. Wesster, Instability of hol-
that broadening of the hydrogen lines, the spread-
low beams, Gen. Elec. Co., Research Information
ing velocity, and the size of the formations may Section, Report 56-RL-1556.
indicate the distance to the focusing region. It Loomis, EL1as, On the geographic distribution of
also says that if a rocket is to enter an aurora auroras in the Northern Hemisphere, Amer. J.
form we should aim at a wide arc, which will Sci. Art, ser. 2, 30, 89-94 (map opposite p. 160),
1860.
bend little. The narrow ones will bend and soon STORMER, C., The polar aurora, Clarendon Press,
fly apart. Oxford, 1955.
Photographs which show the effects as clearly VesTINE, E. H., The geographic incidence of aurora
as the laboratory experiments are unusual be- and magnetic disturbance, J. Geophys. Res., 49,
77-102, 1944.
cause the focusing may not be good and may
introduce perturbations. In addition the motions Physics Department, Cornell University, Ithaca,
involved blur photographs in a second or two. New York

The Night Airglow

FRANKLIN E. RoacH
Introduction—It is known that the night air- would be as bright as a prominent aurora and
glow has the following properties: (1) it is would constitute a permanent twilight.
faint, usually invisible; (2) it is variable in in- The height of the airglow—There are three
tensity, over the sky and with time; and (3) it methods for estimating the effective height of
originates in the Earth’s upper atmosphere. the airglow: (1) by a night firing of a rocket
These qualitative statements can be made quanti- through the emitting layer, (2) by triangulation
tative or, at least, semi-quantitative. It is my between two ground stations, and (3) by the
purpose in this paper to discuss some of the increase of intensity toward the horizon. There
current research results with absolutely cali- have been concentrated attempts by all three
brated photometers capable not only of isolating methods in the case of 5577 and a height of about
individual airglow radiations, but also of system- 100 km is consistent with all the data.
atically scanning the sky many times during a In Figure 2 is reproduced a plot of 5577 and of
night. sodium D nightglow intensity with height from
Historical background—The airglow was dis- a recent rocket firing reported by Koomen,
covered by astronomers who found a persistent Scolnik, and Tousey [1956] showing a sharp
radiation at a wave length of 5577 Angstroms drop-off between 90 and 100 km for 5577 and
on long exposure spectrograms. They noted that between 80 and 90 km for sodium D. This iso-
the radiation becomes systematically brighter lates the ‘layers’ between these limits.
from the zenith toward the horizon, a fact In Figure 3 are shown some results on tri-
which can be readily understood on the basis of angulation between Cactus Peak, California,
an atmospheric origin. An atmospheric emitting and Palomar Mountain [St. Amand, Pettit,
layer which is uniform in brightness and thick- Roach and Williams, 1955]. At each station
ness as seen from the center of the Earth pro- photometers scanned the sky systematically dur-
duces a systematic increase of intensity toward
the horizon for an observer on the surface of
0 es eeee ee
the Earth. An example of the change of intensity
of airglow 5577 with zenith distance for the OBSERVATIONAL POINTS
MEANS OF 12 NIGHTS
average of twelve nights at Fritz Peak, Colo- AT FRITZ PEAK, COLORADO
25 SMOOTH CURVE FOR
rado, is shown in Figure 1. That the early in- he 100 km _
TAUe 0.164
vestigators were probably correct in attributing
INTENSITY
the phenomena to the Earth’s upper atmosphere

is indicated by the close agreement of the the-
oretical curve and the observational points in
Figure 1.
RELATIVE
After the initial discovery, our knowledge of

the airglow was augmented by: (1) the identi-
fication of the 5577 green radiation as a for-
bidden transition of atomic oxygen, (2) the dis-
covery and identification of the sodium D lines,
(3) the discovery and identification of two red
lines (6300 A and 6363 A) due to forbidden
transitions of atomic oxygen, and (4) the dis- l / l I J J l J
covery and identification of a complex system of iO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
ZENITH DISTANCE
molecular bands (chiefly in the near infrared)
due to hydroxyl (OH). The hydroxyl bands are Fic. 1— Change in intensity of airglow 5577
with zenith distance; the smooth curve corresponds
intrinsically so strong that, if they were concen-
to an emission height of 100 km and an extinction
trated in the visual region of the spectrum, they coefficient, tau, of 0.164

98 F. E. ROACH
[1958] have analyzed the observations during

5577 PHOTOMETER | 5803 PHOTOMETER
Z= 70° r Z=70° twelve nights at Fritz Peak. We have found
that, if we assume the extinction coefficient of
the lower atmosphere is constant from night to
= 100
x 90 —. . ' 5
night, the mean height is about 100 km but the
e0 oh P range among the nights is between 51 and 136
$ 70 “ | .
- °°
48577 LINE
ALONE 5 km. We prefer the alternative possibility that
E $0 P
— 40 bh the extinction coefficient is variable and the
< 30 b
height is sensibly constant near 100 km.
© 100 200 300 400 800 6 100 2800 300 400 » 100 2800
In summary the height of the night airglow
PHOTOMETER SIGNAL (RELATIVE ENERGY)
5577 now seems to be established. For the other
Fic 2— Variation of airglow intensities with radiations the case is not so clear. The sodium D
height from a rocket flight, according to layer was observed by a rocket flight near 85 km
Koomen, Scolnik, and Tousey [1956]
(Fig. 2). The OH layer is probably a little
lower (near 70 km) but a rocket confirmation
ing the night and recorded the changes of in- of this would be very useful. According to
tensity. These intensity changes were correlated Heppner, Stolarik, and Meredith [1957] a recent
for a number of combinations of intersecting rocket flight indicates that 6300 originates higher
lines of sight at various heights above the than 163 km.
Earth’s surface. The correlation of the intensity The changes of intensity with time—All air-
changes is shown as Ld?/n in Figure 3 from glow observers have noted the intensity varia-
which it is seen that the best correlation occurs tions of the airglow. In general, very fast varia-
at a height near 100 km. Results (not yet pub- tions of a minute or less have not been reported
lished) obtained for the two stations, Sacra- probably because the observing techniques have
mento Peak, New Mexico, and Fritz Peak, been too sluggish to detect them. Sky coverages
Colorado, give similar heights. every ten or fifteen minutes are common and
The third method of estimating airglow during a given night the intensity of 5577 may
heights, the rate of increase of intensity toward vary over a two-fold or three-fold range. Often
the horizon is difficult to apply. As a matter of the entire sky visible to a given observer goes
fact, the deduced height is critically dependent through synchronous variations showing that the
on a nice knowledge of the extinction coefficient phenomenon is a large scale one of several hun-
of the lower atmosphere. In a current study of dred kilometers (Fig. 4). On occasion, however,
the problem, Roach, Megill, Rees and Marovich the various regions of the sky go through quite
different variations during a night as on October
| | | | 1-2, 1956 (Fig. 5).
In order to visualize the photometric history
of an entire night, it is convenient to make circu-
400K 4
”
«
lar plots of the entire sky at intervals during the
WW- night. The outer circle (Fig. 6) corresponds to
=S 300 © = a distance along the Earth’s surface of about
x 470 km from the observer who is in the center
z of the circle. In preparing these isophote maps
r 200r— © © © =
4
ia
x ' ! ' ' q q T 7 T T T T
¢
© 2 ©
0,09 0°°0%5 |
CoLORaoO 0 ese
5
© 500 | Fartz pean,
@® — Cce® °
100 -— move eR Te ‘soe e °
J @ «80° NORTH e°
; 5 _
5 400
= - © 80" souTn ety
e
000 .* 50 ee 20,
OS - O--s) =Zz 300 =
oT | l
e® 0? e Cgeccce
ee* 0
° 00°° e”* e.g 7
20 16 12 8 4 @) t-a 200 /- @ 2° 400° ° 9
d2 gWw P09 1
100 —
= “/n -
| | l ee ee es ee |
<
Fic. 3— Results of triangulation between Cactus
MST
Peak and Palomar Mountain according to
St. Amand, Pettit, Roach, and Williams [1955] Fic. 4— Synchronous variations of 5577

ee
THE NIGHT AIRGLOW 99
t t t Toff I q T J q q qT
The physical significance of these complex
900}- o 8 sais: mae |
00°
vert? PEAR,
° 9677 changes is not known but in a few cases where
or Ry
Zz
800/-
°
°
o
°
*.
8 ee soutn + more or less discrete patches have been followed,
2
=!
700 }-
°
o
° ° ° e
ae
the apparent velocity of motion is about 70 m/sec
° oOo e e
a coor ° e % ; =
(150 mi/hr). These motions may, of course, be
caused by progressive movements of excitation
eco. ° $ °
z 500 ef e eo e e e -4
e@ @ e
oe e ° °° eee”
>» 400 e ° °° @ ~ changes in the upper atmosphere but it is inter-
B 300
3 e
° eee esting to speculate that they may indicate actual
° eo 0° a
Z 200h o%o Qo
= wind motions. If this is true then we have a
100 - ~ powerful tool for the systematic study of dy-
! l l l 1 1 1 1 l l | i namical conditions in the 100 km region during
18 20 22 oO 2 4 6
MST
IGY.
Fic. 5—Non-synchronous variations of 5577 Evidence for a latitude-seasonal effect—From
the numerous empirical facts known about the
the general increase of intensity toward the night airglow, I have selected a very suggestive
horizon has been eliminated. result for discussion at this meeting. Several
On the night of October 1-2, 1956, the airglow years ago, Barbier, Dufay, and Williams [1951]
was especially bright in the south during the noted that, at the Haute Provence Observatory
early evening (20h and 21h MST), actually in southern France, there was a strong tendency
about the brightness of a faint aurora. Between for the airglow 5577 to be brightest near the
20h and 22h, one has the impression that a strong southern horizon. Using published data from
maximum region has moved southward outside Sacramento Peak and Cactus Peak and accumu-
the limits of our observing circle at Fritz Peak. lated unpublished data from Fritz Peak, I have
By 23h and midnight, the general level of bright- made a comparison of the north versus south
ness is significantly lower but the south is still tendency for these three stations plus Haute
brighter than the north. At Olh, a new localized Provence. When the results are plotted as
region of brightness appears in the north which histograms as shown in Figure 7, it is seen that
develops significantly by 02h and is slightly there is an indication of a region of maximum
weaker by 03h. The ‘activity’ during this night intensity at about 38° north latitude. It has been
illustrates the fact that the airglow is a dynamic suggested that this might be a secondary, weak,
phenomenon of the upper atmosphere. auroral zone and in Figure 8 the same histo-
Fic. 6— Circular plots of the entire sky, Fritz Peak, 5577A, Oct. 1-2, 1956

. ROACH
hry
tr
S
©
OCCURRENCE
8
$
8
OF
6
PERCENTAGE
3.
2|4 10
| @
3
mle O9F
ost
4o6UsS‘“CUDSMCOUYD ee ee ee : ) ]
NORTH GEOGRAPHIC LATITUDE
O7h
Fic. 7 — Histogram of the relationship of the
percentage of occurrence to the geographic
ost [eaewme] [een] [cater] | eccsrce|
latitude |
DAY IN YEAR
grams are shown against geomagnetic latitude Fic. 9 Relationship
— of the ratio of intensity of
where 44° geomagnetic latitude seems to be indi- 5577, north/south to season
cated as the maximum region. Is it just a coinci-
dence that the co-latitude in this case (46°) is the seasonal effects at three of the four stations
exactly twice the co-latitude of the primary included in the present discussion. The evidence
auroral zone (23°)? suggests the existence of a large scale latitude-
This apparent latitude maximum turns out to seasonal variation in airglow 5577.
be a complex matter. In Figure 9, is shown a The existence of a half-year periodicity is
plot of the ratio of intensity at Fritz Peak of puzzling. One speculative suggestion is that we
5577 in the extreme north (80° north zenith are dealing actually with two phenomena which
distance) to the extreme south (80° south zenith are schematically represented in Figure 11. Ac-
distance) plotted against the day in the year. cording to this picture each of the two phe-
A definite seasonal variation is evident with the nomena goes through a single annual cycle but
north brighter in the summer and winter, and an observer at a mid-latitude sees a semi-annual
the south brighter in spring and autumn. The cycle as the two excitation waves appear, dis-
explanation for the southern tendency at Fritz appear, and reappear. If, as was suggested
Peak lies in the fact that the spring and autumn earlier, the movements during a night are
southern tendency persists through a_ larger
fraction of the year than the summer and winter
northern tendency. 50 1 T 1 T
48
In Figure 10 is shown a composite sketch of
>
o
pene
q | | 1 ! | ! | | | |
7°
x
uw
>
B-
2 sot -
LATITUDE
4
N
> 50- -
oO
ca
re
oO
©
B
© sob 4
7
NORTH
wu
o
ul
@
2
wy 30 -
o c.P a
uw
o
5 20k 4
——____
ww
=4 io
ul
S
4 $f
>
o>
a 32 Yo
t i l
30° 100 200
DAY IN YEAR
-— tt td. j__| 1 i |
40 41 42 #43 «44 +#«—45+~«=46~«»447”2~«48~49~=COSO Fic. 10— Composite sketch of seasonal effects;
NORTH GEOMAGNETIC LATITUDE
the arrows indicate the dates on which the maxi-
Fic. 8 — Histogram of the relationship of the mum brightness goes from north to south (arrows
percentage of occurrence to the geomagnetic pointing downward) or from south to north (ar-
latitude rows pointing upward)

THE NIGHT AIRGLOW 101
span several hours which leads us to a time

scale of about 10! sec.
y— I.
80 aN
Although these figures are crude they do
TOF
serve as a guide in selecting the general approach
to any theory which attempts to cope with the
° nanOo. OoOo
I TT OT
synoptic features of the airglow.

Lo
LATITUDE
= Conclusion—The airglow first appeared on the

e
scientific horizon as an isolated fact of nature
/
N
y
X ce "
;
A
of primarily academic interest. For some time

30-- =
it was thought of as a quiescent glow in the
20}- - Earth’s upper atmosphere. Current studies
show, however, that it is a complex phenomenon
Mr] fesemms]]
summer) Coram | (were
I I
with dramatic temporal and spatial variations.
The physical significance of these dynamic
DAY IN YEAR
changes is not now apparent, making the study
Fic. 11 — Suggested double mechanism to explain of the airglow during the International Geo-
the seasonal variation of 5577
physical Year one of compelling interest.
evidence for wind motions, could it be that the REFERENCES

large scale latitude-seasonal variations are due BarsierR, D., J. Duray, ano D. R. WILLIAMS,
to changes of wind systems on a synoptic basis? Recherches sur l’emission de la raie verte de la
If so, the upper atmosphere must have complex lumiere du ciel nocturne, 4n. Astrophysique, 14,
399, 1951.
wind systems comparable to the jet streams of HeEppNER, J. P., J. D. STOLARIK, AND L, H. MERE-
the troposphere. DITH, Rocket measurements at WSPG, New
The scale of airglow phenomena—lIt is some- Mexico, July 5, 1956; pt A, Altitude distribution
of nightglow emissions (abstract), Trans. Amer.
times useful to give order-of-magnitude con-
Geophys. Union, 38, 394, 1957.
siderations to a physical phenomenon. For ex- KoomMeEN, M., R. SCOLNIK, AND R. Tousey, Distribu-
ample, in the case of the airglow it would be tion of the night airglow (OI) 5577A and NaD
interesting to consider (1) what are its typical layers measured from a rocket, J. Geophys. Res.,
61, 304-306, 1956.
physical dimensions, and (2) what is a repre-
Roacn, F. E., L. R. Mecitt, M. H. REEs, AND
sentative time to describe the intensity variations. EpwarD MarovicH, The Height of Nightglow
From Figure 6 we deduce that the large air- 5577, J. of Atm. Physics, 12, 171, 1958.
St. AMAND, P., H. Petrit, F. E. Roacn, anno D. R.
glow features are at least as large as the amount
WILLIAMS, On a new method of determining the
of the upper atmosphere included by a single height of the nightglow, J. Atm. Terr. Phys., 6,
observer. We thus come to an approximate di- 189, 1955.
mension of 1000 km or 108 cm.
Central Radio Propagation Laboratory, National
The temporal variations that occur seem to Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado

The Rocket as a Research Vehicle
P. H. WycKorr
Introduction—Ever since man first gazed aloft time, we can only speculate upon the many
at the stars at night, the far reaches of outer activities which take place in the upper atmos-
space have stimulated his imagination with their phere. We are not even certain of the density,
awe-inspiring vastness. He has dreamed of soar- pressure, and temperature which exist 300 mi
ing aloft on powerful wings and exploring the above the Earth, and our present estimates may
heavens and the stars. According to Greek be in error by a factor of a hundred or more
mythology, this ambition prompted Daedalus to in some cases.
build a set of wings for his son, Icarus, and When we consider the problems of flight of
fasten them to the boy with bands of wax. The the Earth satellites soon to be launched for the
wings worked successfully but, unfortunately, International Geophysical Year, we realize that
Icarus flew too close to the Sun, which melted an accurate knowledge of the density of the air,
the wax on his wings. Icarus’ headlong plunge the intensity of the incoming solar radiation, the
to Earth was man’s first indication that the study frequency and momentum of meteoric particles,
of upper air physics was vital to his survival as the scattering of light in the Earth’s atmosphere,
an airborne creature. Today the melting point and many other factors are already vital infor-
of wax is no longer a problem, but many more mation in the design of such a vehicle before
and vastly more difficult problems face us in our it even leaves the ground. Fortunately, we are
steady climb upward for knowledge. We know, able to make predictions of these quantities by
for instance, that if we fly to an altitude of indirect means such as the observation of meteor
100,000 ft above the Earth, we will have over trails, the scintillation of stars, the absorption
99 pct of the Earth’s atmosphere below us. But of specific wave lengths of the Sun’s rays filtering
what lies above us in that vast area which con- down through our atmosphere, the scattering of
tains less than one per cent of the Earth’s light from powerful searchlight beams probing
atmosphere? up to 60 km and many other scientific means of
In this sparse region of our atmosphere we deduction. It is obvious, however, that the
know that the rays of our Sun first strike the greatest need is for a means of lifting our scien-
gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth and pro- tific measuring devices up into the atmosphere
duce chemical and ionic changes of fantastic where the measurements can be made directly.
complexities. Under solar bombardment, the One of the first devices known to man was
outer atmosphere becomes a chemical cauldron the balloon, and for altitudes up to 150,000 ft
of active oxygen and nitrogen atoms mixed with the present day balloon is admirably suited for
atoms of sodium, hydrogen, and other elements carrying scientific instruments aloft. For alti-
to produce an atmosphere quite unlike the nor- tudes above 150,000 ft, however, the research
mal air which we are accustomed to breathing rocket is the only answer.
on the surface of our planet. This chemical
cauldron produces the ionosphere, which is re- THE RESEARCH ROCKET
sponsible for reflecting radio energy around the Sizes of rockets differ in payload to be carried
curvature of the Earth and makes long-distance and altitude to be reached in almost the same
radio communication possible. It is the home of ratio as a Piper Cub aircraft differs from a
the aurora which produces the beautiful north- B-36. Each has its peculiar advantage and reason
ern lights in the sky, and is a vast storehouse of for being. Small, inexpensive rockets may lift
solar energy which is given out at night as a ten-pound loads to 250,000 ft, while large rockets
dim but measurable light of the night sky. It can lift 200-lb loads to 300 mi with no effort
is a region of fascination for the physicists and but considerably greater cost. Today it is purely
chemists who study our atmosphere so that we a matter of design and the amount of money
may some day understand its secrets and use which can be invested to obtain the performance
them for the benefit of mankind. At the present needed.
102

THE ROCKET AS A RESEARCH VEHICLE 103
Rockoon—To obtain the information needed the capability of lifting some 150 to 200 lb of
for the International Geophysical Year, three scientific instrumentation to altitudes between
standard systems of rockets are being used. The 60 mi and 200 mi, depending upon the model
smallest is the Rockoon, which is a solid-fuel used. Some 42 of these rockets will be launched
rocket approximately six inches in diameter and by the U. S. scientists during the IGY.
12 fe long. In its nose it carries some 20) lb of
electronic devices which obtain information about MEASUREMENTS
the upper air and radio this information to the
Measurement of the upper air from a rocket
ground while in flight. The Rockoon is carried
to 80,000 ft riding in a sling under a huge plastic
traveling at velocities of 4 to 5 times the velocity
of sound is no trivial accomplishment, and the
balloon and at the proper moment the rocket is
present techniques are the results of many years
fired electronically and soars upwards to an
of intensive experience gained since the launch-
altitude of 60 to 70 mi above the Earth. Over
ing of the first V-2 in New Mexico. Many early
85 of these Rockoons will be fired during the
rocket flights were failures before these tech-
IGY in regions stretching from the Arctic to
niques could be developed which are to be used
the Antarctic to obtain information on cosmic
ray particles at high altitudes and to obtain in-
for the IGY in the next eighteen months. One
might say that the IGY, in the rocket field, is
formation on ultraviolet and x-rays emitted by
the culmination of over ten years of intensive
the Sun during periods of solar flares.
and often heart-breaking experience since the
Nitke-Cajun—The second type of rocket find-
days of the first flights of the V-2’s fired for
ing wide application in the US IGY program is
scientific purposes.
the Nike-Cajun. This is a two-stage rocket
Atmospheric structure—One of the most ob-
launched from the ground, and has the capability
vious series of measurements to be made is the
of reaching 100 mi in altitude with 40 Ib of
vertical distribution of pressure, temperature,
scientific equipment. The first stage is a solid-
and density of the atmosphere. Experience has
fuel Nike booster. Its function is to lift the
shown this to be also one of the most difficult
second stage containing a smaller rocket, similar
measurements to make accurately. The terrific
in size to the one used in the Rockoon, to an
speed of the rocket produces high temperatures
altitude of over 100,000 ft, after which the second
on any probe which is extended into the air
stage fires in the thin air of less than one-hun-
stream, and completely masks the true tempera-
dredth the density of sea level and the rocket
ture of the air. Today we are still unable to
darts upward to 100 mi above the Earth. At the
measure air temperature directly, but must cal-
peak of its velocity the missile is traveling at
culate it from some other measured parameter
close to five times the velocity of sound. After
such as pressure, density, or velocity of sound.
the propellant has burned out, the scientific in-
The measurement of pressure in itself is no easy
strumentation goes into operation and sends its
problem, since in the more dense regions of the
measurements back to the ground by radio tele-
upper air, corrections must be made for the
metering. Approximately 65 of these will be
momentum of the air which is scooped out by
flown during the IGY.
the rocket’s measuring gages. Thus, the velocity
A crobee—The third type of rocket to be fired of the rocket creates a dynamic pressure of its
by the U. S. scientists for the IGY is the Aerobee own which must be compensated for before the
and Aerobee-Hi. It is a liquid-fueled rocket pressure of the atmosphere can be determined.
carrying approximately 50 gal each of analine At very high altitudes a new problem arises,
and fuming nitric acid to propel it. This rocket since the rocket is now traveling in what may
is approximately 15 inches in diameter and 24 ft be considered in the laboratory as a very good
long, weighing almost a ton when fully instru- vacuum. At these altitudes, the skin of the
mented and fueled. It is thrust out of a 100-ft rocket exudes gases which have been trapped in
tower by a solid fuel booster to gain its initial the pores of the metal itself, and surrounds the
velocity and direction, and then the liquid fuel rocket with an atmosphere of its own making.
motor takes over and drives it for some 43 sec This problem of measuring atmospheric pres-
during which it attains a peak velocity about sure through the screening rocket gases has been
4.5 times the speed of sound. This rocket has partially solved by various ingenious techniques.

104 P. H. WYCKOFF
One of these methods involves sealing off the Another technique for measuring temperature
rocket with airtight compartments so that in- and winds in the upper air uses a rocket con-
ternal gases in the rocket cannot seep out. The taining some eighteen explosive grenades which
rocket is then made to rotate so that the pres- can be ejected one at a time from the rocket
sure-measuring orifice is first exposed to the full at timed intervals while the rocket is passing
blast of the air stream, and then rotates to a through the region to be measured. On the
shielded position where it is protected from the ground an array of sensitive microphones is set
air blast. The resulting modulation in pressure up in the form of a cross with approximately
can be interpreted in terms of true ambient 3000 ft from microphone to microphone. Each
pressure. microphone hears and records on film the ex-
Another ingenious method is to eject a small plosion of the grenade in the high upper air but,
seven-inch sphere (Fig. 1) from the rocket when because of the position of the microphone on the
it has reached the top of its trajectory. The ground, each microphone hears the sound at a
sphere is accelerated downwards by gravity in slightly different time. By noting the time taken
free fall, but is also decelerated by the density of for the sound to travel through the air from
air through which it is falling. The drag of the the rocket to the ground, the average tempera-
air on this falling sphere is measured by a small ture of the air can be computed for that par-
accelerometer inside the sphere and is trans- ticular sound path. Successive grenade bursts
mitted to the ground by a small radio trans- give further information concerning average
mitter complete with batteries which is also temperatures from higher elevations of burst,
mounted inside the sphere. The values of drag and the difference in the average velocity of
are then computed to obtain the density of the sound from two successive bursts will yield a
air through which the sphere is falling. measurement of the average temperatures of the
Fic. 1 Seven-inch
— sphere which is ejected from rocket to measure density of the upper atmosphere; top
of sphere is removed to show accelerometer and miniature telemetering transmitter inside
sphere (designed for the U. S. Air Force by the University of Michigan)

upper atmosphere for that particular segment

of air through which the rocket has just passed.
The difference in arrival time of the sound at
the various microphones on the ground yields a
measure of the average upper level wind velocity
and direction.
Ionized layers—Measurements of the density
and location of the ionized layers of the iono-
sphere are very important to an adequate under-
standing of its formation and for establishing a
method for predicting radio fadeouts during
periods of activity on the surface of the Sun.
The measurement of ion density in the iono-
sphere from rockets depends upon the fact that
radio waves in the vicinity of 6 to 12 megacycles
are slowed up in passing through the ionosphere
in proportion to the density of the ion layer
through which they must pass. On the other
hand, higher-frequency radio waves, say 200
megacycles, are not appreciably affected in
passing through the same ionized layer. By
transmitting radio energy from the rocket to
the ground simultaneously on both high and low
frequency, the lower-frequency signals are re-
ceived several millionths of a second later on
the ground than the higher-frequency signals,
and the density of the ionized layer through
which they both passed can be computed from
this difference in arrival time.
Solar radiation—Since the behavior of the
upper atmosphere is wholly dependent upon the
strength and wave length of the radiation being
emitted by the Sun in the ultraviolet and soft
x-ray portion of the spectrum, it is important to
measure this radiation directly from the rocket.
Since this radiation is quickly absorbed in the
outer fringes of the Earth’s atmosphere, none
of it ever reaches the ground and, consequently,
cannot be measured even at the highest mountain
top observatories. Only the rocket is capable of
carrying the necessary spectrometric equipment
to altitudes of 100 mi or more where the ultra-
violet light from the Sun is still relatively un-
absorbed and can be separated into its component
wave lengths and recorded on film. The rocket,
however, is not a stable platform near the peak
of its trajectory, and almost always begins to Fic. 2—A biaxial pointing contro] which auto-
spin and yaw since the air is so thin that the matically maintains the entrance slit of an ultra-
rocket fins are no longer effective in maintaining violet spectrograph pointed at the Sun regardless of
the altitude or roll of the rocket while in flight
stable flight. To insure that the spectrograph
(designed for the U. S. Air Force by the University
will always ‘look’ at the Sun, a stable platform of Colorado)
has been developed to point the spectrograph

106 P. H. WYCKOFF
1000 —
1200 —
2200 — —H LYMAN-@
1400 —
—|548
1600 —
2600
—|645
1658
__ 27955 1600—
— 2802.7
Fic. 3 — Solar spectrum recorded at an altitude of 112 km over New Mexico on March 29, 1955
(exposure, 4.6 sec) by Geophysics Research Directorate, AFCRC

at the Sun regardless of the gyrations of the would be propelled entirely from stored solar
rocket. It consists of a swivel nose on the end chemical energy. This would be essentially a
of the rocket which holds an arm which can be satellite operating on stored solar energy in the
moved up or down as required (Fig. 2). Photo- atmosphere instead of pure momentum, as in the
cells are mounted on the end of the arm which case of the present satellite vehicle.
pick up energy from the Sun and send corrective Magnetic fields—Measurements will also be
signals to little electrical motors which control made of the magnetic fields which exist in the
the swivel and the lowering or raising of the arm. high upper atmosphere which are produced by
Thus when the photocells first see the Sun, they rings of charged particles circling the earth at
lock on to that direction and actuate the guiding very high levels. It is believed that these par-
motors to hold the entrance slit of the spectro- ticles are expelled from the Sun and are trapped
graph on the Sun within a few minutes of arc. into a circular orbit by the Earth’s magnetic
Without the biaxial pointing control, spectro- field. Fluctuations in the Earth’s magnetic field
grams of the Sun would be purely a matter of have been recorded for many years, and are
chance as the spectrograph happened to sweep by believed to be produced in this manner. Mag-
as the rocket gyrated. After the spectrograms are netic storms which produce a blackout of all
obtained, the nose cone is separated from the forms of electrical communication are well
rocket and floated back to the ground by means known in the Arctic, and measurements of these
of a parachute. The films are then developed magnetic fields can now be made in rockets in
and the secrets of solar radiation in the fringe order to better understand their behavior. It is
of space are made available to the scientist for hoped that these measurements will help us to
study (Fig. 3). predict magnetic storms in the future by the
As we mentioned before, the outer fringes of observation of unusual activity on the surface of
the Earth’s atmosphere form a huge chemical the Sun which is responsible for bombarding the
reaction chamber where solar radiation furnishes Earth during periods of solar unrest.
the energy for the synthesis of many compounds
which store solar energy in much the same way
CONCLUSION
as the lead storage battery stores electrical
energy in chemical form. Some day man may The benefits of the rocket measurements to
become ingenious enough to tap this vast reser- be made by the United States scientists at Ft.
voir of energy, but to do this, he must first un- Churchill, Canada; White Sands, New Mexico;
derstand it. Many of these reactions which store Guam; and from shipboard from almost pole to
energy gradually decay and give back energy in pole are almost incalculable. They will be sup-
the form of light of a wave length characteristic plemented by similar measurements made from
of that particular reaction. Such light is known rockets by Australian, British, French, Japanese,
as airglow, and its wave length is an indication and USSR scientists. For the first time the
to the scientist of the form in which the energy scientists of the world are making a systematic
was stored. During the International Geophysi- and concerted attack on the mysteries of the
cal Year, rockets will also be fitted with sensi- upper atmosphere by the use of rockets, and the
tive photocells which will detect the telltale light result could very well bring the conquest of
from the airglow and tell the scientist what wave space within our grasp in the not too distant
lengths are present and from which altitudes future. Perhaps within the next twenty years
they originate. From this information, the upper man will learn to duplicate the feat of Icarus
air scientist can reconstruct in his own labora- but, with his increase in knowledge, he will learn
tory the exact reactions which occur and study to survive where Icarus failed.
means of using this information to advantage.
Even today scientists have derived enough in- Acrosol Physics Laboratory, Geophysics Research
Directorate, Air Force Cambridge Research
formation on the distribution of atomic oxygen Center, L. G. Hanscom Field, Bedford, Massa-
at 60 mi to consider the design of a rocket which chusetts

The Pre-IGY Rocket Program of the United States

HERBERT FRIEDMAN
Introduction—Our knowledge of the atmos- propellant JATO bottle. Fired from the ground,
phere and its behavior under the influence of it could barely achieve a peak of 30 km. A 70-ft
solar radiation has been gained by a combination helium-filled balloon can raise it to 80,000 ft, and
of direct and indirect observations. Until ten fired from that level, the rocket can carry a 20-Ib
years ago, no direct measurements were avail- payload to 120 km.
able. The remarkable engineering developments Another means of assisted take-off for small
in rocketry which took place in Germany during rockets is the Nike booster. The combination
the war presented scientists for the first time of a Nike booster and a Cajun rocket has
with the possibility of transporting measuring achieved altitudes in excess of 100 mi. A major
equipment directly into the high atmosphere. effort was made to perfect this technique for use
With the conclusion of World War II, German in the IGY, since it permits great mobility and
V-2 rockets were brought to this country and simplicity in launching.
thus began the upper atmosphere rocket research The IGY is an exciting climax to a decade of
program. Since then a variety of rockets have upper-atmosphere research with rockets. Almost
been used to study the pressure, temperature, as many experiments will be flown in the 18-
density and composition of the upper atmosphere, month period as were attempted in all the past
the solar spectrum in the extreme ultraviolet ten years. Rockets will be launched from a
and x ray regions, the ionosphere, the Earth’s major new location in the auroral zone at Fort
magnetic field, auroral particles, and cosmic rays. Churchill, Canada, established by Canadian and
The V-2 was a large rocket, about 42 ft long United States cooperation, and from ships and
and weighing nearly 15 tons at take-off. At the island locations scattered over the world. This
time they were made available for research, the effort constitutes a grand expansion of the geo-
existing V-2’s had already deteriorated consider- graphic boundaries of rocket exploration.
ably. After about 50 had been fired, the V-2 Measurements of the basic atmospheric pa-
rocket was abandoned by most experimenters as rameters, pressure, density, and temperature
too unreliable a vehicle in which to risk an have a prominent role in the IGY rocket pro-
elaborate experiment. By that time, both the gram. Virtually all of our present knowledge
Viking and Aerobee rockets had been developed. is confined to the region of the atmosphere above
The Aerobee, a liquid propellant rocket, about
the White Sands Proving Ground (WSPG) in
25 ft long weighing about 2000 Ib, quickly became
New Mexico. The IGY rockets will search for
the work horse of the upper-atmosphere research
deviations from the temperate-zone standard
program because it was much less expensive than
atmosphere in both the auroral and equatorial
the Viking and so much less complicated that its
zones. Solar-radiation measurements on the
chances of successful performance were propor-
other hand could all be made from WSPG ex-
tionately enhanced. About 160 Aerobee flights
cept for the problem of range scheduling. The
have been made to date; these have produced by
greatest interest attaches to the emissions of an
far the major contribution to our present knowl-
edge of the upper atmosphere and of solar active Sun, but phenomena such as solar flares
radiation. cannot be scheduled. Shipboard launching tech-
In recent years, considerable interest has de- niques and new range facilities have been de-
veloped in the use of small solid-propellant veloped so that rockets may be fired without
rockets with capability of carrying 20- to 50-lb restrictions. Much of the scientific interest in
payloads into the tonosphere. A pioneering ac- cosmic-ray and geomagnetic measurements is
complishment in this direction was the develop- concerned with their geographic dependence.
ment, by James A. Van Allen, of the Rockoon, a Rockets will therefore be launched at latitudes
combination of Deacon rocket and Skyhook bal- all the way from the Arctic to the Antarctic.
loon. The Deacon is a six-inch, 200-Ib, solid- With regard to auroral measurements the Ft.
108

PRE-IGY ROCKET PROGRAM 109
Churchill location is a vitally needed facility, creasing air density produces a deceleration force
located in the middle of the auroral zone. proportional to the air drag. The drag, in turn,
In planning the United States portion of the can be related directly to the density. Figure 1
IGY Rocket Program one of the guiding princi- is a schematic of the design of the Michigan
ples was the selection of tried and proven ex- transit-time accelerometer used to measure the
perimental methods. It is true that the IGY deceleration force on the falling sphere. The
instrumentations closely resemble those flown in bobbin floats in a cavity so shaped that the dis-
the past but great advances in rocketry even tance of travel to the wall is the same in any
over the past year have expanded the scope of direction when the bobbin is centered. If the
measurements considerably and introduced many sphere were in free fall in vacuum, the bobbin
new logistics problems. Small rockets have would not move relative to the wall when re-
surged ahead as a practical means of gaining leased. As soon as any drag acceleration is
geographic and synoptic coverage at compara- introduced the bobbin moves toward the wall.
tively low cost. The greatly improved perform- If the drag increases, the transit time decreases.
ance of the Aerobee-Hi now provides a research As shown in the diagram, the sphere carries its
rocket capable of reaching the upper limits of the own transmitter to telemeter the transit times.
F-region ionosphere in the neighborhood of In flight tests this instrument was able to meas-
200 mi. To perfect these latest techniques in ure drag accelerations less than one hundredth
rocketry and instrumentation, a pre-IGY Rock- that of gravity.
etry Program was carried out over the past Figure 2 is a photograph of the Nike-Cajun
vear with 24 test flights including 19 small rock- in its launcher at WSPG. Five more Nike-
ets and 5 Aerobees. The purpose of this report Cajuns were fired by the University of Michigan
is to describe the experiments performed with in October and November 1956 in the North
these rockets and the scientific results deduced Atlantic Ocean and Davis Straits between lati-
from preliminary analyses of the data. tudes 39°58’N and 64°10’N from the deck of
Pressure, density, and temperature measure- the U.S.S. Rushmore, LSD-14 (Fig. 3). These
ments—Pressure, density, and temperature are rockets also carried the small-sphere experiment
interrelated so that measurements of any two for density. All the rockets exceeded 100 mi in
of the quantities enable the third to be computed, peak altitude and the instrumentation worked
provided the molecular composition is known. well. Data reduction has not yet been completed.
A variety of rocket techniques are to be used A second group from the University of Michi-
in the IGY program including sound ranging, gan, under the direction of N. W. Spencer, pre-
direct pressure and density measurements, and
measurements based on aerodynamic properties
of the flying rocket.
The first pre-IGY rocket launching took place
at Wallops Island, Va., on July 5, 1956. The
rocket, a Nike-Cajun, instrumented to measure
atmospheric density, was prepared by members
of the Aeronautical Engineering Department
of the University of Michigan under the direc-
tion of L. M. Jones. This was the first in a
series of Nike-Cajun rockets adapted to upper-
air sounding purposes jointly by the University
of Michigan under sponsorship of Air Force
Cambridge Research Center and by the Pilotless
Aircraft Research Division of the National Ad-
visory Committee of Aeronautics. The experi-
ment is known as the ‘falling sphere.’ The
rocket rose to 425,000 ft and ejected a seven-inch
sphere at 198,000 ft on the upward leg. As a Fic. 1— Diagram of transit time accelerometer in
sphere falls through the atmosphere, the in- seven-inch sphere

110 HERBERT FRIEDMAN
at the nose tip of the rocket measured stagna-

tion pressure. (sages on the side of the nose
cone measured cone-wall pressure. Pressure at
the tip of the nose cone is, of course, much
greater than on the side because of the high
speed of the rocket. The ratio of these two
pressures is theoretically related to the Mach
number. But the Mach number is the ratio of
the velocity of the rocket to the velocity of sound
in the surrounding atmosphere. Since the ve-
locity of sound increases with temperature, the
Mach number is thermo-dependent. The rela-
tionship is expressed by
M=o0V p/rRT (1)
where 7 is the Mach number, v is the speed of

the rocket, » is the mean molecular weight, r is
the ratio of specific heats, R is the universal gas
constant, and T is the absolute air temperature.
Fic. 2— Nike-Cajun on launcher at White Sands
The square-root term is simply the velocity of
Proving Ground, N. M.
sound. M and v are measured by the experi-
ment, » is known approximately from independ-
pared two rockets at Fort Churchill to measure
ent data and rR is a known constant. The ex-
pressure, temperature, and density. This work
periment therefore makes it possible to calculate
was performed under contract to the Air Force
T. The results are valid up to about 100 km.
Cambridge Research Center. The first rocket,
AM6.31, a Nike-Cajun, fired on October 20, The Mach number of the flying rocket can
1956, reached 70 mi. An Aerobee, AM2.21, be determined independently from the angle of
launched three days later, reached 90 mi. Alpha- flow of air over the surface of the nose cone
tron pressures gages were used to obtain the when the rocket flies at an angle to the air
primary data. The Alphatron derives its name stream. Theory also relates the ambient pres-
from the fact that it uses a polonium source of sure to the pressure measured on the side of the
alpha particles to ionize the residual air between rocket and the Mach number. Data analyses
a pair of collecting electrodes. A gage mounted of the two University of Michigan firings at
Fort Churchill are still incomplete.
An Aerobee-Hi rocket, NN3.12, fired on No-
vember 17, 1956, at Fort Churchill was instru-
mented by H. E. LaGow of the Rocket Sonde
Branch, of the Naval Research Laboratory
(NRL) with a variety of pressure gages. The
NRL methods are similar in many respects to
those described above. Bellows gages are used
at low altitudes and Pirani and Phillips gages at
successively higher levels of the atmosphere. Air
density is derived in the NRL method from the
stagnation pressure measured at the nose tip by
reference to the Rayleigh formula which is valid
below 100 km. At higher altitudes, the NRL
experiment makes use of gages mounted on the
side of the rocket. Above 100 km the rocket is
tipped over so that it is moving sidewise and
Fic. 3 — Nike-Cajun on deck of USS Rushmore,
then rolled by means of small peripheral jets.
LSD-14 Each gage alternately looks ‘into the wind’ and

‘away from the wind’ thereby producing a pres- sions against the star background. From the
sure modulation with the period of the roll of position of the bursts and the transit times to
the rocket. According to kinetic theory the ground, it is possible to deduce the speed of
ambient air density is directly related to the sound at various levels and the distribution of
amplitude of the pressure modulation and the atmospheric winds.
speed of the rocket. The rocket reached an According to W. G. Stroud of Signal Engi-
altitude of 130 miles and good data were ob- neering Laboratories, the data from this first
tained throughout the flight. firing have been reduced so that 15 values of
Included in all NRL Aerobees flown at Fort temperature and winds have been obtained. The
Churchill during the daytime, is an extension peak temperature at 50 km was about the same
section prepared by the Optics Division of NRL. as at White Sands, N.M., that is, 276°K. The
These extensions contain two photon counters, winds were moderate from the west, again as
one which measures soft x-rays and the other at WSPG. At the lower altitudes, temperatures
the ultraviolet Lyman alpha line from the Sun. were within 3°K of previous balloon values.
As the radiation penetrates the atmosphere it Solar radiation measurements—The Sun radi-
is attenuated in a characteristic fashion deter- ates a broad spectrum of wave lengths from
mined by the absorption coefficient of the air cosmic rays to radio waves. We see visually only
and its density. Assuming that the solar flux is the narrow wave length range from 4000 to
steady, the variation in intensity at the rocket as 7500 Angstroms. With the aid of ultraviolet or
it rises through the air provides a direct meas- infrared sensitive detectors and radio receivers
urement of total air mass above the rocket at we can measure a wider spectrum at sea level in
any altitude. From such data, the density versus two broad atmospheric windows, the optical
altitude is obtained. The x-ray wave lengths window from 2900 A to 30,000 A and the radio
are absorbed in E region, 100-130 km, the window from one centimeter to about 40 m.
Lyman a in D region, 75-90 km. The detectors Outside these windows the air above is almost
are mounted with their windows flush with the totally opaque.
skin of the rocket. As the rocket rolls, they see Early attempts to see beyond 2900 A in the
the Sun once each roll period. Aerobee NN3.12 ultraviolet were made from mountain top ob-
rolled so slowly that each detector got barely servatories and from balloons. In 1934, a spec-
two or three looks at the Sun in the appropriate trograph was flown to 30 km in a balloon but
altitude ranges. The data were therefore insufh- even that height was not adequate. Not until
cient to deduce a density curve. October 10, 1946, when a spectrograph was
Aerobee SM1.01, fired during the night of carried aloft in a V-2 rocket, was our knowledge
November 12, 1956, at Fort Churchill was in- of the solar spectrum extended into the region
strumented by University of Michigan for the of ultraviolet that is absorbed by ozone before
U. §S. Army Signal Engineering Laboratories it can reach ground. Since then many successful
with the ‘exploding grenade’ experiment. This spectrograms have been obtained, the best one
experiment is essentially a sound ranging method reaching to 977 A.
of determining temperatures and winds. If the To study the interaction of solar radiation
velocity v of sound can be measured, the tem- with the ionosphere, it is necessary to fly spectro-
perature J’ can be derived from the relationship graphs or photoelectric detectors to altitudes
above 50 mi. Over the past ten years, photon
v?=rRT/p (2)
counters flown in rockets have revealed a steady
The quantities are the same as defined in (1). flux of solar x-rays that are absorbed in E and F
As the rocket rose to a height of 42 mi, 18 regions. In the D region a characteristic wave
grenades were ejected in a predetermined timed length of 1215.7 A is always observed in the far
sequence and exploded. The explosions were ultraviolet. This is the strongest emission line
photographed from the ground and timed by of the atomic hydrogen spectrum, known as
telemetered signals from the rocket. Arrivals of Lyman alpha, and it alone is responsible for
the sounds of the explosions at each of several ionization of the D region when the Sun is quiet.
ground stations were also accurately timed. The In integrated white light, the Sun appears to
photographs located the positions of the explo- be a stable star. Looked at in various discrete

wave lengths, however, the Sun is a variable

star. The term solar activity includes a variety WORMAL JONOSPHERE
of long- and short-lived transient phenomena,

such as sunspots, plages, dark filaments, faculae,
prominences, flares, and coronal regions that are
bright in red, green, and yellow line emissions.
All these phenomena follow the general trend
of sunspot number and occur in close proximity
to sunspot groups. The ionizing radiations may
come from the entire area of the disk, from
centers of activity, and from the corona. In the
case of flares there is a unique correlation.
The catastrophic magnitude of a solar flare IONOSPHERE DURING
et ae
can best be appreciated when it is viewed in the
red-light characteristic of excited hydrogen
atoms in the chromosphere. In a matter of min-
utes, a local region of the solar surface may in-
crease tenfold in brightness and the flash spreads
over hundreds of millions of square miles. Simul-
taneously with the flash, the ionosphere becomes
so dense in the D region that broadcast fre-
quencies are completely absorbed and communi-
cations disrupted (Fig. 4). This condition is
known as radio fadeout. Reception does not Fic. 4— Reflection of radio signals by the iono-
return to normal until the flare disappears, sphere; frequencies above 20 mc escape ionosphere
completely; broadcast frequencies and short waves
which may take half an hour to several hours are reflected from E and F regions; during a flare,
depending on the size of the flare. D region ionization increases and the base of the
In spite of the wealth of ground-level observa- ionosphere is lowered; short wave and broadcast
tions of flares at astronomical observatories we frequencies fade out, but atmospherics are en-
hanced
still know very little about the processes that
produce them or how the flare energy is parti-
firings with astronomical events such as solar
tioned between ultraviolet, x-rays, and even flares. A program of small rocket experiments
cosmic rays. To study the emission of a flare it is planned for the measurement of flare x-rays
would appear to be only necessary to fire a and ultraviolet during the IGY by members of
rocket during a flare. Flares, however, occur
the Optics Division of NRL under the author’s
infrequently, very rarely during the minimum
direction. During pre-IGY tests ten Rockoons,
period of a solar cycle and perhaps one inter- NN5.27 to NN5.36 inclusive, were fired at sea
esting flare every 50 hours near sunspot maxi- about 300 mi southwest of San Diego.
mum. To fire a large rocket during a flare from The Rockoons were chosen as the only solu-
an established proving ground is very difficult,
tion available at the time to the problems of
since it must be in the launching tower, fully restricted range scheduling. The ocean area
fueled and ready to launch at a moment’s notice southwest of San Diego was chosen because it
any time during the day. Small solid-propellant was remote from established air and shipping
rockets fired at sea or from an isolated island lanes and also sufficiently remote from the radio
location are much more appropriate to a flare disturbances of the auroral zones so that local
experiment. radio disturbances could be correlated with solar
Techniques of small rocketry and miniatur- flares. The operating area was also within de-
ized electronics have now progressed to the point pendable radio-reception range of the solar ob-
where rockets instrumented with standardized servatories at Sacramento Peak, N.M., and at
flight packages may be flown on short notice Climax, Colorado.
from temporary launching sites on land or from In a Rockoon launching, the balloon and its
shipboard. This makes it possible to synchronize rocket load ascend to an altitude of 80,000 ft at

PRE-IGY ROCKET PROGRAM
approximately 1000 ft/min. The plan was to

float the combination at this altitude until a flare
was detected by radio or optical means, at which
time a radio relay would be used to activate the
instrumentation and fire the rocket. During the
experiments the U.S.S. Colonial, LSD-18, served
as the launching vessel, while the U.S.S. Perkins,
a destroyer, tracked the balloon with its radar.
The Deacon rocket was suspended from the
balloon by 100 ft of nylon line, terminating in a
steel ring which mated with a hook attached to
the rocket motor. When the rocket was fired
the hook slipped out of the ring and the rocket
tore through the balloon, whose polyethylene
envelope offered little resistance to the rocket.
Within a minute and a half after firing, the
spent rocket and its payload reached an altitude
of 60 to 70 mi. For a period of about three min-
utes near peak of the flight data on the strength
of Lyman alpha and x rays were telemetered
back to the ship.
The instrumentation section of each Rockoon
is divided into three major subassemblies: a
telemetering deck, power deck, and electronics
deck. The major components in each of the four
data channels of the FM-FM telemeter are
plug-in units, as are the detectors in the shell. pre
a. J
The latter include two aspect photocells, a
Lyman-alpha ion chamber, a soft x-ray photon Fic. 5— Rockoon just after launching from
counter and a hard x-ray scintillation counter. shipboard
Figure 5 illustrates the balloon and its load just
after launching. The load includes, besides the Many lessons were learned from the pre-IGY
rocket: a time-and-pressure release mechanism flare experiment. The scientific results were ex-
to cut down the rocket if the rocket motor fails citing but the Rockoon technique was ineffhcient.
to start; a radiosonde to provide continuous On days when no flare was observed, the rockets
pressure altitude data; three radar corner re- had to be fired before they drifted out of range.
flectors for tracking; and finally a command The logistic support was too expensive an opera-
receiver to fire the rocket. Figure 6 is an artist’s tion to continue over a long period of time. For
sketch of the experiment. the IGY, therefore, the program has been
Rockoons were launched in the mornings of altered to utilize the Nike-Deacon combination
ten days between July 16 and July 29. Only one on San Nicolas Island, part of the Point Mugu,
small flare was detected during the expedition California, facility. Fourteen rockets have been
but the rocket measurements revealed an x-ray prepared and excellent communications have been
flash extending the spectrum to nearly 3 A and established with Mount Wilson, Sacramento
persisting well after Lyman-alpha had decayed Peak, and Climax. The first shoot is tentatively
to normal. At its short wave length limit it scheduled for July 1, 1957 to test the over-all
resembled the emission of a four-million degree plan of operations and to provide a normal back-
thermal source. Although the flare was some- ground for comparison with flare conditions.
thing between Class 1 and a subflare, the x-ray The remaining 13 launchings will be reserved
intensity theoretically was sufficient to produce for SID producing flares. In the event of a very
a substantial increase of D-region density be- large flare, more than one shoot will be at-
tween 75 and 85 km. tempted during the course of the flare.

93 MILLION MILES
RADIO WAVES
X= RAYS PARTICLES
VISIBLE
F REGION 200 MILES

ULTRAVIOLET
aan eee tete betel Ten
et te age
— E REGION
cme mee
eee ee ee
ee eee
— i ae ce i eee
ee A
— eee oe ce ee ee ee
ee ee ot
1 2
se eS
Fic. 6 — Artist’s sketch of Rockoon solar-flare experiment
The ionosphere—Practically all our knowl- called D, the electron density is too small to re-
edge of the ionosphere prior to rocket measure- flect frequencies in the megacycle range. The
ments was based on radio soundings. A pulse lower ionosphere normally acts as a partial ab-
of radio waves entering a cloud of electrons is sorber for these broadcast-band waves and as a
reflected when the density of electrons reaches good reflector for very long waves such as the
a critical value proportional to the square of the atmospherics or static generated by thunder-
radio frequency. The time required for the storms (Fig. 4).
pulse to travel to the ionosphere and back to Our present rocket picture of the ionosphere
ground is a measure of the height of the reflect- is a continuum of ionization without discretely
ing region. At certain critical frequencies there separated layers. F, shows up as just a small
appear abrupt discontinuities in reflection heights, bump in the curve of electron density distribu-
as though the electron density was distributed in tion and the entire ionosphere is lower than
several well defined layers. These layers are appears from the simplest analysis of radio
named FE, F,, and F,. In the lowest region, soundings. When we consider the solar spectrum

responsible for the ionization of a static atmos- trates the relationship of the two frequencies
phere, it seems very unlikely that the ionosphere and the effect of the ionosphere on the lower one.
could have abruptly bounded stratifications. An interesting feature of the instrumentation
A method of determining electron density di- of Aerobee-Hi, NN3.037, prepared by the Rocket
rectly was developed by J. C. Seddon of the Sonde Branch of NRL, under the direction of
Rocke Sonde Branch, NRL. The method utilizes J. E. Jackson, is the dipole antenna that radiates
relationships between refractive index, which the two frequencies. The dipole consists of two
depends on electron density, and the Doppler whips, 14 ft long, extended perpendicular to the
shifts of two signals broadcast from the rocket axis of the rocket. During the early part of the
to the ground. Two harmonically related CW rocket flight, the whips are held retracted
frequencies are radiated from the rocket to two against the skin of the rocket to keep them out
stations on the ground, about six miles apart and of the air stream. Above 60 km, the air drag is
approximately in the plane of the rocket tra- negligible and the antenna is automatically ex-
jectory. The frequencies used are 7.754 mc/s tended. The rocket was launched on Novem-
and its sixth harmonic 46.524 mc/s. The higher ber 12, 1956, and reached 80 mi. This was a
frequency suffers almost no retardation in E comparatively poor rocket performance but the
region and serves as a reference frequency experiment worked well and the data are being
against which the lower frequency is compared. analyzed.
At the ground station the lower frequency is Nike-Cajun OB6.00 was instrumented by the
multiplied by a factor of 6 and combined with Ballistic Research Laboratories under the di-
the high frequency to produce a beat signal. If rection of W. W. Berning for the study of
the position and velocity of the rocket is known charge density in the upper atmosphere. The
the measured beat frequency contains the in- method used is based on DOVAP (Doppler
formation from which the refractive index at velocity and position). In the DOVAP system,
that position can be determined. Figure 7 illus- two RF signals are transmitted from one ground
station to another, one signal directly, the other
by way of the rocket. The radiation picked up
by the rocket in flight is rebroadcast to the
ground. If the rocket is rising the rebroadcast
signal is lower in frequency because of the Dop-
pler effect. At the peak of the flight the re-
broadcast signal is unaltered in frequency, and
on the downward leg the frequency is increased.
The signal from the rocket is received at three
or more ground stations and is beat against the
directly received ground wave. The resulting
beat frequency is proportional to the rocket
velocity in the plane including the transmitter,
rocket, and receiver. Integration of the Doppler
M\ WWW i
ae ;
FREE SPACE
frequency as a function of time gives, when
multiplied by the wave length, the distance from
transmitter to rocket to receiver at any time.
All of the foregoing is true if propagation takes
place in vacuum. The presence of an electron
apc density in the radiation path introduces a re-
tardation which affects the DOVAP position
oy
L
gizn(ft- LJ" nlrdde) cE‘ ei2 l6tt-Sr)
computation by a measurable amount. There-
fore, if position at high altitudes can be com-
Fic. 7 — Propagation experiment; signals in free puted from low altitude trajectory data with
space are harmonically related; high frequency is high accuracy, the discrepancy with DOVAP
sixth harmonic of lower frequency; in the iono-
position can be used to obtain electron density.
sphere the high frequency is unaffected, but the
low frequency is increased in wave length The Nike-Cajun firing was primarily a test of

the suitability of the rocket for such measure- mospheric gases started between 100 and 110 km.
ments. As the rocket rose, peaks of mass number 16
Atmospheric composition—Under the influence and 30 became increasingly important compo-
of solar ultraviolet radiation O, is dissociated nents of the spectra. At 224 km, the highest alti-
rapidly above 100 km, but dissociation never tude at which a neutral gas spectrum was ob-
reaches completion even in F, region. The tained, amplitudes of masses 16 (OQ), 28 (N.),
existence of O, at such high altitudes is depend- 30 (NQ), and 32 (O,) differed from each other
ent on the intensity of solar radiation, diffusion, by less than a factor of 3. The amplitude of 32
and turbulent mixing. Experimentally the O, was undoubtedly enhanced by the recombination
concentration has been determined by observing of © atoms on the walls of the inlet tube.
the transmission of 1500 A radiation from the Spectra were obtained from the positive ion
Sun to a photon counter in the rocket. Such a spectrometer in the mass range 53 to 6 AMU
measurement is feasible because O, absorbs this for 375 sec while the rocket was above 90 km.
wave length strongly, whereas no other major at- Mass 30 was the first positive ion detected and
mospheric constituent absorbs it appreciably. Un- it remained in the spectra throughout the flight.
fortunately, similar determinations of other ma- Positive ions of mass 32 and 16 subsequently
jor constituents is not feasible spectroscopically. appeared. The mass 16 positive ion became the
For several years NRL has been conducting predominant ion with increasing altitude. Two
experiments utilizing the Bennett radio-frequency minor positive ions of mass 28 and 18 were de-
mass spectrometer to determine the neutral gas tected during the flight. A possible identification
and ion composition at high altitudes. Aerobee- of these ions is: 32, O,*; 30, NO*; 28, N,’*;
Hi NN3.17 was flown at night at Ft. Churchill 18, H,O*; 16, O*. Above 170 km there is in-
on November 20, 1956, instrumented by Edith direct evidence of a positive ion with relatively
Meadows and C. Y. Johnson of the NRL Rocket large abundance at mass 63+2 AMU. A spec-
Sonde Branch with three RF spectrometers. One tral peak in the region of mass 46 (NO,.~-) was
RF spectrometer was mounted axially near the detected by the negative ion spectrometer. Nitric
tip of the nose cone to measure neutral gases. acid, one of the rocket’s propellants, might have
At high altitude the nose tip was ejected, ex- contributed to some of these ion peaks, although
posing the spectrometer to the atmosphere. An data from the neutral gas spectrometer at the
electrically operated pyrotechnic squibb actuated nose of the rocket indicated that the rocket was
an ‘explosive hammer’ that broke a glass tubula- ‘clean.’
tion sealing the intake of the spectrometer at Auroral particles and ultraviolet—Auroral
the same time that the forward section of the displays are well correlated with solar activity.
nose cone was ejected by a spring. The spec- In contrast to the prompt ionospheric effects of
trometer starts to function when the pressure electromagnetic radiations in a solar flare, the
drops below 4x 10-4 mm Hg. In operation, the auroral disturbances are delayed one or two
spectrum between mass numbers 50 and 6 was days. Such delays are associated with the travel
swept electrontically once every 14 seconds with time of corpuscular streams from Sun to Earth.
a resolution of one part in forty, leaving an un- Spectroscopic evidence, in the form of broad
certainty of about one atomic mass unit through- hydrogen lines in the auroral spectrum, indi-
out the sweep range. The neutral gas spectrom- cates protons as the source of excitation. The
eter carried its own internal means of ionizing fast incoming protons radiate the hydrogen emis-
the ambient atmospheric gases that entered it. sion lines after capturing electrons as they are
Two additional spectrometers were carried in slowed down in the upper atmosphere. Rocket
the nose cone, but mounted perpendicular to the measurements thus far have been designed
axis. These spectrometers were employed with- primarily to identify the energetic particles or
out ionizing sources and simply measured the radiations in the auroral zone. Virtually all the
atmospheric ions that diffused into their col- information available is based on Rockoon flights
lecting fields. by Van Allen and his colleagues of State Uni-
Changes in the ratio of argon to molecular versity of Iowa. Their measurements in the
nitrogen, measured by the neutral gas spectrom- auroral zone have revealed a soft radiation at
eter indicated that diffusive separation of the at- altitude of 40-70 km which exhibits the charac-

teristics of x-rays in the 10-100 kev range. Van experiment consisting of two photon counters,
Allen concludes that the x-rays are associated one sensitive to the ultraviolet band, 1100-1350 A,
with primary auroral radiations but are not the other sensitive to the band 1220-1350 A.
themselves primary in nature. If the x-rays are The latter band covers a region of strong air
produced by the Bremsstrahlung of primary elec- fluorescence under particle excitation. According
trons that are stopped at about 90 km, the ob- to theory the Lyman alpha intensity arising
served intensities are reasonably consistent with from protons in the aurora should be very
the visible energy content of the aurora. intense.
During the IGY, attempts will be made to Photon counter instrumentation was flown by
identify the auroral radiations by means of E. T. Byram of the Optics Division, NRL, in
Geiger counters, proportional counters, scintilla- Ft. Churchill Aerobee NN3.17. Preliminary
tion counters and electrostatic energy analyzers. inspection of the data shows that the Lyman
Aerobee-Hi rocket NN3.02 was instrumented alpha intensity was comparable to that obtained
by L. E. Meredith and J. P. Heppner of the at WSPG in an earlier measurement, but that
Rocket Sonde Branch of NRL for such auroral the intensity in the 1220-1350 A band was about
measurements at Ft. Churchill, but the rocket ten times as high as at WSPG. The rocket was
exploded while being held in the tower for an flown in an overcast and visual observation of
auroral display. Each NRL night-time Aerobee the aurora was not possible.
at Ft. Churchill will carry a small additional Magnetic fields—Direct information about the
NOSE CONE
EJECTION
SPRING
TELEMETERING
ANTENNA
MAGNETOMETER
COIL
AURORAL
PARTICAL
COUNTER
AURORAL
ULTRAVIOLET |
DETECTORS
Fic. 8 — Magnetometer, auroral particle counters, and auroral radiation detectors in Aerobee-Hi nose
cone; magnetometer structural supports are nonmetallic; at peak of flight magnetometer is ejected
to free it of influence of rocket; middle section contains auroral ultraviolet detectors

altitude and magnitude of an ionospheric current ships and from stations scattered over the world
system can be obtained from the observation of from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Small solid-
a discontinuity in the Earth’s field as the rocket propellant rockets make synoptic measurements
passes through the current sheet. One of the comparatively inexpensive and permit close syn-
most promising new instruments for magnetic chronization of measurements with solar ac-
measurements from rockets is the proton pre- tivity. At the same time, evidence from related
cession magnetometer. The ill-fated NRL Aero- fields of science reveal exciting new phenomena
bee NN3.02 was instrumented with a magne- of the atmosphere at heights extending to sev-
tometer in addition to auroral radiation de- eral thousand miles. For the attack on these new
tectors. Figure 8 illustrates the arrangement problems we look forward to another order of
of instrumentation. On the right-hand side magnitude gain in altitude capabilities of multi-
is the magnetometer section. The portion of stage rockets and to the use of earth satellites.
the nose cone that covers the magnetometer
coil is made of plastic, since any conductive REFERENCES
material will distort the field. At the peak BarTMAN, F. L., L. W. CHANeEy, L. M. JONES, AND
of the flight the magnetometer section is sepa- V. C. Lin, Upper-air density and temperature by
rated from the rocket by the helical ejection the falling-sphere method, J. App. PAys., 27,
706-712, 1956.
spring, and carries along its own telemetering
Byram, E. T., T. A. CHusBB, AND H. FrigpMaAwy,
antenna and circuitry. The instrumentation Solar x-ray spectrum and density of the upper
which remains with the rocket includes the atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 61, 251-263, 1956.
auroral particle counters and the ultraviolet CHussB, T. A., H. FrRigepMAN, R. A. KREPLIN, AND
photon counters. Van Allen and his associates J. E. KUpperian, Jr., Rocket observations of
x-ray emission in a solar flare, Nature, 179, 861-
have adapted the proton precession magnetom- 862, 1957.
eter to small rockets and have demonstrated Jacxson, J. E., J. A. KANE, AND J. C. SEDDON,
the feasibility of such measurements in the three- Ionosphere electron density measurements with
inch Loki rocket. Using the Rockoon technique, the Navy Aerobee-Hi rocket, J. Geophys. Res.,
61, 749-751, 1956.
they plan numerous measurements from the Jounson, F. S., J. D. Pucett, R. Tousty, ano N.
Arctic to the Antarctic during the IGY. Witson, The ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun,
Conclusion—The pre-IGY firings represent a Rocket exploration of the upper atmosphere, pp.
sampling of the kinds of experiments that will 279-288, Pergamon Press, 1954.
Horow!1Tz, R., anb H. E. La Gow, Upper-air pres-
be undertaken during the IGY. It is charac- sure and density measurements from 90 to 220
teristic of rocket experiments that data are ac- km with the Viking 7 Rocket, J. Geophys. Res.,
cumulated in a matter of minutes, but analysis 62, 57-78, 1957.
Sicinsky, H. S., N. W. SpENcEeR, AND W. G. Dow,
often takes many months. The complete stories
Rocket measurements of upper-atmosphere am-
of the pre-IGY experiments are not yet available bient temperature and pressure in the 30- to
and several years may elapse before all the 75-km region, J. App. Phys., 25, 161-168, 1954.
scientific yield of the forthcoming IGY Rocket Stroup, W. G., W. NorpBerc, AND J. R. WaALsn,
Atmospheric temperatures and winds between 30
Program is derived from the telemetering
and 80 km, J. Geophys. Res., 61, 45-56, 1956.
records. TownsenD, J. W., E. B. Meapows, ann E. C.
It is amply evident from even the partial pro- Press_y, A mass spectrometric study of the upper
gram of experiments described above that the atmosphere, Rocket exploration of the upper at-
mosphere, pp. 169-188, Pergamon Press, 1954.
IGY is not only the climax of the first decade of VAN ALLEN, J. A., Direct detection of auroral radi-
research with rockets, but the inauguration of ation with rocket equipment, Proc. Nat. Acad.
a new era of high-altitude explorations. We Sciences, 43, 57-62, 1957.
now have the means of launching rockets from Naval Research Laboratory, Washington 25, D. C.

The Vanguard Satellite Launching Vehicle — Placing the

Satellite in Orbit
JOHN P. HAGEN
Introduction—The Vanguard satellite launch- is greater because of the large increase in po-
ing vehicle will be called upon to establish arti- tential energy require to remove the body far
ficial satellites in orbits around the Earth during from the Earth. In the case in hand then, the
the International Geophysical Year. Succeeding launching vehicle must impart sufficient potential
problems are to prove that it is indeed there and energy to the satellite to lift it some 300 mi
to perform scientific experiments using the satel- above the Earth and then sufficient kinetic energy
lite. It was early decided that the orbit must to give it the required speed to maintain it in
lie outside the absorbing atmosphere to make its orbit.
possible measures of the electromagnetic and Atmospheric drag on the satellite is slight.
corpuscular radiation coming in from _ outer Nevertheless, its accumulative effect over the
space and to determine their geophysical effects. relatively long flight time of the satellite results
It was also decided that the orbit should be in a significant decrease in the satellite’s energy,
sufficiently within our atmosphere to make pos- and a corresponding decrease in the length of
sible studies of the atmosphere itself. The de- the semi-major axis of the orbit. Ultimately,
sign of the launching vehicle evolved from a when the satellite has descended far enough into
consideration of the minimum requirements im- the lower, denser atmosphere, aerodynamic ef-
posed by the vehicle mission, the current status fects will cause it to heat up and to become, in
of the art in rocketry, the current status of effect, a kind of artificial meteor. The satellite’s
guidance and rocket instrumentation, and the lifetime increases as the air density in the neigh-
logistic problems associated with the launching borhood of the initial orbit decreases. Air density
of a rocket of the magnitude involved. falls off roughly exponentially as altitude in-
The physical characteristics of the satellite creases (Fig. 1).
package were selected as follows. It would be The lifetime of the satellite should be at least
spherical in shape initially, having a diameter a fortnight, in order to allow adequate time for
of 20 inches. It would have a gross weight of conducting significant geophysical and astro-
21% pounds and it would be capable of separa- physical researches. A longer lifetime, on the
tion from the final stage of the vehicle. The order of a year, would expand the potential
orbital requirements were: (a) a nominal orbital scope of the satellite’s geophysical usefulness.
altitude of 300 miles; (b) an initial perigee alti- It has been estimated that an initial circular
tude of not less than 200 miles; (c) an apogee orbit at the height of about 200 mi is required
altitude of not greater than 1400 miles; (d) an in order to achieve an adequate lifetime. The
inclination of the orbit to the equator of 40° +5°; desired minimum initial perigee height of the
and (e) the launching site is to be the Air Force Vanguard satellite was taken to be 200 mi.
test launching station at Cape Canaveral, The character of the orbit is determined by
Florida. the satellite’s position and velocity vectors when
Orbits—The principal demands on the per- it is projected into its orbit; that is, when it
formance of the launching vehicle are determined receives its last impetus from the final stage
by the characteristics of the Earth’s gravita- of the rocket launching vehicle. If the speed is
tional field and its atmosphere. Circular orbits exactly that required for a circular orbit be-
lying only a small fraction of the Earth’s radius ginning at the projection height and if the
above the Earth’s surface require an orbital velocity vector is truly horizontal, the orbit
speed of about 25,000 ft/sec. As the orbits get will be circular. If either condition is not ful-
larger the required speeds go down until, at the filled, the orbit will be elliptical. Actually, it is
Moon’s distance, the required speed is only about highly unlikely that either condition will be met.
3000 ft/sec. However, while the kinetic energy If, for example, the projection velocity is less
is thus lower in the larger orbit, the total energy than that required for a circular orbit beginning
119

120 JOHN P. HAGEN
KM \ MILES
600}-
EXOSPHERE / = +350
PRESSURE j °
500 A \ “2
1072 TELLIT @®@
SATELLITE ot: Ja)
/
\ é
aoo- \ lo" / +1250
\ 4
8 Y
‘ F, 10
300};- 2 3x10°" -11 A j4 200
WwW
3 . vicins |
¢ | = — 150
2001-8 F, 3x08 2x 10-!Aas AEROBEE | ~

° \ (il V-2 -1!100
jw |
e103 iuige AURORAE 3s
00 5 4 8\ mam noctitucent 2 4 50 e _
aZONOSPHERE — METEORS CLOUDS «

STRATOSPHERE —— @@MPBMRBNACREOUS CLOUDS
|_TROPOSPHERE—J— yy 1) | pt
100 500 i000
TEMPERATURE (°K)
Fic. 1 — Schematic cross section of the atmosphere
at the projection height, the orbit will be a sub- If the velocity vector is directed slightly down-
circular ellipse and its perigee, or point of ward at projection, the satellite will dip into the
closest approach to the Earth, will be less than lower atmosphere before rising again. Hence
the projection height. This problem is ap- the perigee height will be lower than the pro-
proached by designing an excess velocity capabil- jection height. Aiming high is of no real help,
ity into the launching-vehicle system so that, however. For example, if two satellites are
allowing for normal errors, the satellite will projected at the same small angle to the hori-
still have an adequate velocity. If at projection zontal, one downward and the other upward,
the horizontal velocity exceeds that required the resulting orbits will be similar and will be
for a circular orbit, the orbit will be elliptical symmetrically located with respect to the projec-
and its apogee, or point of greatest distance from tion point (Fig. 3). In either case the perigee
the Earth, will be greater than the projection height will be the same. In the latter case, how-
height (Fig. 2).
ever, it will occur a little later, after nearly a
ORBITS PRODUCED BY PROJECTING

SATELLITE PRECISELY HORIZONTAL ORBITS PRODUCED BY PROJECTING
SATELLITE NOT HORIZONTALLY
A-LESS THAN
CIRCULAR VELOCITY
B- CIRCULAR VELOCITY
C- GREATER THAN
CIRCULAR VELOCITY
A-DOWNWARD PROJECTION B-UPWARD PROJECTION

CASE CASE
Fic. 2— Satellite orbit possibilities depending on Fic. 3 — Satellite orbit possibilities depending on
projection velocity projection angle

SATELLITE LAUNCHING VEHICLE 121
whole revolution has been completed. Practically allow for shortcomings in the performance of
speaking, then, velocity vector deviations either the various components in the vehicle.
upward or downward are equally undesirable; The two major perturbing effects on the orbit
hence, an accurate control system for aiming are air density and the non-uniform shape of the
the third-stage velocity is essential. Earth. Each acts, of course, in a different way:
In order to allow for the fact that the pro- one tends to destroy the orbit by slowly re-
jection velocity vector might not be truly hori- moving energy, the other simply tends to modify
zontal, the projection altitude should be higher the plane of the orbit.
than 200 mi. A projection altitude of about 300 The density of the air above 200 mi altitude is
mi appears to be consistent with the various re- not accurately known, but by extrapolating from
quirements and characteristics associated with rocket measurements of density, we can estimate
the satellite launching vehicle. The projection its magnitude, certainly within a factor of 10.
altitude and perigee limitations are shown better These estimates lead to the conclusion that the
in Figure 4. This figure is drawn for a launch- rate at which the drag affects the motion of the
ing height of 300 mi, for the orbit limitations of satellite will be such as to permit a lifetime in
200-mi perigee and 1400-mi apogee. If there excess of a few weeks. As drag removes energy
were no angular errors in launching, the velocity from the orbit, the first effect will be to reduce
could lie anywhere between 99 and 105 pct of the the apogee distance with little effect on the peri-
circular velocity and still keep the orbit within gee. This can be observed as a slow change in the
the limits set. If there are angular errors, the height of the satellite as it passes overhead but
allowable error in launching angle rapidly in- will be more accurately observed and measured
creases as the launching speed increases, so through the change in the period of the satellite.
that when the launching speed is five per cent The second perturbation is due to the equatorial
above the circular speed an error of approxi- bulge of the Earth, which causes the plane of
mately four degrees in either direction can be the orbit to precess and also causes the position
tolerated. The minimum horizontal velocity for of perigee to slowly move around the orbit.
a circular orbit at 300 mi altitude represented These effects are greater here than in any other
by the 100 pct index of Figure 4 is 25,034 ft/per known astronomical case since here the satellite
sec. The launching vehicle is being designed is so close to the primary attracting body. Its
with a capability of establishing a launching very closeness makes the gravitational effect of
speed considerably in excess of this number to the bulge proportionately larger than the at-
traction of the remainder of the spheroid. There
is a component of this attraction which is at
right angles to the plane of the orbit and this
component tends to cause the plane to precess,
as a gyroscope does.
The planned inclination of the plane of the
orbit to the plane of the Earth’s equator is
40°+5°. This inclination was chosen as a
compromise among several factors: scientific,
range safety, and location of launching facilities.
1006e0C5)
The launching facility chosen was the Air Force

test launching station at Cape Canaveral, Flor-
oO
%
ida, at a latitude of 28° 30’ north. The plane of

the orbit must contain the center of the Earth
-2 ne FOO 118
and hence the minimum inclination of the orbit
is the latitude of place of launch. Greater
PEarcee
inclination than this can be obtained by choosing

1400
mnt
a launching azimuth which is either to the
A
sP0cet
north or to the south of the due east direction.
9? 100 100 102 103 +104 103
Geographical considerations make it desirable
VELOCITY (PEACE NT)
to incline the launch trajectory to the south of
Fic. +— Satellite orbit tolerance diagram east but at the same time limit the maximum

122 JOHN P. HAGEN
inclination to that which results in a total in- tively fixed and the Earth therefore will turn
clination somewhat in excess of 35°. It is ad- under it. On successive passages it will cross
vantageous to launch the satellite as nearly to- the equator further and further to the west. The
ward the east as is possible in order to take expected period for the satellite is about 100
advantage of the rotation of the Earth about minutes, so that there will be approximately 16
its axis. The velocity gained due to this effect circuits of the Earth during one day. In an orbit
is on the order of 1300 ft/sec at this latitude whose inclination is 35° to the equator, the
and contributes directly to the velocity required sub-satellite point criss-crosses the area of the
to maintain the satellite in its orbit. Earth bounded by N latitude 35° and S latitude
The limiting orbit, even though the ratio of 35°; the tracking stations must, therefore, be
perigee to apogee is 200 to 1400, is very slightly located in these regions.
elliptical. Once the vehicle has left the stand Time in sunlight—It is important to consider
and has put the satellite into an orbit, the satel- and attempt to control the time the satellite
lite is free of the rotation of the Earth on its would stay in sunlight. It is the time in sun-
axis. The plane of the orbit will remain rela- light which is the controlling factor in the heat
VERNAL EQUINOX (MAR 21):ADD 7 MIN{OO*

O°) ayTUMNAL EQUINOX(SEPT.23):SUBTR.7 MIN
FOR TWO WEEK FUTURE CONDITIONS: ADD 4" 50™
,f er. TT ry. ssf?
Tio
100
98
1 — AWAY FROM SUN
96
2- 90° FROM SUN
94
3 - TOWARD SUN
92
90
88
PERIOO
86
84
PER
82
TIME
"60
SUNLIGHT
78
76
PERCENT
74
72
70
64
62
60
|| l
-—
}-—
f—
F—
1500 -—
|—
1900 }—
-—
1300 F—
1700 —
0900 +—
o 8 3
0700
100
0500
0100
0700
1100
LAUNCH! G TIME - $ T
2
Fic. §5— Per cent of time in sunlight for 200- to 1500-mi orbit for launching
at equinox

input to the satellite, thereby determining its These have been combined on many different
temperature. There are two factors to be con- charts for convenient use.
sidered here: (1) the electronic equipment is The computations necessary to produce useful
sensitive to temperature and will operate satis- guiding charts have been made for three orbits
facturily only between reasonable temperature considered typical for this problem: (a) a circu-
limits, (2) some of the experiments must ob- lar orbit at 200-mi height; (b) 200- to 800-mi
serve the Sun. As will be seen, the control that elliptical orbit; (c) 200- to 1500-mile elliptical
is left to us once the inclination of the orbit has orbit. For each case conditions at all launching
been chosen is that of launching time and date. times of day have been computed at twelve dif-
In order to have available a sufficient picture for ferent dates of the year, when the solar declina-
judging suitable launching times of day for all tion is 0°, +10°, +20° and +23.5°. Typical
times of the year, a great number of particular curves resulting from these studies are shown
solutions to this problem have been computed. in the next three figures (Fig. 5-7). The first
SUMMER SOLSTICE (5© » +23.5°) JUNE 22

FOR TWO WEEK FUTURE CONDITIONS:ADO 4%50™
Poy Ey ET eeee eee
—APOGEE
96 }— I= AWAY FROM SUN
2-
90° FROM SUN
3 TOWARO SUN
92 F—
88 }—
PERIOD
86 F—
PER
82 r—
TIME
80 }-—
SUNLIGHT
78r—
76,—-
PERCENT
72
7Or—
68 F—
66r—
62 }—
60 }—
|
F—-
F—-
F—-
F—
F—
F—
F—
F—
F—
F—
F—
°3
1100
1900
1500
1700
1300
0900
2300
0500
0300
O100
0700
1100
0900
LAUNCHING TI
-~
m
Fic. 6— Per cent of time in sunlight for 200- to 1500-mi orbit for launching
at summer solstice

124 JOHN P. HAGEN
0100
0000
2 300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
1500
E€.S.T.
P 65% < B < 75%

1400
—
1300
TIME
{200
1100
LAUNCH
1000 65%< BK 75%

0900
0800
0700
0600
0500
0400
$5 % KCB L75% 65% <BL75% |
0300
0200
0100
0000
2300 {| | Yop tt | | i | | LAR

8s eg FSF
qj
3 Fs qj ce
ERS FF EB
q
E: >
Fic. 7 — Summary of per cent of time in sunlight for 200— to 1500-mi orbit, apogee away from Sun

of these is drawn for the time of the equinox, the temperature of the satellite is to control its
the three curves referring to the position of infrared emissivity.
apogee. Figure 6 is drawn for the time of the The internal package temperature is a func-
summer solstice when the solar declination has tion of the internal power dissipation, the ther-
its greatest possible value, 23.5°. It is seen mal isolation between package and shell, and the
here that during one period covering more than shell temperature. The emissivity of the ex-
two hours, it would be possible to put a satellite ternal surface of the satellite shell will be modi-
in an orbit continuously in sunlight. Figure 7 fied through the application of a thin coating
shows a summary of this information with the of silicon monoxide which is transparent in the
launching date as the abcissa and launching time visible, but opaque in the infrared. With the
as the ordinate. From this Figure it is clea#* ‘proper choice of thickness for this coating the
that if it is desired to keep the satellite out of current conclusion is that the mean shell tem-
sunlight for a period of time, it is necessary to perature will fall somewhere within a range of
take care in the actual time of launching. There 50°C for all possible orbit parameters. The
are three factors which must be considered in current choice for the range of temperatures for
choosing the probable time of launching of each the satellite is —15° to +35°C. With the shell
of the vehicles: (1) visual acquisition of the going through this excursion in temperature, the
satellite by chosen moonwatch stations at the internal package will remain within the limits
time of morning or evening twilight, (2) the of —5° to +45°C. This will be satisfactory for
necessity to avoid initially excessive time in the electronics, the batteries, and for the sci-
sunlight during each orbital revolution so as to entific experiment, at least for the first satellite.
prevent failure of electronic components in the Therefore, no further system of control is pro-
satellite owing to overheating, and (3) the re- posed for the satellite. If it becomes necessary,
quirement for several of the satellite experi- a heat switch now under development could be
ments that the orientation of the spinning satel- inserted between the package and the shell and
lite relative to the sun will be compatible with thereby further control the package temperature.
the experiment. It will be attempted to meet Magnetic damping of satellite rotational ve-
all of these conditions but it must be recognized locity—The third stage of the rocket will be
that unforeseen and unpredictable delays fre- spun about its longitudinal axis in order to sta-
quently occur in rocket launchings. This is to be bilize its flight, and some of this spin will be im-
anticipated especially in this vehicle which is parted to the satellite. After separation the
rather complex with its three active stages. satellite will be a spinning conducting body in
Satellite temperatures—The satellite when in the Earth’s magnetic field and there will be a
orbit is isolated and can gain and lose power loss of energy in the form of heat produced by
induced eddy currents. The reaction of this in-
significantly only by means of radiation. Aero-
duced force will take energy from the satellite’s
dynamic heating will be negligible. The major
rotational motion and thus slow the angular
sources of radiant power are the Sun, sunlight
velocity of rotation. Some theoretical work has
reflected from the Earth, and the Earth’s radia-
been done on this problem and calculations show
tion itself. Radiation from each of these sources
that the satellite will reduce its spin velocity to
is incident on the orbiting satellite and is ab-
1/e of the initial value in about one week.
sorbed by the shell. Power is lost from the Satellites—There are four different satellite
satellite system only as infrared thermal radia- designs being made for the six launching at-
tion from the shell. The temperature
of the tempts. The current group-one satellite will be
shell is, therefore, determined by radiation bal- described as typical of the four. Figure 8 shows
ance. If the internal package temperature is dif- a cutaway drawing of this satellite as it is being
ferent from that of the shell, then the package constructed. The highly polished silicon-mon-
will either accept or contribute to the power oxide coated 20-inch magnesium sphere weighs
and modify the shell temperature slightly, but about 214 Ib and has four antennas mounted 90°
the significant factor for the shell is the external apart at the equator. These antennas are
radiation field. Since the only method by which fastened by tubular rods to a tubular ring which
the shell can lose energy is by radiation in the is concentric with a cylindrical internal package.
infrared, then it is clear that the way to control This inner package holds the electronic circuits

126 JOHN P. HAGEN
Fic. 8 Typical
— Vanguard satellite
for the Minitrack transmitter and the scientific diameter. On the top cover of the internal
experiments, and the batteries. The ring sup- package are the connectors which serve to con-
porting the central package is also supported by nect the gages on the skin to the electronics and
four bow-shaped vertical tubular members also connect the batteries with the electronics,
spaced 90° apart at angles of 45° to the antenna thus acting as a turn-on switch. While the en-
supports. These vertical members are fastened tire satellite weighs 214 lbs the cylinder carry-
to the support ring of the access port at the top ing the internal electronics weighs approximately
and to the main support column which houses ten pounds.
the separation mechanism at the bottom. The four antennas which extend from the
The sphere is girded by two pressure zones or sphere are connected to the Minitrack trans-
bands, one below the equator and one above. mitter. These antennas must be capable of being
On the shell are the sensing elements for the stowed out of position during the launching of
ultraviolet experiments and the environmental the vehicle. To accomplish this the antennas are
experiments which are to be done in this group- on a spring support, are folded forward in the
one satellite. Included in the internal package nose cone, and as the nose cone is jettisoned the
are modules each 0.6 inch thick. One module antennas snap down into their equatorial posi-
is for the Mlinitrack transmitter and its as- tion and fit snugly on conical supports.
sociated electronics, one module for the Lyman- It is intended to separate the satellite from the
alpha electronics and batteries, one for the third stage by means of a mechanism shown in
coded 48-channel telemetering system, one for Figure 9. This completely self-contained mecha-
the peak memory and orbital switch, and one for nism fits into the socket at the satellite’s base,
the meteor counter. Below these five modules and uses the acceleration characteristics of the
are the battery packages. One battery package is third stage as a method of arming and operation.
146 nches thick, the other 23 inches thick. These After this acceleration is reduced below a fixed
seven modules are held to the top cover of the level, the timer in the separation mechanism
internal package through two rods 4} inch in starts to run and, after approximately 26 sec,

ENGINE
EJECTION SPRING
oO
F
©
=
>
=
Lo
"G WEIGHT" TIMER
FIRING
CONTACTS
(a) LOCKING PINS
SEPARATION SLEEVE
(b) EXPLOSIVE MOTORS

IN THIS AREA
Fic. 9 — Satellite separation mechanism (a) front view; (b) rear view

128 JOHN P. HAGEN
closes circuits to motors within the mechanism fact that the early stages are discarded as soon
which pull the hold-down pins and rotate the as their propellants are consumed, thus making
spring release. The spring exerts a force which it necessary for the later stages to accelerate
imparts a relative velocity of approximately less and less mass. Because of the added com-
three feet per second between the satellite and plexity of additional stages, it was decided to
the empty rocket case. limit the combination being considered to vehi-
Satellite launching vehicle—The requirement cles having three stages or less. A single-stage
that the Earth satellite be established during rocket that flies all the way into the orbit would
the International Geophysical Year imposed be the simplest configuration, but such a rocket
grave limitations on the developmental approach is not realizable with propulsion that could be
to the design of the launching vehicle. It was obtained from chemical combustion.
obviously desirable to use as many off-the-shelf The other basic decision which had to be made
components as possible, to use a configuration was the extent to which active guidance would
for which much of the preliminary design had be employed, or more simply, the number of
already been done, and to employ a rocket stages that would be guided. This decision in-
vehicle contractor who had intimate and recent fluenced the character of each stage, its size and
experience in the design and manufacture of re- complexity, and whether it should employ liquid
search rocket vehicles and who had experienced or solid propellants. The various categories, de-
engineering personnel. A study which had been pending upon the method of guidance, into which
made of a modification of the Viking design two-stage and three-stage rocket combinations
showed it applicable for use as a high-altitude may fall were analyzed on the basis of vehicle
research rocket. The first task which had to be size and complexity. A three-stage combination
accomplished was the translation of payload and employing liquid propellants in the first and
orbital requirements into a vehicle and a plan second stages and a solid propellant in the third
for its employment to achieve the mission. It stage, with guidance in the second stage, was
was then necessary to determine those elements selected for the Vanguard configuration.
which involved developmental effort, to arrange The vehicle which was defined had a mini-
for their procurement and their integration into mum gross weight of approximately 20,000 Ib.
a vehicle, and to evaluate their performance. The minimum thrust for the first stage, to as-
A three-stage configuration was selected for sure a safe initial (takeoff) acceleration was
the Vanguard launching vehicle. A theoretical chosen as 27,000 lb. An engine with this thrust
analysis of staging (Fig. 10) shows that for the was promptly selected for use in the first stage,
same gross weight, performance, and payload, and its choice dictated to a large degree the
the velocity gain over a single stage is 33 pct for characteristics of the remaining propulsion
two stages, 45 pct for three stages, and only systems.
70 pet for an infinite number of stages. This im- Stage weight and performance criteria, once
provement with a number of stages is due to the the first-stage gross weight and thrust were
fixed, were determined by the employment of
weight and trajectory optimization techniques.
The values established as initial targets in the
Vanguard vehicle specification are reproduced
VELOCITY
in Table 1; some of them have since been re-
TABLE 1
BURNOUT
Vanguard weight and performance data,

gross weight 22,600 Ib
RELATIVE
{
Weight and perform- | First Second Third
ance elements stage stage stage
3
Thrust, lb ........... 27,000 7,500 2,350
NUMBER OF STAGES Burning time, sec..... 146 120 30
Horizontal velocity in-
Fic. 10 Analysis
— of staging and vehicle crement, ft/sec ..... 4,023 8,389 13,405
performance

vised slightly as a result of the development flight the nose cone is to be jettisoned. (e) Pitch-
program. over during the second-stage post-cutoff flight is
To assure a reasonable acceleration at the to align the vehicle so that the third-stage ve-
separation of the second stage from the first, a locity vector at the time of third-stage burnout
nominal second-stage thrust of 7500 lb was se- will be parallel to the local horizontal within
lected. The state of the art dictated a liquid- the limitations imposed by Figure 4. (f) After
propellant rocket. The problems associated with second-stage separation, the third stage is to in-
ignition of the powerplant made a hypergolic crease its velocity sufficiently to insure attain-
fuel combination and simplicity of design manda- ment of the prescribed satellite orbit. (g) When
tory. A package concept was established to al- orbital velocity is attained, the third stage is to
low testing of the system as a whole on the be separated from the satellite. The trajectory
ground and to facilitate the establishment of associated with this flight plan is shown in
vibrational characteristics needed for control- Figure 11.
system design. A gas-pressurized system which The prescribed flight plan and the method of
employed nitric acid and unsymmetrical di- employment of the various powerplants estab-
methyl-hydrazine as propellants was sought. It lished the detailed guidance and control require-
had been hoped originally that an Aerobee-Hi ments. In addition to attitude controls for the
powerplant nearing completion at that time first-stage powered flight and for second-stage
would meet the requirements for this stage. powered and coasting flight, it was found neces-
However, this powerplant could not be modified sary to include (a) a programmer which would
to meet the strenuous requirements specified. introduce, in accordance with a prescribed plan,
The Aerojet General Corporation was selected a pitch-program rate change to secure the opti-
to develop and manufacture a_ second-stage mum trajectory and rocket-staging events, and
powerplant to meet the desired specification. (b) a coasting-time computer which would, on
The severe weight penalty associated with the the basis of integrated acceleration, establish
third stage (80 ft/sec lb) which led to the deci- the optimum time for ignition of the third-stage
sion to house the rocket-borne guidance compon- rocket.
ents in the second stage and the decision to spin The use of the gimballed motor as a means of
the third stage to maintain its orientation during obtaining pitch and yaw correction moments 1s
burning, made the use of a solid-propellant a technique amply proved during the Viking de-
rocket highly desirable for this stage. High mass velopment. The finless configuration, while un-
ratio, approximate axial symmetry throughout tried at the time, was selected. It had been
burning, and the absence of ‘sloshing’ effects studied carefully during the Viking development
rendered internal burning solid rockets par- and appeared to be technically feasible and prac-
ticularly adapted to this type of employment. ticable. The autopilots involved are basically
Several solid-propellant producers submitted similar to those employed on Viking; the ‘rocket
proposals for this stage. Because of the antici- dynamics’ are obviously different and require
pated difficulty of this development, two con- appropriate compensation.
tractors, the Allegany Ballistics Laboratory of The system of guidance finally adopted is not
the Hercules Powder Co., Cumberland, Md. totally dependent on rocket-borne instruments
and the Grand Central Rocket Co. of Redlands, but provides an alternate means of adjusting the
Calif., were selected to conduct parallel efforts. ignition time of the third stage from the ground.
The flight plan initially prescribed for the The Martin Co., Baltimore, Md., was se-
launching vehicle was: (a) Vertical flight from lected as prime contractor for the Vanguard
launching until satisfactory clearance of ground launching vehicle. This assignment carried with
installations has been attained. (b) After reach- it overall responsibility for development of the
ing this point, an approximate zero-normal-force vehicle, including all subcontracting with the
trajectory until aerodynamic forces are no longer exception of electronic components associated
critical. (c) The first stage is to be separated with the acquisition of flight-performance data
from the second stage as soon after burnout as and with range safety and tracking functions.
practicable within the limits of first-stage shut- Not one propulsion system, but three were re-
down and second-stage startup characteristics. quired. Guidance and controls could not be
(d) In the later part of second-stage powered designed to one vehicle whose dynamics change

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130
continuously through the flight regime, but must turbine exhaust thrust so as to produce a cor-
be tailored to three vehicles whose dynamics recting couple about the vehicle’s longitudinal
vary differently and go through sharp transi- axis whenever roll errors and error rates exceed
tions. Structural problems were aggravated by a specified sum. (Guidance information is ob-
these transitions and by the extreme demands for tained from an inertial reference system, car-
weight minimization particularly characteristic ried in the second stage. In essence, the first
of this development. The integration of stages stage is a guided liquid-propellant booster which
and the necessity for some components to per- provides about 65 pct of the energy to raise the
form dual roles have made their requirements remaining stages to orbital altitude and about 15
more exacting than those ordinarily encountered. pet of the required orbital velocity.
The prime contractor, to meet the require- The second stage is a liquid-propellant rocket
ments for this -vehicle, had to perform or ar- that attaches to the forward end of the first
range for the design, construction, qualifica- stage and carries in its nose the third stage and
tion, and integration into an over-all system of satellite payload. Its propellants, white fuming
the following basic components and_ systems: nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethyl-hydra-
three propulsion systems, an overall guidance zine, are fed directly to the motor from high-
system, an inertial reference, a flight program- pressure integral tanks. The pressurizing gas is
mer, a coasting-time computer, and two sepa- helium, as in the first stage. The motor is
ration systems. gimballed, as in the first stage, and it is posi-
The prime contractor has included in his tioned in pitch and yaw by electrohydraulic con-
developmental program as comprehensive a pro- trols. An array of gas jets provides roll control
gram of design confirmation, environmental during second-stage powered flight and complete
qualification, and acceptance tests and studies control of vehicle orientation during coasting
as time will allow, to reduce to a minimum the flight. The reference system is located wholly
number of test objectives which will require within the second stage. The flight programmer
flight testing. Included have been aerodynamic initiates at the proper time all major in-flight
studies and windtunnel tests, structural analyses operations, switching the program (pitch) rates
and tests, vibration analyses and tests, dynamic at the prescribed flight times. The guidance
mockup tests and functional tests of all major and control equipment, housed in the second
systems. Weight optimization and trajectory stage, align and maintain the second stage during
optimization studies have been pursued by both its coasting flight to the proper orientation for
the contractor and the Laboratory. the launching of the third stage.
The composite Vanguard launching vehicle The second stage houses within its nose,
has an over-all length of approximately 72 ft; which is the nose of the composite vehicle, the
a first-stage maximum diameter of 45 inches and third-stage rocket and the satellite. The nose
a second-stage diameter of 32 inches. Its slender- cone protects the delicate satellite sphere from
ness ratio is therefore about 19 to 1, approxi- aerodynamic heating it would encounter, if ex-
mately equal to the initial Viking configuration. posed, during the first- and second-stage ascent
It is finless, of integral tank construction, and through the atmosphere. The cone is jettisoned
has a gross takeoff weight (with propellants) of after 180 sec of flight, after which exposure of
22,600 Ib. the satellite will not be detrimental. The mecha-
The first stage is a liquid-propellant rocket nism for spinning the third stage is carried also
similar to the Viking, but with substantial in the second stage.
changes. Its major propellants, liquid oxygen The second stage thus contains the ‘brain’
and kerosene, are fed to the rocket motor by of the launching vehicle. It also supplies the
turbine driven pumps. The motor is gimballed, remaining energy required to reach orbital alti-
as in the Viking, to provide continuous control tude and about 32 pct of the orbital velocity.
of the vehicle’s orientation and flight path. The The third stage is an unguided solid-propel-
electrohydraulic controls that position the motor lant rocket that is maintained during burning in
have the necessary response to stabilize the com- a stable orientation very nearly parallel to the
posite finless airframe in pitch and yaw. Roll Earth’s surface, by spinning it about its longi-
control is provided by a periodic controller tudinal axis. The third stage is fired at orbital
which divides and changes the direction of the altitude and provides 50 pct of the required

132 JOHN P. HAGEN
orbital velocity. Approximately three per cent to acknowledge the contributions to all of them
of the orbital velocity arises from such geo- with a special emphasis on the contributions of
physical effects as the Earth’s rotation. Joseph Siry and Milton Rosen.
Launching program—Prior to the six satel- Addendum, May 20, 1958—Since this paper
lite launching attempts there is a flight-test pro- was presented, six artificial Earth satellites have
gram which involves the launching of seven test been placed in orbit: three by the Soviet Union
vehicles. With these vehicles all of the compon- and three by the United States. One of the lat-
ents and component assemblies, the telemetry ter was a small test sphere whose launching
and tracking, which are to be used later in the inaugurated the final phase of the Vanguard
satellite launching vehicles are given a flight vehicle test program. Because of the light weight
test. The design of the test vehicles becomes (34 Ib) of this sphere and the excellent per-
gradually more complex until toward the end formance of the Vanguard launching vehicle
this design phases into the satellite launching TV-4, the orbit is very high; both the perigee,
vehicle design. The rigorous schedule imposed 404 mi, and the apogee, 2464 mi, are the highest
by the requirement to launch a satellite during produced to date. The early 1400-mi limitation
the period of the International Geophysical Year on the apogee for Vanguard was removed when
has made necessary a streamlined test program. the development of the radio tracking system
The test vehicle and satellite launching vehi- assured adequate tracking capability at much
cles will be launched from the Air Force test greater ranges.
launching station in Florida with the assistance Measurements of the rate of change in this
of the Air Force. A hangar for vehicle assembly satellite’s period of revolution indicate that its
and a launching complex for firing the vehicles orbital lifetime will be at least 200 years. With
have been constructed and assigned to this opera- its spherical shape and with so stable an orbit,
tion. Major components are a pad for the this satellite should prove a useful one for
launching of the vehicle with provisions for the geodetic and air-density studies. It carries two
necessary controls at the time of launching and Minitrack transmitters, one battery-powered
for the deflection of the hot gases in the initial (exhausted after three weeks of continuous
stages of the flight, a gantry crane which sur- operation) and the other solar-powered; the
rounds the vehicle up until the time of launching latter will radiate on a frequency of 108 mega-
when it is withdrawn, and a blockhouse for the cycles for as long as it escapes damage by en-
accommodation and protection of the personnel vironmental conditions. Both transmitters uti-
at the time of launching. lize temperature-sensitive crystals, and careful
The trajectory of the launching vehicles will measurements of their frequencies have pro-
carry the vehicle to the southeast of Florida vided the internal and the shell temperature of
along the string of islands in the West Indies. the satellite; temperature measurement con-
On many of these islands apparatus has been tinues with the solar-powered transmitter.
installed to receive telemetered signals from the As was to be expected, not all of the vehicles
launching vehicle and to transmit commands to launched in the Vanguard test program were
the vehicle during its course. The last of the entirely successful; two unsuccessful attempts
stations is on Antigua. This is a Minitrack preceded the successful TV-4, and in the final
station and is so located that here will be the test launching, TV-5, an electrical malfunction
first measurement of the velocity of the satellite
prevented the firing of the third-stage rocket
at the end of third-stage burning. While the
after the first two stages had performed ex-
accuracy of the measurement on this short base-
cellently. However, with appropriate measures
line possibly is not high enough to assure that
taken to correct the difficulties encountered in
orbiting velocity and direction have been at-
the test flights, the test program is now con-
tained, nevertheless, the measurement will be
good enough to give us a first indication and to
cluded and the scientific satellite launching pro-
determine whether the other optical and radio gram is about to begin. Before this is printed,
tracking stations should be alerted. the first attempt will have been made to launch
The work of many of the members of the a full-scale Vanguard IGY satellite.
Vanguard group has been drawn heavily upon U. S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington,
in preparing this paper and I would like here D.C.

The United States Satellite Tracking Program

W. H. PICKERING
Introduction—An important part of the satel- the crucial information for the orbit is depend-
lite scientific program is the analysis of the satel- ent upon a knowledge of the vector velocity
lite orbit. Precise observations of this orbit can increment of the third stage. To obtain these
yield results of extraordinary geophysical in- data, the third stage must be tracked, either
terest. The unique feature of the satellite orbit visually or by means of satellite transmitters.
is that, in astronomical terms, it is so close to Visual observations will only be possible if the
the Earth that it is located in a gravitational firing is at night, so that the rocket flame can
field which is not simply the field of a central be photographed. Radio observations require
mass point, but the actual field caused by a that the satellite radio beacon operate correctly
nonspherical, nonuniform Earth. Its motion is during the high-acceleration, high-vibration phase
therefore not a simple Keplerian ellipse fixed in of the flight. It is therefore difficult to estimate
inertial space. Analysis of this motion will pro- with what assurance the orbit will be known
vide geodesists with new data on the gravita- immediately after the firing. Accordingly it is
tional potential in the vicinity of the Earth and, planned to use a widespread network of both
therefore, of the precise shape of the Earth. optical and radio observers to assist in the
The orbital motion will also be affected by the problem of acquiring the satellite and finding its
drag of the atmosphere remaining at the satellite approximate path. Both groups will be pri-
height. This drag will cause a loss of energy marily amateurs, organized into teams capable
and the satellite will eventually re-enter the of making useful observations of high reliability.
dense atmosphere and be destroyed. Our knowl- Visual observers—To date, the primary em-
edge of the atmosphere at satellite altitudes is phasis has been on the organizing of amateur
quite indirect and therefore again the new data astronomers into satellite observing teams. The
from the satellite trajectory will be of great activity is known as Project Moonwatcu, di-
value. rected by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob-
In order to obtain useful data, the observa- servatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. About
tions must be of an accuracy comparable with 80 teams are scattered across the United States.
good astronomical observations. For example, Teams are also being formed in some 22 other
a position accuracy of the order of ten feet at nations throughout the world which are favor-
the trajectory would correspond to an angular ably located for visual observations. Each team
accuracy of the observations of the order of one consists of 15 or more observers equipped with
second of arc. Such an accuracy is not too dif- binoculars or small telescopes (Fig. 1). The
ficult for optical instruments except that the instruments are mounted firmly on fixed supports
satellite is moving at 25,000 ft/sec and therefore so that each observer is looking at a fixed region
a timing accuracy of better than one-half million the sky in the meridian plane. The complete
second is required to correspond to a motion of set of instruments is then arranged to give over-
ten feet along the trajectory. Orbital data of lapping coverage along the meridian plane. In
this accuracy would result in geodetic informa- this way the passage of the satellite through the
tion of a quality not now available except in a meridian of the station will be observed by at
few limited regions of the Earth’s surface. least one observer. The observer marks the
instant of meridian passage and, also by noting
the star background, the approximate zenith
SATELLITE ACQUISITION
angle of the satellite. These data, which it is
When the satellite is launched, the instrumen- hoped will be accurate to at least one second of
tation at the launching site, Cape Canaveral, time and one degree of arc, will be telephoned
Florida, will provide an approximate estimate immediately to the Smithsonian Observatory
of the orbit. Presumably the tracking of the where they will be analyzed and used to estab-
second stage will be quite accurate; however, lish the approximate orbit.
133

134 W. H. PICKERING
Fic. 1— Photograph of MOoNWATCH station
Information on Project Moonwatcu has been carry a radio transmitter and this signal will be
widely disseminated through the journal Sky and tracked by the prime radio network, the Mini-
Telescope, and a special Bulletin for Visual Ob- track stations along the 75th meridian. How-
servers of Satellites issued by the Smithsonian ever, observations from other radio receiving
Observatory. A nationwide practice alert was stations could prove exceedingly valuable. The
held in May with encouraging results. Naval Research Laboratory will shortly publish
The Moonwatcu organization will be needed information on what is known as the Mark II
not only at the beginning of the satellite’s life, Minitrack, a simpler system than the prime
but also at the end. By this time any radio Minitrack stations. Mark II Minitrack stations
equipment aboard the satellite will have ex- will be set up at a number of locations around
hausted its batteries, and the only means of ob- the world. To date inquiries concerning Mark
servation will be optical. There will be con- II stations have been received from a number of
siderable interest in the exact nature of the final nations including France, South Africa, Japan,
path taken by the object as it plunges into the Australia, and England, as well as numerous
dense atmosphere. Even though the orbit has groups within the United States.
been well established, this path will be only Amateur radio stations within the United
roughly predictable. It is therefore hoped that States are also being organized to contribute to
Moonwatch stations all over the Earth can be the satellite program. A radio station more
alerted to follow the final crucial days of the appropriate to amateur use is a modification of
satellite. Only in this way can vital information the Jet Propulsion Laboratory’s Microlock sys-
be obtained on the air density at altitudes sig- tem [Richter, Sampson and Stevens, 1957]. Such
nificantly below the original perigee altitude. a station has been built by the San Gabriel
Radio observers—The satellite is expected to Valley Radio Club and is ready for operation

U. S. SATELLITE TRACKING PROGRAM 135
(Fig. 2). A description of this station will be three-element corrector plate and a 31-inch
published in the amateur radio magazine QST. spherical mirror.
It is planned to build an amateur radio network The focal ratio of the camera will be £/1; the
along similar lines to the MoonwatTcH network. scale will be approximately 406 seconds of
With both optical and radio observers at arc/mm. This instrument is expected to photo-
widely separated sites, it is hoped that the prob- graph rapidly moving satellites as faint as the
lem of the initial acquisition of the satellite will 13th magnitude. A measuring accuracy of two
not prove too difficult. From these observations, seconds of arc is expected. An automatic film
the initial ephemeris will be calculated, and the transport system permits the taking of succes-
precision observing stations will be alerted at the sive exposures at 2- to 32-second intervals and
appropriate times. permits exposures in relatively bright twil'ght
sky.
PRECISION OBSERVATIONS A significant measurement to two seconds of
arc requires a timing accuracy of 0.001 second
Precision measurements of the orbit will be
of time. To achieve this accuracy each station
made both optically and by radio. The optical
will be equipped with a modified Norrman
method has the advantage of higher intrinsic
crystal clock which may be read by means of an
accuracy but has a limited observing time. The
oscilloscope to 0.0001 of a second. A time-display
radio method requires the satellite transmitter
unit from this clock will be located within the
to be operating and, although the accuracy is
lower, the object may be observed on every body of the telescope and will be photographed
passage, regardless of time of day or weather on each film strip. More detailed information
conditions. It is therefore apparent that both on the construction and operation of these in-
techniques should be exploited fully. struments and the timing system will be found
Satellite camera—The basic optical instrument in the article entitled The Baker-Nunn Satellite
is a Schmidt-type camera with a special film- Tracking Camera, [Sky and Telescope, Jan.
transport mechanism designed for the express 1957]. Figure 3 presents a sketch of the camera
purpose of satellite tracking. The camera was mechanism.
designed under the direction of Fred L. Whipple, It will be possible to photograph the satellite
Director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob- only during the twilight periods when the satel-
servatory. It utilizes a 20-inch apochromatic lite can be seen against a dark sky and will still
REFERENCE ANDO
TELEME TERING C1ANNEL
es
es
oe
ay
nn
ee
Fic. 2— Block diagram of San Gabriel Valley Radio Club Microlock station

136 W. H. PICKERING
TRACKING
ORIVE
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PRIMARY
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rit conrainen
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SHUTTER FOCAL PLANE >.) ES)
MECHANISM \
~~
SS
THREC -ECLEMENT h—R
= 20.00 SS
CORRECTING SYSTEM . SoS
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\ Film
TRANSPORTING SS
SAVY
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DEW CAP—LIGHT SHIELD
MIRROR CELL
iLM
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TENSIONING WHEEL
Fic. 3 The
— precision camera mechanism (Courtesy of Sky and Telescope)
be high enough to reflect sunlight. For a station M =5.7+5 log d/200. Thus at an altitude of 1000
at a latitude of 30° and a satellite height of miles the brightness is equivalent to a magnitude
800 mi, the satellite may be observed for at least of 9.2. This brightness assumes an optimum
two hours at morning and evening twilights. geometry of the Sun, satellite, and the observer.
Thus, assuming a 100-minute period for the The angular velocity of the satellite as seen from
satellite, a station within observing range of the the Earth will, of course, depend upon the
orbit during the twilight period is certain to zenith angle and the altitude of the satellite.
make one observation of the satellite during the For an altitude of 200 mi and a point near the
twilight interval and may possibly make two zenith, the angular velocity will be approxi-
observations. A station at 30° latitude will see mately 14° per second.
the orbit of the satellite at least 30° above its In order to photograph this faint, rapidly
horizon during morning or evening twilight for moving object, a large field of view is required
approximately 28 days during each 70-day preces- since it must be assumed that the predicted
sion period. Taking into account the many fac- position of the object is no more accurate than
tors involved including weather and season, it about 1°. The Baker-Nunn camera has a field of
appears likely that an average station may expect 5°x 30° which is photographed on a strip of
to observe the satellite approximately 15 times 50-mm film about one foot long. With a focal
in two months. length of 20 inches, an image diameter of 30
Calculations assuming a 20-inch specular satel- microns is required to fully utilize the camera’s
lite with a reflectivity of 0.6 indicate that, at the capability. In order to achieve this performance
expected perigee height of 200 mi, the satellite out to the edge of the field, a special Schmidt
will be about as bright as a 5.7 magnitude star. system was designed by J. G. Baker. The
At any other altitude, the magnitude is given by camera is mounted on a gimbal structure which

permits the long axis of the film to be oriented will move some 5300 seconds of arc per second of
along the expected path of the satellite. It is time. A measuring accuracy of two seconds of
planned to cause the camera to oscillate so that arc along the direction of motion would thus
it will alternately track at the satellite rate and require time determination to 1/2500 second of
at the rate of sidereal motion parallel to the time in this extreme case. It is impossible to
satellite orbit. In this way exposures on the achieve this precision in field operations but,
satellite and on the background of faint stars clearly, the greatest possible accuracy must be
can be made on a single film. The satellite can strived for. The main component of the time
then be measured relative to nearby star images. unit installed with each telescope will be the
Account can be taken of the satellite motion Model III crystal clock manufactured by Ernst
between the two exposures by measuring the Norrman Laboratories, Williams Bay, Wis-
distance between the ‘star-exposure’ images of consin.
the bright stars and the ‘satellite-exposure’ The satellite-tracking cameras and the timing
images of these same stars. This distance will equipment are now under construction. The
never exceed one inch; the problem of film basic contractors are Perkin-Elmer Corporation,
stretching is thus minimized. Norwalk, Connecticut, which is producing the
It is important to provide sharp breaks in the optical components, and Boller and Chivens,
trail as reference points for measurement and Inc., South Pasadena, California, which is mak-
for time determination. These breaks will be ing the mechanical components. The crystal
produced by a rotating barrel shutter with all clocks and their accessories are being built by
but two staves missing. This shutter is shown the Norrman Laboratories. The correcting-plate
in the upper part of the camera diagram as the glass is being produced by the Schott optical
cylinder that encloses the film backup plate. glass works in West Germany, while the mirror
Concentric with the barrel shutter and just out- blanks are coming from the Corning Glass
side it is a clamshell shutter which snaps open Works, Corning, New York. The first optical
to begin and shuts to terminate each exposure. system and its camera body and mount are
The operation of the satellite tracking camera expected by late summer.
may be described in terms of a basic cycle in It is planned to have twelve stations dis-
which the tracking rate varies from sidereal to tributed about the world for photographic ob-
satellite and back again. The length of this servation of the satellite. The locations of the
operating cycle may be set at 2, 4, 8, 16, or 32 sec. observing sites are as follows: White Sands,
If the cycle begins just at the end of the star New Mexico; Florida near Palm Beach; Cu-
exposure, the following events occur in the order ragao, Netherlands West Indies; Arequipa,
given: Peru; Villa Dolores, Argentina; Olifantsfontein,
The tracking rate accelerates until the satellite Union of South Africa; Cadiz, Spain; Shiraz-
rate is reached. The clamshell shutter snaps Teheran, Iran; Naini Tal, India; Woomera,
open for an interval of 0.1 cycle, during which Australia; Mitaka, Japan; Haleakala, Hawaii.
the exposure is chopped into four segments by Each station will be equipped with camera, clock,
the continuously rotating barrel shutter (which power supply, radio equipment, and the necessary
turns 20 times per cycle). At the instant of supporting activities. Transportation of equip-
some one chop, a stroboscopic flash illuminates ment to the stations is being provided by the
the time-display unit attached to the camera, Air Force. At the stations in other countries a
and the time is photographed on the following great deal of technical assistance is being pro-
strip of film through a small auxiliary optical vided by local scientists.
system. After the clamshell closes, the tracking The first camera will be installed at the site
rate decelerates to the sidereal rate and the near White Sands, New Mexico, in the summer
clamshell opens again for 0.1 cycle. This star of 1957. By the end of 1957 cameras will be
exposure is likewise chopped into four segments operating at seven sites. All stations should be in
but the time is not recorded. After the shutter operation by March 1958.
closes again, the film is automatically changed Radio system—The Minitrack system is de-
and the cycle repeats. signed to track the very weak transmitted signal
At its greatest angular velocity, the satellite from the satellite, with high angular accuracy.

W. H. PICKERING
Fic. 4— Antenna installation at Blossom Point, Md.
This system consists basically of a very sensitive provided to resolve ambiguities, thus giving
receiving system and an array of antennas ar- coarse, medium, and fine data in the north-south
ranged to form an interferometer. Figure 4 is plane and medium and fine data in the east-west
a photograph of the antenna installation at plane. Great care has to be taken with the feed
Blossom Point, Maryland, and Figure 5 is a lines in order to maintain the correct phase
sketch of the complete antenna field. Each relationships over the whole field.
antenna in the field is an array of eight driven In order to read the bearing angles of the
elements forming a fan beam with about a transmitter a phase comparison is made between
10° width in the east-west plane and a 100° the outputs of the appropriate antennas. Fig-
width in the north-south plane. The basic inter- ure 6 is a block diagram of the receiver. The
ferometer is a cross with 500 ft separation be- essential feature of the receiver is a scheme to
tween antennas. Four additional antennas are beat the signals down to 500 cycles and then
measure phase against a reference 500 cycle tone.
Output data will consist of digital readout of
the ‘fine’ data and analogue data from the
‘coarse’ antenna pairs. Time will be measured
to an accuracy of better than one millisecond.
250' It is hoped to attain an angular accuracy of
better than 0.1 milliradian. Calibration of each
station will be required at intervals of a few
months. This will probably be done with air-
- - -
planes flying over the station at great altitudes,
although the possibility of using radio stars is
MINITRACK being explored.
250 | ANTENNAS
| Q@TRAILER The Minitrack program is under the direction
of the Naval Research Laboratory. A station
:—=— - has been constructed at Blossom Point, Mary-
land, and has been in operation for almost a
+ 250'——e——250'_—+ year. Equipment for other stations is being
built by Bendix and the first units have been
Fic. 5 — Sketch of complete Minitrack antenna field delivered (Fig. 7). This Minitrack network

| ANTENNAS |
Ul (8 required) | | [ WESTERN
ELECTRIC
' OSCILLATOR
' 108 MC 108 MC |
PREAMP #1] |PREAMP #2 PRECISION
PHASE SOURCE] |] COUNT -DOWN
CIRCUITS
| MIXER #1 | | MIXER #2 |
i 119.2950 MC } '
+-—+(X) ! DIGITAL DIGITAL
119.2955 MC PHASE METER CLOCK
| REQUIR
OUTPUT OUTPUT ee
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
{ !
| DIGIT AL
RECORDER
' COMBINED IF , ANALOG
11.7655 MC 11.7650 MC AMPLIFIER PHASE METER =
CRYSTAL CRYSTAL + (470 KC) 7) (5 REQUIRED)
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
ANALOG |}
RECORDER
REACTANCE DETECTOR
| | MODULATOR 500 CPS SIGNAL ,
500 CPS REFERENCE SIGNAL
131.0605 MC ANALOG
a bet FIVE IDENTICAL UNITS —o———
ee eee
RACK ee
———o —_e
‘ REQUIRED
b R.F. RACK
Fic. 6 Block
— diagram of Minitrack receiver
_?
te." t =
Arcs
Re av Aes ees
ee. Ak: . iN
Niele SAN,
fe
oe
’
i.
4 . 1
¥
woatn Fag
=
wemTRACE COARSE AND

ELECT ROMCS WE DIVE
TRANER
WEST FiMe
aS
South Fm
es
Sd
TELEMETERIO
Ante wea
“ G (TL ROT ART EO
ot by! By TR
&. \ a ty ro
o a pu DINE Krarrt
Fic. 7 — Typical Minitrack facility layout
consists of stations at the following locations: Mayaguana and Grand Turk Islands will be
Blossom Point, Maryland; Fort Stewart, Geor- used as a part of the launching system instru-
gia; Havana, Cuba; Antigua, the West Indies; mentation.
Quito, Ecuador; Lima, Peru; Antofagasta, The South American stations will be operated
Chile; Santiago, Chile; San Diego, California; by the U. S. Army, which will also provide the
Bloemfontain, Union of South Africa; and communications network for the system. Army
Woomera, Australia. In addition, stations at personnel are now undergoing training at Blos-

140 W. H. PICKERING
som Point. The Minitrack network will be satellite, it is expected that the satellite ephem-
installed this fall, and it is expected that stations eris will be published as widely as possible.
will be calibrated and put into operation by The path of the satellite—If{ the Earth were
November 1957. a completely symmetrical spherical mass, the
In addition to the prime Minitrack stations, satellite motion would be an elipse fixed in space
Minitrack Mark II equipment will be used by except for very slight perturbations caused by
the Army Map Service to survey some of the the Moon and the Sun. However, because the
islands of the Pacific. The Mark II Minitrack Earth is an oblate spheroid, the actual motion is
will have a simpler antenna system and a simpli- considerably perturbed from the simple elipse.
fied receiving system. It will not be capable of Calculations of this perturbation have been made
resolving ambiguities in the interferometer out- by Brower [1946], Spitzer [1950], Davis, W’hip-
put. It is hoped that additional Mark II equip- ple, and Zirkner [1956], and Blitzer, Weisfeld,
ments will be built by groups both in this country and Wheelon [1956]. More recently, L. E.
and abroad. Information on the Mark II system Cunningham in an unpublished note has con-
will be published shortly. sidered the case of an orbit of any inclination.
Orbital computations—Data from the Mini- Figure 8, from Cunningham’s paper, gives the
track system will be obtained on every passage result of his calculations. He assumes that the
of the satellite around the Earth. These data perturbations are due only to the oblateness of
will be sent by teletype to a computing center the Earth. In Figure 8, the following are used:
in Washington, D. C. The satellite orbit will (2 is the longitude of the ascending node of the
then be computed on the basis of existing data, satellite’s orbit on the Earth’s equator; w is the
and a continually improved orbit will be gen- argument of perigee, that is, the angle in the
erated as new data are received. Suitable pro- satellite’s orbit from the ascending node to
gramming of a digital computer for this purpose perigee; a, is the ‘right ascension of perigee.’
has been initiated by the Naval Research Labo- It is the actual right ascension of the perigee
ratory. It is hoped that orbital data will be point as it would be seen by an observer at the
obtained essentially in real time so that advance center of the Earth. The heavy vertical line at
information on the expected satellite orbits can one degree represents the daily motion of the
be transmitted to the observing stations. Sun in right ascension. It is seen that for an
The films obtained from the optical observa- inclination of about 39° the daily motions of the
tions will developed on site and rough measure- Sun and of perigee are equal; consequently, the
ments made. If desirable, these rough measure- same point on the satellite’s orbit is observable
ments will be immediately transmitted by cable indefinitely in a given twilight zone. It is also
or radio to the Smithsonian Observatory at noted that the precession rate of the plane of the
Cambridge. The films will then be mailed to orbit diminishes as the inclination increases; for
Cambridge where precise measurements will be an orbit inclined at about 40° to the equator, the
made. The Smithsonian Observatory has like- period of the precession is about 70 days. It is
wise arranged for a digital computer in Cam- apparent that measurements of the precession
bridge to be used to generate a satellite ephem- of the plane of the orbit will readily provide a
eris. There will be close coordination between value of the oblateness far more accurate than
the computing centers at Washington and Cam- any now available.
bridge. The next most important perturbation to the
As the satellite continues on its orbit, it is path is believed to be that due to atmospheric
expected that the radio data will fail in about drag. It can be readily shown that a small drag
two weeks when the batteries are exhausted. force will be evidenced first by a decrease of the
Optical data, however, will continue to be re- apogee altitude corresponding to the loss of
ceived during the entire life of the satellite. energy due to the frictional resistance. If the
Much of the value of the satellite orbital anal- perigee altitude is about 200 mi and the apogee
ysis will result from a careful examination of about 1000 mi, most of the energy loss will arise
these data extending over many months. In from motion of the satellite through the air in
order to provide the fullest opportunity for ob- the vicinity of perigee. Therefore, the variations
servers in all parts of the world to utilize the in apogee altitude can be interpreted as a meas-

Motion in degrees per doy

90°
= 10° -$° 0° + 5°
+10° +15°
80° -
70°
60°
of Orbit
so0° }—-—_—--—- ~
inclination
40°
8
pe
\
20°
\ \
10°
0°
n Ge Ox, w
Fic. 8 — Secular perturbations of the orbit for various inclinations (Courtesy

Leland E. Cunningham)
ure of the air density near perigee altitude. Earth. These disturbances may evidence them-
After the orbit has been reduced to a circle, selves as a ‘noise’ on the orbit. The question of
further loss of energy causes a very rapid decay whether analysis of the orbit can provide in-
of the orbit, and the satellite enters the dense formation on such disturbances in the gravi-
atmosphere and is burned up. Calculations of tational potential is exceedingly complex.
the air density based on the loss of energy of the The network of satellite observing stations,
satellite are complicated by the following: (1) particularly the optical stations, will be tied
Geometrical factors. Since the satellite is spheri- together through the satellite orbit to a very
cal with the exception of its antennas, the orien- high accuracy, perhaps of the order of 50 ft.
tation of the satellite will not cause a significant Such a world-wide geodetic net does not now
change in the drag force. (2) The law of motion exist, and it will consequently be of great value
of molecules striking the satellite is in some in linking together the triangulation networks
question. If the molecules rebound at double in various parts of the world.
the velocity of the object, the drag coefficient
REFERENCES
will be two. If the molecules stick to the object,
BuiTzer, L., M. WEISFELD, AND A. D. WHEELON,
the drag coefficient is unity. (3) Because of the
Perturbations of a satellite’s orbit due to the
ionization of the atmosphere at these altitudes, Earth’s oblateness, J. App. Phys., 27, 1141, 1956.
there will be an additional drag force caused Brower, D., The motion of a particle with negligi-
by the fact that the satellite will become charged ble mass under the gravitational attraction of a
spheroid, Astron. J., 51, 223, 1946.
and will therefore attract additional molecules
Davis, R. J., F. L. WHippLe, AND J. B. ZiRKER, The
into its path so that its effective area will be orbit of a small Earth satellite, Scientific uses of
slightly increased (R. Jastrow and C. A. Pearse, Earth satellites, Univ. Mich. Press, p. 1, 1956.
private communication). Although these factors RICHTER, H. L., W. F. SAMPSON, AND ROBERTSON
STEvENSs, Microlock: A minimum weight instru-
complicate density calculations, it remains that mentation system for a satellite, Jet Propulsion
orbital data which show the energy loss due to Lab. External Pub. 376; also published in Proc.
frictional force will result in far more accurate Nat. Telemetering Conf., El Paso, Texas,
density data than is now available. May 27, 1957.
SPITZER, L., Jr., Perturbations of a satellite orbit,
The motion of the satellite will be further J. Brit. Inter-Plan. Soc., 9, 131, 1950.
perturbed to an unknown extent due to irregu-
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of
larities in the gravitational potential around the Technology, Pasadena, California

Scientific Instrumentation of Satellites
James A. VAN ALLEN
Introduction—I should like to discuss in this tion; Herbert Friedman, Naval Research Labo-
paper the IGY Earth Satellite Program, and ratory; Lyman Spitzer of Princeton University;
especially the portion with which I have been L. R. Alldredge of the Johns Hopkins Opera-
most directly concerned: the experiments using tions Research Office; R. W. Porter; and myself
scientific instruments within the satellite itself. (as chairman).
The inclusion of such internal instruments makes Over 30 serious and competent proposals for
possible the investigation of a vastly richer field satellite experiments in various fields have been
of phenomena than is possible with an essentially received. A substantial effort has been devoted
inert satellite which is observed by ground track- to the study and discussion of these proposals
ing stations alone. Moreover, nearly all of the because, as everyone realizes, the possibilities for
projects designed for eventual practical applica- important and far-reaching research using arti-
tions of artificial satellites (for example, reliable ficial earth satellites far exceed the limits of the
long range weather forecasting) depend essen- pioneering IGY effort. First of all, we have
tially on observations made with ‘on-board’ stringent limitations of technical feasibility in
instruments. any one flight. Second, we are limited by the
Soon after the organization of the Technical number of flights which will be made. And of
Panel on the Earth Satellite Program in the course, we are further limited by the factor of
fall of 1955, many of us had the feeling that one success which must be applied to any single satel-
of our first responsibilities was to bring to the lite launching attempt. As a consequence, the
attention of the scientific community at large the selection of the best experiments from among
possibilities and opportunities for making ob- the large number of proposals has been the
servations with internal apparatus. During the primary task of this working group.
past year and a half, a number of us have We have submitted each proposed experiment
devoted considerable effort to conducting con- to four test questions or four test criteria. First,
ferences, to addressing scientific and technical we have undertaken to assess the scientific im-
societies, and to writing and publishing articles portance of the proposal. This does not mean
in an attempt to bring this about. we have regarded ourselves as omniscient in de-
One of the major steps in this effort occurred ciding whether ionospheric physics is more im-
in January 1956. The Upper Atmosphere Rocket portant than, say, solar physics. We have under-
Research Panel conducted a major symposium taken no such appraisal whatever. Rather, the
with 38 formal papers discussing specific tangible point of view has been: Is the proposed experi-
proposals for using small satellites for observa- ment, if successfully carried out, likely to yield
tions of physical phenomena. The proceedings observations which will significantly aid the un-
of this symposium have recently been published derstanding of a fairly large body of phenomena
in book form and I believe that this is one of and, secondly, does it appear to have the poten-
the first substantial professional contributions to tial for significant discoveries in this field of
this field. physics? Although these are matters on which
Selection of experiments—In January 1956, a there is seldom unanimous agreement in any
Working Group on Internal Instrumentation diverse group, there has been a strong measure
was established by the USNC Technical Panel of agreement on these criteria in assessing indi-
on the Earth Satellite Program to deal with all vidual experiments.
aspects of ‘on-board’ observing equipment and, The second test question has to do with tech-
in particular, to sift and appraise the numerous nical feasibility. This must take into account the
proposals which were by then being received. weight of the apparatus, the power drain re-
The members of this working group are quired, the feasibility of storage and transmission
M. Ference now with the Ford Motor Com- of the observed data, and a great miscellany of
pany; W. W. Kellogg from the Rand Corpora- other technical questions (such as mechanical
142

SCIENTIFIC SATELLITE INSTRUMENTATIONS 143
ruggedness or proper operation over a large and periment, which uses a basically simple system.
uncertain range of temperature). In this area As you will see, all of the experiments chosen
the best guidance has come from our experience are basically simple. In fact, in a certain way
in the conduct of experiments with rockets dur- of looking at it, they are almost ridiculously
ing the past decade. Such experience has pro- simple in terms of the preparation which is re-
vided the most tangible technical and scientific quired to accomplish them. The ultraviolet ap-
foundation for the discussion of satellite possi- paratus consists essentially of only a selective
bilities. wave length ionization chamber covering the
Thirdly, we have considered the competence of range of about 1100 to 1400 Angstroms. This is
the group or agency making each proposal, bas- a scheme which has been worked out and very
ing this consideration primarily on the previous successfully used by Friedman at the Naval Re-
record of achievement in the general area search Laboratory in a number of rocket flights
involved. during the past several years. Its special scien-
Finally, we have put a test question something tific interest is in monitoring the intensity of the
of this sort: Is the satellite essential to this Lyman alpha line (1215.7 Angstroms) which is
observation? Does it provide only a moderate the sole significant source of energy from the
increase in effectiveness or does it provide an Sun in the wave-length region between 1100 and
effectiveness which is enormously beyond that 1400 Angstroms. This radiation from the Sun
of any other conceivable method? has a profound effect on the Earth’s upper
During the period in which we have been in atmosphere, by which it is completely absorbed,
operation as a Working Group we have sifted and exerts a controlling influence on long range
and resifted proposals as they have come in; we radio communications, and possibly on climatic
have asked for and received expert opinion from trends. The apparatus planned for a satellite
all available sources: we have had extensive will observe the intensity of this radiation, its
personal presentations by the proposers; and we fluctuations and the correlation of these fluctua-
have undertaken to keep our appraisals both up tions with related terrestrial conditions. No
to date and realistic in accordance with the way such continuous observations over an extended
in which projects have developed. As a result period of time have ever been possible before.
of this process we have established a hard-core In addition to this primary experiment (pack-
program of on-board experiments. These experi- age I), there is a group of so-called environ-
ments encompass the following scientific fields: mental experiments being prepared by the Naval
meteorology, geomagnetism, ionospheric physics, Research Laboratory. These have to do partly
cosmic rays, meteorites, and astrophysics. All with matters of engineering in determining for
of these proposed experiments are intimately re- the first time the actual physical conditions of a
lated to the very extensive programs of ground satellite in flight: measurements of temperature
observations which are being conducted through- at various points within the body, measurement
out the world during the International Geo- of the hail of micrometeorites whose magnitude
physical Year period. is quite unknown at the present time, and meas-
In encouraging projects and in our recom- urements of the erosion of a test patch on the
mendations for funding, we have had in mind surface of the satellite.
also the longer range national future in this The second experiment is one having to do
field of scientific endeavor. A further factor has with the monitoring, measurement and observa-
been the possibility of unanticipated difficulties tion of cosmic-ray intensity above the atmosphere
in any one of the hard-core projects. Hence, we over as large a geographical area as possible.
have also sponsored certain other developments My students and I are preparing this experiment
which have not appeared to be immediately at the University of Iowa. The instrumentation
available, but which contribute significantly to consists of a single Geiger tube whose counting
the development of a broad competence in this rate is electronically stored and read out on
area. passage over the meridian fence of radio track-
Satellite experiments—Four projects were se- ing stations. In this experiment it is vital that
lected to constitute the hard-core program. the data be stored for all positions around the
The first is the solar ultraviolet intensity ex- orbit; in this way we hope to obtain, for the first

144 J. A. VAN ALLEN
time, a comprehensive geographical survey of nature of the Earth’s upper atmosphere and of
the total primary cosmic-ray intensity within a its astronomical environment. J. P. Heppner of
satellite’s orbit band width. It is therefore neces- the Naval Research Laboratory is responsible
sary not only to transmit data upon passage for the overall assembly of this package III and
through the prime-measurement meridian but for the interpretation of the observations. I may
to store the data and to know at what point in remark at this point that both the solar ultra-
space it was observed. This requires a precision violet and cosmic-ray experiments rest on very
internal time standard so that when the data extensive and successful rocket experience. The
are read out we know at which point in space magnetometer experiment is now being subjected
a given counting rate occurred. Interpretation of to extensive rocket tests by a group of us at the
these data will reveal the geographical symmetry University of Iowa and by a separate group at
of intensity and the deviations of this symmetry the Naval Research Laboratory.
from that of the geomagnetic field. These devia- In addition to the magnetometer, package III
tions of symmetry are a sensitive measure of the will carry a 30-inch inflatable sphere developed
magnetic fields surrounding the Earth. by W. J. O'Sullivan and his colleagues of
In addition to this, we will have, for the first the National Advisory Committee for Aero-
time, the ideal observatory for observing fluctua- nautics (NACA). This sphere together with
tions of intensity of primary cosmic rays. As its container and separable inflation tank weighs
you know, there are a large number of IGY less than 0.7 pound. Ground observations of
monitors distributed around the world. Some of the NACA sphere will provide a sensitive and
them are in operation already. They are study- hence rapid method of determining the density
ing the fluctuations of neutron intensity in sta- of the Earth’s atmosphere at altitudes far above
tions at low altitudes. The IGY period of high those of any previous experiment. Because of
solar activity will be an especially fruitful one its light weight, the inflatable sphere will be
for the conduct of satellite flights. It is almost some 200 times as sensitive to air drag as will
certain (I think that I can say it is certain) that the parent satellite.
successful satellite observations will provide an Since the initiation of the satellite program,
enormous advance in this scientific field. New we have been seeking a meteorological experi-
theory, or extension of existing theory, is neces- ment which has the necessary technical simplicity
sary for the interpretation of these experiments. and the fundamental and far-reaching potential
This work is well advanced. There will also be for comprehensive study of the world’s weather.
included in package II sensitive gages on the Two such meteorological experiments are now
outer skin of the satellite for measuring erosion being developed for package IV. The first was
due to meteoric impacts. These gages are being proposed by Harry Wexler of the U. 8S. Weather
prepared by E. Manring of the Air Force Cam- Bureau. The equipment is being developed by
bridge Research Center, Geophysics Research V. E. Suomi of the University of Wisconsin.
Directorate. The basic idea of this experiment is to measure
The third experiment comprises extensive the variations of the heat balance over the tropi-
measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field at cal belt of the Earth. Suomi plans to mount
high altitudes and over an extended geographical four special temperature-sensing elements at
region. The instrument to be used is called a symmetrical points on rods extended from the
proton precessional magnetometer. This is a new satellite. These sensors will be titanium spheres
instrument developed by M. Packard and R. about the size of ping pong balls and will be
Varian of the Varian Associates, Inc., in Palo coated with materials sensitive to radiation of
Alto, California. This device is one of the most various wave lengths. One ball will be as nearly
important new developments in geophysical in- black as possible throughout the range of wave
strumentation during the post-war period. It lengths of interest which include the Earth’s
is uniquely suited for satellite work. Compre- infrared emission, the solar visible and the re-
hensive observations of the total scalar magni- flected solar visible. Another will be relatively
tude of the Earth’s magnetic field and especially black in the visible range and relatively white
of its fluctuations by these means should lead in the infrared. The third will be relatively
to an entirely new level of understanding of the white in the visible range and black in the

SCIENTIFIC SATELLITE INSTRUMENTATIONS 145
infrared. Suomi proposes to use as the fourth gators were asked to reorientate their project
sensor a ‘wave trap, a device which is sensitive to a light weight erosion experiment for inclusion
to direction; thus the effect of solar radiation in in satellite package IT.
a directional beam can be distinguished from the W. W. Berning and N. W. Arnold of the
diffuse radiation. Point-by-point data on the Army’s Ballistics Research Laboratories have
equilibrium temperatures of the four sensors will been working on methods for determining the
provide the necessary data for comprehensive electron density at the satellite altitude, a physi-
determination of the radiative energy balance of cal quantity of very great interest in ionospheric
the Earth. physics.
The other meteorological experiment is being Measurement of accumulated meteoric erosion
developed by W. G. Stroud of the U. S. Army is possible by a technique developed by S. F.
Signal. Engineering Laboratories. This experi- Singer of the University of Maryland. This
ment is an alternate for package IV and consists technique utilizes a radioactive material on the
of a system for gathering synoptic data on the surface of the satellite and measures the diminu-
cloud cover of the Earth within the latitude belt tion of the counting rate as the material is
covered by the satellite. The essential elements eroded away by impact with meteoric dust.
are two photoelectric telescopes whose lines of Finally, there are two additional proposals for
sight sweep across the Earth and its lower cosmic-ray measurements. One of these was
atmosphere as the satellite spins on its axis. The proposed jointly by G. Groetzinger of the Re-
overall result of these observations can best be search Institute for Advanced Studies, Inc., and
described as resembling a sequence of coarse M. A. Pomerantz of the Bartol Research Foun-
detailed pictures of vast areas of the Earth ob- dation. Groetzinger and Pomerantz are de-
tained in succession as the satellite moves along veloping equipment to determine the intensity
its orbit. Land masses, ocean areas, and cloud
of primary cosmic-ray nuclei of heavy elements
formations will be distinguishable. This type of
and the fluctuations of this intensity. The other
information will be of great value for observa-
cosmic-ray experiment has been proposed by
tion of hurricanes, typhoons and broad weather
H. V. Neher of the California Institute of Tech-
trends. During the period that a satellite can
nology. This experiment proposes to make
observe and transmit this type of data vastly
cosmic-ray measurements similar to those of
more accurate short-time weather forecasting
will be possible.
package II, except that an ionization chamber
is to be used rather than a Geiger tube. A
Back-up experiments—In addition to the four
second part of this proposal comprises an experi-
primary projects, there are six other proposals
ment of W. A. Baun, also of the California
for on-board experiments which have been rec-
ommended. The support of these other projects
Institute of Technology, for measuring the inte-
is provided in the sense I mentioned earlier, grated light coming from different parts of the
namely, as a general reservoir of possibilities: extraterrestrial sky. The extragalactic part of
first of all, to insure against failure of any of the this light is much weaker than the airglow,
primary list; secondly, to provide for the possi- zodiacal light, and light from our own galaxy.
bility of further opportunities for flights during Although measurements at the Earth’s surface
the IGY; and finally to contribute to the longer are incapable of making the distinction between
range national competence in this field of re- the extragalactic and other forms of extra-
search. terrestrial light, there is a reasonable chance
The first of these six back-up experiments is that this separation can be made by measure-
a proposal for detecting extreme ultraviolet solar ments from a satellite which is above the atmos-
radiation. This experiment was submitted by phere for a substantial length of time. These
H. E. Hinteregger of the Air Force Cambridge measurements, if successful, should distinguish
Research Center. This same organization has between various cosmological models of our
sponsored another proposal by Maurice Dubin physical universe.
for relatively detailed meteoric measurements. I have, finally, two other comments to make.
This latter experiment was brought to an ad- One is that an orbit of the presently planned
vanced stage of development before the investi- inclination, namely about 35° to the geographic

146 J. A. VAN ALLEN
equator, is much too flat for many classes of ex- the basic source of energy in the apparatus.
periments. A flat orbit does not enable us to Much work has already been carried on in this
penetrate the auroral zone. There is a rich field country in the development of solar batteries.
for satellite observations in the auroral zone, The problem, for us, is to adapt these batteries
which we are unable to undertake at the present to meet our very rigorous weight requirements;
time. work on this problem has been going on, most
Second, on the subject of the lifetime of the notably at the Army Signal Engineering Labora-
experiments, the general plan of experiments so tories, and I am confident that it will be success-
far has been to use chemical batteries in the ful. Success in this field will permit extension of
interests of proved reliability. If additional the duration of observations with the ‘on-board’
studies, and especially the first successful flight, experiments limited only by the lifetime of elec-
enable us to conclude that the lifetime of our tronic components and by the flight life of the
IGY satellites will be as much as six months or vehicle.
more, then there will certainly be a very great Department of Physics, State University of Lowa,
demand for the inclusion of solar batteries as Iowa City, lowa

Sun, Sea, and Air: IGY Studies of the Heat and Water
Budget of the Earth *
Rocer R. REVELLE
The great saga of the Norse kings, the Heims- meteorologist. Wherever two or more people
kringla, begins with the words “Earth’s round are gathered together the first topic of conversa-
face, whereon mankind dwells.” The Vikings, tion is the weather, and this was probably just
like other primitive peoples, thought of Earth as true in the time of Hammurabi or Amenhotep
as their home and of themselves as its creatures. as it is today. Professional weathermen are a
Today we know that Earth is the only planet new development, however, and it has only been
of our solar system on which human life could within the last few decades that we have begun
have developed, for no other satellite of our Sun to gain an understanding of the great interre-
has land masses surrounded by an ocean of lated mechanisms of the air and the oceans.
liquid water or an atmosphere containing abun- We know that the sun pours a flood of
dant free oxygen. particles and visible and invisible light into the
Our bodies are made up almost entirely of top of our atmosphere. The amount of visible
four elements drawn from sea water and air: light appears to be nearly constant, but the in-
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen. The tensity of ultraviolet and x-rays and the number
narrow temperature range in which we can sur- of particles varies by at least a hundred-fold
vive is maintained by the great heat capacity [Chapman, 1956, p. 19]. The particles are
of the sea and the atmosphere. The waste prod- chiefly electrons and protons. The average
ucts that otherwise would suffocate us are con- number of hydrogen nuclei entering our atmos-
tinuously dispersed by the easy motions of the phere is surprisingly large, perhaps a billion
atmosphere. We can exist as land animals only per square centimeter per second. During the
because the Sun’s deadly ultraviolet and x-rays geological lifetime of the Earth, if all this hy-
are fended off by the protective shield of the air, drogen were combined with oxygen as water,
and because the great natural engine of the sea it would correspond to a layer over the ocean
and the atmosphere pumps water continuously about twenty meters thick. The energy carried
from the sea surface and pours it gently down to the Earth by these particles from the Sun
upon the land. during periods of sunspot activity may be as
Yet from our point of view, the Earth is a much as one tenth of the total energy of sunlight
careless mother. Large areas of her surface are [ Chapman, 1956, p. 17].
too hot or too cold, too dry or too wet to sup- In addition to particles of ordinary hydrogen,
port any large number of human beings. More- there is new evidence that most of the tritium
over, she is unreliable. Areas where there was or radioactive hydrogen on Earth also comes
once sufficient water for men to build civiliza- from the Sun [Craig, 1956, p. 1125]. It was
tions are now so dry that only a few desperate formerly thought that all the tritium was pro-
nomads can live in them. Elsewhere, a mile- duced by cosmic rays bombarding nitrogen and
thick blanket of ice has crept down and obliter- oxygen molecules in the upper air, but recent
ated once green farms and forests. Millions of calculations indicate that the amount present
our species suffer when a slight change in the is nearly ten times too large to be produced in
running of the sea-atmosphere engine causes this way.
drought or flood. Sometimes the engine runs The marked variations in ultraviolet radia-
with unpleasant violence. Then thunder storms tion and in the number of particles coming from
and hurricanes, tornadoes and typhoons bring the Sun cause large variations in the tempera-
destruction and death to many of us. ture and in the electrical and magnetic behavior
Because of our dependence on events taking of the upper atmosphere, because there is such
place in the air, almost everyone is an amateur a small amount of air at these high levels.
* Contribution from the Scripps Institution of
Neither the majority of particles nor the ultra-
Oceanography, New Series. violet rays penetrate very deeply, however, and
147

148 R. R. REVELLE
it is not clear whether the variations in the whirls and vortices. In the sea, major units of
amounts coming from the Sun have appreciable the circulation include the Gulf Stream and the
effects near the Earth’s surface. Visible light is Kuroshio, the fast moving equatorial currents
the dominant form of solar energy entering the and the sluggish currents of the abyssal depths.
lower atmosphere. Part of this light is reflected These circulation patterns are partly unstable,
back to space, chiefly from the surface of clouds, and this shows itself to those of us who live in
snow, and ice. Most of it is absorbed in the mid-latitudes as the radical changes in weather
atmosphere and the sea, from which it is ulti- with which we are all familiar. In low latitudes
mately re-radiated as infrared radiation. over the ocean the instability produces the terri-
In this respect, the atmosphere behaves much fying hurricanes of the western Pacific and of
like the glass in a greenhouse. It easily transmits our own east coast.
visible light but is rather opaque to the infrared The behavior of the interlinked heat engines
or heat radiation coming from the ground and of the sea and the atmosphere is profoundly in-
the sea surface. Just as in a greenhouse, the fluenced by four facts: first is their peculiar
air temperature must be considerably warmer shape; they are essentially two thin sheets
than it would be in the absence of materials that wrapped around a sphere; second, the sphere is
absorb infrared, in order to allow a balance be- rotating; the lower layers of air are dragged
tween incoming and outgoing radiation. In the along by the rotation, and the movements of
greenhouse the absorbing material is the glass both the sea and the air are largely determined
roof. The corresponding materials in the atmos- by the forces generated by the rotation (at a
phere are three substances present in quite height above our heads of several hundred miles
minor amounts: water vapor, carbon dioxide, there is a transition to a zone where the sparse
and ozone. atoms of gas no longer move around the Earth’s
The temperatures in the upper air do not vary axis); third, the ocean is not a continuous sheet
markedly with latitude and consequently the like the atmosphere, but is broken up by the
amount of back radiation is roughly the same relatively dry areas we call continents; fourth,
all over the globe. But the amount of incoming like an invisible pousse café, the atmosphere is
sunlight is greater in the tropics than in high stratified in thin layers that do not mix readily
latitudes. As a consequence, air and water with each other and each of these layers has to
warmed in the tropics must move toward the a considerable extent a separate behavior of its
poles. Part of the energy received from the own. The same is true of the ocean but with
Sun is thus used to carry the excess heat ab- the marked difference that while the tempera-
sorbed in low latitudes to high latitudes where tures of the different layers of the atmosphere
it can be re-radiated. The amount of heat are alternatively lower and higher as we go
transported across the parallels of 30° is 10 to upward, the temperature of the ocean decreases
20 pet of the total incoming radiation [Starr and continuously nearly to the freezing point at
White, 1954], but the mechanical work involved great depths. It increases slightly near the bot-
is less than one per cent [Starr, 1948, p. 193]. tom because of the heat coming from the interior
The situation can be thought of as if the sea of the Earth.
and the atmosphere were interlinked heat engines The energy needed to drive the sea-air circu-
of very low efficiency. These engines do me- lation is only a small portion of the incoming
chanical work against friction by carrying the solar radiation, but it is still enormous on a
working fluids, sea water and air, from the ‘fire- human scale. The winds of the Earth have a
box’ of the tropics to the radiation-cooled ‘con- total kinetic energy estimated to equal seven
denser’ of the polar regions. The circulation of million atomic bombs, or more electric power
the working fluids is manifest in the winds of than all the power plants in the United States
the air and the currents of the sea. In the could produce in a hundred years. This energy
atmosphere, it takes place through the coupling must be replenished every nine to twelve days
of rotary current patterns of all possible shapes because of the loss by friction between the winds
and sizes. These include the trade-wind cells and the Earth’s surface [Weeler, 1955].
of ocean-wide dimensions, the large scale high Although there is general agreement about the
and low pressure areas of mid-latitudes, the foregoing generalizations, our mental model of
wavelike jet stream, hurricanes, tornadoes, tiny the sea-atmosphere system is so inadequate in

HEAT AND WATER BUDGET STUDIES 149
many essentials that meteorologists are unable The total solar radiation seems to be re-
to predict anything very useful for more than markably constant. The most recent continuous
a few days in advance about the circulation of observations are those made at the Lowell
the atmosphere. Observatory since 1953 [ Evans, 1956, p. 2]. Dur-
Even more fundamentally, we do not know the ing this period of sunspot minimum no solar
factors that determine the average conditions. variations in the blue region of the spectrum
Consequently, we are quite unable to forecast greater than 0.3 pct have occurred. Ionospheric
changes in climate. Yet we know that such observations show, however, that ultraviolet
changes have occurred in the relatively recent components of the solar radiation are larger
past. Only about ten thousand years ago the during periods of sunspot maxima and the
Earth emerged from a dark age of snow and ice; visual spectrum observations must therefore be
less than five thousand years ago, Greenland of- continued throughout at least one sunspot cycle
fered a fair and pleasant habitation for human before we can say definitely that solar radia-
beings. Within the last fifty years, the climate tion is virtually constant over decades.
over eastern North America and_ northern In contrast to the apparent constancy of the
Europe has again become slightly warmer and incoming radiation, the reflectivity of the Earth
the Arctic waters are perhaps again becoming would appear to be easily changeable. Clouds,
accessible to human beings, while elsewhere pro- snow, and ice reflect most of the sunlight that
longed droughts are destroying the work and fails on them, whereas the ocean surface, vege-
hopes of decades. For the farmer, the strategist tation and bare ground are highly absorbing
and the statesman, an accurate forecast of cli- for visible light. At present about 50 pct of
matic change over the next fifty years would be the earth’s surface is normally covered with
of immeasurable value. But such a forecast is clouds, while large areas are capped with snow
completely beyond our present ability. Ability to and ice, particularly during winter. An average
forecast depends on understanding, and_ this of 36 pct of the incoming sunlight is reflected
comes in two interrelated ways: by constructing back to space without being absorbed [Danjon,
small models in our heads of the two great 1954, p. 734; Byers, 1954, p. 303]. The average
Earth fluids, and by testing and refining these air temperature would decrease by one degree
models through observations. This second centigrade if the reflection increased to 37 pct
method is one of the major objectives of the through increased cloudiness or a spreading of
International Geophysical Year. In particular, the snow- and ice-covered areas [Wexler, 1956,
we are concerned with measurements in areas p. 488].
that have never been adequately explored and Dust in the upper air also scatters and re-
of phenomena that have never been adequately flects sunlight before it can reach the ground and
studied.
ocean surfaces. After the explosion of the
To increase our understanding of climatic
Volcano Krakatoa in 1883, the incoming radia-
change we can ask first, what changes have oc-
tion from Sun and sky decreased by five to ten
curred in the past and how did they happen?
per cent for three years [MV exler, 1956, p. 485].
Second, because a change in climate is essen-
Changes in the water vapor, ozone, or carbon
tially a change of average air temperature, we
dioxide content of the air change the amount and
need to examine the ways in which the heat con-
character of the infrared absorption. Calcula-
tent of the air can vary. The heat content must
tions by Plass [1956, p. 141] indicate that a 25
be that required to give a balance between in-
per cent change in the carbon dioxide content
coming and outgoing radiation, hence it can vary
if there is a change in the amount of incoming of the air would change the average air tem-
radiation from the Sun, in the proportion of perature by roughly one degree centigrade.
sunlight reflected versus that absorbed, or in The factors affecting the average air tempera-
the amount of the infrared back radiation ab- ture are interrelated; there are in fact what
sorbed by carbon dioxide, water vapor and electronic engineers call ‘feedback’ relationships
ozone. A change of one per cent in the intensity between them. These feedback linkages are both
of the incoming sunlight or in the amount of positive and negative. For example, an increase
sunlight reflected back to space would give of air temperature from whatever cause would
about a ome degree centigrade change in the result in a melting of part of the snow and ice
average air temperature [Plass, 1956, p. 141]. cover of the Earth and a corresponding reduc-

150 R. R. REVELLE
tion in the reflection. Consequently, the amount it is also necessary to attempt to determine the
of absorbed radiation would increase and the nature of simultaneous climatic changes in dif-
temperature would rise still further. This is a ferent latitude zones.
positive feedback. Similarly, an increase of The great ice caps of Antarctica and Green-
average air temperature would increase the land and the mountain glaciers throughout the
evaporation from the oceans, hence the water- world are remarkable indicators of climatic
vapor content of the air and the absorption of change. During periods of warming or reduced
infrared radiation. The temperature would not precipitation the glaciers retreat; when the at-
increase without limit, however, because an in- mosphere is cooled or snowfall increases, they
crease in evaporation must eventually result in thicken and rapidly advance. Moreover, the
an increase of cloudiness as the water vapor con- layers of ice laid down in successive years con-
denses, hence an increase in the proportion of stitute an unrivalled record of events on Earth
reflected sunlight. This is a negative feedback. during past millenia.
Such complex feedback linkages tend to hunt Many aspects of glaciers will be studied dur-
or oscillate, with time constants determined by ing the IGY. Among the most significant from
the speed of the different processes involved. the standpoint of the heat and water budget of
Thus far we have been discussing compara- the Earth will be the thickness of the ice. This
tively small changes in average air temperature will be measured by the seismic techniques used
over the Earth. Such changes may be of great in prospecting for oil. Bore holes and cores
significance; it is generally estimated by meteor- will also be taken to study the frozen record of
ologists that a four-degree drop in average air the past.
temperature would be sufficient to bring on a Ice caps now cover about three per cent of the
new ice age [/exler, 1956, p. 488; /undt, 1933, Earth’s surface. A melting of two feet per year
p. 241]. But with present meteorological ob- over these surfaces seems quite possible from
serving facilities they would be almost impos- present data. This would result in a rise of sea
sible to measure. What is observed are local level of about an inch per year or roughly ten
changes of much greater magnitude. These must feet in one hundred years. Even such a rise as
be brought about chiefly by variations in atmos- this would bring serious consequences to many
pheric and perhaps oceanic circulation, specifi- thickly populated coastal areas.
cally in the locations of north-south transport of The sediments of the deep-sea floor, like the
heat and matter. ice caps, contain a detailed climatic record ex-
For example, the January mean temperature tending back over many thousands of years.
at Spitzbergen increased by 24° from 1913 to For example, variations in the numbers of limy
1937, whereas during almost the same _ period shells of the tiny animals called foraminifera
there was a three- to five-degree drop in Janu- reflect variations in the oceanic circulation near
ary mean temperature in the Great Basin of the the surface. The ratios of oxygen isotopes in
western United States [Wexler, 1956, p. 485]. these shells tell us something about past ocean
Because of the complex relationship between temperatures. At least part of the present tem-
the amounts of insolation and infrared absorp- perature differences we can measure between
tion on the one hand and the circulation patterns different layers in deep-sea sediments may be
of north-south transport on the other, it is by the result not of heat flow from the Earth’s
no means certain whether an increase of insola- interior but of warmer temperature of the deep
tion or absorption would bring on a colder or a ocean waters a few hundreds or thousands of
warmer climate. years ago. Studies of these sediments and their
The circulation patterns are profoundly af- significance for climatic change will be an im-
fected by the distribution of continents and portant part of the series of oceanographic ex-
oceans, and therefore it is of great importance peditions to be conducted during the Interna-
to make comparative studies of past climatic tional Geophysical Year.
changes in the northern and southern hemi- The meteorologist and the oceanographer can
spheres, because of their markedly different pat- seldom use that peerless tool of the laboratory
terns of sea and land. Since changes in the scientists, the controlled experiment. As substi-
intensity of the north-south circulation should tutes for experiment they must attempt to make
have different effects in high and low latitudes, comparative investigations of the behavior of

the Earth fluids under different conditions. For [Wexler, 1957, p. 144]. Later satellite experi-
this reason a major part of the IGY meteor- ments will include actual mapping of the Earth’s
ological program will be focussed on comparisons cloud and snow cover, allowing accurate and
between the southern and the northern hemi- continuous measurements of the amount of sun-
spheres. light reflected from the Earth, a quantity that
Because the Earth is closer to the Sun in can at present only be rather crudely estimated.
January than in July, the southern hemisphere A change in average air temperature repre-
receives about six per cent more radiation in sents, of course, a gain or loss of heat from the
summer than does the northern. The geometry air, but it need not represent a gain or loss from
of the two hemispheres is also quite different. the ocean-atmosphere-glacier system of the
In the north, the polar sea with its thin, cracked Earth. On the other hand, an excess of heat
skin of ice is surrounded by continents; in the could be stored for long periods on the Earth
south a continent nearly twice the size of the without much change in the temperature of the
United States, having an ice-covered surface lower air. There are two great mechanisms for
two miles above sea level, lies at the pole and this: one is the melting of ice caps, the other is
is surrounded by the great southern ocean. This the heating of the deep waters of the ocean. The
high central plateau, sheathed in darkness for latter has by far the larger capacity. The energy
six months each year, is a focal point for in- required to melt all the ice in Antarctica is
ward-circling storms and outward surges of equivalent to about two and a half years’ supply
cold air. The weather conditions in the Ant- from the Sun reaching the Earth’s surface at the
arctic are nearly incredible; for example, wind present rate of 175,000 cal/cm? yr. This same
velocities at Adelie land have averaged 110 mi/hr amount of energy would raise the average tem-
for a day, more than 60 mi/hr for a month and perature of the ocean by only a little more than
about 40 mi/hr for an entire year. The Ameri- one degree C. (On the other hand, the melting
can IGY party now maintaining a vigil at the of ice caps would be somewhat more obvious to
South Pole have already recorded temperatures everyone, since it would result in a rise of sea
below —100°F with 15- to 20-knot winds. level by at least 200 ft, and the consequent de-
As is well known, the testing of large atomic struction of most of the world’s largest cities!)
weapons produces considerable amounts of radio- Because of the great heat capacity of the
active substances, some of which decay rather ocean, many meteorologists and oceanographers
slowly. A large part of the radioactive material now believe that climatic changes lasting over
produced by atomic weapons tests is injected decades or centuries may be intimately related to
into the upper strata of the air and can be changes in the circulation of the deep sea. Ef-
used by meteorologists as a tracer of atmospheric fective techniques for studying this circulation
movements, for example to determine the rate have become available only in the last few years,
at which the air at different levels is carried and it is little understood. We know that cold
from the northern to the southern hemisphere water sinks to great depths from the surface in
and vice versa, and the rate of mixing between high latitudes, moves slowly toward the equator
the upper and the lower atmosphere. An im- and perhaps across it, and returns by an un-
portant IGY objective will be world-wide meas- known path to the starting point. The time re-
urements of these artificially radioactive sub- quired for the round trip is not known; it may be
stances. measured in decades or millenia. Nor do we
A slight excess or deficit in the input of solar know whether the circulation is steady, or inter-
energy over the output of infrared radiation mittent like the flushing of water in a bowl.
from the Earth may cause large changes in One of the major enterprises of the Inter-
weather and, if long continued, in climate. At national Geophysical Year will be a series of
present we are unable to determine whether great oceanographic expeditions, conducted by
such differences between income and outgo exist. 70 ships belonging to many countries. Their
Here the Earth satellite program shows great principal objective will be to obtain a compre-
promise; one of the first satellites will carry hensive picture of the temperature and other
relatively simple equipment for measuring the properties of the deep sea waters, and to make
difference between the amounts of incoming and direct and indirect measurements of their mo-
outgoing radiation at all points over its path tions.

152 R. R. REVELLE
President Eisenhower has said that water is During our lifetime we may be witnessing an
rapidly becoming our most critical natural re- example of one way in which human actions can
source. During the last few years, serious at- affect weather and climate. Since the beginning
tempts have been made to develop inexpensive of the industrial revolution, an amount of carbon
machines for converting sea water into fresh dioxide equal to about 12 pct of the total al-
water. The fact is, of course, that nature her- ready present in the atmosphere has been pro-
self operates a most effective distillation system. duced by the burning of coal, oil, and natural
Nearly one-third of all the energy of sunlight gas. The ability of the ocean to absorb carbon
falling on the sea surface is utilized in convert- dioxide is very great and probably most of the
ing sea water to fresh water by evaporation. amount added to the atmosphere during the
The immense quantity of solar power used in last century has gone into the sea. During the
this way is several thousand times all the power next hundred years, however, the increasing use
produced by our industrial society from hydro- of fossil fuels in our world-wide industrial civili-
electric power and the burning of coal, oil, and zation should result in the production of about
natural gas. 1700 billion tons of carbon dioxide, 70 pct of the
The total quantity of water evaporated, if amount now in the atmosphere [Revelle and
all of it fell on the surface of the land and Suess, 1957, p. 19]. Because of the rapid increase
were uniformly distributed, would result in an in the production rate, the fraction of the added
average rainfall of over one hundred inches a carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean will be
year. Evidently the trouble with the natural lessened and an increase of perhaps 20 pct in
distillation process is not the quantity of fresh atmospheric carbon dioxide can be expected. The
water produced, but rather that nature’s pipe effect of such an increase is not easy to predict,
lines are badly placed. Too much water moves but there is some theoretical reason to believe
to some areas and not enough to others; more- that it could result in a warming of the lower
over, the valve system seems to be capriciously atmosphere by several degrees. Thus by consum-
managed. Sometimes the discharge is too great, ing, within a few generations, the fossil fuels
bringing floods, while at other times there is only laid down in sedimentary rocks over many
a trickle and droughts occur. Can anything be hundreds of millions of years, we are conducting,
done about this faulty distribution system? more or less in spite of ourselves, a great geo-
The quantity of solar energy used in driving physical experiment. It is of vital importance
the engine of the sea and the atmosphere is so to keep accurate records of this experiment in
great compared to any of the energy sources order to increase our understanding of the
under man’s control that it would seem im- mechanisms controlling climate. With this in
possible for us to affect weather or climate ma- mind, careful measurements will be made during
terially by any human action. Yet a close look the IGY of the carbon dioxide content of the
shows there may be some things we could do. atmosphere, and studies will be initiated to refine
Many of the processes in the atmosphere are our estimates of the absorption of carbon dioxide
metastable: a slight action may initiate a very in the sea.
large scale process. We might learn how to
REFERENCES
regulate climate if we could find the right
lever to pull. Byers, Horace R., The atmosphere up to 30 kilo-
meters, The Earth as a Planet, pp. 299-370, 1954.
One may predict that with the coming of
CHAPMAN, SYDNEY, Solar influences on the upper
greater understanding promising methods for atmosphere, The Sun’s effects on the Earth’s at-
control of weather and climate will be found. mosphere, Tech. Rep. 2, High Altitude Obs. Univ.
The average reflectivity of the ground surface Colorado, pp. 11-20, Oct. 1956.
over large areas might be reduced, for example, Craic, Harmon, Distribution, production rate and
possible solar origin of natural tritium, PAys.
by rapid melting of the snow cover, thus increas- Rev., 105, 1125-1127, 1957.
ing the percentage of sunlight absorbed. On the Danyjon, Anprf, Albedo, color, and polarization of
other hand, it might be possible to shut off some the Earth, The Earth as a Planet, pp. 726-738,
of the Sun’s radiation before it reaches the 1954.
Evans, JoHN W., Variations of the Sun, The Sun’s
Earth’s surface, for example, by injecting a
effects on the Earth’s atmosphere, Tech. Rep. 2,
small amount of absorbing or reflecting sub- High Altitude Obs. Univ. Colorado, pp. 1-10, Oct.
stances into the upper atmosphere. 1956.

Piass, G. N., The carbon dioxide theory of climatic Final Rep., pt. 1, General Circulation Proj., pp.
change, Tellus, 8, 140-154, 1956. 186—242, 1954.
REVELLE, R., AND Hans E. Suess, Carbon dioxide Wex cer, Harry, The circulation of the atmosphere,
Sci. Amer., Sep. 1955.
exchange between atmosphere and ocean, and the
WEXLER, Harry, Variations in insolation, general
question of an increase of atmospheric CO: during
circulation and climate, Tellus, 8, 480-494, 1956.
the past decades, Tellus, 9, 18-27, 1957.
WEXLER, Harry, Meteorology in the International
Starr, V. P., On the production of kinetic energy in Geophysical Year, Sci. Mon., 84, 141-145, 1957.
the atmosphere, J. Met., 5, 193-196, 1948. Wonopt, W., Anderungen der Erdalbedo wahrend
Starr, V. P., anD R. M. Wuire, Balance require- der Eiszeit, Met. Zs., 50, 241-250, 1933.
ments of the general circulation, Studics of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of
atmospheric general circulation, Mass. Inst. Tech. California, La Jolla, California

Synoptic Meteorology and the IGY

Morton J. RuBIN
Introduction—Of all the basic aids which the atmospheric circulation, both within a season
meteorologists use in their attempts to under- or a year, and from one season or year to an-
stand and explain the motions of our atmosphere, other, because of many as yet unevaluated
the most widely used is the synoptic map. A causes, but probably related to such factors as
synoptic map can be many things to many people, mechanical turbulence, condensation processes,
but to a meteorologist it is essentially a device and changing albedo. Thus the mean circulation
used to portray the instantaneous state of the cannot be inferred as a consequence of a prede-
atmosphere, usually at a given level, as regards termined pattern of energy input.
several basic parameters such as wind, tempera- For the past two hundred years, since the
ture, and humidity, or additional derived pa- time of Hadley [1735] and his first attempts to
rameters such as vorticity. Depending upon the describe and explain the basic motions of the
use to which the analysis of these data is to be atmosphere, meteorologists have had as their
put, the area represented by one map can vary number one problem the description and cause
from several thousand square miles to an entire of the general atmospheric circulation and its
hemisphere. variations. As more and more data have become
Synoptic meteorology in the above sense has available through the extension and development
been practiced for more than one hundred years, of observational techniques and networks, more
and has served as a convenient and valuable aid complete and faithful descriptions of the atmos-
to the researcher and to the daily forecaster. pheric motions have been made possible. A model
That synoptic analysis still is considered to be of the Earth’s atmospheric circulation proposed
of value is indicated by the establishment of the by Rossby [1941] is shown in Figure 1. It pre-
IGY World Weather Map Project, which will sents the entire circulation in one unified concept.
provide for the preparation of daily synoptic It has deficiencies, as can be imagined, because
charts for at least two levels in the atmosphere of lack of sufficient information, particularly
over the entire globe. It is one convenient way from. the high atmosphere. However, it did ap-
by which meteorologists can keep their fingers proximate many of the large-scale features of
on the pulse of the constantly changing atmos- the atmospheric circulation, as known at that
phere, and chart its large-scale daily variations time, and it did stimulate much interest and
so as to know where and when to look for de- research activity as new and better data became
velopments of importance. The great mass of available.
IGY meteorological data which will be forth- The IGY, through its emphasis on the ex-
coming from this monumental international pansion of basic observational networks in all
effort will be of considerably greater value, and the geophysical disciplines, and particularly in
utilization of the data for the benefit of man- meteorology, is giving another great impetus to
kind will be more complete because of synoptic synoptic studies. Through the use of IGY data,
analysis.
It is often said that the atmosphere of the
Earth operates as one enormous heat engine,
in the sense that energy in the form of heat from
the Sun is applied essentially in one region, and
the resulting temperature gradients cause the
large-scale motions of the atmosphere and ~~ HOMSE_ LAT(TWOES.--
oceans, thus
kinetic energy.
converting the
But this simple concept is far
heat energy into
frrmmNnae
CAA TUSS
JIS DOOLORUMS
from an adequate explanation of the compli-

cated seasonal and annual manifestations of the Fic. 1— The cellular meridional circulation on a
general circulation. Great variations occur in rotating Earth [Rossby, 1941]
154

SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY AND THE IGY 155
we will have an opportunity to fill in our knowl- forecasting. That this should be so is not
edge of the Earth’s atmospheric circulation in strange, because the practical end result of all
regions such as Antarctica and the very high knowledge is its application to predictions of
levels over much of the world from which future physical states, whether it be in mete-
scanty data have been available, and where much orology, medicine, or mechanics. Synoptic mete-
of our knowledge has been obtained often only by orology has progressed from what were rather
inference. Synoptic meteorology will be the first crude representations of a few simple meteoro-
of the beneficiaries of the IGY effort. The logical parameters in only two dimensions over
southern hemisphere countries are already bene- restricted and often discontinuous regions of the
fiting from the expanded networks in that hemis- Earth, to complex groups of charts showing basic
phere, particularly through the new networks in or derived physical parameters in three dimen-
Antarctica and South America, which are oper- sions over much of the world. But even today
ating for the first time in history. We know that many gaps exist, which tend to inhibit the de-
it is almost always necessary to describe a phe- velopment of meteorological knowledge and frus-
nomenon or process before we can hope to trate the meteorologist in the application of his
understand it. And this is what synoptic mete- accumulated knowledge. New techniques have
orology has done and will do. Daily, or more been developed, first, to obtain more data, as
frequently, as through the IGY World Weather past experience may have pointed out the areas
Map Project, or through the work carried on of activity in which more information is neces-
at any of the meteorological centers in the world sary, and second, to apply analytical tech-
where large-scale analysis is carried on, de- niques so as to utilize all of the information so
scriptions of the atmospheric motions, and the obtained. The analyst and the forecaster today
resulting weather conditions, will be prepared. are frequently not one and the same person. The
Using these maps, and from derived parameters, multitude of data and the complexity of the
and through calculations of energy exchanges, processes preclude that one man can adequately
qualitative and quantitative approximations of fulfill both responsibilities. But we may well
the significant characteristics of the atmosphere ask, why do we want more data if we cannot
will be obtained. The relation of these charac- adequately handle what we now receive? The
teristics, or their response to other factors, such answer is simple. We are now at a point in
as possible changes in emission, transmission and meteorological development where we can expect
absorption of solar radiant energy will be only slow and limited progress unless we can
energetically studied. probe the entire mass of the atmosphere and
Apart from the World Weather Map Project, know its complete state. At the present time we
which will be carried out as a retrospective are adequately describing about 20 pct of the
analysis of IGY data, another milestone in the atmospheric mass. Fortunately, we are also at
history of synoptic meteorology has been passed a stage in our technological development where
with the establishment of the IGY Antarctic electronic machines and computers already can
Weather Central. At the present time a group perform many of the routine chores of analysis
of meteorologists from three participating coun- and forecasting which severely try the capacity
tries is carrying on a day to day synoptic analysis of the present human analysts and forecasters
of meteorological conditions in and around Ant- in respect to actually scrutinizing masses of data.
arctica. The results of these current analyses We know that we must have data from all parts
are broadcast to all Antarctica and the southern of the world, and from everywhere within the
hemisphere to be used in immediate weather atmosphere from sea level to the very upper
studies for forecasting purposes. The result limits. “The machines can cope with the masses
of these analyses will ultimately and inevitably of data, and they can even forecast the future
help to make clear the long obscure and often state of the atmosphere with reliability ap-
disputed role of the Antarctic continent in the proaching that of the human forecaster. As
large-scale hemispheric and global circulation new models of the atmosphere are developed, it
patterns. is likely that the machine even will be able to
Throughout most of its history synoptic mete- outstrip the human. That is all to the good, be-
orology has been intimately linked with weather cause it will free the human analyst and fore-

156 M. J. RUBIN
caster from his routine tasks, and allow him to limited but ever-increasing data over the past
exercise his ingenuity and to apply his knowledge years. The physical principles are known, and
to interpreting the states of the atmosphere in the results of analysis of relatively crude data
terms of weather, and to devise new and im- have pointed out the basic features of the plane-
proved methods of analysis to be applied by the tary circulation, the magnitude of the transports
machine. of mass and energy which are thereby effected,
Past experience has shown that, within limits, and even the role of the secondary circulations,
the longer the period of time for which weather either as influencing the general circulation or
forecasts are to be made, the greater is the area being influenced by it. It is inevitable that the
from which current weather data must be lack of complete data has caused different re-
available for synoptic analysis. Thus, as greater searchers often to come to differing conclusions,
demands have been made upon the synoptic but it is also inevitable that as more data become
meteorologist, the greater have been his demands available, and as a more complete representation
for more and better weather reports. At the of the atmospheric circulation becomes possible,
present time, the meteorologist who is engaged these differences will largely disappear.
in forecasting weather as far ahead as five days World weather maps—The World Weather
over a region as large as the United States re- Map Program which will be carried on during
quires an analysis of the current meteorological the IGY is an extension of several separate
situation over the entire northern hemisphere projects describing the northern and southern
and at several levels in the atmosphere up to as hemisphere circulations. The U. S. Weather
high as 12 km. Even so vast a coverage as this Bureau’s Northern Hemisphere Historical Se-
may not be sufficient for longer range forecasts. ries [McMurray, 1956| was the first continuing
From the present limited knowledge we have of long-term series of daily weather maps which
the atmospheric circulation, it is felt that suc- could serve as a basis for research in general
cessful long-range forecasting depends upon an circulation. Many of the recent studies have
adequate representation of the current state of used these maps as the source of data. The
the atmosphere over the entire world, and from U. S. Weather Bureau also instituted a Southern
sea level to the level of 80,000-100,000 ft. Such Hemisphere Map Analysis Project in 1948
demands are impossible of fulfillment at the [Rubin, 1952], recognizing that knowledge of
moment, so that even the tremendous IGY effort the circulation over the entire globe is necessary.
will fall short of the optimum. However, as in This project continued until 1952, and the South
the past, each new extension of the scope of our Africa Weather Bureau [1952], which is now
data-collecting facilities has helped us to arrive carrying on this work, began its own project in
at a better understanding of the atmospheric 1951. This has been the first prolonged effort
processes, and has permitted our guesses to he- to provide a synoptic map of the southern
come more educated. hemisphere on a daily basis.
Today the broad features of the global circu- Figure 2 is the sea-level synoptic chart of the
lation are known to the degree that one can al- southern hemisphere fot March 19, 1949. The
ready attempt to make forecasts as far ahead data at that time were nonexistent over Ant-
as 30 days with more than a small chance of arctica, and other gaps were present. Now the
being reasonably successful. The small-scale Antarctic stations are filling the main void, and
features of the atmosphere still appear to us, in complete analyses are being carried out at the
our ignorance, often to be random phenomena, IGY Antarctic Weather Central. These analy-
and much more awareness of the effects of ex- ses will be coordinated with the IGY World
ternal influences and the internal mechanism Weather Map series, as well. Antarctica and its
must be obtained before we can hope to solve influence on the general circulation will be very
more than only the simplest of our meteorologi- carefully scrutinized during the IGY.
cal problems. But the problems of energy ex- A number of circulation studies have used
changes and transformations, local influences, these maps as their source of data. From these
etc., are vexing only because of our limited studies, and from earlier work based upon a
knowledge. The way has been shown by the pa- series of monthly mean maps of the world pre-
tient researchers who have worked with the pared in Brazil [Serra, 1948], certain evidence

Fic. 2— The sea level synoptic chart of the southern hemisphere; March 19, 1949
has been presented which indicates that definite entire world. The Gall’s stereographic projec-
relationships exist between the circulations of tion used is neither conformal nor equal area,
the two hemispheres. Indeed, it would be strange although distortion is minimized in the middle
if they did not exist, for we are, after all, deal- latitudes. The IGY hemispheric maps will be
ing with only one atmospheric system. The IGY on a polar stereographic projection; the equa-
World Weather Map Series, which will include torial map will be on a mercator projection. A
a detailed analysis of both hemispheres, and the notable forerunner of the IGY World Weather
equatorial regions separately, will be based upon Map series was a series for 36 days of the Inter-
complete IGY data, much of it never available national Year 1933, prepared for the Interna-
heretofore. It will serve as the basis for new tional Commission for the Exploration of the
and detailed studies of the general circulation Upper Air. They are believed [Shaw, 1936] to
in all its aspects. The three sections, northern be the first synchronous charts of pressure for
hemisphere, southern hemisphere, and equatorial the whole world, although the analysis is lacking
zone, will be prepared on separate maps. The for more than half the surface of the world.
map shown in Figure 3 is the first to depict the The IGY maps, however, will be based upon
surface pressure pattern over practically the data coverage from almost the entire world,

M. J. RUBIN
wt ODD 25 25
oi
“0
60 5) - 6€O
MARCH 19, 1949
70 +—+- T T t + T + + + + 70
i60E i60ow i120 60 40 0 40 80 120 160
Fic. 3— The surface synoptic chart of the Earth; March 19, 1949 [Alpert, 1952]
including both polar regions. The main defi- time up to several days in advance, is attested to
ciencies will exist over the oceans of the southern by the reasonably good prognoses which can be
hemisphere. made by using mathematical-physical models and
Features of the circulation—The analysis of machine methods.
the increasing quantity of upper-air data over the It is thought by some meteorologists that the
past ten or fifteen years has pointed out several main atmospheric motions are caused by or
salient features of the general circulation such greatly influenced by the processes going on at
as the jet stream, middle-latitude waves and very high altitudes, those levels at and above
disturbances, high-latitude deep cold cyclones, 25 km, where the Sun’s energy is first absorbed
large-scale warm anticyclones, ‘polar night strat- by the atmospheric mass, as in the ozone layer.
ospheric jet stream,’ etc. All of these features
Despite the fact that only about two per cent of
are part of the circulation and have to be ex-
the atmospheric mass exists above the 25-km
plained in terms of a unified theory of the
level, great variations in temperature and circu-
atmospheric circulation. Several circulation
lation have been noted. For instance, at the 20-
models have been proposed which attempt to fit
to 25-km level the temperature over North
the observations, more or less_ successfully.
America has been observed to increase by 50°C,
These circulation models are not new; actually
from —/70°C to —20°C within one week's time.
one which is still valid, in its major aspects, was
Synoptic studies of the circulation at these levels
proposed by Hadley [1735]. In addition to
are now being carried on, and information so
mathematical-physical models which attempt to
explain the mechanism of the general circula- obtained is incorporated into the expanding fund
tion, certain laboratory models have been de- of knowledge of the atmospheric systems. IGY
vised which also reproduce some of the major sounding balloons are expected to reach these
features of the circulation [Fultz, 1951]. Of heights regularly, and give even more data over
course, the atmosphere is its own best model, the entire world in regions where such data
and if we watch it long enough, and probe it have not been available. The rocket program,
often enough, which is what we will be doing of which we expect so much, will aid immeasur-
during the IGY and afterward, we will arrive ably in probing the atmosphere to even higher
at a better understanding of its vagaries. That levels, and the data so obtained will help to solve
we do understand its main features and what the riddle of these almost ‘explosive’ warmings.
influences are important over short periods of The two maps shown in Figure 4 depict the

Is SL 4 47 J
a
“A
“/
Fic. 4— 50-mb constant-pressure surface charts ov er the North American continent at 03h 00m GMT
on January 27, 1953 ’ upper chart prepared from actual data, lower chart
e
prepared from USWB data
obtained by extrapolation from lower-level data through statistical relationships [Moreland and Cluff,
1955]

160 M. J. RUBIN
50-mb constant pressure surface over the United necessary to omit many of the details of observa-
States at 03h 00m GMT on January 27, 1953. tion and research through which our present
That it is better to work with real data rather concepts of the complicated atmospheric circula-
than extrapolated values is apparent in the fic- tions have been developed. We liken these con-
titious smoothing and by the displacement of cepts to a partly finished jigsaw puzzle, within
centers of high and low values on the lower map. whose frame are placed a number of isolated
The increased data from high levels obtained pieces, some of which are joined to others. Some
during the IGY will reduce considerably our de- even may be wrongly placed, but we have an
pendence upon using extrapolated data for high- idea that several pieces from the jumbled pile
level analyses in many parts of the world. outside the frame will fill important gaps, and
The jet stream, a rather narrow high-speed thereby permit us to fill in the picture. This is
stream of air imbedded in the atmosphere in what we hope for from the IGY: that enough
long, sweeping, often discontinuous, currents of of the missing gaps will be filled to permit us to
air encircling the globe at various latitudes, and complete the puzzle.
lying just below the top level of the troposphere
(8-10 km), and usually where the strongest hori-
REFERENCES
zontal temperature gradients occur, is another
atmospheric phenomenon which has attracted ALPERT, L., Global weather maps, Bul. Amer.
much attention. The jet stream seems to be Meteor. Soc., 33, 435-437, 1952.
Fu.tz, D., Experimental analogies to atmospheric
symptomatic of the state of development of the motions, Compendium of Meteorology, Am.
circulation at a given time, and may even be the Meteor. Soc., Boston, 1235-1248, 1951.
mechanism whereby essential exchange processes Haptey, G., Concerning the cause of the general
take place. IGY high sounding balloons will trade winds, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., London, 39,
help keep track of this phenomenon, and help fit 58, 1735.
McMurray, W. M., Data collection for the North-
it into a unified concept of the atmospheric ern Hemisphere map series, Mo. Wea. Rev., 84,
circulation. 219-234, 1956.
Meridional sections of the atmosphere have Morecanp, W. B., AND F. D. Cuiurr, Problems and
been produced in the past to portray the vertical examples of Northern Hemisphere stratospheric
analysis, paper presented at the 136th National
temperature and wind distribution, usually along
Meeting of the American Meteorological Society,
one meridian. One of the big efforts during IGY Washington, D. C., May 5, 1955.
is to maintain four principal sections from North Rosssy, C.-G., The scientific basis of modern
Pole to South Pole. The cross-sections which meteorology, Climate and Man— Yearbook of
have been prepared so far, have not been true Agriculture, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C., 599-655, 1941.
pole-to-pole sections, and particularly in the
Rustin, M. J., Southern Hemisphere synoptic analy-
southern hemisphere there is doubt as to the sis, Bul. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 33, 409-415, 1952.
representativeness of the few which have been Serra, A. B., Atlas de Metcorologia, 1873-1909,
prepared. The four IGY pole-to-pole sections Servico de Meteorologia e Conselho Nacional de
will be more complete and representative. The Geografia, Rio de Janeiro, 1948.
SHaw, N., Manual of Meteorology, vol. II, Second
seasonal, or shorter period shifts of the various Ed., Cambridge, 1936.
belts of activity will be followed closely in order SouTH AFRICA, WEATHER BuréAu, Tables and
to relate them to other inter- and intra-hemis- charts of Southern Hemisphere sea-level pres-
phere phenomena from these and other sources. sure, Notas 1, 23-64, 1952.
Puzzle of the circulation—In this brief survey Office of Meteorological Research, U. S. Weather
of synoptic meteorology and the IGY it has been Bureau, Washington, D. C.

U. S. Special Meteorological Studies for the IGY

SIGMUND FRItTz
Introduction—During the IGY several major words, we are uncertain about the magnitude of
categories of special meteorological observations the Earth’s radiative heat budget and about the
will be made. These include measurements of energy transports by atmosphere and ocean
radiation, atmospheric composition, and nuclear which this implies. And moreover, our most
radiation. Under the category of radiation, recent estimates do not seem to be in better
measurement will be made of the heat budget agreement than older attempts.
of the Earth with satellites, and of small portions We need, therefore, a new approach to the
of the Earth from surface observations. The investigation of the problem of the world-wide
‘polar whiteout’ is a phenomenon involving visi- radiative balance. The most appropriate time
ble radiation which will be studied. Plans for to intensify our efforts is during the IGY, the
the category of atmospheric composition, include period of world-wide geophysical research; the
measurement of total atmospheric ozone and also most appropriate vehicle for this world-wide
of surface ozone measurements. Carbon dioxide study is the satellite. During IGY, therefore, to
will also be measured extensively. To study supply basic data about the heat budget of our
atmospheric radioactivity, measurements will be Earth we shall use two satellites: (a) an arti-
made at the surface and aloft. ficial satellite, and (b) the Moon.
Artificial satellite observations—One of the
RADIATION experiments planned for a Vanguard scientific
satellite will be carried out by V. E. Suomi of
Heat budget—The geographic distribution of the University of Wisconsin. He will mount
net radiative energy absorbed by the earth- four small spheres on the antennas of the satel-
atmosphere system is one of the major driving lite, and coat them with materials of different
forces of the general circulation of the atmos- but known reflectivity. Therefore, when the
phere. At present, we know this radiative distri- spheres are subjected to the same radiative
bution rather poorly. Our uncertainty about this fluxes, the sphere temperatures will be different.
basic radiative regime is shown in Figures 1 and For example, one sphere will be painted black,
2 [Jung, 1956]. Figure 1 shows some computa- while another sphere will be painted white. Both
tions of the net radiation for different latitude will see the radiation from the Sun and from
circles averaged around the Earth. Each of the the Earth. The black sphere will, of course, be
curves represents the work of a different author. warmer than the white one. A measure of the
They agree that south of latitude 37° N there temperatures of three spheres will provide a
is a net heating on the average while north of means for calculating (a) the radiation from the
37° there is net cooling. We note, however, that Sun to the Earth, (b) the solar short-wave
at the equator there is a difference of opinion radiation reflected from the Earth, and (c) the
regarding the energy gain by a factor of two, long-wave radiation emitted from the Earth
and that in the polar regions the disagreement mainly by virtue of its own temperature, mois-
is even worse. Since except for small changes, ture, and cloud distribution. This IGY satellite
the annual mean temperatures are nearly con- experiment will provide data for tropical lati-
stant at each latitude, the excess heat must be tudes only, but we certainly hope that data for
transferred from the equatorial regions to the the whole Earth will be available from future
polar regions. The distribution of the transport satellites.
of heat required for balance is shown in Fig- As Figures 1 and 2 show, at present we are
ure 2. Here again, we see estimates by various uncertain about the average radiative regime.
authors, and note as much as a two-fold differ- This we hope to study with the satellite data.
ence between some of them. And we see further But, a fortiori, we are even more ignorant now
that some of the greatest disagreements occur about the change in the radiative distribution
between the most recent attempts. In other from day to day, or month to month, or year to
161

162 SIGMUND FRITZ
+.010
LEGEND
SIMPSON, 1928 — --
SIMPSON , 1929 —-—
ALBRECHT, 931 —---
ALBRECHT @ BJERKNES, 933 —--
q BAUR @ PHILLIPS, 1935 ——
~ ~~: HOUGHTON, 1954 ----
+,0501- ~~.
~~
&
.
So
“\
a
O
3
<
2
S _ 950+
@So
dq
x
=
iad
2
-,100-
- ISO
_ l | | | | L 1 l
200 10 20 30 40 50 60 £70 80 90
LATITUDE, DEGREES NORTH
Fic. 1— Amount of net radiation for different latitudes; annual average
values for northern hemisphere [Jung, 1956]
year. Now we all agree that the distribution of of the solar energies absorbed in the atmosphere
the net radiation ultimately drives the atmos- and by the Earth’s surface. To find the energy
pheric circulation. Significant short-term changes absorbed directly in the atmosphere, we need,
in radiation may occur which in turn may influ- in addition, observations of the energy reaching
ence the subsequent circulation of the atmos- the ground. Ground-radiation measurements
phere. If so, satellite observations would give are not plentiful; but in the United States, we
us important information about the changes in do have a fairly good network of solar radiation
world-wide radiation, information which cannot observations. If the satellite passes over the
be obtained now in any other way. United States during midday, we should get a
The satellite observations can give us the sum good estimate of the solar energy absorbed in

U, S.-IGY SPECIAL METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES 163
. EGEND
\ Abrech!, 193
‘ (Gjertnes et of, 1933)— - ——
\ Bow & Philips, 1938 ————
\ Sampson, (9268
(Byers, 1944) —— - - ——
100 / \\' Gotites, 1950 —- — —
/ / j / \ Houghton, 1954 - — -—-----
\ London, 1956 ———-- - ——
/ /
4a /
A
i /
TOTAL ENERGY FLUX IN GM-CAL/SEC x 10°
’ ! cr ‘\
oy
.
gi
q
~~
!
Nnr
N
3
=,
l I J l l l j l |
0 10 20 «6330s 8 SO. 2 s«6O 70 80 90
LATITUDE , DEGREES NORTH
Fic. 2— Total energy flux across complete latitude circles required to balance
net radiation; annual average values for northern hemisphere [Jung, 1956]
the atmosphere from a combination of the satel- variations of the Earth’s albedo or reflectivity
lite and ground measurements. will also be measured by observing the brightness
Another satellite experiment, planned by the of the light and dark sides of the Moon. This
Army Signal Corps, is the measurement of the program will be carried out by personnel of the
cloud-cover distribution over the Earth. Photo- Smithsonian Institution at various satellite opti-
cells, mounted in the satellite, will scan the Earth cal tracking installations. The dark portion of
below and record the changing brightness of the the Moon is irradiated with sunlight which has
reflected solar energy. Bright areas will in gen- been reflected to it by the Earth. Thus, the dark
eral correspond to cloudy areas, dark areas will side of the Moon will be brighter, the brighter
correspond to cloudless areas. the Earth is. Measurements comparing the
Lunar observations; albedo of the Farth—The brightness of the dark and bright sides of the

16+ SIGMUND FRITZ
Moon have been made by Danjon [1936] and by As a guide to the type of information needed,
Dubois [1955]. Large seasonal variations and Figure 3 contains an analysis of solar radiation
large variations with sunspot cycle have been re- data obtained on T-3 (Fletcher’s Ice Island)
ported by them. In Dubois’ measurements the in 1953. In mid-June the average radiation re-
variations of the albedo of the Earth were espe- ceived in one day was about 700 ly/day (1 lang-
cially large, varying by about a factor of 3 from ley=1 cal/cm?), while in Washington, D. C.,
sunspot maximum to sunspot minimum. During the average is only about 500 ly/day. The higher
IGY at least the seasonal variations will be measured value in the polar regions is caused
checked. But what will be equally important for by the longer day and by the multiple reflections
this type of measurement will be the comparison between the snow-ice surface and the over-lying
of measurements made by two observers along clouds and atmosphere. Good observations of
the same longitude but in opposite hemispheres solar radiation received on a horizontal surface
and therefore in opposite seasons. These observ- at the ground were obtained at T-3, but in order
ers will be viewing the Moon which will be to calculate how the solar energy is used to
illuminated by essentially the same region of the modify the ice and atmosphere we needed much
Earth. If their measurements of albedo agree more information. Much of the solar energy is
consistently, this will provide a valuable check reflected by the ice and snow, but we had no
of the method. good measurements of albedo. Both T-3 and
Good observations of the Moon will provide ice-floe Station A have now been occupied and
us with basic data regarding the Earth’s albedo an albedo survey of T-3, and of the ice-floe
and its time variations; this in turn will supple- Station A is planned. From a good estimate of
ment the satellite data and eventually may help albedo we then will know how much energy is
in our understanding some of the basic charac- absorbed by the ice.
teristics of our atmospheric circulation. In mid-summer, the ice may or may not also
Heat budgets of polar regions—Heat budget lose energy through long-wave terrestrial radia-
studies of selected regions of the Earth’s surface tion. Here again, we expect to have good meas-
will also be made during IGY. Some of these urements of the net radiation and of the down-
will be conducted in the Arctic and Antarctic coming energy from the Sun and atmosphere.
regions. Since the main objective of IGY is to During overcast conditions, the long-wave energy
learn as much as possible about the Earth, such lost from the ice should be very small; there
studies will serve this objective by supplying may even be a gain by the ice. And in the Arctic
additional basic data for regions about which we the sky is nearly always overcast in midsummer.
know very little. Therefore, for lack of actual good data in the
1000 +
>
S bo
aY 800 Z SOLAR RADIATION —

lJ
J L
i” MEASURED
=Z 600 |-
az =
3
< 400+
2 Le SOLAR RADIATION
« ABSORBED
200 b _—
MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPT. OCTOBER
Fic. 3— Solar radiation

on T-3, in 1953; curve marked ETR (extra-
terrestrial is solar energy received on a_ horizontal
radiation)
surface outside the Earth’s atmosphere at the latitudes of T-3

U. S.-IGY SPECIAL METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES 165
1953 analysis, we assumed that the long-wave of previous work, a study is now going on to find
energy loss was zero, although this cannot be the lowest possible temperature at the South
strictly correct. But during IGY observations Pole Station where the temperature has already
will replace this assumption. fallen below —100°F. The IGY measurements
The net radiation is the difference between all will be useful in extending such studies.
the radiation fluxes which reach the ice and those Furthermore, the radiation data collected in
which leave it. This net radiation is available the Antarctic and Arctic regions will supply data
for melting ice, or raising its temperature. Some for many endeavors. Human comfort certainly
of the measurements of ice temperature were depends on radiation. Two examples: (1) The
made in 1953 but more and better ones should design of clothing depends on radiative energy
be available soon. The amount of energy which loss and gain. (2) The usefulness of solar bat-
goes into melting is difficult to estimate because teries for energy supply depends upon the amount
of the irregularity of the ice surface, causing of available solar energy.
lakes to form in some areas, while water runs The polar whiteout—Aside from its usefulness
off in others. Nevertheless, from ablation stakes in energy studies, radiation measurements are
and estimates of the volume of water in the also needed to investigate certain physical prob-
lakes, it may be possible to get a good estimate lems. The polar whiteout has long been recog-
of the energy used up in melting. nized as a hazard to aviators. Fiske [1956] has
After estimates were made for these various recently re-emphasized this. The whiteout oc-
factors, it was still not possible to balance all curs when the ground is completely covered with
the radiation terms; a net surplus of solar en- fresh, cold snow. Then when the sky is overcast
ergy still remained. Transport of heat by hori- so that the position of the Sun is not discernible,
zontal advection could not account for this, be- no shadows are cast. Natural terrain features
cause of the very uniform surface temperatures
such as hills or mountains cannot be distinguished
over the melting Arctic ice. Vertical energy against the horizon sky. Nor can crevasses or
transfer seemed like a reasonable method for
small surface irregularities be seen against the
disposing of the energy. And this seemed even
snow background. These conditions create a
more reasonable after we looked at the radio-
hazard for both surface and air travel. Fiske
sonde data. For in the lowest 300 to 1000 ft, the
[1956] points out that helicopter operation is
fall of temperature with height exceeded the
particularly hazardous during the whiteout be-
adiabatic lapse rate frequently during July 1953.
cause these planes lack proper radar instru-
This strongly suggests that both sensible heat
mentation at present. Another hazard occurs
and latent heat were transferred upward by
even in conventional planes when a pilot descends
eddies from the ice surface to the ever-present
cloud surface. The heat would then be lost from through a low overcast and is suddenly pre-
the cloud top by radiation and evaporation. sented with a lack of perception contrast rather
These super-adiabatic lapse rates have been than a view of familiar landmarks.
questioned. It is difficult to get precise radio- During overcast sky conditions, the zenith
sonde information about these super-adiabatic sky is about three times brighter than the horizon
lapse rates in such shallow layers because radio- sky when the ground is not snow covered; but
sondes ascend rapidly. Therefore, captive kitoons until recently no measurements were available
will be used in the Arctic to supplement the above a snow covered To test the
surface.
radiosonde data in the lower layers. theory further, measurements of sky brightness
Thus measurements of net radiation, solar distribution will be made during overcast condi-
radiation, ablation, ice temperatures, and of tem- tions at Little America and at T-3. At the same
peratures and moisture structure in the lowest time the albedo of the snow surface will be meas-
layers of the atmosphere, will furnish data both ured in visible light. It will be interesting to see
to the glaciologists about the ice regime, and how the overcast sky-brightness distribution will
also to the meteorologists about the temperature vary with and without whiteout conditions, and
structure of the lower atmosphere. if the limit is related to the surface snow albedo
Similar radiation programs are being carried as theory suggests. If so, we may be able to
out at six stations in Antarctica. On the basis predict the severity of the whiteout by fore-

166 SIGMUND FRITZ
casting the surface albedo which in turn depends pheric motion and particularly to seek relation-
on temperature and other factors. ships between the stratospheric and tropospheric
weather elements.
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION
Total atmospheric ozone is measured with the
Dobson ozone spectrophotometer which analyzes
Total ozone—Ozone is a gas which is dis- the ultraviolet light which has arrived from the
tributed vertically in the atmosphere with a Sun. Ozone absorbs certain ultraviolet light
maximum near an altitude of 20 to 30 km. The strongly, the amount of light which arrives in
amount of ozone in any vertical column varies the ozone absorption band is compared with the
with changes in atmospheric circulation. There- light outside the band. If much ozone exists
fore ozone measurements may give us some im- above the observer, the amount which arrives
portant clues about the horizontal and vertical through the ozone band is small; with little
motions in the lower stratosphere. Ozone will ozone overhead, the amount of ultraviolet light
be measured in North America at 13 stations as is large.
shown in Figure 4. (By April 1958, several Ozone measurements in the Antarctic are
changes have occurred. Many of the proposed completely lacking; therefore ozone cannot help
stations are in operation. The instrument at us in theoretical studies about large-scale mo-
Fairbanks, Alaska, has been moved to State Col- tions in the stratosphere over the polar regions
lege, Pennsylvania.) With this network we have of the southern hemisphere. An attempt to fill
an opportunity to study the ozone changes asso- the void in ozone data its being made with the
ciated with the long-wave patterns of atmos- Dobson ozone spectrophotometer which W. B.
a.
j
/
j
/
N
\. @ PRESENT STATIONS
wf
H@ PROPOSED STATIONS
\ \
ae >
Fic. 4— The network of total ozone measuring stations during IGY in North America and Hawaii

U. S.-IGY SPECIAL METEOROLOGICAL STUDIES 167
Moreland is operating at Little America. (April cause the oceans, rocks, and plant life tend to
1958: Moreland has now returned from Little produce an equilibrium with CO,, it is not at all
America where he made some lunar ozone meas- certain that CO, is increasing in the atmosphere;
urements.) Unfortunately, it is quite difficult to the added CO, may have gone into the oceanic
obtain good measurements at night with this or biological realm.
instrument, but lunar measurements will be To investigate this we need to know at least
attempted. To do this we need to measure as the present amount of CO, in the atmosphere.
the Moon undergoes a large variation in angular CO, is being measured in the Antarctic and
elevation. This cannot be done in Little America; many flasks will be filled with air in many regions
but we are establishing a station at the Mauna of the world. Measurements will also be made
Loa Observatory at 11,300 ft above the Pacific from U. S. Air Force Weather reconnaissance
Ocean, where we hope to get the required meas- aircraft and from surface observations.
urements as the Moon’s elevation varies during With these data, some comparisons will be
the night. (April 1958: This station is now in possible with past data. But because the past
operation.) Thus the equatorial and polar re- data have been made with various good and bad
gions will be supplementing each other. techniques in pure and in contaminated regions,
Ozone is also responsible for the large annual comparison will have some, though limited, use-
variation in temperature in the polar strato- fulness. The data will be particularly valuable as
sphere. Measurements of the amount of ozone a basis for comparison during future surveys
may help in further understanding the pro- and future IGY’s. One of the leading theories
nounced summertime warming which causes the about the recent observed warming in the Arctic
winter west wind to become summer easterlies Ocean and in some other portions of the world,
in the stratosphere above 20 km. Ozone meas- attributes this warming to an increase of arti-
urements have already been useful and will be ficial CO, in the atmosphere. The IGY meas-
of further aid in studying the very pronounced urements will be an important link in proving or
temperature increases which occur some years disproving this theory.
near 25 km at high latitudes in winter. The program for measuring nuclear radiation
Surface ozone—Surface ozone will also be —The advent of the nuclear age and the conse-
measured near both poles, and at Mauna Loa. quent injection of large amounts of nuclear
Ozone near the Earth’s surface gets there by debris into the atmosphere has yielded another
downward diffusion from the ozone-generating tool which may, together with studies of natu-
region above 20 km. Since ozone is destroyed rally occurring radio-elements, provide useful
near the ground, this means that a continual geophysical information. The radioactive content
downward diffusion is occurring and surface- of the atmosphere can possibly serve as a useful
ozone measurement may shed some light on the tracer for studying movements of air masses and
magnitude of this downward diffusion, although large-scale circulation patterns. This tracer may
the vertical ozone gradients will probably be also be used to study removal processes in the
required to pin this down better. atmosphere. Natural radioactive elements, such
Carbon dioxide—The air temperature near the as tritium, carbon!*, and radon decay products
ground would be much colder than it is now if can be used to study mixing processes and strato-
certain atmosphere constituents such as CO, spheric-tropospheric exchange phenomena in the
and water vapor were not present to produce atmosphere. Artificial radioactive elements can
the so-called greenhouse effect in the atmosphere be used to supplement this. Radioactive isotopes
by absorbing outgoing energy and radiating it are also useful in oceanographic investigations in
back to the surface. With regard to CO,, at problems of circulation, mixing and age deter-
least two questions arise. These are: (1) Would mination.
the surface air temperature increase if the The United States, in cooperation with other
amount of CO, in the atmosphere were to in- western hemisphere countries, is establishing a
crease? (2) Has the amount of CO, increased network of surface radioactivity monitoring sta-
in recent times, and if so, what is its present tions along the 80° W meridian. Well over ten
trend? It is true that man is pouring vast stations will soon measure the air concentration
amounts of CO, into the atmosphere. But be- of long-lived fission products in the lower atmos-

168 SIGMUND FRITZ
phere with high-volume air filters and from the atmosphere and the oceans and on removal
amount deposited in precipitation. This network mechanisms in the atmosphere.
will stretch from the Antarctic to the Arctic. In
Acknowledgment—The information about the
addition, a network of about forty stations in radioactivity measuring program has been supplied
the United States is making daily measurements by L. Machta and R. J. List of the U. S. Weather
of the air concentration of the long-lived fission Bureau, Washington, D. C.
products and a world-wide network of 88 sta-
tions makes daily collections of deposited radio- REFERENCES
activity on gummed film. Several stations in
Danjyon, A., Nouvelles recherches sur la _ photo-
each hemisphere are planned to collect precipi- métrie de la lumiére cendrée a Il'albedo de la
tation and total fallout in open tubs. In addition, terre, An. Observatoire Strasburg, 3, 139-180,
there are four stations measuring the radioac- 1936.
tivity in the upper atmosphere to heights of Dusois, J., La variation de brilliance de la lumiére
cendrée de la lune, L’Astronomie, 69, 242-246,
about 100,000 ft by means of balloon-borne col- 1955.
lectors. Various oceanographic programs will Fiske, C. O., White-out, a polar weather phe-
collect sea water for analysis of radioactivity. nomenon, U. S. Nawal Inst. Proc., 82, 955-959,
These networks are all designed to measure Sep. 1956.
Junc, G. H., Energy transport by air and sea,
long-lived artificial radio-nuclides, but in addi-
OPNAYV, Po 3-8, Contract N 7 ONR-48702, Tech.
tion, some stations are going to measure short- Assistant, Chief Naval Op. for Polar Projects,
lived natural radioactivity in the atmosphere. The dynamic North, Book 1, chap. 14, 19 pp.,
It is hoped that these programs will shed new 1956.
light on circulation and mixing processes in the U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington 25, D.C.

Synoptic Studies in Oceanography

CoLtumBus O’D. ISELIN
Introduction—A central and classical problem to wait for another 30 years or so to pass before
in physical oceanography is to try to understand it might be practical to learn more about the
the circulation of the oceans as a whole. In gradual changes that might be taking place.
order to do this it is, of course, first necessary to Some of us also felt that we were being asked
be able to describe the three-dimensional dis- to plan a survey of the oceans that our sons
tribution of the physical and chemical properties would want to repeat and, because of the very
of the whole fluid envelope. Until now it has rapid advances in our concepts of the basic
only been practical to secure satisfactory data problems during recent years, there was doubt
from rather limited areas. Only a small per cent that any program that could now be organized
of the observations have been from depths would in retrospect seem wise.
greater than 3000 m, although most of the ocean During the planning period three factors, at
is nearly twice this deep. least, have helped to stimulate greatly enthusi-
Oceanographers have had to be content to asm for the IGY oceanographic program. In
study a sort of average ocean constructed from the first place, nobody foresaw how many re-
the observations of temperature and salinity and search vessels would be able to cooperate. As
dissolved oxygen obtained by many ships. The soon as it became evident that as many as 60
distribution of such data is very uneven, both in ships might become available, many people’s
time and in space. The accuracy of even the attitudes, including my own, changed rather
best of the observations has only been satisfac- abruptly. For some reason international coopera-
tory during the past 30 years or so. Only one tion in oceanography has been slow to develop,
ocean, namely the South Atlantic, has ever been although of course it has been obvious all along
surveyed systematically and in a manner that that no one nation is likely to bring to bear
could essentially be regarded as providing a sufficient resources to do a thorough job of
synoptic picture of the deeper water masses. studying more than a limited part of the world’s
Nevertheless, it has become possible to describe oceans. However, with so many ships available
the physical and chemical structure of the oceans it would indeed be possible to gain a rather com-
in broad outline, and in recent years through plete look at the deeper waters on a more or
multiple-ship operations a beginning has been less synoptic basis. The fact that all the data
made in synoptic oceanography in limited areas. would be secured within a two-year period would
There is every expectation that through the be quite satisfactory in this case, for the deeper
International Geophysical Year the basic data of currents are believed to be sufficiently slow so
physical oceanography will be improved by a that not much change is likely to occur in the
whole order of magnitude. If present plans can system during such a period of time.
be carried out, this will be especially the case A second encouraging factor stems from the
for the deeper water masses. recent observations of L. V. Worthington of the
It must be admitted that oceanographers at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He has
the working level in this country were at first shown that below a depth of about 2500m in
not too enthusiastic about the prospects of adding the western half of the North Atlantic the
significantly to our understanding of oceanic cir- waters today contain about 0.3 cc less dissolved
culation during the International Geophysical oxygen per liter than was the case 25 or 30 years
Year. It was argued that our ships were already ago. This is strong evidence that the deeper
working on a year-round basis and that the water has not been renewed during this period.
existing programs of research at our laboratories Thus an easily measurable change has taken
were the best that could be devised. When the place in the North Atlantic and it will be
desirability of periodic resurveys of the whole interesting to learn whether or not slow trends
system of currents was pointed out, few ocea- are also taking place in other areas. In the case
nographers at the working level had the patience of the South Atlantic a particularly complete
169

170 C. O’D . ISELIN
survey of temperature, salinity, and dissolved the outer edge of the Blake Plateau at about
oxygen was made by the German ship Meteor the latitude of Charleston. It was known from
during the period 1925-27. Thus to repeat some previous Atlantis temperature and salinity sec-
of these observations became one of the major tions that in this area the deep water flow
objectives of the United States oceanographic (whatever its direction) was forced well east of
program for IGY. the swift and much shallower Florida Current
A third factor to arouse interest in deep by the Blake Plateau. Thus in this area the
currents has been the recent success of J. C. ships would not be handicapped by strong surface
Swallow of the National Institute of Oceanog- currents in their efforts to relate the deep water
raphy in England in obtaining direct measure- movements to the deep density structure. Far-
ments of the flow at considerable depths. In ther north the deep density gradients are just
the past the interpretation of deep measurements as pronounced, but they lie more directly under
of temperature and salinity in terms of direction the Gulf Stream. Because of the availability of
and velocity has been beset by very considerable Loran navigation in this area, both ships could
uncertainties. The question at issue can be stated have excellent navigational control.
in deceptively simple terms: How deep are the While the Atlantis measured the deep tem-
more powerful, permanent ocean currents? If perature and salinity structure at stations often
they are relatively shallow, that is to say extend as close as two miles apart, the Discovery
down to only 1500 m or so, then below them the tracked neutrally buoyant floats drifting with
distribution of density and the available theory the water at preselected levels. The floats con-
demand that deep countercurrents exist. Many tained a sound source and the tracking was
different kinds of studies have been made in an achieved through two hydrophones suspended
effort to resolve this problem during recent from the bow and stern of the Discovery.
years, but until Swallow developed neutrally With the float at 2000 m the net motion at the
buoyant floats, there was rather little hope of end of four days was so close to the resolving
gaining a clear-cut answer. power of the technique that the total drift of
The influence of these three developments on only a few miles was not significant. Shallower
the U. S. Atlantic IGY oceanographic program floats clearly drifted to the northeast, as was
has been very marked and, in fact, a good deal expected, and with the expected velocities. But
of the work has already been completed, so a float set out at 2800 m went toward the south-
enthusiastic have people become. Similar efforts west at about eight miles per day. Thus, in
in the Pacific lack the stimulus of as complete this part of the North Atlantic, the level of
a set of early measurements for comparison with minimum motion is at about 2000m and below
the deep physical and chemical situations as they this the current is moving surprisingly rapidly
exist today, but it seems safe to say that the in the opposite direction.
successes to date in the Atlantic are likely to Many more such observations are, of course,
encourage corresponding efforts in other areas. needed before it can be known with certainty
As mentioned above, the Atlantic oceano- how widespread this unexpected phenomenon
graphic program has already achieved some pre- may be, but at least two things were made very
liminary results. In trying to predict what the clear through the work accomplished to date:
whole very considerable undertaking will amount Through internatipnal cooperation results were
to, it will be helpful to discuss these first achieved by pooling ships and observers that
observations. neither group could have accomplished alone
and, furthermore, it should be possible through
Pre-IGY ProGRAM similar operations in a few other carefully se-
Observation of currents—The program really lected areas to interpret with considerable as-
began in March 1957 when the British research surance the great mass of deep temperature and
vessel Discovery II and our Atlantis met at salinity observations that will be secured by the
Bermuda. During the next six weeks their joint other IGY ships. Just a few weeks’ work by
operations were so productive that it is clear that two ships has made the whole deep-water pro-
a real milestone in physical oceanography was gram much more meaningful. Until this op-
achieved. The area selected for the work was eration, the main hope that scientific sense

SYNOPTIC STUDIES IN OCEANOGRAPHY 171
would be achieved was that somehow the Since the Crawford only returned to Woods
chemical observations made during IGY could Hole on June 1], 1957 after a four-month voyage,
be brought into agreement with the movements I can give here only one example of her work.
of the water deduced from the distribution of This is a profile of temperature (Fig. 1), sa-
density. There is always more or less uncer- linity (Fig. 2), and oxygen (Fig. 3) following
tainty in this general approach to the deep latitude 15°45’S. This is a reoccupation of one
circulation problem for lack of quantitative in- of the Meteor sections. The sampling intervals
formation of the role of biological activity in both vertically and horizontally are indicated by
altering the distribution of the usually observed dots on the oxygen profile. In comparison with
chemical constituents of sea water. the Meteor profile about twice the number of
Chemical measurements—On her way back observations were secured.
to Plymouth from the operations off Charleston, So far as temperature is concerned, there are
with some help from scientists at Woods Hole, no striking changes. The deep temperature
the Discovery achieved the most complete North gradients near the South American continental
Atlantic profile to date. Temperature, salinity, slope are steeper than in the Meteor profile,
and oxygen were measured at 40 stations on a but in all probability this is just a consequence
line from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland of the closer station spacing. The temperature
to the approaches to the English Channel. This maximum at mid-depths in the west has in-
work sets a very high standard for completeness creased by about 0.3°C. The salinity profile, too,
and accuracy which the other European ships corresponds very closely to the one secured by
crossing this area during the next 18 months the Meteor. There is more detail in the slight
may be hard pressed to match. The accuracy of salinity fluctuations at mid-depths, due both to
the salinity determinations was especially high the greater accuracy of the new observations and
due to the use of a new sea-going conductivity to the more closely-spaced points of observation,
bridge developed recently at Woods Hole. but at first look there seems to be no large-scale
Meanwhile, the research vessel Crawford difference.
from Woods Hole, under the skillful leadership On the other hand, there have been quite
of F. C. Fuglister, had made four complete pronounced changes in the dissolved oxygen
Atlantic crossings; two in the tropical North values during the 30-year interval. This is most
Atlantic and two in the tropical South Atlantic. easily seen by comparing the individual oxygen-
The two latter sections are duplicates of two of depth curves shown in Figure 4. Especially near
the Meteor crossings of 30 years ago. In short, the two ends of the profile there is more oxygen
we have already realized five complete Atlantic today in the oxygen minimum layer and less in
east-west profiles and three more are scheduled the deeper waters. The Antarctic bottom water
for the same ships before the end of the next at depths below about 4000m in the western
year. basin has lost as much oxygen as the deep water
The reasons for ‘jumping the gun’ with the in the western basin of the North Atlantic.
Crawford are the same that prompted Maurice Presumably of recent years the deeper water is
Ewing of the Lamont Geological Observatory not being renewed because sufficiently dense sur-
to send the Vema into the South Atlantic in the face water is not formed in winter, either in the
winter of 1957. Next winter the Atlantis and far north or the far south. It is interesting to
the Vema are scheduled to operate together in speculate about how long the trend will continue.
the South Atlantic during a six-month period. The three other 1957 Crawford profiles are
It was felt that we could make much more of just as high quality and I think that all
effective use of this time if we had the benefit of oceanographers will agree that this is a remark-
some reconnaissance. Furthermore, the Russian able piece of work for so small a vessel; the
and the Argentine ships that will cruise in the Crawford when fully loaded displaces barely
South Atlantic during the next year or more 300 tons. The data shown here are just one part
could also benefit. When the winter’s work of of a very much broader program of observations.
the Crawford and the J’ema has been studied Those who are familiar with the recent papers
in a preliminary manner, we should all be in a of George Wiist of Kiel University know the
much better position to plan wisely for the main immense amount of work that he has devoted
assault. over a long period of years to the interpretation

0
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—
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a
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ee
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METERS
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_——_
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MOSSAMEDES
HELENA
SALVADOR
ST
SO. AMERICA TEMP °C. APR. '57 AFRICA
40° WEST LONG 30° 20° 10° 0° EAST LONG. 10°

15° 45° SOUTH LATITUDE
Fic. 1— Temperature profile taken by the Crawford, 1957
12\ I25 130 135 140 145 ! iS3

METERS
IN
DEPTH
MOSSAMEDES
in
ST. HELENA
Oo
<
at
<
”
SO AMERICA SAL %. APR.'57
z
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©
WEST LONG 30° 20° 10° 0° EAST LONG. 10°

15° 45° SOUTH LATITUDE
Fic. 2— Salinity profile taken by the Crawford, 1957
172

SYNOPTIC STUDIES IN OCEANOGRAPHY 173
150 153
ai
eT
ae
tf’. :
Nah es,
— no” 7
IN METERS
F NPS
3000- | -
DEPTH
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- 4 S
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_ SO. AMERICA DISSOLVED 0, §/L,APR 57 AFRICA
| I I
i
6000.55 WEST LONG. 30°
!
20° 10° O° EAST LONG. 10°
15°45' SOUTH LATITUDE
Fic. 3 — Oxygen profile taken by the Crawford, 1957
CENTRAL WESTERN
BASIN
— &
~ ewe
Oe SETS
be we
we
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3000
Fic. 4— Dissolved oxygen observations at selected stations, 15° 45’ S latitude

174 Cc. O'D . ISELIN
of the Meteor profiles in terms of transport and Oceans, which are nearly virgin territory so far
velocity. He has worked out some fairly con- as three-dimensional oceanography is concerned.
vincing arguments that there are three levels The rate of overturn of the oceans as a whole
of minimum motion in the South Atlantic. The is not just an oceanographic problem that its
cold and relatively fresh Antarctic bottom water basic to many lines of inquiry in biological and
has a northward component, the great mass of geological oceanography, as well as in physical
water at mid-depths having salinities just above and chemical studies. Since the ocean acts to
34.90% (parts per thousand) has a southward some degree as the fly-wheel in the great heat
component. The salinity minimum layer with its engine in which the motions of both the atmos-
axis at about 700 m is moving north, while nearer phere and the hydrosphere combine and interact
the surface there is a southward component. on each other, such studies are also basic to a
Although most oceanographers will agree that better understanding of climatic trends, to the
the net components of motion are in these direc- possible use of the deep ocean for the disposal
tions at the various levels, the rates of flow com- of radioactive waste materials, and to other
puted by Wiist seem to some of us to rest on more or less practical matters. In the past the
much shakier ground. Thus, it will be of great problem has been attacked by many individual
interest to set out next winter some of the investigators and by a few research vessels work-
Swallow-type, neutrally buoyant floats at the ing independently. This will be the first time
critical points in these South Atlantic profiles. that a large percentage of the world’s talent and
Study of the new Crawford profiles will help facilities for oceanography will be working
in the selection of the best depths and locations within an agreed cooperative program.
for gaining this very positive type of observation. If the quality of the data secured during the
winter of 1957 by the Atlantis, the Crawford,
CoNCLUSION
and the Discovery can be matched by most of
To gain reliable information about the sur- the other research vessels taking part in the
prisingly swift and narrow deep flow in both International Geophysical Year programs, there
the North Atlantic and the South Atlantic, which is little doubt that a considerable stride forward
are the most thoroughly explored and best under- in our understanding of the oceans will soon be
stood oceans, will not only be of interest in itself, achieved.
but will also help greatly in the interpretation
of the deep observations that will be made by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods
ships operating in the South Pacific and Indian Hole, Massachusetts

The Seasonal Budget of Water

Water H. MunNK
Suppose one were to examine the Baltimore due to the cooperation of Russian oceanog-
tide record after suppressing daily and semi-daily raphers who made available some observations
tides by a suitable scheme of averaging. The in response to a request at the Brussels IGY
record would then show a pronounced seasonal meeting, 1955. Previously no Arctic tide observa-
trend. The mean level in March would be lower tions of sufficient duration had been known
by something like 20 cm than in September. This to us.)
result is not an isolated instance, but part of a Our present picture is based on something like
coherent picture in the entire North Atlantic 500 tide gage stations. During IGY we expect
Ocean. A relatively low sea level in February to occupy an additional 200 to 250 stations. The
to May by a sizable fraction of a foot can be positioning of these stations has been determined
found along the East Coast from Florida to largely by the gaps in the present distribution.
Maine, at Bermuda and the Azores, from the Accordingly the emphasis is, in the order given,
Mediterranean to Norway, along Greenland and on (1) islands, (2) the southern hemisphere, and
Iceland [Pattullo and others, 1955]. In general (3) measurements of the specific volume of
terms this holds also for the North Pacific water so that the degree of isostasy can be
Ocean. In the southern hemisphere the relation computed.
appears to be reversed, with sea level high in The international scale of this undertaking
March and low in September. “Sea level is low is noteworthy. At the time of this writing, the
in spring” may serve as a very rough first United States and Argentina have plans for 20
approximation. stations each, New Zealand, South Africa, and
What are the causes of this seasonal variation Spain plans for 15 stations each, Mexico 14,
in sea level? It is far easier to say what cannot Australia 11, Italy and USSR 10 each, etc. The
be the principal causes. The gravitational attrac- present total is 226 stations to be established by
tion of Sun and Moon give rise to a seasonal 27 countries. One of the American stations will
tide about ten per cent of the observed value. be located at Pt. Barrow, Alaska, with special
The yielding of the sea surface under the direct efforts to obtain records even when the sea 1s
effect of atmospheric pressure likewise amounts frozen.
to only about one-tenth the observed amount. So far we have dealt with shifts in water
Apparently the largest effect, at least in mod- mass within the oceans. On the basis of the
erate latitudes, is the heating and cooling of the present data we have attempted also to find
water by solar radiation, back radiation, evapo- out whether the total mass of ocean water varies
ration, etc. [Pattullo, 1957]. appreciably throughout the year. Our best guess
In turn this means that most of the observed is that between October and March the northern
variation in sea level represents a thermal expan- hemisphere oceans lose 2Xx10!® grams, while
sion and contraction of the water rather than a southern hemisphere oceans gain | x 10!® grams,
shifting water mass. A pressure recorder at the leaving a net loss of 1Xx10!® grams, equivalent
sea bottom would note a relatively small seasonal roughly to a sea level drop by 4cm [Munk,
variation, that is, conditions are nearly ‘isostatic.’ 1956]. The uncertainty is such that the total
In high latitudes the situation is apparently loss may be twice as large or there might be
different. From what one can tell on the basis none at all. We do hope that the IGY effort
of the present very inadequate data, conditions will narrow the uncertainty by a good deal.
there are not at all isostatic. It looks as if during Suppose we accept the above values for the
winter in each hemisphere, water is moved from moment. Where can one store 10!* grams of
the polar and subpolar seas into the subtropical water during March? The atmosphere contains
regions; in summer the transport is in the op- two to three grams of water per square centi-
posite sense. (The fact that the Arctic Ocean meter, and the seasonal variation is only about
partakes in this seasonal trend is known to us ten per cent of this value. This is inadequate.
175

176 WALTER H. MUNK
Snow over Siberia alone amounts to about one- The expected amount is of the order 0.03, or
third of the required amount, and maximum roughly a shift of the pole of rotation by three
storage does occur at the required time, in feet. The observed annual wobble is about ten
northern spring. Recently, van Hylckama [1956] times larger and caused principally by shifts in
has completed a global survey of variable deten- air mass. Here again there might be a chance
tion of moisture in the form of snow, organic to isolate the water term.
material, moisture in the soil and ground water. In closing one must emphasize that there are
His estimates are that maximum detention for some difficulties associated with the water-budget
the Earth is during March and April, minimum problem that have not been discussed here. The
detention in September and October, and that reason for emphasizing this particular portion of
the total range equals 0.5 to 0.75x10'® grams. the oceanographic program is that it fits rather
In magnitude as well as phase this agrees with well into the framework of the International
our rough estimates based on oceanic measure- Geophysical Year, for the following reasons:
ments. Thus there is some hope that the global (1) global observations are definitely required;
water budget might be balanced in a rough way (2)the observations must be synchronous; (3)
on the basis of the IGY effort. the period of the phenomenon is one year; (4)
There is, moreover, opportunity for making cooperation of various geophysical disciplines are
a rough check as to whether such a budget is required: oceanography, meteorology, glaciology,
in accord with other considerations. Clearly a and hydrology; and (5) there is a relation to
shift of water mass towards the equator in- the IGY program involving precise determina-
creases the Earth’s moment of inertia, and actions of longitude and latitude.
cordingly, if angular momentum is to be con-
served, the Earth’s angular velocity must de- REFERENCES
crease or the length of day increase. The Mintz, YALE, AND WALTER Munk, The effect of
expected seasonal range in the length of day winds and bodily tides on the annual variation
due to shifts in water mass is of the order of in the length of day, Mon. Notes R. Astron. Soc.,
Geophys. Sup., 6, 566-578, 1954.
0.1 milliseconds. Astronomic measurements in- Munk, WALTER, Geophysical Discussion, R. Astr.
dicate a total range of about 0.7 milliseconds. Soc., Observatory, 76, 56-57, 1956.
Most of this range is due to winds [Mintz and PATTULLO, JUNE, The seasonal heat budget of the
Munk, 1954] but the amount due to shifts in oceans, Dissertation, University of California,
1957.
water is evidently not negligible. Inasmuch as PATTULLO, JUNE, WALTER Munk, Rocer R.
the meterologic and astronomic observations will REVELLE, AND ELIZABETH STRONG, The seasonal
be taken with particular care during IGY, there oscillation in sea level, J. Marine Res., 14, 88-
is a possibility that the effect of shifts in water 155, 1955.
VAN HyLcKAMA, T. E. A., The water balance of the
can be isolated.
Earth, Pub. in Climatology, Drexel Inst. Tech.,
There is yet another astronomic effect. On Lab. Climatology, Centerton, N. J., 9, 57-117,
account of the asymmetrical distribution of sea 1956.
and land, a shift in water mass will tilt the axis Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, Cali-
of rotation with respect to the body of the Earth. fornia

United States Polar Ice and Snow Studies in the International

Geophysical Year
Henri Baber
Introduction—It is well known that advance meteorological records are poor. These regions
and recession of glaciers are usually direct evi- of course are the higher mountains at lower
dence of a change in the local climate. If the latitudes and the polar regions. With very few
climate does not change over a period of many exceptions, the mountain glaciers of the tropics
years, the glacier as a whole remains stationary. and temperate regions are temperate glaciers,
This does not mean that it is not moving, but characterized by ice at the melting point. A rela-
that it is in equilibirum in the sense that the tively thin surface layer of a temperate glacier
amount of ice melting away in the lower parts is cooled below the melting point during the
is equal to the amount flowing down from the winter; the large bulk of its mass is always wet.
upper reaches. The ideal stationary glacier, Only in the less accessible very high névé fields
then, does not change its mass or shape. Now if do we find small areas with negligible summer
the climate gets warmer without appreciable melting. Heavy summer melting is the rule in
change in snowfall, the lower end of the glacier the accumulation areas of glaciers in the tem-
will recede, because more ice melts away than perate regions. Melt water penetrates deeply
flows down from above. The same thing hap- into the névé and washes out much of the detail
pens if the amount of snowfall decreases without of the record of past precipitation.
change in temperature. Under opposite condi- We are probably not far wrong in the expec-
tions, increase of snowfall or decrease of tem- tation that the IGY temperate glacier investi-
perature, the glacier will advance. The ice front gations will not give results of a radically new
could remain stationary if increase in snowfall, nature; it will mainly deepen our knowledge in
which would tend to make the ice front advance, an old field of scientific endeavor. We need to
were exactly compensated by an increase in tem- know more about how various temperate glaciers
perature, which would tend to make the ice front react to climate change, particularly how fast
recede. In this case, however, the surface of the and how much.
glacier would become steeper, and the change of Polar glaciers—The physics and mechanics of
climate would manifest itself in a change of high polar glaciers are much more complicated.
slope. The reaction of a glacier to climatic High polar glaciers consist predominantly of ice
change is complicated by a number of factors re- at temperatures below the melting point, and
lated to snow and ice mechanics, which are not the properties of ice are a strong function of
yet well understood. Their main effect is to be temperature. Furthermore, the two polar gla-
observed as a time lag between onset of the ciers which are mainly being investigated during
climatic change and detectable reaction of the the IGY, the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets,
glacier to it. Generally, the larger the glacier, are far too large for study as units. We will
and the colder the climate, the greater the lag. only see a few small pieces of the perimeter and
Temperature glaciers—Present knowledge on trace a few lines in the interior. But this is
this subject is meager, and one of the objectives where the new polar glaciology promises a
of the IGY glaciological program is to provide harvest only dreamed of in the past.
more data. The present state of glaciers in many Two thirds of the area of the Greenland ice
parts of the world will be recorded. This is sheet and practically all of the Antarctic ice
long-range research, because much of the data sheet are permanently dry. All precipitation is in
obtained will only become fully useful when the form of snow. Summer melt is rare and
compared with observations to be made many usually affects a surface layer only a few centi-
years in the future. In the meantime, the IGY meters thick. Thus every snowfall, including
observations on recent and present fluctuation of everything that fell with it, is, so to say, sepa-
glaciers will yield information on recent climatic rately and safely filed for future reference by
changes and present trends in regions where being buried under later snowfalls.
177

178 HENRI BADER
We were worried about the effect of snow The identification of annual layers can be diffi-
drifting large distances from one place to an- cult unless there are thin ice crusts or other
other until Swithinbank [1957] showed that features to aid in distinguishing summer from
drifting at Maudheim in Antarctica did not winter layers. In Greenland it is possible to
carry beyond a few miles. In most places drift- count annual layers almost without error, but
ing probably only introduces a minor fuzziness the Antarctic summer is much colder and it may
into the record; if necessary, its effect could be be impossible to identify summer layers at high
quantitatively estimated by sampling at the points altitudes. In this case Sorge’s law suggests two
of a grid. methods for estimating mean annual accumula-
The first man literally to dig into the files tion, which cannot be discussed here in detail.
was Sorge [1935] of the Wegener Expedition. The first one requires measurement of the rate
At ‘Eismitte’ in Greenland in 1930-31 he exca- of snow densification and is based on purely geo-
vated a 15-m pit, counted the annual snow layers metrical reasoning; the other is based partly on
and determined their density. He also enunci- snow mechanics and is not yet in a satisfactory
ated the most fruitful law of polar glaciology. state. Yet a third new method for distinguishing
Sorge’s law states that, at any given location in between winter and summer layers has been de-
the dry-snow region of a glacier, the density of veloped by S. Epstein (personal communication,
the snow as a function of depth does not change 1957) of the California Institute of Technology.
with time unless the climate changes. During It is based on the fact that the ratio of oxygen
the last few years the records of the snow layers isotopes 16 and 18 of the snow changes with the
in Greenland have been delved into more deeply temperature at which the snow was formed.
and in more detail by means of methods and This method is apparently very reliable, but
instruments developed mainly by the U. S. Army requires much expensive laboratory work.
Snow Ice and Permafrost Research Establish- The Greenland and Antarctic snow layers are
ment (SIPRE). Here also Sorge’s law was a treasure trove for the scientist. The tritium
given mathematical form. The mathematical content of the snow can, for instance, be deter-
theory is being further widened to include the mined and used to estimate its age, but only for
effects of changes in rate of precipitation and snow which fell prior to 1954. Since then, the
temperature. thermonuclear tests have upset the natural
Snow is a poor heat conductor, so that the tritium balance. F. Begeman (personal com-
large amplitude of temperature variation at the munication, 1957) at the University of Chicago
surface diminishes rapidly with depth. At ten determined the tritium content of snow which
meters, the annual temperature amplitude is fell in Greenland in 1954 and found it to be sev-
less than 34°C. It is also known, by actual com- eral times greater than normal. Analysis for
parison with meteorological records at two loca- other radioactive contaminations in precisely
tions in Greenland, that this almost constant dated snow layers from Greenland and Antarc-
temperature at ten meters depth is within one tica will yield most valuable data on general
degree of the mean annual air temperature. atmospheric circulation since the first nuclear
Here then we have a simple means of determin- devices were detonated in 1945. Scientists who
ing a prime climatic parameter without necessity have been monitoring radioactive fallout would
of long-term meteorological observations. By now like to go back several years to measure
digging a pit, counting annual layers, and meas- some things they missed at the beginning. The
uring snow density as a function of depth below snows of Greenland and Antarctica permit them
the surface, the amount of annual precipitation to do so.
can also be determined. The usual procedure It should furthermore be possible to follow
includes digging a pit several meters deep, meas- qualitatively and quantitatively the degree of
uring temperature and noting stratigraphy in atmospheric contamination by industrial activity
the pit wall, and taking closely spaced samples by analyses of snows down to the layers which
with standard half-liter tubes for density meas- fell in pre-industrial times.
urements. For samples from a greater depth, Natural objects which fall with the snow,
a hole is sunk from the bottom of the pit with such as volcanic ash, meteorites, spores, and bac-
a hand-operated core drill. teria, are here perfectly preserved for anybody

U. S.-IGY POLAR ICE AND SNOW STUDIES 179
who is interested in them. Ash from the Alaskan Expedition onto the Northern Ellesmere Island
Katmai volcanic eruption of 1912, for instance, glaciers, the American IGY group in the Brooks
was easily identified in a snow layer from a Range in Alaska, as well as the SIPRE research
depth of 32 m below the 1954 snow surface at a group in Greenland will all produce comparable
point 200 mi east of Thule, Greenland. The data.
relatively high reliability of our identification of Coring program—The deepest penetration into
annual layers is demonstrated by the fact that the past will be done in the US IGY deep-
we had an error of only one meter, correspond- drilling program which has been entrusted to
ing to two years, at the 1912 level. It is doubtful SIPRE. In preparation, SIPRE, in 1956, drilled
whether the 1912 dated layer, which is almost to 300 m at its experimental station on the
certainly continuous over all of Greenland, will Greenland ice sheet some 200 mi east of Thule
be found in the Antarctic, but the ash of the with the logistic support of the U. S. Army
1883 Krakatoa explosive eruption may prove to Engineer Arctic Task Force. Core recovery
be identifiable in both hemispheres. We expect was very incomplete, the primary objective being
to find it at 50 m depth at the Greenland locality to develop drilling techniques. Present plans are
mentioned above and at less than 20 m in Ant- to drill for a complete four-inch diameter core
arctica where precipitation is much lighter. at the same place in the summer of 1957, then
SIPRE is making a major effort towards suc- to do the same in Marie Byrd Land in 1957-58,
cessful IGY polar glaciology research. In the and in 1958-59 at Little America with the lo-
summer of 1956 it offered a polar glaciology gistic support of the US Naval Support Force,
study course to IGY scientists from the United Antarctica.
States, Denmark, France, Germany, Switzer- Investigation of cores from the 1956 hole (Fig.
land, Argentina, and Chile. The course was 3-5) has revealed that 300 m is very close to the
given on a three-week tractor-and-weasel swing maximum depth for core recovery in any high
from Thule to a point 100 mi out on the Inland polar glacier. At the SIPRE laboratories, Lang-
Ice. SIPRE also assembled the glaciological way measured the air content of ice as a function
instruments which are being used by the glacio- of depth with the following results: As a snow
logical teams of the United States now working layer is slowly compressed under the ever in-
in Antarctica (Fig. | and 2). The Argentines, creasing load of the overlying layers, its perme-
British and French are using identical instru- ability decreases to reach zero at a density very
ments and methods, assuring that comparable close to 0.83. Upon further densification the
data will be obtained from the majority of IGY inclosed air can no longer escape and becomes
stations on the Antarctic continent. compressed in the form of numerous small
The European International Glaciological Ex- bubbles inclosed in the ice. When the pressure
pedition to Greenland (EGIG), the Canadian of the overlying snow reaches some 20 kg/cm?
Fic. 1 — USA SIPRE hand coring auger for obtaining three-inch diameter
cores of snow and ice; used for coring to a depth of 30m

180 HENRI BADER
Fic. 2— SIPRE snow kit for measuring snow density and temperature;
consists of half-liter snow tubes, cut-off plates, tube rectifying
mandril, spring balance, and dial thermometers
at a depth of 230 m, the bubble pressure builds

up to 14 kg/cm?, which is equal to the tensile
strength of ice. Since air is used to blow the
DENSITY IN G/CCM cuttings out of the drill hole, drilling releases
03 04 05 06 OF 08 09 o the confining pressure, and both the core and
U ~ v v v qT qT |
30
the ice forming the wall of the hole begin to
71 crack when the air bubble pressure exceeds the
100 strength of the ice. Cracking becomes progres-
L { sively worse with increasing depth. We could
fs 100 IMPERMEABLE , 200 &
8 ICE | vo drill deeper by using a liquid instead of air,
= SITE 2, GREENLAND 1300 2 which would prevent collapse of the hole wall,
F 00. ~—« LDEPTH-DENSITY-AGE
- -
1ao0 uJ8 but the cores would disintegrate by bursting of
air bubbles on being pulled to the surface. Yet
o TEMPERATURE : 1500 the ability to obtain cores down to 300 m is
AT 30METERS-24.6°C extremely useful. The age of the snow at that
300| «AT 140 METERS-253°C 4600 depth at the SIPRE Greenland drill site is
nearly 600 years, and in northeast Greenland and
Fic. 3 — Change of snow density with depth on Antarctica, where the annual accumulation is
the Greenland Inland Ice, 200 mi east of Thule; much smaller, we may hope to reach back some
the age scale is by actual count of annual layers
down to 71 years, and by extrapolation for greater
2000 years into the past for information other-
age wise unobtainable.

U. S.-IGY POLAR ICE AND SNOW STUDIES 181
SNOW DENSITY G/CCM 50

O 025 030 035 040 045 050 055
CM OF WATER EQUIVALENT
O -I954 T T T ' '
ma
6
| 1953 =
5
DN
8
DEPTH IN METERS
Ww
Oo
ON pp
(960 I950 940 1930 1920 190 800 1890

WW
YEAR
Fic. 5 — Five-year running mean of annual ac-
DO
cumulation, 200 mi east of Thule, Greenland; esti-

mation of the accumulation of snow in any given
year is inaccurate because in measuring the mass be-
1945 —- tween one summer and the next, one does not know
I944 _ whether the summer layers were deposited in June,
July, or August; the mean of several years has a
oO
I943 —o
much smaller error; the running five-year means

10‘1942 —— ——
show that there is a pronounced cyclic variation in
Fic. +— Change of density with depth as in Fig. the rate of precipitation, which decreased by more
3; detail of upper ten meters; arrows indicate posi-
than 20 pct during the last 40 years
tion of estimated midsummer layers of each year;
summer layers are generally less dense than winter studies. Its purpose is to show that this phase
layers of IGY activity is of interest far beyond glaci-
ology in its narrower sense.
There is no doubt that a number of interest-
ing things that could be determined by work on REFERENCES
dated ice cores have not yet been suggested. It
was therefore decided that the cores will be Sorce, E., Glaziologische Untersuchungen in Eis-
mitte, Wiss. Erg. Deutschen Groenland Exp. 1929
sliced in half lengthwise and that one-half will u. 1930/31, 3, Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1935.
be stored in the frozen state for future investi- SWITHINBANK, C., Norwegian-British-Swedish Ant-
gations. arctic Expedition 1949-52, Sctentific results, 3,
Conclusion—The above account is not a com- Glaciology I, Norsk Polarinstitut, Oslo, 1957.
plete exposition of the wealth of new knowledge Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Research Establishment,
that will flow from the IGY polar snow and ice Wilmette, Illinois.

Mountain Glaciology
GEorGE P. Ricssy
Introduction—Depending upon his objectives, major efforts to study these interrelationships

there are several ways in which a scientist looks are now being made in the Antarctic and will
at glaciers. The glaciologist studies the physics continue during IGY. While the micrometeor-
of glaciers and sees them as a study of the ologist studies the heat budget of the glacier,
accumulation and compaction of snow, the flow measuring the incoming and outgoing radiation,
or deformation and recrystallization of snow and the hydrologist is interested in the amount of
ice, and its melting and wastage in the lower water stored in the form of ice and the rate of
regions. He frequently needs to work closely discharge back to the oceans by way of rivers
with the ice physicist who is interested in the and streams. As can be seen, it is very difficult
physical and mechanical properties of the sub- in many research projects to separate these fields
stance. The geomorphologist or glacial geologist of interest, and indeed, one usually does not
sees them as a force or agent which changes the want them separated. The balance of this paper
landscape as it erodes in one place and deposits is devoted primarily to the objectives of that
in another. He has studied the debris left by part of the glaciology program concerning valley
the glaciers and, by various means of dating, has glaciers during the International Geophysical
established the approximate time of various ad- Year, which, in its broad aspect, includes most
vancements. The petrologist sees it as a mono- of these fields of interest.
mineralic metamorphic rock being deformed at Valley glaciers—The continents today are free
the surface of the Earth as it flows to lower of major ice sheets with the exception of Ant-
elevations. The metamorphic rock he generally arctica and Greenland. Still it is estimated
studies has been deformed at much too great that there is enough water locked up in ice
a depth to ever hope to be able to examine it sheets and glaciers to raise sea level 150 to 300 ft,
during the process of metamorphism. Such rock which, if released, would inundate a great deal
has been brought to the surface only by millions of our rich and heavily populated land areas.
of years of erosion. Glaciers are commonly divided into valley
The paleoclimatologist sees glaciers as indi- glaciers and ice sheets. The term mountain
cators of past climates and has recognized sev- glacier is almost synonymous with valley glacier
eral cycles of advancement and retreat. There even though ice caps, which are generally recog-
have been found four cycles of a duration of nized as small ice sheets, are usually found in
several hundred thousand years each which, at mountainous areas and are associated with
their greatest advance, covered almost all of mountain glaciology. The amount of ice in the
Canada and a large part of the northern United world outside of the two large ice sheets of
States. Superimposed on these major cycles Greeland and Antarctica is relatively small,
have been smaller cycles of advancement and probably being no more than five to ten per cent
retreat, and still smaller cycles on these, making of the total existing ice.
the glacial history difficult to unravel and con- Glaciers have been geophysically classified by
fusing any prediction as to whether our land Ahlmann [1948] as polar, subpolar, and tem-
surface is likely to be more covered or less cov- perate. The polar glacier is one in which the
ered by ice in a few hundred years from now. temperature of the ice is below the freezing
There are even minor retreats and advances of point throughout the year with the exception
no more than a few tens of years which have that there may be a small amount of melting at
been observed in our own western mountains. the surface during the summer months. If the
Many theories as to the cause of the ice ages melting is great enough to provide runoff on the
have been proposed, but as yet none has been surface of the ice, but still not raise the internal
proved. temperature throughout to the melting point, it
The meteorologist is interested in the effects might be called subpolar. Temperate glaciers
of glaciers and ice caps on the weather, and are those which are at the pressure melting tem-
182

MOUNTAIN GLACIOLOGY 183
perature throughout the year except that the melting of the upper surface of the previous
upper few tens of feet may be lowered below the winter's accumulation of snow. On ice sheets
freezing point during the winter months. This far from sources of dust, and where there is
‘frozen’ layer is rapidly destroyed in the accumu- little if any melting during the summer months,
lation zone during the late spring or early sum- such dirty layers are usually not found, and it
mer seasons by the latent heat carried down becomes much more difficult to distinguish be-
through the snow and firn by water formed by tween the annual layers. One must then resort
surface melting. Such a layer, which required to a study of grain size and orientation and
the entire winter to freeze to a depth of per- intergrain relationships to separate the layers.
haps 40 or 50 ft by conduction, can be destroyed S. Epstein of the California Institute of Tech-
and brought back to the melting temperature in nology has even been able to distinguish between
less than two weeks’ time after melting first summer and winter snowfalls by the ratio of
starts at the surface. the oxygen isotopes in the water molecules,
A glacier which does not reach the sea, thereby which varies with the temperature at which the
discharging its ice as icebergs, can be divided into snow is formed. Utilizing the average density
two parts, the accumulation and the wastage or and thickness measured at selected locations and
melting areas, which are separated by the firn the area of the firn field, the total accumulation
line. Snow is the usual source of nourishment, can be calculated. The losses can be calculated
which, after becoming one year old, is usually by measuring the area and the average thickness
known as firn or névé, and its lower limit is of ice lost below the firn line. Sometimes it is
known as the firn line. The farthest retreat of feasible to measure the discharge of water at
the firn during the season, usually late summer, the terminus if the drainage is simple enough
just before the season’s snows begin, is known and if the total snowfall in the accumulation
as the firn limit. The snow, which falls on a area is known, in order to calculate the propor-
glacier and does not melt during the summer tion of water lost in that region.
season, is gradually buried deeper and deeper If a glacier is in equilibrium, that is, the ac-
each year and compacted until it finally reaches cumulation equals the rate of ablation, its total
a dense enough state to be called ice; this is mass will remain the same. In general, with
arbitrarily set by the glaciologist as the point this condition, the glacier remains the same
where the channels are sealed off as air bubbles length and the same thickness. If the losses
and water can no longer percolate through. At exceed the gains, the firn line moves up the
this stage the specific gravity is usually about glacier, actually decreasing the area of accumu-
0.82 or 0.83. Because of the thickness of the ice lation, and the glacier will grow thinner and
and the slope of the surface on which it rests, retreat. When the accumulation is greater than
the ice flows down hill until it reaches a zone the losses, the firn line moves down the glacier,
where the conditions are such that the melting and it thickens and increases in length.
on the surface exceeds the winter snowfall, During IGY we are planning to survey by
frequently caller the ablation area. It is obvious ground and aerial photography as many of the
then that the maximum quantity of ice to flow world’s mountain glaciers as possible. These
through any vertical cross section is at the firn pictures will show the location of the terminus
limit. Of course, the firn limit fluctuates some- and give some idea of the thickness of the
what from year to year, but, in general, it is a glacier. It will help if the firn line also shows
very useful division of the glacier. in the photographs. Comparison will be made
Now to get some idea of the present state of with earlier pictures taken of the same regions
a glacier, the total accumulation is measured by and will be available for comparison with pic-
digging pits and measuring the average thickness tures taken in the future. In this way, we may
and density of the annual layer deposited during be able to deduce some information concerning
the winter months. Usually the layers of several the part of the cycle which we are now in; that
years can be seen or found in any one location. is, demonstrate whether at the present time the
These layers are frequently separated by some- region is warming or cooling and whether the
what dirty zones caused by an accumulation of precipitation is increasing or decreasing.
dust deposited by the wind and concentrated by We are also very interested in the movement

184 G. P. RIGSBY
of glaciers, and, besides measuring the rate of Greenland by the Snow, Ice, and Permafrost
flow along various surface profiles, would like Research Establishment of the U. S. Army Corps
to know more about the flow at depth. Such of Engineers. Their program has the general
studies have been attempted by drilling holes and objectives of the IGY glaciological program, but
studying their movement and deformation. These in some areas of research, such as ice physics,
and other studies have led to the formulation of they will go considerably beyond that being done
ice flow laws which are now being tested in by any other group during IGY.
laboratories by several groups of workers in The principal objectives of the IGY Glacio-
Europe and the United States. logical program are, of course, much broader
By using seismic reflection shooting, the depth than one might be led to believe from the short
and configuration of the bottom of the glacier is discussion given above of valley glaciers. Pri-
found, and with this knowledge coupled with marily these objectives are: (1) to determine
the flow profile, one can calculate the amount locations, areal extents, and types of glaciers;
of ice that flows through a specific vertical plane. (2) to determine the pattern of regional climatic
Taking such a vertical plane through the firn trends insofar as they are revealed by observed
line, one has the total flow of ice from the patterns of present and recent past glacier ac-
accumulation area to ablation zone. tivity; (3) to determine historical patterns of
Ice, an optically uniaxial mineral, lends itself regional climatic changes insofar as they can be
readily to universal-stage techniques in which deduced from past glacier fluctuations as evi-
the orientation of the optic axis can easily be denced by geomorphological and biological fea-
measured in thin sections and plotted for statisti- tures; and (4) as a prerequisite to interpreta-
cal analysis. During these crystal-orientation tion of glacier fluctuations in terms of climatic
studies, impressive fabrics in glacier ice have fluctuations, to investigate the dynamic properties
been found, giving valuable information con- and mass budgets of glaciers, and their relation-
cerning the way in which the ice is deformed ships to mass and energy exchange between
and also leading to information concerning the glaciers and their meteorological environments.
magnitude and direction of the shear stresses The last objective mentioned can be divided
found within the glacier. into several parts: (a) micrometeorology, (b)
There are many other interesting problems glacier mass budget, (c) glacier dynamics, and
being undertaken, such as studies of peat sec- (d) special studies.
tions, tree growth, soil profiles, and timberline The micrometeorological studies will attempt
observations, but time will not permit elabora- to measure the mass and energy exchange at the
tion. However, glaciologists are making the glacier surface and relate this exchange to the
most of the International Geophysical Year to glacier mass budget and to the glacier’s climatic
increase our knowledge of glaciers in all parts of environment. This will provide one of the most
the world and in all phases of the field. important keys for predicting a change in the
Northern hemisphere US-IGY program—On glacier regimen which will occur if various cli-
continental North America our most extensive matic parameters undergo some change, and it
ice fields and ice-covered areas are found along will also help interpret the history of past glacier
the southern coast of Alaska between Anchorage fluctuations in these terms.
and Juneau. However, there are glaciers as far Continuous measurements will be made of
north as the Brooks Range in Alaska and as far incoming and reflected solar and sky radiation,
south as the Sierra Nevadas in California. Our and net total radiation. The penetration of
most active programs during IGY on mountain shortwave radiation into firn, snow, and ice will
glaciers are on the McCall Glacier in the Brooks also be measured by the use of specially de-
Range, Alaska; the Lemon Glacier near Juneau, signed instruments. Air temperatures and wind-
Alaska; and the Blue Glacier in the Olympic speeds at various heights above the glacier sur-
Mountains in the state of Washington, but work face will be measured along with surface accu-
is also being done in the Alaska Range, Columbia mulation and ablation. Subsurface temperatures
Icefield, Cascade Mountains, and the Sierra will be measured with thermocouples, thermis-
Nevadas. tors, and thermohms, and thermal conductivity
An extensive program is being carried out in and heat flow will be measured or calculated.

MOUNTAIN GLACIOLOGY 185
The glacier mass budget will be calculated width, alignment, and down glacier movement.
from the accumulation and ablation measure- It is hoped that time will permit some additional
ments. At stations operated throughout the year, work to be done in crystallographic and fabric
the complete history of one season’s snow pack studies and on the metamorphism of snow and
will be developed through pit studies. ice.
Analysis of glacier dynamics will require
measurements of surface velocity, flow diver- REFERENCES
gence, variation of velocity with depth, and ice AHLMANN, H. W., Glaciological research on the
thickness. North Atlantic coasts, R. Geogr. Soc., Res. ser.,
Additional studies will be made of crevasse I, 1948.
patterns and the changes with time in crevasse 1432 Carleton Square, San Diego, California

The Crust and Mantle of the Earth*
Maurice Ewinc
Two major discontinuities, both nearly spheri- face [Bucher, 1950]. Two principal lines of
cal, divide the Earth into three parts: mantle, thought have been followed. In the first, the
core, and crust, representing 83.3 pct, 16.2 pct, segregation of the crustal matter is likened to
and 0.5 pct respectively of the total volume. that of slag on a body of molten metal. For
From the seismological studies of Wiechert, example, Vening Meinesz [1957, p. 133] relates
Oldham, and Gutenberg, we know that the core both the differentiation and the distribution of
is fluid, containing an inner core that is prob- the sialic layer to two episodes of convection cur-
ably solid [Lehmann, 1936], and that it is rents, the first of which occurred at a time when
separated from the mantle by the sharpest dis- temperatures throughout were high and the
continuity within the Earth. From studies of Earth could be considered to be fluid. He con-
the refraction of compressional and shear waves siders that a first order spherical harmonic
generated by earthquakes, and also by explosions, convection current brought the nickel-iron to the
we know that the Mohorovicic discontinuity core and the sialic crustal matter to the surface,
separates the bottom of the crust from the top of sweeping the latter together in an ‘Ur continent’
the mantle. Modern studies of the dispersion in the region of convergence and subsidence of
of surface waves of all types are now adding the current. He assumes that an ensuing period
rapidly to our knowledge of the crust and the of rest was brought on by a combination of two
upper mantle. Birch [1951] presented an argu- effects: (1) reduction of the thermal gradients
ment for a change in composition or phase at a below a critical value, and (2) disruption of
depth of about 800 km that has not been con- the flow pattern by accumulation of core ma-
clusively refuted. If this change exists, it is a terial. During the rest period, he considers that
serious barrier to convection currents. the sialic crust solidified into a shell of uniform
It has become clear that there is a standard thickness, covering about one third of the Earth's
continental crustal section and a_ standard surface, while the denser mantle remained
oceanic one, whose thicknesses are about 35 and plastic.
5 km, respectively, which together represent al- When subsequent current systems occurred,
most the entire surface of the Earth. The areas they were confined to the mantle by the presence
of exceptional crustal structure are mostly long of the core, and had a considerable number of
narrow strips such as the continental margins, cells corresponding to higher-order spherical
the major mountain systems, the mid-ocean harmonics. These broke apart the ‘Ur continent’
ridges, and the island arcs with their associated and transported the fragments to form the
deep trenches. present continents in areas of descending cur-
There are three major problems about the rents. During a subsequent rest period, the
crust-mantle system which may be considered as upper mantle solidified to form the ocean floors.
the foci of much of present day research. These Much of the geophysical evidence gathered in
are (a) the origin of the crust, (b) the me- the past quarter century may be interpreted to
chanics of deformations of the crust, and (c) the indicate that mantle convection currents, per-
possibility of continued interchange of matter haps further modified in pattern by the solidifi-
between mantle and crust. Rapid progress to- cation of the outer mantle, occur when thermal
ward the solution of these problems is being gradients build up to produce suitable instability.
made. The other line of thought about origin of
The problem of the origin of the crust is taken the crust may be illustrated in its extreme form
to include the question of the separation of by Wilson’s [1949; 1954, pp. 205-206] suggestion
the crustal matter from the mantle and the that before the beginning of the geologic era
accumulation of the crust into large plates either
the Earth had a uniform solidified cover of ultra-
5 or 35 km thick over most of the Earth’s sur-
basic rocks, perhaps overlain by a few kilometers
* Contribution No. 300, Lamont Geological Ob- of basalt. Places where this was intruded by or
servatory, Columbia University. altered to granites or granodiorites gradually
186

THE CRUST AND MANTLE OF THE EARTH 187
formed the small nuclei of continents. Tuffs, such as gravity anomalies, seismicity, and vol-
conglomerates, and graywackes collected on the canism in selected areas. Similarities of the
nuclei, and erosion produced such sediments as calculated shear pattern to the tectonic patterns
sandstones and limestones which accumulated given by geologists were found for many conti-
around the margins. These accumulations acted nental areas.
as centers for systems of off-shore fractures Many details of the crustal deformations
along which rose hot gases, solutions and pre- which occur in mountain building are known
dominately acidic lavas. These contributed to through geological and geophysical studies. But
the growth of the atmosphere, the oceans, and there is no generally accepted explanation of the
the continents according to a pattern which is fundamental cause of mountain building, hence
considered to have persisted, and to be expanding there is no immediate prospect for a quantitative
the continents at the present time. Stille [ 1934, theory for this type of crustal deformation. It is
1941] considered that continents grow by re- generally agreed that in the first stage a long
peated addition of the consolidated rocks of narrow trench, say 200 mi wide and 5000 to
peripheral orthogeosynclinal belts to earlier 15,000 ft deep, formed and is filled with sedi-
cratons. Kay [1951, p. 103] concludes that the ment. In practically all mountain systems of the
“stratigraphic evidence supports a theory that Earth, it appears that compression of the crust
continents have grown interruptedly by reduc- in a direction normal to the length of the trench,
tion of oceanic areas through an intermediate has buckled and sheared the sedimentary beds.
island-arc stage.” Bucher [1955, 1956] has suggested that gravita-
Mechanisms of deformation of the crust—De- tional sliding of the accumulated sediments may
formations of the crust can only be studied produce an impression that the crustal shorten-
properly by taking full account of the ac- ing is far in excess of its actual value. Invasion,
companying deformations of the upper mantle. either by great volumes of granitic magma or by
Perhaps the simplest deformations are isostatic heated gases and solutions which melt the sedi-
and tidal. These deformations are controlled mentary rocks and convert them to granites,
primarily by properties of the mantle rather occurred in some cases on a very large scale
than those of the crust, hence can yield data to produce great batholiths as in the Sierra
primarily relating to the mantle. Calculations of Nevada. In other cases, the intrusive bodies
mechanical properties of the upper mantle from and the metamorphised sediments are small and
the recent uplift of the Baltic and Canadian relatively insignificant, as in the Rocky Moun-
Shields, considered solely on isostatic readjust- tains proper. The elevation which accompanies
ment following melting of the Quaternary ice and follows the intrusive stage completes the
caps, are well-known [Haskell, 1936; Vening building of the mountain range.
Meinesz, 1937, 1954; Gutenberg, 1941, 1942]. Mountain building, as described above, has
Stille [1955, p. 173] pointed out the probability been confined to the continents, usually near the
that crustal warping resulting from causes other margins, or to island-are structures which like-
than ice loading are in progress, and that “post- wise are generally near the continental margins.
glacial isostasy should rather be considered as The absence of mountain building in the ocean
an additional factor in the general concept of basins throughout geologic time is a striking and
unwarping.” Sedimentation, erosion, and changes significant fact.
in sea level all produce isostatic crustal adjust- The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and other ridges of
ments which are difficult to isolate from vertical similar type, do not form exceptions to the state-
displacements that result from other causes. ment just made. It has been pointed out by
A second type of deformation, which is also Ewing and Heezen [1956, pp. 78-80] that this
amenable to calculation, is that imposed by the ridge continues through the Arctic, Indian, and
polar flattening of the spheroid during a shift of Pacific Oceans, and that a median rift zone is
the crust relative to the axis of rotation. Vening a characteristic feature. The rift zone ac-
Meinesz [1947] has shown that a pole-shift can curately follows the continuous narrow belt of
be chosen which will yield a shear pattern closely shallow-focus earthquakes which provides a
related to topography and tectonic pattern of the basis for predicting continuity of the ridge-rift
ocean basins and the margins. He shows a structure through areas where soundings are in-
correlation between the calculated shear pattern adequate or lacking. It is concluded that the
and the distribution of geophysical phenomena rift zones of East Africa and South Island, New

188 MAURICE EWING
Zealand, are landward extensions of the mid- and released by rupture. Investigation of the
ocean rift system, that the rifts result from action at the earthquake focus thus is one of
tension in the crust and that the seismicity indi- the most direct means of obtaining information
cates present-day motion of the rift. Seismic about the deformations which are occurring at
refraction results reported by Ewing and Ewing the present time. Important studies are in
[in press] give the following information about progress on several phases of this problem as
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: sediments, >! km follows: (a) maximum energy released in indi-
thick, v=1.7 km/sec; basaltic volcanics, +3 km vidual shocks; (b) total volume strained, as de-
thick, v=5.2 km/sec; and mantle-basalt mixture termined by the spatial distribution of after-
> 30 km thick, v=7.2 km/sec. shocks; (c) rate of energy accumulation and
The actual thickness of the last layer has not release in a single fault system; (d) position,
been measured, nor has the seismic wave velocity inclination, and extent of fault, and direction
in the underlying mantle. The designation of of motion on the fault from instrumental and
the last layer as ‘mantle-basalt mix’ is based on field studies of single shocks; (e) cumulative
two facts. The velocity 7.2 km/sec is intermedi- motion along fault during recent geological time
ate between the typical mantle velocity of 8.1 evaluated from field studies on exposed faults
km/sec, and the oceanic crustal velocity of 6.7 and compared with result from studies of pres-
km/sec. The igneous rocks dredged from the ent day shocks on the same faults; (f) relating
Mid-Atlantic Ridge or brought to the surface of surface waves and tsunami generation to ac-
by the volcanoes are mostly basalts, peridotites, tion at the focus; amplitudes, frequency spectra,
and serpentines [Shand, 1949]. It is concluded and directional properties of the source.
that ascending mid-ocean mantle convection cur- For all of the instrumental parts of this pro-
rents provide the tensional forces to produce gram the requirement is a suitable wide geo-
the rift and that these currents have also sup- graphical distribution of seismograph installa-
plied and segregated the large quantity of basalt tions, each capable of recording all wave types
which is found in the mid-ocean ridge system. over a broad range of wave periods. Of great
Thus the mid-ocean ridges are entirely different importance is the discovery by Benioff [1951,
in structure and in origin from the cordillera, 1955] that all of the great shocks of the Earth
to which they have at times been compared. are related through a single stress system.
The ultimate driving force that is responsible In addition to the information on action at
for the major deformations of the Earth’s outer the focus, seismology can provide precise data
layers and the mechanism through which it on the structure of the crust and upper mantle
acts must still be sought. Brief discussions of through propagation studies. These are treated
many of the suggested mechanisms have been by Oliver [1958].
given by Fardley [1957] in an account which Explosion seismology has been the principal
shows that the geologists are no less puzzled source of our knowledge of the crust and of the
than the geophysicists about this fundamental outer mantle. Until recently the application of
problem. Are the forces merely the stresses this powerful method has been limited to small
resulting from cooling? May we consider the explosive charges used specifically for seismic
machine as a heat engine? Is the energy chemi- surveys, or to observations of somewhat larger
cal, gravitational, or thermal? Whatever the charges, such as those used in quarries and open
nature of the energy reservoir there is a con- pit mines. These offer the great advantage that
tinual drain on it for various thermal processes origin time, epicenter coordinates, and depth
as well as for the mechanical deformations. of focus may be accurately known, but lack the
Ultimately the supply of available energy must energy required for probing deeper than the
be depleted. There is no clear evidence of a topmost part of the mantle. Nuclear explosions
decrease in the rate of the various geologic resulting from bomb test programs opened the
processes, hence the terrestrial reservoir of possibility of improved body-wave investigations
available driving energy must be large compared to all depths, as illustrated by Bullen and Burke-
with the total drain throughout geologic history. Gaffney [1957ab, 1958] in an excellent contribu-
An earthquake is the result of fracturing dur- tion to the difficult problem of waves through
ing deformation of the crust and upper mantle. the inner core and diffracted PKP phases. These
The seismic energy radiated as waves of various explosions also have permitted new studies
types was accumulated gradually as strain energy of surface wave generation and propagation

THE CRUST AND MANTLE OF THE EARTH 189
[Oliver and Ewing, in press]. (Data on 15 Butien, K. E., ano T. N. Burke-GaAFFney, Dif-
such explosions from three test areas were refracted seismic waves near the PKP caustic, Geo-
leased by the United States Atomic Energy
phys. J. 1, 9-17, 1958.
EARDLEY, A. J., The cause of mountain building, an
Commission April 15, 1958. These data are enigma, Amer. Sctentist, 45, 189-217, 1957.
of fundamental importance to seismologists, Ewinc, M., AND B. C. HEEZEN, Some problems of
and have stimulated many seismological stud- Antarctic submarine geology, 4 ntarctica and the
les, several of which are already in press. International Geophysical Year, Geophys. Mono-
graph 1, Amer. Geophys. Union, pp. 75-81, 1956.
Similar data for representative tests from other
EWING, J., AND M. Ewinc, Seismic refraction meas-
test areas are badly needed.)
urements in the Atlantic ocean basins, in the
The numerous recent geothermal investiga- Mediterranean Sea, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
tions, particularly in ocean sediments, give and in the Norwegian Sea, Bul. Geol. Soc. Amer.,
promise of a new insight into thermal and me- in press.
chanical processes on the upper mantle. The GUTENBERG, B., Changes in sea level, post-glacial
uplift, and mobility of the Earth’s interior, Bul.
many measurements of remanent magnetiza-
Geol. Soc. Amer., 52, 721-772, 1941.
tion of rocks from many parts of the Earth are GUTENBERG, B., Is the land around Hudson Bay at
interpreted by many workers to require conti- present rising? Amer. J. Sct., 240, 147-149, 1942.
nental drifting on a large scale. Excellent work HASKELL, N. W., The motion of a viscous fluid
in age determinations is making significant under a surface load, II, Physics, 7, 56-61, 1936.
changes in our ideas on the absolute and rela- Kay, M., North American geosynclines, Geol. Soc.
Amer. Mem. 48, 1951.
tive ages of various parts of the Earth’s crust.
LEHMANN, I., P’, Pub. Bur. Cent. Seism. Internat.,
The fact that pre-Cretaceous sediments have ser. A, 14, 1936.
not yet been found in the ocean basins has Otiver, J., Seismology and the IGY, Geophysics
evoked suggestions that all older sediments have and the IGY, Geophys. Monograph 2, Amer.
been engulfed in the mantle. Further develop- Geophys. Union, 190-197, 1958.
ments in any one of these fields can lead to radi- OLiver, J.. AND M. EwincG, Seismic surface waves
at Palisades from explosions in Nevada and in
cal changes in our concepts of crustal and mantle the Marshall Islands, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., in
mechanics. But at the present time it is very press.
difficult to judge which of the new results must SHAND, S. J., Rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J.
be accommodated into our structure of geophysi- Geol., 57, 89-92, 1949.
cal knowledge, perhaps to reveal the ultimate STILLE, H., The growth and decay of continents,
Research and Progress, 1, 9-14, 1934.
driving force that deforms the outer mantle and
STILLE, H., Einfuhrung in den Bau Amerikas, Born-
crust, and which must be reexamined, reinter- traeger, Berlin, 1941.
preted and perhaps rejected. STILLE, H., Recent deformations of the Earth’s
crust in the light of those of earlier epochs, Geol.
REFERENCES Soc. Amer. spec. pap. 62, pp. 171-192, 1955.
BeniorF, H., Global strain accumulation and release VENING MeErNEsZ, F. A., The determination of the
as revealed by great earthquakes, Bul. Geol. Soc. Earth’s plasticity from the postglacial uplift in
Amer., 62, 331-338, 1951. Scandinavia; isostatic adjustment, Proc. K.
BeniorF, H., Seismic evidence for crustal structure Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., ser. B, pp. 654-662,
and tectonic activity in the crust of the Earth, 1937.
Geol. Soc. Amer. spec. pap. 62, pp. 61-73, 1955. VENING MEINESZ, F. A., Shear patterns of the
BircnH, F., Remarks on the structure of the mantle, Earth's crust, Trans. dmer. Geophys. Union, 28,
and its bearing upon the possibility of convection 1-61, 1947.
currents, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 32, 533- VENING MEINESZ, F. A., Earth crust movements in
535, 1951. the Netherlands resulting from Fennoscandian
Bucuer, W. H., Megatectonics and geophysics, postglacial isostatic readjustments and Alpine
Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 31, 495-507, 1950. foreland rising, Proc. K. Nederl, Akad. Wetensch.,
Bucuer, W. H., Deformation in orogenic belts, crust ser. B 57, pp. 142-155, 1954.
of the Earth, Geol. Soc. Amer. spec. pap. 62, VENING MEINESZ, F. A., The geophysical history
pp. 343-368, 1955. of a geosyncline, I, Proc. K. Nederl. Akad.
Bucuer, W. H., Role of gravity in orogenesis, Bul. W etensch., ser. B, 60, 126-140, 1957.
Geol. Soc. Amer., 67, 1295-1318, 1956. Witson, J. Tuzo, An extension of Lake’s hypothesis
Buen, K. E., anp T. N. Burke-GAFFNEyY, Evi- concerning mountain and island arcs, Nature,
dence relating to the Earth’s inner core from hy- 164, 147-148, 1949.
drogen bomb explosions in 1954, Nature, 180, 49- WIson, J. Tuzo, The development and structure of
50, 1957a. the crust, The Earth as a planct, G. P. Kuiper,
Butien, K. E., ano T. N. Burke-GaFFNEy, Seis- ed., Chicago Univ. Press, 1954.
mological and related aspects of the 1954 hydro-
gen bomb explosions, Austral J. Phys., 10, 130- Lamont Geological Observatory, Columbia Univer-
136, 1957b. sity, Palisades, New York.

Seismology and the IGY *

Jack OLIVER
Introduction—The purpose of this paper is of both types or both, and to propagation as

to give a brief survey of the methods, achieve- surface waves in the superficial layers. The
ments, and potentialities of the field of seismol- pattern composed of the various wave types
ogy to serve as a background for the seimologi- at a given station depends on the travel times of
cal program of the International Geophysical the waves and on the distance of the station
Year. Hence the following discussion will be from the epicenter. With such data from many
limited to the topics of seismology which relate stations, the essential information required for
especially to that program. These are (1) a precise epicentral location is the travel time
seismicity, essentially the geography of earth- for each wave as a function of distance. Ap-
quakes; (2) earthquake mechanisms; (3) seis- proximately the first forty years of instrumental
mic-wave propagation and exploration of the seismology were required to fix this relationship,
Earth’s interior; and (4) microseisms, the in the case of the principal phases, within the
minute tremors of the Earth present at all limits of experimental error. Now that this re-
times at all places. Other topics of less perti- lationship is available, however, the station seis-
nence to the IGY which are not discussed include mologist is able to find the approximate loca-
(1) macroseismology, the study of the intensity tion of the earthquake, interpret his record, and
of earthquake effects near the epicenter; (2) forward the data to a central agency where in-
engineering seismology, the study of problems of formation from all stations is combined to fix
an engineering nature, primarily construction, in the focus of the quake more precisely in time and
seismic areas; and (3) seismic prospecting, the space. With reasonably good data, an epicenter
application of the methods of seismology to the can be located to within 3 to 4 degree in distance,
search for minerals. 25 to 50 km in depth, and about five to ten
Seismicity—Modern studies of seismicity on a seconds in time. With exceptionally good data
global scale depend primarily on locations of this can be improved upon, whereas with poor
earthquake foci and on magnitudes of shocks data less accuracy is obtained and in the extreme
based on instrumental data, for although his- case no location is possible. To some extent the
torical records are at times of considerable value, quality of the data is dependent upon the magni-
their strong dependence on density of popula- tude of the shock and there must be countless
tion and type of civilization makes precise quan- shocks of small magnitude which go undetected
titative studies impossible. Let us examine the because they are beyond the range of existing
instrumental methods of location and magni- seismographs, but except in cases where special
tude determination in use today. knowledge of the seismicity of an area is re-
Seismograph stations, at present, are dis- quired, this omission is not serious. Unfor-
tributed throughout the world in a pattern which ‘tunately, however, with the present distribution
is highly dependent on population and, of course, of stations, this gap in our knowledge is not
topography. Except for a few island stations, restricted to minor shocks; many earthquakes
the vast oceanic areas are complete blanks in the of appreciable magnitude are poorly located for
seismic-data map. lack of data and possibly many more go unde-
When a sufficiently large earthquake occurs, tected.
each operating station records ground motion as Let us review the Earth’s seismicity with
a function of absolute time. These records con- these problems of detection and location in mind
sist of a number of identifiable waves corre- and using the conventional definitions for depths;
sponding to propagation through the interior of that is, shallow, less than 70 km; intermediate,
the Earth as compressional (P) or shear (S) 70 to 300 km; and deep, 300 to 700 km. The
waves, or as reflected or refracted combinations Earth may be divided into relatively inactive
blocks separated by active zones (Fig. 1)
*Lamont Geological Observatory Contribution
No. 255. [Gutenberg and Richter, 1954]. The most im-
190

SEISMOLOGY AND THE IGY 19]
Fic. 1 — Seismic zones
portant of these by far is the circum-Pacific zone of these attempts have experienced difficulty with
which accounts for about 80 pct of shallow continuity of the zones through the southern
shocks, 90 pct of intermediate shocks, and virtu- hemisphere because of poor information on seis-
ally all deep shocks. This belt circles the Pacific, micity. Clearly, an addition to such an im-
in general, but has several branches which in- portant facet of global geology is worthwhile.
clude the West Indies, the Southern Antilles, An equally important branch of seismicity
and the Sunda arc. Almost all remaining shal- concerns the quantity of energy released, both by
low shocks and all of intermediate depth are individual shocks and as a function of time and
included in the Mediterranean and trans-Asiatic location. Unfortunately, many factors such as
zones. Shallow shocks of moderate intensity instrumental difficulties, radiation patterns, and
are associated with topographic ridges in the the vagaries of wave transmission in the Earth,
Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans and combine to make this study quite difficult and
with supposed rift structures such as those in even the most enthusiastic seismologist would
Africa and the Hawaiian Islands. not claim accuracy greater than a factor of ten
The great gaps in our knowledge of seismicity for such studies at present. However, the
lie principally in the Southern Hemisphere be- amount of energy released by earthquakes as
cause of the low density of seismographs there. well as the rate at which it is released is of
Antarctica appears to be a relatively stable area fundamental importance to the study of physics
but knowledge of small shocks is very limited of the Earth and continued effort in the field is
[Gutenberg and Richter, 1954]. As pointed out essential. Improved instrumentation during the
by Gutenberg and Richter, belts of minor seis- IGY plus greater international cooperation
micity in the Antarctic take on unusual impor- should aid this effort.
tance as clues to the geology underlying the Benioff [1955] has concluded from studies of
icecap. Additional knowledge of areas which are strain release in great shocks that these shocks
known to be seismic but for which limited data are related in a single stress-strain system. The
are available, such as the Southern Antilles and increased world-wide seismicity following the
Indian and Southern Atlantic Ocean belts, is large Aleutian shock of March 9, 1957, when
highly desirable. studied in detail, may result in a_ confirma-
Many attempts to delineate the ‘fracture tion and extension of this view. Benioff has
zones’ of the Earth’s crust by tracing seismic also pioneered in the development of strain
belts around the Earth have been made; in a meters which measure, in addition to seismic
recent one [Ewing and Heezen, 1956|, some of waves, long-period deformation of the crust.
these belts were connected with a topographic Such deformation has also been measured by
rift feature in submarine mountain ranges. All surveying methods, particularly by the Japa-

192 JACK OLIVER
nese. During the IGY, strain measurements this topic, like seismicity, is fundamentally in-
will be extended by the United States to the ac- ternational in character, requiring close coopera-
tive tectonic belts of South America. tion with seismologists everywhere. The IGY
Earthquake mechanisms—Throughout _ the should provide a stimulus to the circulation of
years, many mechanisms have been proposed to the required data. Certainly the fault-plane
account for the sudden release of energy during work is of great importance and although pres-
an earthquake. These have included explosions, ent results are for shocks generally scattered
implosions, collapse of lava chambers, etc. It about the world, a logical extension (already at-
now appears that, for shocks of appreciable tempted in the East Indies by Ritsema [1957])
magnitude, the elastic rebound theory is most of the program is a detailed study of the motion
nearly correct. This theory assumes that strain from many shocks in the same region, particu-
accumulates gradually in a given volume of rock larly one in which deep shocks are found.
and then is released catastrophically when a Seismic wave propagation and exploration of
rupture or, perhaps more commonly, slippage the interior of the Earth—The travel-time
along an existing fault occurs. curves for body phases, described in the sec-
Such a mechanism would result in a char- tion on seismicity, serve not only to locate earth-
acteristic pattern of first motions of seismic quake foci, but also provide the bulk of man’s
waves over the surface of the Earth [Byerly, knowledge of the interior of the Earth.
1955]. Conversely, if this pattern can be meas- The velocity v either compressional or shear
ured, the fault orientation and direction of mo- as a function of the radius, r, may be found
tion can be deduced. This work has_ been from an integral equation, the solution of which
pioneered by Byerly and Nakano and carried is generally credited to Herglotz and Bateman
out In some volume by Hodgson, Ritsema and [Bullen, 1953]. Formal limitations of the
others, including several Russian seismologists method are that the gradient of v with respect
[Hodgson, 1957]. Unfortunately, if only the to depth cannot be less than —v/r, and v can-
initial motion of the P wave is used, the results not change abnormally rapidly without affecting
are ambiguous and two solutions are possible, the result. Furthermore, uncertainties in the
the possible fault planes being mutually perpen- travel time data are, of course, reflected in the
dicular. This ambiguity may be resolved theo- final result.
retically through the use of shear-wave data, The velocities of compressional waves /’p and
and such attempts have been made, notably by shear waves I’. depend on the elastic constants
the Russians. However, the interpretation of in the following manner
initial shear-wave motion is frequently nebulous,
and the published results are somewhat suspect Vem b+ 4 1/2 y.=(#)'?
on these grounds. Over 100 shocks have been p
examined by the fault-plane method in one form p
or another, and roughly 10 per cent of these where & and y» are the incompressibility and
have been checked with observed surface dis- rigidity respectively and p the density.
placement with encouraging agreement. Assuming hydrostatic pressure dP=— gpdr
Approximately 90 pct of the shallow shocks dp/dr = — gp/ (Vr? —4V.2/3)
studied to date have a strike-slip component of
motion greater than the dip-slip component. This where g is the acceleration at r. This is the
is a surprising result in view of the apparent well-known Adams-Williamson equation. Know-
preponderance of observations of normal and ing the velocities as a function of depth, this
reverse faults throughout the world. Geologists, equation gives the density as a function of depth
in general, have taken little notice of these re- providing certain limiting values are known.
sults but as the evidence continues to accumulate Investigations based primarily on this method
it appears more and more likely that a funda- have led Bullen [1954, 1955] to divide the Earth
mental change in our concept of some tectonic into seven spherically symmetrical regions named
processes may be forthcoming. A through G. A is the Earth’s crust of about
Since data must be obtained from many seis- 4) km maximum thickness and will be discussed
mograph stations widely distributed throughout in some detail later. B is the upper part of the
the world for any given fault-plane solution, mantle and extends to a depth of about 400 km,

SEISMOLOGY AND THE IGY 193
the so-called 20° discontinuity. Here the veloc- plored to about 50 or 100 mi, and the depth to
ity gradients apparently change sharply. In about 15 to 20 km. Fortunately, the mantle is
region C, the velocity gradients decrease slowly very shallow beneath the deep oceans, about 10
to about 1000 km and then remain steady in to 12 km, and the entire crust can be examined.
layer D to the base of the mantle. The boundary This crust, in a typical structural column, might
of the core is at a depth of 2900 km. No shear be five kilometers in thickness with a velocity
waves have been detected through the core, and about that of the deeper part of the continental
partly because of this apparent lack of rigidity, crust. A thin layer of sediments, about one
which confirms other data from Earth tides kilometer thick, overlies this crust and in some
and latitude variation, the core has been called cases, particularly in the Pacific, another thin
‘liquid.’ At almost 5000 km there is a thin layer, possibly volcanics, lies beneath the sedi-
transition layer F, about 150 km thick, and from ments. Problem areas of geologic importance
the base to the center of the Earth is the inner within the capability of the seismic method at
core, region G. sea include (1) studies of the transition region
There are many controversial aspects to this between continental and oceanic crust; (2) de-
model which need to be resolved, a few of which tailed studies of major structures such as the
are cited here. Gutenberg [1954], on the basis island arcs, island platforms, and submarine
of amplitudes of P and S waves, travel times mountain ranges; (3) investigation of sedimen-
from deep earthquakes, and ‘channel’ waves, be- tation and lithification processes from detailed
lieves a low velocity channel is present in the studies of sub-bottom materials. The latter de-
asthenosphere in region B. The nature of the pends upon the development of the long-awaited
20° discontinuity between B and C has been the ocean-bottom seismometer, currently in the test-
subject of many papers but has not been fully ing stage.
resolved. The transition zones at the base of On land, results from quarry blast data,
the mantle and at the base of the outer core need which have the advantage of precise timing but
attention. Several papers have been written on are restricted to sources at the surface only, and
the possible rigidity of the inner core but the near earthquake and rockburst data, for which
experimental data on shear-wave transmission the reverse are true, have been generally con-
through this zone are inconclusive. With im- cordant with a few discrepancies. A typical con-
proved instrumentation, improved time stand- tinental crustal column would consist of about
ards, more precise epicentral locations and focal 35 km of rock in which the velocity increased
depths, new sites for seismographs, and the use gradually, or in one or two discrete jumps, with
of amplitudes and frequency spectra of seismic depth in the crust, with an abrupt increase at
body waves in addition to the conventional ar- the top of the mantle. Gutenberg [1954] has
rival time, there is every reason to believe that suggested that a low-velocity layer in the crust
seismic data will provide much new and im- would explain the discrepancies between blast
portant information on the interior of the Earth. and earthquake results. Such a layer would be
Region A, the crust, plus the upper part of undetectable by ordinary explosion techniques.
the mantle is of special interest because of its in- One difficulty in correlating the results of both
timate relationship to surface geology. At depths types of data is that near earthquake studies are
beyond the range of drilling, seismology again always made, of necessity, in regions where the
provides a large portion of our information on crust is very likely anomalous, and, hence, the
structure and composition. Seismic investiga- results are not typical of other less disturbed re-
tions of this region may be divided into two gions. A surprising result of the refraction tech-
classes, (1) those involving refraction and re- nique is the small thickness obtained for the crust
flection of body waves, a technique essentially beneath the Colorado plateau by Tatel and
similar to that used for deeper regions, except Tuve [1955] and similarly in the Transvaal by
that man-made explosions may be used as sources Gane and others [1956]. Gravity studies indi-
of energy in addition to rockbursts and earth- cate that the crust should thicken in accordance
quakes; and (2) surface-wave studies. with the increased elevation in these regions.
When the body-wave technique is applied to This difficulty needs to be resolved by further
oceanic areas, explosive sources are used almost seismological and gravitational studies to verify
exclusively, limiting the range which may be ex- the results. If they are proven to be typical of

194 JACK OLIVER
the region rather than anomalous, then it may the mantle, but flattens again because of the
be necessary to assume a _non-homogeneous small contrast between the continental rocks
mantle, that is, one with lateral variations of over the entire depth range. Prior to the past
density, to account for the discrepancy. year, dispersion of waves of periods shorter than
Investigations of the crust and mantle by about ten seconds was difficult to interpret in
surface-wave techniques usually apply to dis- terms of crustal structure. However, recent
tances of the order of thousands of kilometers identification of higher modes for continental
rather than hundreds as in the case of artificial paths has not only permitted the unravelling of
explosions [Ewing and Press, 1956]. Hence the the complicated train of continental surface
structures deduced for the crust are average waves, but has significantly increased the poten-
ones for areas of continental dimensions. Re- tial of the surface wave technique for crustal
sults are based primarily on the dispersion of exploration. The striking success of the normal
surface waves, that is, the dependence of phase mode theory in the explanation of a major por-
and group velocity on wave length. Two princi- tion of seismic-wave energy from a distant
pal types of surface waves, named after their shock makes this a method of fundamental im-
discoverers, Love and Rayleigh, are known and portance to seismology.
may be recognized by their different particle The surface-wave results are, in general, in
motions. A composite curve, group velocity accord with those of blast and near earthquake
versus period, for Rayleigh-type waves is shown data. There is, however, at present no good in-
in Figure 2. Waves of great length, that is, hav- dication of a low-velocity layer within the crust
ing periods of 75 sec or greater, cannot resolve from the surface-wave data and the precision to
the difference between oceanic and continental which the dispersion is now known puts rather
crusts and derive their properties primarily from strict limitations on any deviation from the rela-
the mantle. In fact, the longest of them may be tively simple crustal structure in which the ve-
affected by the non-rigid core. For waves of locity increases gradually or in small discrete
periods less than 75 sec the dispersion curves steps with depth. More precise crustal structures
depend greatly on the structure of the crust. The will be forthcoming from the surface-wave data
ocean branch continues at a high velocity for when adequate theoretical computations are
some time because of the shallow mantle, but available, once a long and difficult task. Appli-
drops rapidly when the waves become short cation of high-speed computing devices to the
enough to be controlled primarily by the water problem promises to remedy this situation within
layer. The continental branch drops in velocity the next year.
fairly quickly because of the greater depth of Many significant problems are available to
pom
9.0 CRUST MANTLE CORE ?
4.0 L_ .
Gr. Vel. | | —
in . Mantle Rayleigh
km/sec _ fi A '
3.0 Continental
Oceanic Rayleigh Rayleigh
2.0 —
1.0
OBSERVED DISPERSION OF RAYLEIGH & M, WAVES
_ | | | |
l 2 3494 5 10 20 304050 100 500 10
Period in Seconds
Fic. 2—Rayleigh wave dispersion

the student of surface wave seismology. The further consideration before reliable, absolute
dispersion curves shown in Figure 2 and the values for crustal thickness can be obtained
similar curves for waves of the Love type have regularly.
gaps that are immediately evident at both the The long-period and Lg seismology programs
long and short period ends. The M, curve needs of the IGY are designed to provide better sur-
additional work. face-wave data. The long-period instruments
The limit at the long-period end of the seismic (seismometer period J.=15 to 30 sec, galva-
spectrum would appear to be the fundamental nometer period, T,=90 to 100 sec) are the
resonance of the Earth as a whole. Theoretical type which recorded almost all of the long period
calculations, possibly verified experimentally in data of Figure 2. The Lg instruments (T.=
one case by Benioff and others [1954], indicate 15 sec, T,=8 sec) will record waves of the
periods of the order of one hour for this effect. higher modes and short-period segments of the
The short-period limit to which dispersion fundamentals best. The vertical-component seis-
studies may be pushed would appear to depend mometer is manufactured by the Sprengnether
on the inhomogeneities in the crust, already evi- Instrument Co. (Fig. 3), as are the recording
dent to some extent. Studies of excitation of drums. The horizontal component seismometers
surface waves may provide additional informa- and the long-period galvanometers are made by
tion on fault mechanisms, fault extent and orien- Lehner and Griffiths. Response curves of both
tation and focal depth. the LP and Lg types of seismographs are shown
Another surface-wave technique concerns in Figure 4.
phase velocity, rather than group velocity, and Microseisms—With present-day seismographs
may be obtained by measuring the velocity of a there is little difficulty in obtaining adequate
wave between two stations, a method pioneered amplification of ground motion and so the gain
by Press [1956]. The section of the crust ex- is limited primarily by the amount of back-
plored is much smaller in extent than in the ground noise. This noise, for most seismographs,
usual group velocity situation. This method has generally falls in the period range of about 3 to
been used with some success in California where 9 seconds, although some studies have been made
the density of seismograph stations is high. The of waves of longer and shorter periods, and
technique appears to have great potential but the waves are commonly termed microseisms.
at present involves some assumptions about the There is a great abundance of literature on
velocity structure of the crustal column and the this subject and yet many aspects remain com-
effect of dip and crustal irregularities which need pletely puzzling to seismologists. There exists a
Fic. 3 — Sprengnether vertical-component seismometer

196 JACK OLIVER
5 required for a complete solution of the micro-

seism problem. One of them, already used in a
few instances, is the study of propagation of
earthquake surface waves of the same period.
35 10 ES
LZ
{os
\ MN The use of an impulsive rather than a steady-
2°
c
\\ X state source permits the isolation of many aspects
of the problem and a combination of the two
g To: 15sec \ methods cannot fail to be enlightening.
o overdamped x10 pyols “LP
301 r Te =80sec \ A second approach, related to the above, is
oS
Q Gq
critically damped
+
\ \ that, whereas the normal tendency is to study
a OTS sec \ microseisms at coastal stations where the level
critically damped | \
y= 7sec 9 \ is high, a great deal might be learned if data
critically damped \
from inland stations were included. It is known,
| .
oO 510 50 100 500 1000 for example, that great crustal discontinuities
Period T (sec
occur at continental margins and that earth-
Fic. 4— Theoretical seismograph magnification, quake waves are severely affected in these re-
normalized at ten seconds; response curves of LP gions. Propagation along the continental margin
and Lg instruments (courtesy George Sutton) departing from the great-circle path between
epicenter and station is a distinct possibility and
clear and unmistakable correlation between microseism data should be correspondingly com-
these waves and meteorological disturbances at plex. Hence the margin might be a poor loca-
sea; when suitable disturbances are present, the tion for a station for some aspects of microseism
microseism level on the entire continent will studies. It is known in the few studies available
maintain itself at high intensity in a manner that at inland stations or at coastal stations
generally correlatable with the storm. Contro- where microseisms come from a distant body of
versy centers about the mechanism by which water across a long segment of continental path,
energy in the atmosphere is transferred to the the microseisms, particularly with regard to
ground beneath the seismograph station. particle motion, are less complex. Certainly, it
Many theories have been advanced to account would be an advantage to be able to understand
for this phenomenon. The surf hypothesis, as the these simpler cases before attempting to unravel
name indicates, calls on water waves breaking the more complex data.
against the coast as a source of seismic energy. A third possibility which has not been ex-
The Longuet-Higgins [1953] theory relies on ploited to a great extent concerns the use of
constructively interfering trains of ocean swell to three components of ground motion. If micro-
transmit pressure to the ocean bottom directly seisms are the result of more than one phe-
beneath. The theory of Press and Ewing [1953] nomenon then there is the possibility that some
explains the recorded periods as the result of component of motion might predominate in one
normal-mode wave propagation along an ocean situation and not in another. For example, for
path. There are many others. None have been microseisms of longer periods, 10 to 20 seconds,
able to explain all the observed data satisfac- definitely known to be caused by the surf or
torily. Perhaps this in itself is an indication near-shore swell, the longitudinal horizontal
that more than one mechanism is required for component predominates. If the surf causes
a satisfactory solution. Certainly, for example, some portion of the shorter-period microseisms
a seismograph situated very near to an ocean at a given station, then the relative amplitudes
beach must record the effect of the surf in some of the respective components, particularly those
manner. To what extent an inland station feels involving the vertical component, might be ex-
the same effect, if at all, becomes a much more pected to vary as the type of microseism varies.
complex question. This kind of study, of course, is only possible
It now appears that, although classical meth- where good three-component instruments are
ods of microseism study, for example, correla- available, not a common situation, but one which
tion of microseism periods and amplitudes with will be improved considerably during the IGY.
waves, winds, storm position, etc., have been in- Application of the ocean-bottom seismometer,
formative in the past, new approaches will be when it is available, to the microseism problem

also appears to be a fruitful approach to the In conclusion, the field of seismology is, at
problem and may ultimately prove to be the present, a productive one with promise of many
definitive one. new, interesting, and significant results in the
Conclusion—The above is a brief and cursory future. It is particularly well suited to be a
discussion of some selected topics of earthquake part of the IGY program.
seismology. Enough evidence is_ presented,
though, to give some indication of the large
REFERENCES
quantity of significant information on the Earth
which this branch of science has produced in its BENIOFF, H., B. GUTENBERG, AND C. F. RICHTER,
relatively brief history. Certainly seismology Progress report, Seismological Laboratory, Calif.
has provided the bulk of our knowledge of the Inst. Tech. 1953, Trans. .Imer. Geophys. Union,
35, 979-987, 1954. °
Earth’s interior. That the science is currently BenioFF, H., Seismic evidence for crustal structure
in a productive stage is clearly attested by the and tectonic activity, Crust of the Earth, Geol.
quantity of papers of high calibre appearing in Soc. Amer. spec. pap. 62, 1955.
present-day literature. Speculation on the fu- Butien, K. E., An introduction to the theory of
ture reveals many frontiers which give every seismology, p. 119, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1953.
BuLten, K. E., Setsmology, Methuen, 131 pp., 1954.
promise of revealing results at least as inter-
BuL.en, K. E., Some trends in modern seismology,
esting and important as those of the past. Science Prog., 43, 211-227, 1955.
The new information to be found and the Byrer.y, P., Nature of faulting as deduced from
rate at which it will be forthcoming is clearly seismograms, Crust of the Earth, Geol. Soc. Amer.
a function of the amount of effort which goes spec. pap. 62, 1955.
into the field. The seismological program of the Ewinc, M., ann B. C. HEEZEN, Some problems of
Antarctic submarine geology, Geophys. Monogr. 1,
IGY is wisely chosen to concentrate on im-
Amer. Geophys. Union, pp. 75-81, 1956.
portant topics and the increased activity during Ewinc, M., AND F. Press, Structure of the Earth’s
the IGY should serve as a stimulus to the field crust, Encycl. Phys., 48, Geophys. 1, Springer
in the near future. It is fitting that this should Verlag, 1956.
be the case since seismology is a science in- Gang, P. G., A. R. Atkins, J. P. F. SELLSCHOP, AND
herently international in character. P. SELIGMAN, Crustal structure in the Transvaal,
Bul. Seis. Soc. Amer., 46, 293-316, 1956.
The relationship between seismology and other GUTENBERG, B., Low-velocity layers in the Earth’s
IGY disciplines is in many cases quite close. mantle, Bul. Geol. Soc. Amer., 65, 4, 337-348,
Geomagnetics, gravitational, and thermal studies 1954.
rely heavily on Earth structures derived from GUTENBERG, B., AND C. RICHTER, Seismicity of the
seismology. Seismic methods are a valuable tool Earth, Princeton U. Press, 1954.
in oceanography and glaciology. In fact, when Hopcson, J. H., Nature of faulting in large earth-
quakes, Bul. Geol. Soc. Amer., 68, 611-644, 1957.
one is concerned with the physics of the Earth
Loncuet-Hiccins, M. S., Can sea waves cause
it is virtually impossible to treat one branch of microseisms, Symposium on Microseisms, Nat.
geophysics apart from its interrelationship with Acad. Sci. — Nat. Res. Council Pub. 306, 74-93,
other branches. 1953.
The position of the United States in seismol- Press, F., Determination of crustal structure from
phase velocity of Rayleigh waves, pt. I: Southern
ogy has long been a strong one, particularly since
California, Bul. Geol. Soc. Amer., 67, 1647-1658,
the increase in activity in this field following the 1956.
San Francisco shock in 1906. Many of the lead- Press, F.. AND Maurice EWING, The ocean as an
ing seismologists of the world today live in the acoustic system, Symposium on Microseisms, Nat.
United States. There are, of course, many out- Acad. Sci.
— Nat. Res. Council Pub. 306, 109-113,
1953.
standing seismologists in other parts of the world
RitseMA, A. R., Earthquake-generating stress sys-
and there has been pronounced acceleration of tems in southeast Asia, Bul. Seis. Soc. Amer., 47,
effort recently in this field in many countries. 267-280, 1957.
In recent years, the Soviet Union, in particular, Tate, H. E., AND M. A. Tuve, Seismic exploration
has built a vast network of seismograph sta- of a continental crust, Crust of the Earth, Geol.
tions which in some respects is unequalled else- Soc. Amer. spec. pap. 62, 1955.
where. Such efforts are certain to produce Lamont Geological Observatory, Palisades,
worthwhile results. New York

Gravity Observations during the IGY

GeEorGE P. WooLLarp
Introduction—The Earth’s gravitational field the pull of gravity. Offhand this would appear
is related primarily to its mass and rotation. If to be a very simple operation. Just measure
the Earth were a nonrotating sphere of homoge- enough values of gravity, correct these for the
neous composition without surface irregularities outward centrifugal force related to the Earth’s
there would be essentially a uniform gravita- rotation and the effect of variations in surfical
tional field everywhere on its surface. However, mass related to the elevations of the observa-
the Earth is not homogeneous in composition, it tion sites and the surrounding terrane, and the
is not a sphere, it does rotate, and there are result should be a direct evaluation of the shape
marked surface mass irregularities related to the of the Earth. There are, however, certain other
continents and ocean basins, mountains and factors related to geologic consideration such as
valleys as well as changes in geology. the density of the surface rocks and changes in
As a consequence of Earth rotation and polar crustal structure that must be considered as well
flattening the acceleration of gravity varies ap- as such practical considerations as the accuracy
proximately 5 cm/sec? (5 gals in gravitational with which an observation is made, the location
force units) between the equator and the polar of the observation site and its elevation. Fortu-
regions; enough to change the weight of a 200-Ib nately the relatively large gravitational effects
man by one pound. At any given latitude the related to mountain ranges and major geologic
Variations are not nearly as large but do get up changes are compensated for by changes in crus-
to about 0.3 gal. These changes, while small tal structure. That is, there is a situation which
considered in gross form, are quite large when is analogous, if not identical, to that associated
it is considered that reliable measurements of with a body floating in a viscous liquid. Any
small changes in gravity can be made to better excess in surface mass, such as a mountain or an
than 0.0001 gal. Because of this facility with area of dense rocks, is underlaid by a ‘root’ in
which changes in gravity can be measured, such which lower density crustal material displaces
measurements are useful for studying many a mass of denser subcrustal rock material so
factors related to the Earth. Some of these are that hydrostatic equilibrium is approximated.
the over-all shape of the Earth, the departures Thus beneath a mountainous area there is a
from the gross form (undulations of the geoid), deep root (thick crust) and beneath oceans filled
errors in astronomic determinations of position with low-density water a thin crust bringing
related to warping of the gravitational potential denser subcrustal material nearer the surface.
surface (departure of the vertical), crustal This results in equal pressure being achieved
structure, local geology, crustal strength and above about the — 100 km level. This phenome-
rigidity, thickness of the polar ice caps, ice move- non, known as isostasy, gives effective cancella-
ment, and prospecting for minerals and oil. tion of the mass effect of the surface topography
While the physical dimensions of the Earth and geology.
can be fairly well approximated from astronomic While there are exceptions where the surface
observations, there is still sufficient uncertainty mass irregularities are compensated for by crus-
regarding its actual form that there is no una- tal flexure similar to that observed for a man
nimity among geodesists as to the exact mathe- standing on a sheet of ice, indicating the crust
matical equation that best describes it. If it has sufficient strength to carry local loading with-
were possible to carry out triangulation meas- out local isostatic compensation, by and large,
urements over the entire Earth as in any one isostasy is closely approximated over most of the
continent, the problem would soon be resolved, Earth. As a consequence of this phenomenon,
but inasmuch as about two-thirds of the surface only the elevation and position of the observa-
of the Earth is covered by water this procedure tion site is usually important in determining the
is not possible. One approach to this problem average gravity value of an area for geodetic
of the Earth’s shape is through measurements of purposes. As these two factors can be reliably
198

IGY GRAVITY OBSERVATIONS 199
determined on land and approximated sufficiently weak spring requiring many turns to effect a
well at sea, the critical factor becomes the grav- given change in elongation the defects of the
ity observation value itself. It is paradoxical screw and dial are relatively unimportant and
that, while small changes in gravity can be high sensitivity can be obtained. Such an instru-
measured with high precision, large changes ment, however, has a very limited range. In
cannot. Since all of the world’s gravity values order to obtain a high range as with a geodetic-
are based upon relative measurements from a type meter, sensitivity must be sacrificed and a
single point (Potsdam, Germany) or sub-bases stiffer spring used. With this type instrument
directly tied to Potsdam, there is considerable the defects in the screw and dial become per-
uncertainty as to the accuracy of gravity values haps even more significant than the linear re-
reported throughout the world. One of the ob- sponse of the spring. Because of difficulty in
jectives of the United States IGY gravity pro- manufacturing to the exacting tolerances re-
gram is to check the accuracy of the national quired, each instrument of this type, even when
gravity bases and to develop a network of first built to the same specifications, behaves some-
order gravity reference bases that will serve what differently. The principal problem there-
both as control points for integrating the world’s fore in using this type of instrument, called a
gravity data and as a standard for determining gravimeter, is in getting an adequate calibration.
the accuracy of gravity measurements anywhere. There are two ways of doing this. Both involve
Earth measurements—To define the degree of determining the gravitational acceleration at a
polar flattening to a significant figure beyond the series of sites covering a large change in gravity.
present approximation of 1/297 as well as define One is based on the determination of absolute
the departures of the actual earth shape from a gravity from the period of an oscillating pendu-
simple mathematical form, such as is represented lum or the acceleration of a falling body. The
by a biaxial ellipsoid of revolution, an accuracy other method is to measure the differences in
of 0.001 gal is required. That is, a change in gravitational attraction between a series of sites
gravitational attraction of one part in one million in terms of the difference in period observed for
must be reliably measured over a range of 5 gals an oscillating pendulum.
(the equator to the poles). While gravimetric Standardization measurements—The mechani-
instruments having a higher sensitivity have been cal difficulties of measuring both time and length
developed for use in connection with the geologic to the required order of accuracy for absolute
exploration for oil and minerals, the accuracy gravity measurements, limits as yet the utiliza-
of such instruments in measuring a change of tion of this type of measurement for calibration
5 gals may not be better than 0.03 gal. This is purposes. With relative pendulum measurements
because such instruments are essentially spring only time must be measured to determine differ-
balances similar to the old-style butcher’s scale. ences in gravity, and with modern timing devices
Gravity changes are measured in terms of the it is possible to measure changes in gravity using
elongation of the spring for a given mass attrac- this method to better than one part in one mil-
tion. Actually, since it is difficult to measure lion. However, the success of the measurement
small changes in spring length directly, the depends upon the length of pendulum as well as
spring is connected through a suitable linkage to the environment of measurement staying con-
a screw with a dial head. In reading the instru- stant. If the environment changes in any way
ment the mass attached to the spring is always whether temperature, pressure, magnetic field, or
brought to the same position by changing the viscosity of medium, its effect on the pendulum
tension in the spring. Gravity differences are period must be accurately known, otherwise the
thus determined in terms of spring tension as measurement will be of little significance for
recorded by turns of the screw read from the establishing a calibration standard. At present
dial. These dial values, however, are usually there appear to be only two or three sets of
not linearly related to changes in gravity. Part pendulum apparatus having the required preci-
of this non-linearity is related to the spring itself, sion for establishing a series of gravity stand-
part to errors in marking the dial divisions on ardization measurements. One is the Invar com-
the screw head, and part to non-uniformity in pound pendulums of Cambridge University,
the pitch of the threads on the screw. With a England. Another is the quartz compound

200 G. P. WOOLLARD
pendulums developed by the Gulf Research and extended series of measurements. However, as
Development Company in the United States, and indicated above, in order for gravimeter meas-
a third, as yet only partially tested, is the pendu- urements to be significant, the characteristics of
lum apparatus recently developed by the Do- such an instrument must be determined by inter-
minion Observatory in Canada. comparisons of values as determined at reliable
Although the Gulf and Cambridge pendulums pendulum observation points over a sufficient
are similar in that they are compound systems change in gravity to cover the operational range
utilizing two pendulums swinging 180° out of of the gravimeter. This has not been possible
phase with each other in order to cancel out up until the last two or three years because there
the effects of induced sway in the support, in did not exist the requisite series of first order
other respects they are different. “The Gulf pendulum observations.
apparatus uses only two pendulums made of Under the auspices of the Cambridge Re-
quartz which swing in a sealed case which is search Center of the U. S. Air Force, a series
never opened. Observations are made at a con- of such measurements has been established be-
stant temperature and pressure and the period is tween Alaska and Mexico and between Norway
measured and recorded directly with a Berkeley and South Africa by the University of Wisconsin
counter. The Cambridge apparatus utilizes two using the Gulf pendulums. Under the IGY pro-
different sets of Invar pendulums which are gram these measurements are being extended so
swung in various combinations. The case there- that there will be five series of meridional meas-
fore must be opened to make substitutions, and urements covering the Earth: Alaska to Cape
while the same pressure is usually used for all Horn via the west coast of North and South
runs, no attempt is made to operate at a constant America, Alaska to Antarctica via Japan and
temperature or viscosity. Observations are re- Australia, Greenland to Cape Horn via the east
corded photographically and the period data are coasts of North America and South America,
picked off from these records. Both units use and Norway to South Africa with measurements
crystal driven synchronous motor chronometers down both the east and west coast of Africa. It
for determining the pendulum period and are is hoped to have both Gulf and Cambridge
regulated by zero beating against the carrier fre- pendulum measurements made at the same sites
quency of WWYV time signals. Both have pe- throughout the world although as yet provision
culiar problems. With the Gulf pendulum the has not been made for a complete program of
case must be ionized with a radioactive salt to measurements with the Cambridge pendulums.
get rid of electrostatic charges developed on the As the pendulum measurements are strictly
quartz. With the Cambridge pendulums the infor over-all control purposes, the measurement
strument must be oriented with respect to the sites are being spaced about 300 to 500 mi apart,
Earth’s magnetic field and observations made in the exact spacing depending upon the gravity
a constant magnetic field through the use of a interval. As the time factor is important in
Helmholtz coil. gravimeter measurements because of instrument
It is therefore significant despite these differ- reading changes with time known as ‘drift,’ the
ences that the results obtained with the two sets pendulum observations are being made only at
of equipment are nearly identical. Comparative places served by commercial air lines. Where
measurements made over about eight-tenths of the pendulum observation site is not at the air-
the total change in gravity with these two sets port, auxiliary sub-bases are being established
of instruments show that they give an average at the airport through the use of gravimeters.
agreement to about three to five parts in ten In this way it will be possible to make calibra-
million (0.0003 to 0.0005 gal). tion measurements for a high-range geodetic
Since a pendulum observation requires ap- type gravimeter on a continuing flight during the
proximately two days and involves about 700 Ib 10- to 20-minute period that the plane is on
of equipment, whereas a spring-type gravity the ground.
apparatus requires no more than ten to fifteen World network of gravity bases—Another
minutes for an observation and may weigh as phase of the IGY gravity program is the de-
little as five pounds, it is obviously advantageous velopment of a world network of gravity bases
to use a spring-type instrument for making any using high-range gravimeters. This is a con-

IGY GRAVITY OBSERVATIONS 201
tinuation of a program started originally under The Lamont Geological Observatory of

the auspices of the Office of Naval Research at Columbia University has the primary responsi-
the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. As bility for the United States IGY gravity pro-
many of the measurements originally made un- gram at sea and is using both pendulum equip-
der this study were completed before a satis- ment developed by Vening Meinesz of Holland
factory calibration standard had been established, for use on submarines and the newly developed
it will be necessary to recalculate these earlier surface-vessel Graf gravimeter. In addition the
results as well as take check readings at key U. 8S. Navy Hydrographic Office is also making
points to satisfactorily adjust these measure- observations using a gravimeter developed by
ments to conform to the present pendulum stand- the LaCoste-Romberg Co. of Austin, Texas for
ard. It is these measurements which will be use on submarines. These measurements in con-
most valuable in evaluating the accuracy of junction with the land gravity program should
existing gravity measurements throughout the do much to resolve the problem of the shape of
world and in establishing the accuracy of the the Earth, the undulations of the geoid as well
national gravity base values. as give valuable data concerning crustal struc-
Marine gravity program—A third phase of ture and geology.
the IGY gravity program is that of gravity Polar measurements—Another phase of the
observations at sea. Prior to this year these gravity program is that of observations made
measurements, because of the instability of the using gravimeters on two ice floes in the Arctic
ocean surface, had to be made either on bottom Ocean, one off Greenland on the ice island T-3
in shallow water or in a submarine in deep (Fletcher’s Ice Island) and the other off Alaska
water. Through the development of the new on a new floe station known as Station A. As
Graf marine gravimeter and the use of a gyro- these two ice floes drift across the Arctic Ocean
stabilized platform it is now possible to carry a series of observations is being built up giving
out surface-vessel gravity measurements. ‘Tests much needed information on gravity variations
are now being conducted to determine the com- in the north polar region. These observations
parative accuracy of these measurements with will also give oceanographic information since
earlier ones taken with pendulum apparatus in a the values recorded will also be affected by the
submerged submarine. The effect of the motion daily tidal variation in the height of sea level.
of the vessel is a prime factor in influencing the To maintain control on these measurements so
accuracy of such measurement and sea state that they will have maximum value, a series of
thus becomes a critical factor. With a high sea gravity connections to each station is being made
a submarine may still be the only way of making from the resupply points, Fairbanks, Alaska,
observations. While it is too soon to gage the and Thule, Greenland, where gravity bases have
accuracy of these new gravimeter measurements been established. These tie measurements, which
under all conditions, comparisons made _ using are being made with a high-range geodetic meter,
both pendulum apparatus and other newly de- will serve to establish the drift rate for the ice-
veloped marine gravimeters in a submarine sug- floe instruments and to give a series of check
gest that under good conditions (a calm sea) values covering the course followed by the ice
an accuracy of about one to two milligals (0.001 floes.
to 0.002 gal) is obtained. With a rough sea even An additional phase of the United States IGY
the submarine pendulum observations may have polar gravity program is the use of gravity
an accuracy of no more than about 4 mgal. For measurements in studying the thickness of the
analysis purposes an even greater limitation on ice in Antarctica. Each of the traverse parties
gravity measurements at sea is the problem of operating out of the Marie Byrd, Ellsworth,
location when beyond the range of LORAN, and and Little America stations in Antarctica, in
navigation must be based upon dead reckoning addition to making seismic determinations of the
because of poor sky visibility. However, despite thickness of the ice are also making gravity
these limitations the IGY gravity program at measurements. By having some seismic values
sea will be invaluable since there are so few on depth of ice to serve as a basis for analysis,
observations and as so much of the Earth’s sur- it will be possible to use the gravity variations
face is covered by the oceans. to evaluate changes in the thickness of the ice.

202 G. P. WOOLLARD
This is analogous to the use made of gravity a global basis. In this way all results can be
in oil prospecting. In addition to this use of the related in terms of both time and degree of
Antarctica measurements, the values of course response as well as geologic setting.
will also give information having both geodetic Other gravity studies—While the above con-
and general geophysical value. stitutes activity that is being officially carried
On a long-term program the gravity observa- out under the United States IGY program, un-
tions in Antarctica can also be used to determine officially the program is being aided by various
possible wasting or accretion of the ice cap. For oil and geophysical exploration companies. Sev-
example, repeat observations over a series of eral organizations, for example, are making a
years at sites such as the South Pole should give conscious effort to tie their local exploration
reliable information on this problem. gravity surveys throughout the world to the
Earth-tide studies—Another phase of the IGY world gravimeter and pendulum network. This
gravity program is the study of the response of applies to both old and new surveys. As it is
the Earth’s crust to the tidal attraction of the planned to make results from many of these
Sun and Moon. Measurements using super- surveys immediately available and results of
sensitive gravimeters capable of recording varia- other surveys available later, this will constitute
tions of one part in one billion of the Earth’s a notable contribution to the over-all gravity
field are being made for a period of 31 days at program.
each of a series of selected sites chosen because In connection with this unofficial phase of the
of their geological setting. It is hoped these IGY program, the aid of the Special IGY Com-
measurements will give pertinent data concerning mittee of the Society of Exploration Geophysi-
crustal strength and rigidity. The United States’ cists and the Special Committee for the Geo-
Earth-tide program, which is being carried out physical and Geological Study of the Continents
by the Institute of Geophysics of the University of the American Geophysical Union in securing
of California at Los Angeles, is integrated with the above cooperation cannot be overemphasized.
that of other countries throughout the world so Department of Geology, University of Wisconsin,
that simultaneous observations will be made on Madison 6, Wisconsin

. The US-IGY Program in the Antarctic

LAURENCE M. GouLp
Introduction—Looking over our shoulders as at six stations in the Antarctic, one of which is
we assemble to open the Antarctic phase of the jointly operated with New Zealand, and at the
International Geophysical Year are those great many other stations of other countries.
explorers and scientists of many countries who Great logistic difficulties have been faced and
pioneered in the study of Antarctica. Cook, overcome in the Antarctic. In our program the
Bellinghausen, Wilkes, and Ross each made their United States Navy was assigned, by the De-
distinctive contributions a century or more ago. partment of Defense and at our request, the task
Although for the following 50 years no further of establishing and maintaining facilities neces-
Antarctic exploration was carried out, in 1861, sary for the completion of the USNC-IGY sci-
not far from the National Academy of Sciences, entific program in this region. In order to
Commander Matthew Fontaine Maury of the assure scientific observations during the period
U. S. Navy proposed an internationally coor- of the IGY, it was necessary to begin operations
dinated effort in the scientific exploration of the several years ago. In the fall of 1954 the ice-
Antarctic. breaker U.S.S. Atka departed for the Antarctic
This plea lay dormant until 1904 when Henryk on the initial reconnaissance for the USNC-IGY
Arctowski revived it at the Eighth International Antarctic Program, exploring the Ross Sea and
Geographic Congress, held in Washington, D. C. eastward along two-thirds of the Antarctic
The recommendations passed at a_ preceding coastline for possible sites for future stations.
session of this same Congress in Berlin in 1899 Information obtained during this and previous
induced a cluster of individual expeditions that voyages served as a basis for Operation DEEP
lasted into the second decade of this century. FREEZE I in which ships of U. §. Navy Task
Some of the greatest names in all exploration Force 43, under the able direction of Rear Ad-
belong to this period: Nordensskjold, Scott, miral George Dufek, departed for the Antarctic
Shackleton, Amundsen, and Mawson. Then late in 1955 and during which Little America
came the air age with flights by Wilkins and IGY Station was constructed at Kainan Bay in
Byrd in 1928 and 1929. Admiral Byrd was the the Ross Sea, thirty miles from the sites of
first American to lead an expedition to Antarc- Admiral R. E. Byrd’s earlier Little America sta-
tica since Wilkes, 90 years earlier. To him goes tions. While this firsts USNC-IGY Antarctic
credit for having focused attention on Antarctica station was being constructed, units of the Task
through his four succeeding expeditions. Force were engaged in constructing an air fa-
Now the nations of the world are engaged in cility at Ross Island in McMurdo Sound. From
a new kind of investigation with the emphasis the ice runway which was prepared on the bay
shifted from geographical to geophysical and ice it was planned to air-deliver the material
from individually inspired expeditions to broad, and supplies, scientific equipment, and men for
coordinated scientific undertakings, such as was the Amundsen-Scott IGY South Pole Station,
proposed by Maury nearly a century ago. and to support the overland tractor operation
Twelve nations will have established 65 scien- which was needed to construct the Byrd IGY
tific stations in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic loca- Station on the Rockefeller Plateau in the interior
tions during the International Geophysical Year. of Marie Byrd Land.
Establishment of Antarctic stations—In March Occupied during the austral winter with the
1953 the United States National Committee for completion of these facilities, the wintering-over
the International Geophysical Year was estab- parties at both stations were relieved during
lished by the National Academy of Sciences to Operation Deep Freeze II, 1956-57. Little
prepare and carry out participation of American America Station was fitted out for the com-
scientists in this international program. Today, mencement of its scientific program. Following
after four years of preparation, we are present the initial landing at the South Pole by Admiral
to witness the commencement of this program Dufek, in the middle of October, 1956, units of
203

204 L. M. GOULD
the 18th Air Force, which flew to McMurdo in the Antarctic from a geophysical point-of-
Sound via New Zealand, began the air delivery view? First, it is a rather large part of our
of material and equipment for the construction planet, some six million square miles in area,
of the USNC-IGY station at the South Pole. and a largely unknown part, too. Second, it is
From Little America, a tractor train, led by the largest repository of ice in the world, con-
experienced U. S. Army personnel, completed the taining 86 pct of all the world’s glacial ice.
reconnaissance of the heavily crevassed area of Third, it is the world’s most efficient cold-air
the approach to the Rockefeller Plateau, and factory, far more so than the Arctic. It also
prepared a safe route to the interior of Marie contains the Pole or the hub of the atmospheric
Byrd Land. Following this trail, two other circulation in the southern hemisphere. Fourth,
cargo trains with air support delivered equip- its melting ice creates vast amounts of cold
ment and supplies for the Byrd IGY Station. water, which sink to the bottom of the ocean
During this period, other units of Task Force and, as the Antarctic Bottom Current moves
43 landed construction personnel at Cape Hal- across the equator, moves into the northern
lett where the joint New Zealand-United States hemisphere. Fifth, it enables study to be made
Hallett IGY Station was constructed. This of the aurora australis and comparisons with the
Task Group then proceeded to the Windmill aurora borealis. Sixth, it contains the South
Islands on the Knox Coast and built the Wilkes Magnetic Pole and affords the opportunity for
IGY Station before proceeding on their return extensive geomagnetic studies. Seventh, it pre-
voyage to the United States. A third unit of
sents a stable platform for the study of the
Task Force 43 completed the deepest penetration
thermal and electrical properties of an atmos-
yet made into the Weddell Sea in search of a site
phere cut off from sunlight for many months.
for the Ellsworth IGY Station. After an ardu-
Ionospheric phenomena affecting radio propaga-
ous voyage, during which both ships of the Task
tion will be of particular concern as will the
Force battled their way through heavy ice, a
study of the concentrations of cosmic radiation.
site was finally located at the western end of
Some scientific results—Even now, before the
the Weddell Sea, and the Ellsworth Station
oficial start of the International Geophysical
constructed during February 1957.
Year, significant new scientific discoveries have
By March 1, 1957, the operational aspect of
Operation Deep Freeze II had come to an end. been made by the men who assumed their Ant-
Ships of the Task Force were on their return arctic posts 6 to 18 months ago to wait the com-
voyage to the United States, and U.S. Navy and ing of July 1, 1957.
Air Force planes had returned to New Zealand As expected, the most fascinating discoveries
from the Naval Air Facility at McMurdo have come from those stations which, for the
Sound. The IGY scientific personnel and equip- first time in history, were established deep in the
ment had reached their assigned stations and the interior of Antarctica. A new world’s record
facilities necessary to support this program were low temperature was confidently predicted at
being completed. the geographic South Pole (elevation 9200 fr)
During early March, under the leadership of but not under the interesting circumstances that
the Wilkes Station glaciology personnel, a small it occurred. Following the relatively warm
satellite station was constructed on the ice cap summer temperatures, hovering between 0° and
some 50 mi southeast of the station. The one- — 20°F in December and January, the tempera-
building station, which was established in 14 ture fell precipitously to —67°F on February 238,
hours, has been periodically utilized in the past to —81°F on March 24, and to the new world’s
few months. Significant glaciological and mete- record of —100.4°F on May 11, much lower than
orological observations have been undertaken. the previous value of —90°F observed in north-
Further exploration from Wilkes Station has east Siberia many years years ago and —94°F
included a six-day trip to the Vanderford Gla- observed at the inland Soviet IGY station Kom-
cier, during which a system of movement stakes somolskaya a few months ago. The astonishing
were established. It is planned to resurvey this feature of the low temperatures at the South Pole
system in six months. is that they are accompanied by fairly brisk wind
Scientific objectives—Why are we interested speeds of 10 to 15 mi/hr in marked contrast to

U. S.-IGY ANTARCTIC PROGRAM 205
calm conditions accompanying previous extreme during further traverses. Then it will be possi-
low temperatures. ble to see whether such sub-sea-level ice deposits
Although above the surface the air tempera- occur in narrow fjord-like valleys, such as are
ture increases greatly with height (as much as found under the Greenland Icecap and in Queen
58°F in the lowest thousand feet) this has little Maud Land (Antarctica), or whether they de-
effect in raising the surface temperature unless note the presence of a vast frozen sea in what is
the wind exceeds 18 or 20 mi/hr or clouds move called West Antarctica.
in. In the first case heat is transported down- Our ideas about the underlying terrain in
ward by turbulence, and in the second case by East Antarctica also may have to undergo
infrared radiation from the warmer clouds. It change if an observation of ice thickness made in
was mainly by this latter process that within the vicinity of the Soviet IGY Station Pio-
three hours after the record low of —100.4°F neerskaya (250 mi inland) turns out to be repre-
was observed the surface temperature rose sentative of large areas. This station, which is
rapidly to — 82°F. at an elevation of 9000 ft, rests on ice from
At the same time that the Amundsen-Scott 10,000 to nearly 12,000 ft thick.
IGY Station observed —100°F temperatures, These preliminary values of ice thickness indi-
the Little America Station 800 mi to the north cate strongly that there is much more ice in
enjoyed summer temperatures of +30°F in the Antarctica than was previously believed.
face of a 60 mi/hr gale from the ocean. No one knows whether the great Antarctic
The second U. S. interior station, the Byrd Ice Sheet is increasing or decreasing in mass.
Station (80° S, 120° W) also reported an inter- At one time, as indicated by geological evidence,
ruption in the normal seasonal decline in tem- it was 1000 ft thicker than at present. During
peratures: April and May averaged exactly the the International Geophysical Year a set of
same, — 32.4°F, but with the minimum tempera- bench-marks will be established against which
ture for May nearly 1°F warmer than that for future measurement of ice levels can be com-
April. pared. But this is a slow process and it is possi-
In the measurement of ice thickness in the ble, given sufficient meteorological and oceano-
neighborhood of the Byrd Station another unex- graphic measurements, to arrive at an answer
pected result emerged. IGY scientists at this earlier. If we can measure the annual accumu-
station, which is 5000 ft above sea-level, reported lation of snow, either directly at a large number
thickness of the underlying ice to be 10,000 ft of stations or indirectly by measuring the amount
which means that 5000 ft of ice must extend be- of water brought in from the oceans by the
low sea-level! These measurements were made winds, the import of ice can be determined.
subsequent to the completion of an important To measure the export of ice we must know
scientific achievement during January 1957: the how much snow is blown seaward by the winds,
glaciology-seismology oversnow traverse along how much ice is broken off from the great Ant-
the 647-mile trail over the Ross Ice Shelf from arctic ice shelves, and how much ice is melted
Little America and up to and across the Rocke- by the oceans. Some very approximate figures
feller Plateau to the Byrd Station. A seismic obtained from various sources would indicate
profile was carried out during this trip, and it that perhaps today there is an approximate
was discovered that ice depth of the Plateau equalization of import and export, but we must
varied from 2000 to 8000 ft during the course of have much more extensive and detailed observa-
the traverse, increasing toward the Byrd Station. tions before conclusions can be reached about
Although there have been sufficient observations the Antarctic ice budget.
in the vicinity of the Byrd Station and over a In anticipation of the commencement of the
distance of six miles to the northwest to sub- International Geophysical Year, the Antarctic
stantiate this reported ice thickness, we must Weather Central, for which the United States
wait for complete confirmation until after Oc- has accepted the international responsibility, has
tober of this year. At that time extensive meas- already begun at Little America four daily
urements of ice thickness and supplementary weather broadcasts simultaneously on three radio
gravity and seismological observations will be frequencies. These broadcasts include twice-
carried out over much of Marie Byrd Land daily upper-air chart analysis. The daily weather

206 L. M. GOULD
broadcasts include surface synoptic reports and observations will make possible a much more
upper-air data received through the IGY mother- accurate delineation of the seismic belts of the
daughter communications network covering 65 far south.
stations in the Antarctic region and from stand- Although we now have only preliminary data
ard international meteorological broadcasts. available from these disciplines, the instruments
These weather broadcasts are made on a pre- in each discipline are operational and have with-
determined schedule for reception by all Ant- stood a period of extensive tests. We anticipate
arctic stations and are re-broadcast by the USSR that the data we are getting and shall obtain,
Mirny Station to ensure adequate coverage in will lead to further understanding of physical
the African quadrant of the Antarctic Coast. phenomena.
The analysis program includes twice-daily prepa- There is one feature of the present IGY, as
ration of upper-air charts, four sea-level charts, compared with its limited, North-Polar predeces-
thickness maps, and time cross-section charts for sors of 1882-83 and 1932-33, that has become a
nine Antarctic stations. These analyses are in- reality: the realization that practically all the
cluded in the daily weather broadcast. geophysical sciences are interrelated. The loca-
Accomplishments have also been reported in tion of the South Magnetic Pole in Antarctica
the other scientific disciplines to be studied at the permits less energetic cosmic-ray primaries to
Antarctic stations. All-sky cameras to photo- penetrate deep into the atmosphere. But also the
graph the aurora australis have been successfully belt of unusually low barometric pressure found
installed and tested at each USNC-IGY station; at the coast means there is three to five per cent
additional auroral equipment, including a scan- less atmospheric mass than elsewhere; this, com-
ning spectrometer at Little America Station, bined with the low temperature of the air column
has also been put into operation. Auroral data above, so contracts the atmosphere vertically
are being radioed back to this country for that various secondary radiations emanating
analysis and study despite the difficulties en- from collisions of cosmic-ray primaries with air
countered due to electronic problems and ex- molecules can reach the Earth’s surface in
tremely cold temperatures. greater intensity. The height of the 100-mb sur-
Equally important is the successful installation face at Maudheim in winter is 2000 ft less than
of the highly complex ionospheric recording at Thule and 5000 ft less than at Washington.
equipment, installed at each of the USNC-IGY A second example is the inter-relation of
Antarctic stations. From the regular data that meteorology, seismology, glaciology, geology, and
this equipment has already made available, it botany in determining whether the inland ice is
is hoped an explanation will come to some of receding or growing, and in establishing a record
of the physical peculiarities of the upper atmos- of past variations in climate.
phere which so drastically affect radio communi- A third example is a solar disturbance, two
cations and which may relate to the other phe- of which occurred in early 1956. The first, on
nomena under study. Adding to the overall February 23, 1956, resulted in a great increase
picture of the upper atmosphere are the cosmic- in cosmic-ray intensity, but with no immediate
ray instrumentation now in operation at the magnetic effects, while the second, on April 26,
Wilkes IGY Station and the geomagnetic re- 1956, affected the ionosphere, causing an historic
corders at all stations but Ellsworth. magnetic storm, radio-blackouts, aurora, and
Seismic instruments have been installed at five probably an increase in cosmic-ray intensity. The
stations. At the South Pole the equipment is
controversial question as to whether solar dis-
mounted on a special platform at the end of
turbances can cause significant changes in sea-
a 1000-ft snow tunnel which was completed in
level meteorology will probably be resolved by
April by the 18 men wintering at the station.
the more numerous and unusual observations
It is expected that this net of seismographs will
collected during the IGY.
materially aid in providing a southern control for
earthquakes in the southern hemisphere. These Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota

The United States IGY Arctic Program

Joun C. REED
Introduction—This paper describes the United North. In addition to the coordinating function,
States IGY Arctic program and, more specifi- the Committee has an active responsibility in
cally, the program that is being carried out on regard to the logistic support that generously
the Arctic Ocean. First, just a little background is being supplied by the Department of Defense,
for orientation. The IGY is concerned with the largely by the Air Force.
whole Earth and with the geophysical phe- The logistic problem in the Arctic is far dif-
nomena that are related to it as a means of ferent, and, in general, not as complex as in the
finding out more about this planet on which we Antarctic. No large continuing task-force sup-
live. port is needed as in the case of the Antarctic.
In this great international effort and in view Nevertheless, the problem is very substantial
of some of the basic facts of terrestrial geo- and the U. S. Air Force and other services have
physics, much of our interest is centered on the met the challenge magnificently. The story of
polar areas. The IGY and especially the United the final selection of the site of one of the two
States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Re- U. S. drifting stations on the polar ice and the
publics, along with a number of other nations, subsequent establishment of that station con-
are much involved in learning more about the stitute a real epic of the Arctic.
north polar regions, the Arctic. The US-IGY effort in the Arctic is being
There are, of course, vast differences between carried out in Greenland, Canada, Alaska, and
the IGY programs in the Arctic and in the the Arctic Ocean over approximately 150° of
Antarctic. The Antarctic is a vast and high longitude. Altogether there are about 50 sta-
continent, surrounded by great oceans. The tions, although some are only minor observa-
Arctic conversely is largely a major ocean basin tion points. All but two or three of the IGY
surrounded by continents. Furthermore, those disciplines are represented in the Arctic pro-
continents, embracing as they do the north tem-
gram.
perate zone and most of the world’s population
The remainder of this paper is limited to the
centers, result in an urgent need for comprehen-
two U. S. drifting stations on the arctic ice.
sive information on the geophysical aspects of
One of these stations, Drifting Station A, is on
the Arctic for immediate and future practical
sea ice now about 700 miles north of Point Bar-
application to many pressing problems of the
row. The other is on Fletcher’s Ice Island
human race. These problems involve transpor-
(Drifting Station B) now about 300 miles west
tation, communication, and natural resources
and economics.
of Ellesmere Island.
By tradition also the IGY effort is deeply At Drifting Station A, work is underway in:
concerned with the Arctic. The present IGY aurora and airglow, geomagnetism, glaciology,
is the lineal descendent of the First and the seismology and gravity, meteorology, and ocean-
Second Polar Years that were involved pri- ography. On Fletcher’s Ice Island, work is being
marily with the Arctic. The First Polar Year done in: glaciology, seismology and gravity,
was in 1882 and 1883 and then, as now, Pt. aurora, ionospheric physics, meteorology, and
Barrow, Alaska, was one of the centers of the oceanography. In addition arrangements are
work. The Second Polar Year, 1932 and 1933, underway to obtain repetitive aerial photography
included auroral studies, ionospheric physics, of as much as possible of the ice in the Western
glaciology, ice studies, and northern hemisphere Arctic Ocean as a means of learning about the
weather charts. distribution and change of the ice cover of the
The IGY organization includes an Arctic sea. It is hoped that eventually similar photo-
Committee to promote and attain coordination graphs can be obtained from the USSR so that,
among the programs of the various scientific taken together, a reasonable amount of informa-
disciplines that are carrying on work in the tion will become available about the sea ice.
207

208 J. C. REED
EsTABLISHMENT OF ArcTIC BASIN STATIONS From that date five flights daily were made until
all cargo had been landed. Ten scientists and
Drifting Station A—In early March of 1957
about the same number of support personnel will
an air reconnaissance was conducted by the
be at Station A during its period of occupation.
Alaskan Air Command in order to locate a suit-
The total facility includes about 20 Jamesway
able site in the vicinity of 75° N, 155° W, for
huts.
a planned USNC-IGY ice-floe station. On
Station A is on a large ice floe which is sev-
March 10, 1957, Joseph O. Fletcher, then Arctic
eral years old. The floe averages approximately
Basin Projects Leader for the USNC-IGY,
nine feet in thickness. For maximum safety, the
traveled to Alaska to aid in this reconnaissance.
floe was chosen because it is surrounded by
It was discovered that the ice conditions in the
smaller broken fragments of sea ice; the frag-
desired region were unsuitable for the estab-
ments will protect the large floe from strains
lishment of the station because of an excessive
and pressures which might result from contact
amount of open water caused by an unusually
with other large floes. During the summer
warm winter in the western section of the Arctic
months the surface of the floe was partially
Basin. For that reason the search was con-
covered with melt-water ponds, while during the
tinued farther north and west and on March
winter several feet of drifting snow cover the
30, 1957, the first landing was made on an ice
ice. It is expected that the floe will drift in a
floe; however, it was later decided that that floe
northerly direction tending towards the east in
was unsuitable. On April 12, 1957, a subsequent
the course of a two-year period. As the greatest
landing was made on another ice floe at about
hazard at an ice floe station is the breaking up
80° N, 159° W. Five men and one tent were
of the floe because of pressure from neighboring
left, along with a radar reflector and minimum
floes caused by the interaction of ocean currents
supplies in order to begin the work necessary
and wind, emergency procedures have been estab-
for the construction of the station. The station
lished to insure the safety of station personnel
is drifting in a generally north direction at about
and equipment.
two miles per day.
Fletcher’s Ice Island Station (Drifting Sta-
While the reconnaissance was being carried tion B)—Fletcher’s Ice Island is a large tabular
out, arrangements were being coordinated in
piece of very thick ice drifting in the Arctic
Washington by the USNC and the U. S. Air Ocean. Its dimensions are roughly 9 miles in
Force for the shipment of scientific cargo to length, 44 miles in width, and 140 to 160 ft thick.
Alaska. Project leaders were notified regarding
The origin of the ice island is probably the
shipping instructions, and the shipment of sci-
shelf ice of the north coast of Ellesmere Island.
entific cargo for Station A began about April 10, The ice island has been under surveillance since
1957. A representative of the USNC went to its discovery in 1950 and the general direction of
Ladd Air Force Base in order to coordinate its travels is clockwise in the area between the
IGY cargo shipments and program plans with Pole and the Canadian Archipelago. It is not
the Air Force. pack ice, being more massive, and can be con-
On April 23, 1957, a small tractor was dropped sidered permanent.
along with a weasel (oversnow vehicle) and a The island surface is generally above sur-
Jamesway hut. By April 25, thirteen men were rounding pack ice by about 20 ft and from the
working at the site on the ice floe and a para- air presents a corrugated appearance. This is
drop of supplies and fuel was made. because of parallel ridges and troughs of ice,
On May 6 the scientific team began to arrive the cause of which has not yet been accurately
at Ladd Air Force Base and by May 9 all per- determined.
sonnel were present. By that time several The ice island is located favorably for the
Jamesway huts had been erected and seventeen staging and air delivery of construction ma-
men were at the site. About 3500 ft of runway, terial, scientific equipment and personnel from
150 ft wide, had been completed. Thule Air Force Base, Greenland.
The major airlift to the drifting station was On February 13, 1957, Fletcher’s Ice Island
made between May 20 and May 25, 1957. The was relocated on a reconnaissance flight, some
first C-124 aircraft landed successfully on May 650 miles from Thule Air Force Base at about
21, after the completion of the 5000-ft runway. 82° 50’ N, 99° W. The first landing was made

U. S.-IGY ARCTIC PROGRAM 209
on March 7, 1957. On April 5 construction of a ordination of scientific duties of all personnel

5000-ft runway was begun. Arrangements were at the station. The Station Scientific Leader
made for an airlift of two years’ supplies. Six advises and cooperates with the USAF Station
C-124’s were assigned to the task after comple- Commander to resolve problems of joint con-
tion of the runway. At that time temperature cern.
ranged from —9° to —40° F. William Knutson,
the Air Force Station Commander, Norman SCIENTIFIC PROGRAMS
Goldstein, IGY Station Scientific Leader for the
initial phase, and several support personnel were Station A—The aurora and airglow program
on the ice island. By April 9, 1957, 2100 ft of on Station A includes the use of two instruments
runway had been cleared and it was felt that it operated by personnel from the Lamont Geologi-
would be completed by April 25. During that cal Observatory under contract with the Geo-
period, communications were infrequent because physics Research Directorate of the Air Force
of intermittent blackout conditions. Cambridge Research Center. The first of these
On April 22, a ski-equipped aircraft landed, instruments is an all-sky camera, which takes a
carrying a 4000-pound roller for the runway. picture of the sky hemisphere every five min-
Also, a paradrop of supplies was made by a utes. The second instrument is a patrol spectro-
C-54. On April 23, a C-124 of the Tactical Air graph, which is an automatic instrument which
Command with Robert W. Gates, Commander has its entrance slit aligned with magnetic north,
Task Force T-3 aboard, made the first wheeled and takes spectrograms at a variable rate de-
landing after the runway had been completed. pending on the intensity of the light in the sky.
On April 24, a heavily loaded TAC C-124 Like the camera the instrument is intended for
sheared its nose gear while making the second night use.
wheeled landing. No personal injuries were The geomagnetism program includes the use
sustained, but both inboard propellers were of an instrument supplied by the U. S. Coast
crushed and considerable damage caused to the and Geodetic Survey and operated by person-
fuselage of the aircraft. nel from the Lamont Geological Observatory.
Scientific personnel and cargo were arriving The instrument is an Askania Variograph which
at Thule during the period. Operation delays operates continuously. In addition the instru-
were caused by problems in runway construc- ment can be used to make absolute determina-
tion, but by May 18, airlift of a two-year stock tions of declination. The accuracy of the
of equipment and supplies was virtually com- determinations is limited by the accuracy of de-
pleted to the station. All serious problems seem termining a geographical azimuth by celestial
to have been overcome and in general everything means.
seems to be going well. At the station, living and The purpose of the heat-budget project is to
working facilities are in house trailers. determine quantitatively the individual compo-
A dministration—Responsibility for the estab- nents of heat exchange at the ice-atmosphere in-
lishment, maintenance, and conduct of both sta- terface and ice-ocean interface; and to relate
tions has been delegated by the USAF to a the heat exchange between the ice pack and its
major Air Command (the Alaskan Air Com- atmospheric and oceanic environments to sea-
mand for Station A and the Strategic Air Com- sonal variations in thickness and the thermal
mand for Fletcher’s Ice Island Station). The regimen of the ice pack. Aside from its im-
primary representative of each Command at the portance to determining the physical relation-
drifting stations is the Station Commander, an ships which lead to the formation and mainte-
Air Force officer, who is responsible for the nance of the ice pack, the heat-exchange studies
maintenance of the station as a whole and the being investigated under the project form a
safety of all personnel. very basic and integral part of the determina-
Responsibility for the execution of the IGY tions of the heat budget of the Arctic Ocean,
scientific program at each drifting station is dele- and of the modification of air masses moving
gated to a USNC-IGY Station Scientific over the Arctic Basin. The program is being
Leader. The Station Scientific Leader is re- carried out through the Department of Meteor-
sponsible for the supervision of the over-all sci- ology and Climatology of the University of
entific program at his station and for the co- Washington.

210 J. C. REED
The purpose of the sea-ice physics program is Both refraction and reflection seismic work is
to determine the physical properties of sea ice being done. The magnetic field is being studied
and, in coordinated study with the heat-budget as are the values of gravity.
program, to relate those properties of the sea Fletcher’s Ice Island (Drifting Station B)—
ice to the exchange of mass and energy between A meteorological program at Fletcher’s Ice
the ice and its meteorological and oceanographic Island is being carried out by the U. S. Weather
environment. Specific studies include structure, Bureau. It consists essentially of synoptic low
air content, density, salinity, composition of salts, altitude observations plus specialized observa-
latent heat of melting, heat capacity, thermal tions similar to those that are being made at
conductivity, strength, problems of pressure Drifting Station A. These include study of
ridges, crystallography, and morphology and radiation, carbon dioxide, precipitation chemis-
thickness of the ice. try, and snow crystals. Because of the proxim-
The meteorology program can be broken down ity of meteorologic stations on shore, upper-air
into three main categories: surface synoptic, weather observations are not made.
upper air, radiosonde observations, and_ spe- The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
cialized programs for study of radiation, carbon is responsible for an oceanography program at
dioxide, precipitation chemistry, airborne radio- the Ice Island. Bottom cores are being taken,
activity, and snow crystals. circulation cycles studied, and age determina-
The oceanography program of the Woods tions made.
Hole Oceanographic Institution on Station A Gravity-meter measurements are being made
consists of the following: (1) hydrographic sta- under the cognizance of the University of Wis-
tions that use Nansen bottles and_ reversing consin. There is close coordination at the Ice
thermometers in order to obtain a vertical pro- Island, as at Drifting Station A, between the
file to the bottom of temperature, salinity, and gravity program and the program of the Geo-
oxygen content, (2) measurements of ambient physics Research Directorate.
noise level in the Arctic Basin as part of an The U. S. Army Signal Engineering Labora-
underwater sound program, (3) measurements tories are conducting an ionospheric physics
with a bottom temperature probe of the tem- program at the Ice Island and the program is
perature gradient in the ocean-bottom sediments. made up primarily of vertical-incidence sound-
This latter measurement is part of the program ings.
being conducted at Harvard University to de- On Fletcher’s Ice Island, the Geophysics Re-
termine the heat flow of the Earth. The tem- search Directorate is carrying out a substantial
perature gradient coupled with conductivity program similar in some respects to that at
measurements in sediment cores obtained under Drifting Station A. Primarily it includes aurora
the program of the Geophysics Research Di- investigations, and oceanographic and thermal
rectorate should yield a measure of the heat budget studies. The aurora part of the investi-
flow in the Arctic Basin. gations also makes use of an all-sky camera.
A human factors program is under way by This very brief outline of one segment of the
personnel of the Aeromedical Laboratory at United States IGY Arctic program is designed
Ladd Air Force Base. to give an impression of the nature of the in-
The Lamont Geological Observatory is car- vestigations in the Far North, of the many indi-
rying on a program at Station A under contract viduals and institutions that are engaged in the
with the Geophysics Research Directorate. program, of the noteworthy cooperation of the
Ocean bottom photographs are being taken and Air Force and the other armed services, and of
cores obtained. Ocean water currents are the high degree of coordination that is required.
measured and compared with ice movements. U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.


"@C 801.3 .U42 1957 copy 1

United States. National
Committee for the
' Geophysics and the IGY

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| anit” " |

Geophysics and The IGY: Proceedings of The Symposium at The Opening of The International Geophysical Year (1958)

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Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of

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Geophysical Monograph Number 2

Geophysics and the IGY

GEOPHYSICAL MONOGRAPH SERIES

AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION

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Geophysical Monograph No. 2

COPYRIGHT 1958 BY THE

Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 58-60035

PRINTED BY THE Lorp BALTIMORE PReEss, INC.

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Preface 00.0 eee eee Joseph Kaplan

UPPER ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS

THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE AND THE EARTH

THE POLAR REGIONS

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

The present volume assembles a group of papers covering a wide variety of

On behalf of the U. S. National Committee I wish to express our deep appre-

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vigorous advances in fundamental theory. With- of widespread character, and a simultaneous

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

The High Atmosphere

CHAPMAN! waRES IPENNDORF, GOODY

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THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 7

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THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 9

is minute. Nevertheless, their importance as

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| -o-—o—e—e- 168 FEB 1930 WEISSENAU

OZONE CONCENTRATION (CM 03 STP/KM AIR)

tudes above 20 km, winds during summer moved

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THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 11

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THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 13

of sunlight: absorption of short-wave solar strongly in twilight. An enhanced line in the

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across the sky sometimes reversing at local mid- 25 tT T T t T T T T t T

night. However, it is not clear whether this AURORAL

drift is a true motion of air. 20 g

An ionized aurora, whose presence may be

—=—— TOTAL- ENTIRE PERIOD

Fic. 7 — Auroral interaction studies, 1949-1951, inclusive; diurnal

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THE HIGH ATMOSPHERE 15

and molecular emissions overlap. Still further DARKNESS q DAYLIGHT

confusion may arise when important atomic F

lines are obscured by strong molecular bands. oo OF F, 200, ° °35

at 5577A, 6300A and 6364A. Several other atomic °

observations do not allow a positive determina-