Philosophical and Idealogical Voices in Education

1)1 I ()S )])HI( '. \ 1 .
T[)
11 ) J ( ) L ( ) l I ( .\ \ 1( l~' s
T (
l · 11) c ~. \' "' f()

Related TIdes of Interest
(;wnflt IJJfll1 •1'd Trtnds in &JUl'lltit>11
Jerry Aldridge & Renin11 (rt>IJanan
ISBJ'iJ:0-321-07978-7
1; ¥1 T-6irlg: /MllS 11rul Str11trgits fur 1tachrn to A1iJX11111~. <1 1 d 1
-- i ~ • " rnt 11
Richard Howell Allen .c r,,111g
IS~: 0-20S-33414-8
7lr w., SdJoe/s UW*: A SotiologiClll A1111/ysis of&Jucation, Thud Ediru

Klthleen Bennett de Marrais & Margaret LeCornpte •n
JSB.lll:0-8013-19S6-0
Nft1 T_.,,.~ Prrfomin«-&ltd Guidt to Culturally Divme Cl11Jsroo111J
Tunodiy R. Blair
ISBJIJ:0-20S-38206-l
8- te IAw/op 11 Professiqnal Portfolio: A Manual for uocbm, Third Edition
Dorothy M. Campbell, Pamela Bondi Cignetti, Beverly]. Melenyzer, Diane H.
Nettles, A: Richard M. Wyman
ISJl?ll:0-20S-39341-l
~g 'Ii«bing: Exploring Teacher DroellljJ11ttnt through Refll!.l·ive Inquiry
Ardn L. Cole A: J. Gary Knowles
~:0-20S- 1 8076-0
,.,,,,.,, II ProfossitnuU 1i11Cbing Portfolio: A Guidt for F.ducators

Patricia Costantino A: Marie De Lorenzo
ISBN:0-20S-329SS-1
Dr Mn Staft bl F.dwmon: Conttsttd Prtmises and Practices
Jam F. Goodmen A: Howard Lesnick
ISB!ll:0.321-02340-4
llituWDn 1ic iraAfrUriun Edtv4tion
'n., W.JohNOD A: Ronald Reed '
1Slfol:O-I01-JJJ14-8
Dlw'tua
ANDIACON
S.111, Saile 300
GZ116
l)I-I ILOSOPHICAL AND
IIJEJOI_JOGICAL VOICES
IN EDUCATION
GER~.\LD L. GL~EK
P1·~f~'.".,·01· E111t•rit11s
l .o_)'o/.1 L·,, i1:~rsit)1 Cl1 ic11go
• • '-. \('lrl: • ' , "r.in l'l'O

• \ .. • • Lon _ • \\:idr1d • \ 11 1'11.:h • Pan
:- :'I. !- • ' .. • • ;'\ u • <..ape 10\\ll • .... .. u '~ \
I
1·, ,,11u, c l \i1t"1 ' • I I''"

\ <'''·''r 1- du,,n.11 \,,,, t,1111 : I: 1.I '
•
(
"
,.
·
"'• ,,,,r \l,11 \...~'Ill\~ \\.111.l~r..'I~ If

\ , t\\k Jl l''n.'dUl'tU'I\ \,!11111\l•lr.llll.1 I '11: ttr~ ''
l , tt'n.il P n.,,fu,'11•'" ~ t'r"l ll't' .uHl l ll'CH"llHl' ( '''lll'''' 't11'11 '
\ ·,,Ol f''~lf\{10 B ll \ ('I I
\ l 11 t-lctun11~ Hin ('r

•
C ,,, c• \ dn11ni, 1r.1tor ' .
f,,r ~lat,~ ntl. ' 911,1'l•l'l"'n111.11,•r .1 '· ,.,,,t ,111r ,111h1i. 'ual•>!l 111
\'\"\\'\\ 2h <"IUl:<Voll\.l'\llll
•
\IT i..ht"' ,., , ,'"' , "- •' p.1rt ,,t th,• n1.11,·r1.1l pn1r,·.. h:,f 1', 1 11• •'•'I'' n~~ht i;,•: ,, 11a1
l'{'P,J'(\v u ............ ,,. t>t ...., 1.111\ t,lnll<'r"' .in' •nc.111.... ,k...:tT• 111, ,1r ·,, ,,,. , •
'
pl1, '"'" n\"'!'!· rr,,,.-.j '!-· ,ir h\ .Ill\ 1nt\,nn.1ti.ln 'h• r.l!'C ilthl r.:tn,' · \\
'
~- ,, '" fn.m1 ,,.., ,.,,,p,-ni:ht '"' 11,·r.
1(1 obnun pen""' ''n1, \ tn 1 •c •nJtr:nJI tn>n1 tl11, "'' I.... t'l• ,,, ... uh1n11 '\ '' , , · , •• • \
and B.i,'\v1. Pcrn , , 1,111, !),pJrtn1,•nt. -, \rhn~,111 -\1r,·1.·1. ' ""' <1)(), }\,,, ,.,.. \ \ , . I'•' '
~-ourrcqut: ... r 10 eil'-::4:- -~~O .
R,t-,r:cn th,• n1n' \ \ ,·lhttr..' 1ntnnn.111,1n '' ~uh,·r,'ll .nhl th..:11 p11hh,•1,, , ' .,,, \ '\ • I\
.,, .;;ires tll h.i' t t'l'''cd \l,,1. tht• tr.tn , cnpll\'ll ,,1
l l'I , , \ \ , , , , '1\ "'" • ' .~ , \ '
I , p1!1,.hcr\\tl\UJ.1pprtXl.ltl'lhlt1ti..:;1utin"h,-r,1h"' ' ,1 .,, ,,,,.., ,,, 1 1attl ,, · '
rorncrcJ n •Uh,cqut•nt c,ht1on'
( l• tc .... c· r.:i J l l'l
Ph o_, oph11.<1 Jnd 1dc..,lln~1cJI ' 111\.'r..''\ 1n cJuc\lth\I\ ~ ;, 1;1t,l 1

P Clll
11~cluJc.:. h1blt\l!ZT.IJ1htl'.ll rclc·rcn..:c' Jn.I llhlC\

l' R"- (}.20'-'1101:\ I
r . .1u,':lr 011 Ph1l'"''l'h~ . t. l idc
I fll.l - <._,~ , ~t )4
'\ -o I "'t: I
I<> 1- \ 11(, R 14 l ,
•
For ,ny grandson, Charier 1\Jilford Jordan ill, ",\ttills,"

and his parents, Jennifer and Charla Jordan
CON'I"'E N'"fS
•
I' reface X1X
J>AR' l I PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
( , J IA fYTER Or-..'E
Phjfoc;ophy and Education 1
WlIAT IS EDt:CATION? 3
JOl-C\" DEWEY, "Tl rE FL"TURE OF PffiLOSOPHY" 10
CONCLUSION 13
DISCt:SSION QlJESTTONS 13
IXQLl:RY A.."TI RESEARCH PROJECTS 13

1'1\TER.i""ET RESOURCES 14
SU&GESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 14
-..;OTES 14
C, lf,\JYI ER T\tVO
f(lcalism 15
OEl-1:'.lNG JDE:\.LISM 15
SJTC..\Tr.'G IDfALISM 16
\\ H\' STLTIY IDE..\.LIS\.1? 20
l OL\.LIS"\t .\S .\ PHILOSOPHY Of EDt:CATTO" 21
lOE.\.LIS.\t'S EDL"C.\TIO:\AL L\IPLICATIO:\S 23
Pl \TO. ,\. TRL"F \'ISION Of RE..\.LIT\' 27
C 0"CLLSI0" 32
••
\:ti
. I . .
·, ,.-
. . .
•
l ' ' 11 ' I '
''"
1, 1, 1 \ ' ' " l'\ '-'l I ' I I\'''
'- l l l' I ,, \ltl 11 l ' l tl lll I I'
\ '\ \,l l IN. \ ~ '
' I I
1'\ 1 1 ~'\1 I \~I , \ l\ 1~ 11'
,, ,,,, 1 '11\1"\'lt>lt \ l l i llll Hill \l>l "'I •

I I
,,,,,,
c. t l \l' rr~ rt llil·'l '
, 1 rt \ 1'1'\l; RF \l lS\l
'\ll' , l ' l ' ll\ Rl'\1 lS\l?

RF \l lS\1 \S \ 1'1111 l )St ll'l 1\ ()\" Fl>l•CJ\'l'l()N 38
Rt: \1 lS\ rs l'lll c.· \ 1'1( )~ \ 1 I\ I Pl IC \'rU.>NS 4-1
~~~~~il~~~~.~~~>l~~·~~l ~~~·.~-~~~~~--~~~ ~~ ~l~~~l~·;~~T-

C l1"\C l l ' 10"\ 50
DISCl 'SSll)"\ Qt·rs·1·1c.>'S 51
~Qti1n· .\."\1) RFSF \R(' ll PROJECTS 51
~i'Dl.'"ET RI:St)l'RCFS 51
l GGESTIO~S FOR Fl'RTHER RE.WING 51
:\OTES 51
-
CH..\PTER FOl."R
Theistic Realism (Thomism) 53
Df.FL'\"L"\G THEISTIC RE.-\LIS.\1 53

m '..\TIXG THEISTIC RE.illS~l ~ \.\'ESl'ER.~ THot..·GHT 5-l
\\ID' STll>\. TIII:ISTIC RE.lliS.\l? 56
THEISTIC RE..\I IS.\t \S ..\ PHII..OSOPH\' OF EDL'C..\TIO~ 56
THrISTIC RE..\I IS.\l'S EDl.CATIO:\'AL L\1PLIC..\110~S 59
JACQt: \ lARIT\C\, L.... 11.GllAl l fIBL MS.\t 62
CO~Cl l..~ION 68
DlSCT 'ilOX Qt."ES°nO'\S 68
INQUJR\ .\.'\'ORF.SEARCH PROJl:.CTS 68
C'.TDL'\"ET RF.SOURCES 68
SUCGESTtONS FOR FURTHEB READING 69

SOTES 69
CHAPTER FIVE
Pragmatism 70
DEFIND-:G PRAGMATISM 70
SITUATING PRAGMATISM 70
WHY STUDY PRAGMATISM? 71
PRAGA-1ATISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 72
PRAGi\.fATISl\f'S EDUCATIONAL rMPUCATIONS 76
JOHXDEWE~THECOMPLETEACTOFTHOUGl:IT 78
COSCLUSION 83
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 83
Il'QUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJECTS 83
INTERNET RESOURCES 83
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 84
NOTES 84
CHAPTER SIX
Existentialism 86
DEFt"<DiG EXISTE.'TIALISM 86
srruATING EXISTE1'"TlAL1SM 87
\\'HY STUDY EXIS'TE.''TlALIS.'W 89
EXJSTE,."VllALISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 89
f \ J \ l l ' l l \ l l \ \ l \ l l l \ ( \IHI:"\ 11\ll'llC \llCl'~ S 'J~
\ ' ' ( 11 \ l \hlK~I\ " I Ill cl HHI< l I l \t C>I I RI I I Xl \1 1 ' I
\'ll \'1'\l\ll'll\IP.,l l'lll\(,()t,\ " '1(1
<. ( l , l I l , l l ) ' 104

Jll\(. l \'l<.l' l,Jl l \I lll'\ 104
l'QllR\ \'llRl"ll \R(llPRl)Jl< I \ 104
l:'\ 11- R'l T RJ \Ol R< I:\ 105
"ll<.,Gf,,.10'\lORil"RllllRRI \DJ"(, 105
'l) rE 105
CH..\PTER E\'£~
PhilosophicaJ :\nal}·sis 107
DEFL'\~G PHILOSOPJilC..\L Ai'lALYSIS 107

SITVATL"o:G PJilLOSOPIDCAL ANALYSIS 108
\\1-IY STI..JlJ\' PHil..OSOPJilCALAi'IALYSIS? 110
PJilLOSOPlllCAL ANALYSIS AS A PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION 110
PHILOSOPJilCAL AJ.'lALYSIS'S EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS 113
GEORGE F. ~'ELLER, "THE TASK OF ClARIFICATION" 116
CO~CLUSION 118
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJECTS 1 18

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTJ lER READING 119
NOTES 119
CllAPTER J:o:IG Jf' I'

Postmodem ism 12 1
[)J I•TNlt\G POS'fMO J>.ERNlSM 12 1

Sffl;A'f 1'.G POS'J'i\1()0ER..'\TISM 124
''
\\'l-11 STl'D1 PO\l' \IOD1'R'\l,\l, \_!Q
POST\lODER"\ l\ \l .\S \ Pllll l) 'L)Pll\ l.1~ l l>l '- \' l' ' '
PO r.\lODER'\lS,\t'S EDl C.' \l'll)".'\ \l l\LPL ll~ \l ll.''' .
..
l '
C RI rte OF POST\IODER"'l~ \l 1 ;(>
J .\ CQt,"ES DERRID \, POS r\10D£R'\ Pllll l) ' l 'll'll\

CO:\CLt!STO'°' 139
DISCL' SIO~ Ql'ESTIO~ 139
G\'Ql'IR\' A."\I) RESE.-\R.Cll PRl)JECl~ 14{1

f'\Tt.R..'\t:l' Rr Ol 'RC£~ 140
L'GGESTIO"\ FOR Fl R l llf'R Rl. \l)l"\L; 14t\
NOl ES 141
PAR'"l~ II ID EOLOC; tl·~S ~~l) l' l)l'C \ l l(.l'
C l 11\P'rER l"-J:
I<lc<>logy an cl F ducation 14.!
() J J l'\l'\C.. llll UL(}{,\ 14.!

~ 11 l ' \ l'l "'<; 11>1 ()l ()L\ I 4l
\ \I I\ S I LO\ ll)l(lll)(,\ 144
(() \ l P(.)"[ '\ I \ (.)I \ ' 11>1 l>L l>L,\ 14'
I I II Pl 81 IC' \ (. ll()(.)l llll l>l (l(.,\ 14~
P \ l l () I Rl I Rl , 1 l>l C. \Ill>' \\ \ 1 ll~\t,l>I

I'\ I IR\ I "\""I Ill'\ l '\ 1111 \\ l>Rl l> l '-
( (.)'$ 1 l ... tl>' 1' '

,,
tll \( l \\ll)'\ Ql 1 \Ill)'\\
l'\Ql IR\ \'l> RI \l \RC tl l'Rllll l \"

'
t' t l R' l l RI \(ll RC l ' l '(\
\ l (,(,I \I\$'\\ tl>R tl RI Ill~ RI \Ill,,.
•• < <>"'I I· :-\"I S
~u
CI IA.PTER 1 ·EN
"\'ationalism, American I~xcc1Jtionalism ,
and Ethnonarionalism 158
01-:FINI:s'G NATIONAi J<;M 158

J 5'J
SITUATING THE NA'J ION-S' rA'fEANf) t..;K1 I<>"Al .Jt)M
AMERICA.~ EXCEP1 IONAJ,JSM 164
ETID'ONATIONALISM 166
LOOKINGTOTIIEfUTuRE 168
NOAH WEBSTER, M EDUCATION FOR AMJ.ltf{,A '-:'> J 69
CONCLUSION 172
INQUIRY M'D RESEARCJ J PROJECTS 172
INTER.'IBT RESOlJRC.J~S 172

SUGGESTIO:--.S FOR rl.JR'l llFR RF.ADI""\(, 173
NOTES 173
CCIA.PTER ELEVEN
l ,iberalism 174
DEFINING LJBERALIS.\1 J74

'\-\'lTY STUDY LTBERALIS.\1? 174
SITUAT.L'\' G LIBERALTS\1 175
i\10DER.'\' LfBERALIS.i\1'S CORE BELIFFS 182
LTBERALIS.\1'S EDUCATIO:\'AL L"1PLICATIO'S 188
JOHN STU1\R1' .i\tlLL, O!\ LIBERTY 190
CO!':CLUSIQ'\; 194
DISCl:SSIO~ Qlt:STIO!\S 194

IXQL"IR\ ~.\..°'\l> RESEARCH PROJI.CTS
194
~Tal°'\Tr Rr:SOL"RCES 195
l..'GGESTIO°'\S FOR FL RTH:ER REAnl'\G

195
!\OTES 196
lll'\ '\:I.
lllll J
( l-L\.Pl1' R l"\\ I l \I
(' on .. en .1t1 "''' 19-.
011 l'\l'\(, (()'\\IR\ \11'1\1 197

\\ }f\ \I l 1)\ ( l)'\ <,t: R\ \fl~ \1: 198
\Ill \l l'\C. C 0'\ ER\ \TIS \I 198
C.E'\"ERU CO'\ ER\'\TI\'E PR.L'\CIPLIS 199
CO'\Tf~lPOR\R\ .\..\IERlC.\." co:-.;sER\' \J JS\I 2(J2
cox £R\'.\TI .\l"S EDl.'C.\TIO:-.;u l\lPLJC\n(J'\<, 2(J6
\\lLLL\.\1). BE::\-:\TIT, THE COXSER\'ATI\"I. C.\.Sf..
IX THE Cl.'I.Tl."1U: \\'.-\RS 208
COXCLl.. IOX 212
DISct..· ss1ox Ql."ESTIOXS 213
IXQl'IRY ..\...'\'D RESE..\RCH PROJECTS 213
L'\TER.'IT RESOl."RCES 213
Sl.'GGESTIOXS FOR FL'RTHER RE..\DIXG 2J3
XOTES 214
CH.\.PTER THIRTEE~
~larxism 215
DEFL'\"!XG .\l.\RXIS'1 215

SITl".\TIXG ~lAR..Xl.S'l 215
\.\l-IY STl.'D\' .\tA.R.XlS,1J 217
'1AR.XIS~l'S BASIC DOCTRL'\"ES 217
~lARXIS~l'S EDt.:C.\TIOXAL I.\lPLIC.o\.TIO:\'S 224
S..\..\IU.EL B0\\1.E.S ..\...'\'D HERBERT GL'\TIS, A .\i.uucJST A.'-'..\1.'t SIS
OF SCHOOLIXG I.'\'.\ CAPITALIST SOCITIY 227
COXCLL"SIO~ 233
DISCt:SSIOX Ql"ESTIOXS 23 3
L"Ql."IR\' A.''D RESE..\RCH PROJECTS 234
1'TER."'\Tr RI:.SOL"RCE.S 234
•
]\
'
' l (.(,I' l ll ...;s I (Jlt I l R 1111 It RI l\lll'<•
'\l)I•' l'~
C I l \l' 11 I{ I< >l I{ lII '°

I bt:nat11u1 llc:d.t T(l~" 2 \ti
DI 'I'< BIR\ll'l'\1111)\l,tX.\ 236

'.\r! l \ 'C IBf. R.J\1 t l' 11) \G() , \ ~ 3i
\\lfi \ n O' LIRI Ri\ I IO' Pl D \GOG\7 !3
LIBlR..\1 lCJ'\ PL D \C.OC\ \.S .\..'> IDEOI OG\' ! ~~
PJillO OPlllC..\l.. .\'1,0 IDEOLOGIC..\.L RfL\'110'-.\lllP:') ,:.;o
PHILOSOPHIC.U . l\1PUC..\TIO'\"S 241
UBER..\TIO:'\ Pf D \GOG\~S EDl."C...\TIO'\"..\.L L\1PLIC .\TIC)'~ ~43
P.\LJ..0 FREIRE PED.\GOG\. OF THE OPPRES ED 245

CO'\CLl SIO' 250
DISCt:SSIO' Ql"'ESTIOXS 2 51
L'\"QLTR\' ..\.."'\'D RESE.A.RCH PROJECTS 251
L\TE.R.,TrRESOl~CES 251
Sl"GGESTIO'\"S FOR FL~HER RE...\01:'\'G 2 51
~-OTES 252
PA.RT III THEORIES OF EDL"C..\TIO:\'
CIIAPTER F1Fl'EEN
' I hcory and Education 253
01.IT\~G TIIEOR\' 253
\.\'ICY S' fL'D\ fl II OR\ >\.:-0..1) \\'H\"Tffi' ()Rl"l'? ., -~
'lllEOH\ \~AHRll>C,r BI l\\f.l,PIIllO >

- '='
\..'-DIOJOJC)C,\ \'\l>PR.\( ll(f .?'5\(.)111\
' J'IU OR' A.\ l>I RI'\ \I l<l'\
256
TlILOR\ ,\ r; A RJ•l.,J>{J' \1 ..1 57
TlfEORV ARI INC l'R0~1 l'RAC11 Cfl 2511
JOH"\' DE\.\'"£\ , £.U lFRn:,.,{"I IN Rf tA110:-J'T() 1 IU O RY AA"D PRACTlCE 259
C01'CLUSION 261
DISCU SION Q l:SllONS 26 I
lNQUlRY AND RESEARO I PROJECTS 262
tl'.'TERNET RESOURCES 262
SUGGESTioxs FOR FURTilER READIXG 262
NOTES 262
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Esscntialism, Basic Education, and Standards 263
DEFCNlNG ESSENTIALISM 263

SITUATING ESS£NTIALISM 264
ESSE1'<I1AUS~f'S PHILOSOPIDCAL A.''D IDEOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS 269
WHY STUDYESSENTIALISM? 270
ESSE.VI1ALISM AS AN £DUCATIONA.L TIIEORY 270
OIM'E RAVITCH, THE ACADE.tWC CUIUUCULm1 AND SCHOOI.S 273
CONCLUSION 277
DISCUSSIO'.'I QUESTIO:'.'IS 277
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PRO]ECI'S 277
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 278
NOTES 278
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN
Perennialism 279
OEFINCNG PE.R.ENNlALJSi\.1 279

SITUATV-IG P"ER.E.''"NIALISM 280
WHY STUDY P~'JALlS.'1? 281
PEltEl''!lllAUS.~'S PHILOSOPIDCAL
,,, t«• II I
I< >N'tl 111'\

\I lCfl \I 'Jf(J ~ l~l
\ N l>ll>I <II cu . I< 1111 c>U' C)I J JJI f A ' ( J\' I l<J N
l'I HI ;-.;N I \I '""'' \I\ \ ()I i\1( JIJI l<N I I J• •
HI 1 IC )l I Lkf1
1•1 111 "" ' \1 ' " ' " < l l'f lJllAI I OJ<l. LH7
.... 11ll1 <lH \SI \111 l I IJl <.A'I JCJN
1111 '" N I 1(\1.
ltl ll\I IC I \I. I It JClll'\,\(,J
( ( l'\( I l ~I<)'\ l')l
lll\C l \SI<)'\ <) l ' I \I !()'\I.I

l9l •
292
l'\<)l lit\ ,,,,HI \I \RC II PRC>Jf ( , JC)
I'\ 11 H'\l I Rt \()L RC I c.; 292

\l (,(,I\ I l()N\ t•()R l·UR' I I If•·R RJ:.A0l'1& 292
....,() l l \ 293
<:J1,\IYlf< R f'J(;J J 'l' l~ J·:N

J>r<>grc\siv1 sm 294
or 1 f'\1'\(, PROC.R.ESSMSM 294

Sfl l A'J I'>:(, PROGRESSIV1SM 295
PRCJGRI~ ~SIVISM'S PHTJ.OSOPlllCAL
i\."lD ll)f~OLOGICAL RELATIONSlllPS 298
WJ IV s·n.;oy PROGRESSIVISM? 299
PRC>GRFSSIVE PRD;CIPLES OF EDUCATION 299

PROf,RJ..SSTVISM AS A Tl IEORY OF EDUCATION 3 00
MAR1r·1· JAJOllNSON, CHILD-CE1\'TER.Eo
l'RCJC,RJ_\\IVF. EDUCATION 301
(<>'t\< 1 \\IC)'\! Qti1_s·r1o"c; 306
1'-<.>l IRY A'\L) RF.\EAR(. II PROJECTS

IN'l 1 R'\J. I RJ .SOLiR(.F \ 30? 306
SLC,(,J \ 11()"\~ l·C)R l L:Rl l IF. Jl IU>.nt'.;G

~C>'l 1 S 307
307
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Critical Theory 309
DEFINING CRITICAL THEORY 309

THE CRITICAL THEORIST STRATEGY 310
SITUATING CRITICAL 'l'HEORY 312
CRITICAL THEORY'S PHILOSOPHICAL
AND IDEOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS 314
TIIE CHALLENGE OF EDUCATIONAL THEORY 316
CRITlCAL THEORY AND EDUCATION AND SCHOOLING 316
HE.1''RY A. GIROUX, SCHOOLING AND CULTURAL POLITICS 320
CONCLUSION 326
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJECT'S 327
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHEJt REA.DING 327
NOTES 328
Index 329
•• • •
l'bt/c1.1·011bt.·,tl .111,/ ltlc''11'1,l!,t•'lll I otl'r.1· 111 Et!11c11tia11 1' tlllL'IHil·cl 1111 II \< 111 111• C .uh 111.il I " 1
d.111on~ of Fdnt':\11011, co;pc(:1.1ll) 111 1he philc1'u)lh\ .111d 1dc·11l1111 y 111 • d1J• .111•11 11 c
hook is di,1dc!d 1nro thrt'c.' p:1rL~: P:1n l Philo,ophrt'' 11f I .cl111.1111111 , f'.111 If ldt•1l•1
~It'~ .ind l•\htl':llinn; Part 11 l- l'hcorics of Educa111J11.
l\n1 l introduc·co; tht· -;uhjccl of' phrlo~ophy of l'cl11r;1111111 :111cl • ~.11111111' iii• f1,I
h1\\ 1ni.r philosophies: ldc:1 lisni, Realis1n, 1'ht•i,lic Rc:1l"111 111 ·I l111111h11r , 1'1 .11-(111.111.111
1~ , iSIL'n rin l is1n, Philosophic;ll or La111,1'\1:1g-e 1\n:tlY'"• and Pn,1111111li 1111, 111 /1fr·.1lr 111,
Rc!:1lis1n, :ind ' l'hc!istic R.c:1lisn1 are considcreJ 111orc tradiuo11:1I phil1"''Pli11 ·,, 11 ·~11111-:
tin :l found:11in11 of rnctnphysics. Existt•ntialisrn, Pr:tf.{111:11 i\111, l'hrl11\<1pl111 .ii \11 tl y~1~,
.ind Posunoder11is111 arc 1norc recently developed ph il11,11ph rt'' 1h:tt rt,,., 1 1111 1:1 pit Y"'"
l 'hc) c1nph:1si1c are:1s such as episte1nolo1,.')', language, 01 \Ol't:ll rt·l:1111111\hq1~, 1.llh<'r
than 111cn1phy~ics.
Pare II C\<llllines the relationship bcl\vccn 1dcolog} and cd11t:;tt11111 It ,,., ~ ~ 1•1
Llctinc ;Hui clarit) thc nan1re ofi<leology, a tcrn1frequently11,cd h111 loo,cly cx.1111111l'd 111
cdut~.1non;1I discourse. Pan II also discusses Lhc nature of 1dcoloi,.ry 111 1ela111111 t11 I .tl11·1
,, 1i~111. ( '.on-.cn ;1cis1n, .Vl:1rxisn1, and Liber:.1t1on Ped:igo~'). L1her:1 l"111 :ind ( .<lll\L r\iat 1...111
;1rc 1\1·0 h1ghl} \ 1sihle nn<l influcnti.11 idcolo~rie~ th:11 conltll•lnd a large n11111hc1 of Jtlht'r
t'nt' 111 \1ncnc:1n i;octet) and politics. The in1plic:1Lion-. for cdut.::1t11111al poltt:} ;tnd lt.:g1\-
l.1tion :ire e1nphat;11c<l in the c.hscussion of L1heraliMn :ind C:on,cr\':lli'tll \<1:1r<1'>1tt ,.,
c\;1nunc<l pr11nanly a~ a tool of :inalysis that continues to influence c<l11cauonal 1h1nk-
111g, c'pcc1:1ll} .unong Posunodernists and Critical 1' hcon'it\, Although ll\ prct"c lo
catton :l'i a ph1losoph), ideology, or thcof) is suhjt:Ct to debate, l have loca1cd P.111111
Frl'trc\ Lihcr:11ion Pedagogy \Vithin t.he section or t.hc hook that <lc:ll-. wnh 1dc11logtl'\
['his io; hec:111se ofFreirc's he lief that nil education is groun<lcd in idcoloi.'Y·
P:1rt TTI ex:11nincs theory an<l education in general , and then di,cu'":' l' -...c1111.il
i.;111, Pcrcn 11i:1lis111, Progressivis1n, a11<l Criticol 'fheory :1., fc>11r theorie' of cduc:1111111.
\l1ho11~h so111e,\•hnt sin1i lar, Essen1ia lisn1 and Perenniali.;111 arc ~hown 10 have cltlfl 1
cnt philosophic:1I origins. Pcrenni:1lis1n's nffinitics \Vith Ari\1<>1eli:111 J~c:t l i,111 Hnd
·r1ioniis1n nrc e111phosizcd as a key area of c.lifferen<.:e. Progrcs~ivi"n j, ll'l':t1cd in rel:t
t111n.;hip to Pr11gn1:1tisrn and Liberalis111. Crirical ·rheory 1~ di,cu, ..l•d in 1c1111' 111 "'
rl•1:1t111n,hip 1n Posn11odernisn1 :111<l Lihcnuion Pedagog}-
Rl~ l .i\'f'l(lNS I llP ()l~ 'l'llE PARTS
l'hc three 111.11n ~11h1cc1' uf the hook-ph1lc1'oph1t''• 1tll·olug1c,, and thlortl'\-

,lll' t'\ llllllll'd ,IS rtl.tll'd thc111e' that often 1ntcr'Cll Ill cdul.llllJll:ll tdc.I\. r.111 I, (Ill
'''
PRFJIAC:f
loeo h and education, cs12blishes the broad pe~eters ?f the fi eld and ind1ca1.es
: on!!oon of each of the philosophies to metaph~1cs, ep1stei:nology, axiology, and
Each of these areas is then related to educaoon, schooling, CUTnculllll) a.nd
~ p
wuucnon. art 11' on I
·deology points out that while ideologies are different fr
' f th . . . I fro om
h Josoplues they often dnw on or denve some o eir pnnc_ip es m philosopbv.
~~ m, on clieory, makes a further relations~p to the preced1_ng parts by i~dicatuig
that some theories borrow principles and tenrunology from philosophy and ideology.
CHAPTER HEADINGS AND SECl'IONS

In writing the book, I did not deliberately strive to make each chapter parallel in its
sectJons and headings. Richer, I let the subject lead me to the important points I
thought should be made. However, there 15 a pattern throughout the book, in that
each chapter includes the following:
• Definitions of the plnlotophy, ideology, or theory.

• A pllCCIDCllt of the phalotOphy, ideology, or theory in its hi'itory, and in relation
ro its major contributon.
• An answer to the quesoon: Why srudy the philosophy, ideology, or theory?
• A discussion of the mtjor pnnciples and educational implications of Lhe philoso·
phy, ideology, or theory.
PRIMARY SOURCE SEI-EC110NS
The primary source sdeaioru arc intended to 1lhnni02ce and give greater depth 10 the
panicular pbito.ophy, ideology, or theory being diso1sscd. \Vhenever po\ 1ble, pn·
mary SOUrteS ~ t>e:cn selected to •llustl'lte the YlewJ of founding figur~. ~uch as
":° fOr Jdabsm. Aristode fOr Realism. and Mill for Liberalism for cnmple. Other
:; ~~ ~ ~th educational ~ or represent con~emporary pointS of
1
eldi.lelec:tion Th ~ llOW'Ce -:tecnons IS the focusing que<.c1on~ thar precede

• ey ue designed to guide the reackr through the panacular ~eJecuon.
PREF\CE •
XX.I
t\C.K.'\O\\.LEDG~IEl\'TS
I \\ant to thank Srevtn I. .\ltller, m,-• colleague

•
1n Fuunuauons of Edut:;1tion .it L1l\·ola
•
C niversin·.
. for his ac.hice on some of the sections of the book.
.\1y thanb go to Steven Dragtn, my ec.litor at .\.11)11 ant.I Bacon. f<1r h1' enl·our-
agtment and support ai. the 111anuscript was de,·elopeu, re,·ie\\'ed. and revised
.\1} '' ife. Patricia, has ahvars been a patient listener as I d1scus.;t•d tht' boPk,
problems and progress. ;\1} appreciation also goes to rnr <laughter. Laura Lt'e °"'\ 1.1tc:k.
a third-grade teacher, and my son-in-la''"· Charles Jordan. a fonner social science 't'l
ondary teacher, v.·ho gave me their insighti. about the relation hip of theor: to pr.ll"lll't
J>J III J<>SC>I'I IV A D
EDUC:ATION
I In, '111111- '' \\1111\.' 1\ 1111'1111h·111'111 p1oft•,,11111,d p1ogr:1111' 111 tl'.ll'hc1 ctlut<1t1011-l11r
th11-.1· p1.11111111g to h1·1·111111• 1t•11rlH·1..:, 1111d h11 tl':lt''1c1' i111'1c c:irl) 'l•1!-(C'i of thc1rL.1n.:Lrs.
It I ' 11111•111h·d tP I 1111111'1 t llH· 111gt'lll prolill'll1' lt'.lt'hcr'> r:IL'l' (';H:h d•I) to the 1111port.1nt
1'''"'' 1h.11 111111 t.·111 1h1•1 11 c" 1·1 till' II 1•11111 t' t'.11 t't't" .1-; t•1h1c;t1or,. \n urgent prohlc:1n
111t1'1 h1· '''h<'d 111nnt•d1.111·h. 11f1t•11 "11h .1 q111rk 11.·,pon'>c \n 1111port.1nt issue 1' one
th ,11 \\ill .lllt.·11 .11t·.1lht•1 1h11111gh11111 ht.•1 01 ht, t.•a1l'c1. ,\{.111~ of the urgent prohle1n'
I I l.111• 111 I l.1'' 111111 ll 11I.I11,1 !-\I'll It'll I, de.ti II If.\' \\ Ith I ht• 'il'hool :I'> pa I l () f J I;1 l"!{Cr edUC<l tlllll;d
'' '1c•111, ,11111 11·l.1111111,l11p' 111111111µ stud1·11t ", 1.:olll.':1µ-11t•s, ~11 pc1-v1,or.,, and parent.<.. ["he
1111p1111.1111 pn1lilc111o; ,ll'l' th1"l' 111:11 dc:d '' ith ont•\ purpose as an l'Uucator, one's 1111,-
,11111 ,,, .1 1c.11 h1·1 ..111d ont•\ 11·l.11i11nsh1p to thl' \\odd of kno\1•lcdgc and ro socict) ;tnd
11' p111lilt•111' In d1't"''"'l-t h11\1 to diflt•rt•1111.11c hcl\\'Ct'n the lll"!{Cl1t and the 1111portant.
I 1.tlkt·d ,, 11 h .1 ,1·11111d.11 ) 'l'h11ol 1c;1rht·1 111 '11l·1.1I 'tudit>s. I le idcnufied the f(>Jlo,,·1n(!
·'' 1111(1'111 111.llll'I' ht• h:id tll dl".11 \l'ith C\l'I) d.I\ ,I, .1 IC•ll'her:
I . 1:11-111 µ r l.1-;s .1ttl'n1h111rl' (t'\ t•1·y l'la..s, 1·\t'I')' dny, t'~ll'h \Vcck, for an entire se1nes1cr
1
111 ) 1'.11·) .111d ro11,1d1·1 111µ tlit· :1111011111 of ti111c this tnkcs and ho\\' it ndds up dunnµ-
tlu .11.11l1·11 11l' 'l'llll'St1·1 01 ) rar.
"J.. Po,1111µ ·'''1µ 1u111·111' for t.'.ll'h st·hool d.t) . \ \ 'hilc folltl\\'lllj.{ a l'ourse o;yllabus, he
l111111d 11 lll'l'l'''·11) 111 p111p11111t ,1nd po't :1's1~11111cnt~ for the students.
4. ( '11111plt·1 111µ 1h1· v11111111' .1d111in"u .11 1v1.• l\t-;ko; 1n:1ndatcd as part of the 'iChool ' ' '
11·111 Fol' l'xn111pl1•, 1·11111pll'ti11g:111 assiµn111t•111 s heet !(Jr h111nehou11d students'' ho
\\'1·1" ill; 1·11111plt·1111g Sjll'l'l:ll cd111:a1io11 s111dc11t cv:i lu;1tio11 l(1n11s, ;vith atten11on
In 111\'ll'llSl'd 11111i1l\lll':1111in!{ of '\l'l.'l.'l:tl t•d 1tt::llion '\llldl'lll' in g"Cllt.'1''11 t•la.;ses,
1111•t•1111g "11h t ollt·:1µ111.·s 111 1lisl'tl'S joint tcnt.·hing c;1r;111:g1c' ;111d artil'ul.1111111
ht t\\1't'll tl.1''l''• 1111111µ 11111 fnn111.. ICl l'hl.'lk out .l r\' Ill \'C :R. or rt.'st'l\C :l l'"'''
pc1111cl Ill dH· lil11,11 \
While t h1• tt'.llh1·1rt·g.1 nll'd th1•st• 111~1·111 111:111cr' a., 111:l.·1•,s11 r\ \\1th1n tht ~chool
''"'1cm , IM r.lt 11t,11 th1 \ 11l1c•111111clll'r1•d11111! 111.111l'r' he k11t·11 \\'Cl'C 111orc 11nport;1nt.
\1110111 m.
in 1p1111 .1111 ·111.1ttl''' ht' 1dl 1111ti1·d \\l'rc · rt·~t·.1 rt·h111µ- ;llHl unJerstnnd1nµ ;t
1
I
' ' ' ~ l)l l \ 11 ,,
\ I 111 l''lll'
-' • I. ",1.,
1 1)("\\ ,'tltlltj'I t Ililt lt
j)ft.<p.11 inµ111 rc:1ch to .. 1udcnts ;1nd relating it t
I. 0
n.. 11 b,x, ... "' • • 1 • 11 ,, 11 r1..•pJred to dt'-1.'ll!t'> :llll interpret an 11nportcint ...,,~
I h •t kP1>\\ 1<'11i.:-1... it 1 ~ II 1· 1· 'UJ.
1 IJr:..-·r '''' < • • hrll tdc..•i nJt1on:1l and ,,·or t scene; 1nt 1ng '''avs to det
• ltl I rt•l 111..• It Ill tit1 • • er-
r,•nr • t•nr · '
1 · • r "ll'llll~ t<> Jn .1reJ of kno"·ledge, or to a ne\v it.lea or conce
111111 1
lHtll 'tlldt"lll' \\cl't: c::.
.. incern'
•
de;1h "
•
·1ch que~t1ons
• • h .. \\'1..
sue as. 11at pt.
1s kn0 ,,.led .
_
111
1 ne't' Jl)llrt• 1111p.irr.1 hio-.lot e,ent'- ro the l<lrger• ''orld.';) \\'hat doe'i. so1nething . .
me
ge:
•
j I
\\nJr ,, r ie re..~ .H•t' ' r 11 .. J h' I h. f . an:
1 '< 1rt " 11 1.11 •
.,, ,e,aon~ "ere those relate to p 1 osop ) o educanon-to the
fhe!-<- • , ,
\\'hilt 1, reJJin ? \\n;tt 1s rrue: Ho,,· do \\'e kno\\'r \\'hat does it me •
quc.. ,u.1n- . . d . h' b k an:
1•11 t:' " .trt' 1he que, 1ions char" 1_ 11 he examme . in t •.s oo. · as '''e _proceed through phi.
1cl, .iph' .inJ 1deolot-') of e<lucanon an~ a cons1derauon of educaoonal theories.
'i tt.'lllhl.tnc anJ pers1scenr que.;nons are present throughout a teacher's care .
\ \ 11 ~ d J I hcc<>1ne .ind '' h) <lo I re1nain a reacher? '\1-lat am I doing as a teacher;~
c11 IC:'.' 11 n1akt' .1J1tference? Ho" do n1y actions and beha,-ior as a teacher affect mv Stu-
dt lr.... nor onl) coJ.1~. bur throughout their liYes? ''nat is the meaning and purpose of
t•d111.:~1nng ann1her per ·on? \\'hat tin I tt!ach and \\.h} do I teach it?
\\lien rt•Hel'ted upon, tht ur~ent and i1n1nediate evel)•day concen1s lead to
l.11 ~t.·r ~ind 111ore enduring per,pt:cll' c,. Tht s1hrn1ficant and important issues are philo-
..11phic;1I in th;1t che~ e\an11nt. h<>'' te,tLhcr., t:'itJhlt .. h \\.·hat they believe is true or false.
¥'">d or<.'\ ti. ri!!h t or'' ronE?. hc.111tiful or ugl) r·ht.: philosophical examination of \\'hat
111. ke-. '1>111t.•thing 'i!-111ifieant pro' 1de' an opp<>rn1nit) t<l reflect on the urgent and the
1111por1.111t .ind co \IU<l) their rcl:1t1on ... hip to each <>ther.
\I 111) .,rudLllt'i 1n rea1.:her cd11t..1t1on progTa111-, and teachers in their early careers
.11 t' nftt:·n '<> preol.'cup1eJ ''1th ur¥1.:nc problen1> that they tend to deft!r the truly impor-
t.1nr 111.1tter' lc>r .1 lutllrt' the) hc>pc "ill he le._,, hectic and les~ hurried. They often
. ppr11.1ch ph1lc1-.c>ph) c>i eJucat1c1n a' 11 '1lhJcCr that'' ren1ote fro1n the urgent problem5
1Jf tht• c1>111t•111pc1ra~· cla,,rc><Jlll. In ti>ntni,t. rnan} t.:Xperienccd teachers \\ho ha,·e
dl•.1 It " 1rh 1ht: 11rgcn t hnt C\ t 1~ da} pre 1hle111' of n 1>1 j, :icing srudenL-,, planning lessons,
111.111.1,!-?i II g' (. l.1 ' ' l'l I( >Ill\. ,} llU ;l'i"t: 'i'l ll g \ lllUt:n lS • pre >!:-'Tt.: ,.., \\an [ tO probe OlOfe deep))' into
1ht· lur g'<.'r q11t .. r1t>n' <>f cJucauc>11 .111J t<> cun-.tn1ct J per~pective <>n their li\'es as profes·
'111n,1 l t•dul. .lt1 ,,.,
In th1' 1>cl• 1l. I'' ;1nt t<> hr1d!!e the 1!3p herneen che:: urgent and the imporuntcon·
1..1. 1, h' p111\ idtn!! a flh1l1 >.. 11ph1~'!ll, 1de(>logical, and theoreaL-al contc.Xt that hel:~~
p111 the..'" 111•11 Pt'r'pt c.. t·\ (; ">uL h a J>er,peco' e :illo'', the teacher to tand back fro
1n1111ed1 llt. '''llt' .1nJ fl> ,ee hu\\ the\· rdace ... to a career in education. d r
}l~li'll'l>Pll\ l) eJtlL.1t·· 1n C\1lll;lne' que,UOOS r1i: \'~at I the meaning an r~
J)<>'r l1f t'\~l.l ttH)Il~ \ \11,-, and ho\'· do teacher' educate people? \i\'lut difference __,i
• • cannot be anSWCJ""
·,l111.:.iti<1n 11ia e fc>r lnd1,,dual' and for 50Clet)? These que,aon of deparrore to
h\ l l l t 1'l r 111t1lt·"'e cilo1ce te't'. These quesuon!) arc: pomtS rspt'1're
tc t'h ... ... ltfi1. n· 1.11r1.'t.'..-. ... jllit a, our life JOUme} !:! one of a gro"mg0 ~ ~ rJ
t- . d .
into , •t1. rt . .tL1on..1' ,., [l) the: \\"Ori . lt:S peop1e ·
culrur~. and ooeae ,
d elop our o
,,n
phdo ..c1ph}. 1dc;olc·t-"'· .i.nd theo11· of cducaoon challen~e5 -~f ~~:.a'aon·
in''' crs to th c que,noro and ro create our O\\'Tl ph1losoprues
Cl I.APTER ON£ p
' HILOSOl>f lY AND E'.DUCATION 3
WHAT IS EDUCATION?
lf a teacher
. .
is asked • "V"L d
·v nat o you do as a teacher?" the most obvious and direct
answer is Likely to be, "I educate students "
Whi l .
Wh e we can agree that teachers educate students, we can ask other questions:
\.\ ~t do you n1eau by education? What are you doing when you educate someone?
d /hJle the questions are direct, the answers are neither easy nor simple. For example,
0 the following responses really answer the question: What do you mean by education?
• I teach students to read, \Vrite, compute, and use a computer.

• I teach students to be economically productive persons and good citizens.
• I teach students to appreciate art, literarore, music, and drama.
• I teach students the skjlJs needed in industry and business.
• I teach students to be critical thinkers and problem-solvers.
If, Like good students, we go to the dictionary to find the meaning of the word
education, we will find the follo\ving:
1. The act or process of educating or being educated.

2. The act or process of providing a person with the kno\vledge, skiJJ, competence,
or usually desirable quaJjties of behavior or character by a formal course of srudy,
instruction, or training.
3. Aconditioning, strengthening, or disciplinjng of the mind or faculties. 1
Although the dictionary poincs us toward an answer, it does not tell us what kind
of knowledg.e, skill, competence, or desi.rable qualities of behavior are to be provided.
It is thjs consideration of "what kind of" or "whacness" that brings us to philosophy of
education. When \Ve deal with philosophical questions, we are concerned with the
n1ost general concerns about \Vhat is true, what is good, and what is beautiful to all, not
only some, of us. At thls juncrore, we become involved with phHosopby's four major
subdivisions:
• Metaphysics, the srudy of what is ultimately real and what really exists; it deals
\vi th essence, that wruch remains nfter aU else is gone or that which is essential ro exis-
tence. Closely related to meraphysics is cosmology, speculation about the universe's ori-
gin nnd srrucrure.
• Epistemology, examining issues of knowing, deals with how vle acquire knowl-
edge, ,vhar we can know, and how we can explain or justify what we claim to know.
How do we kno'v ·what \\'e know? Is knowledge empincal; that is, is it based on or
derived from sensory experience? Or is knowledge acquired by the mind, through rea-
soning alone? Or is knowledge revealed to us by God?
• Axiology deals \\ith issues relaong to values in educs {what is morally nght or
wrong) and aesthetics (what is beautiful). Ethics uamines moral truth and acuoo.
Those\\ ho believe in objecth·e values claim that morality 1~ univer>ally and etermll>
• l'\hl I 1•1 11111 Clf' llJl \ •11 I IH ll \ 1111"1
11 il11I \1il111·\ 1111\1,, 111 c 111111 ;''' , "c v;il11t·., :111'>illf;1 f11i111 pcr<,<1nal tastes, feelings, or
P1•' h 1c 111 c·, 111 p.1111111111 -.1111;1111111.., 111 l11·t·11111.,1;1111..·c., Gtilttarian<, clain1 that whal i\
' .1'11.1 hit. I 11 cII H' 1111' !' I ( .111 ·-.1vond 111 the i.:rt ;1\ C'>t n u111I ll r of p(;ople. Reitc..llng unive~al
111111 ,d '1.111d 11 d-., t 1111111 .ii 11 l.11 1\11'> 1' hold 1ha1 right and wron14 depend on what pt:ople
d11111 p.11111 1il.11 t111111·~1' :111d '>i1ualion.., at dilferent 11111ei,. Aesthetics coni,itlers art anti
ht 1111~ 11111'1110'1 ~t·11t·1.ll1c1111i,. It ..,eek'> 111 an .. wer '>uch que.,uon~ as: \\'hat 1s beauty·
111111 du Ill' t•\ ,iluau: \\'ork.., 111' art ? Arc aestheuc jutlgnH!n~ per'>onal or public, subiec-
111t•111 oh1cl·t1\c?
• I .ogic deal, with the rules of, or hov; we organize, our reasoning. It examines the
' "1lid11y of :lrg111nents. /)eductive ltJf!.ic is reasoning that moves from a general statemtnt
or pr1n<;=iple to a partit:ular point or specific example. Inductive logic is reasoning that
n1ovc., lro1n the specific or particular to more general conclusions.
Metaphysics, Knowledge, and Curricul11m

We no\v look at what education ii,, in light of the divisions of philosophy. What is the
knowlc<lge that teachers i,eek to provide to srudents? Many teachers impart knowledge
in .such subjects as English, history, che1nistry, or mathematics, for exa1nple. In so
dcnng, they seek to convey to srudcnts a body of knowledge that they believe is true
and worth knowing. H O\\'ever, beyond the teaching of a subject, lie the questions:
What is rea l? What is true? \Vha1 i-. of most worth and value? Consider the following
quei,tion s: \\'hat i'> most rea l abour you a<, a per5on? Ho\v do you defin e yourself? How
have othe rs defined you?
Schoo l curriculu n1 c.J oe'i not include everything there ii; to know; it includes
<,01ne , but nor all , area., of knov. lecJge. It 1nclude'> those subjects curriculum makers
ha\ C decided are \vorth\\hile for people to learn. le excludes what they judge to he
hn r1n ful co person'> and to ~oc•et). T he ace of selecung !>Orne area of kno ..vledge, but
nc>l C)thc r5 , lea<l'> to rhe mernph}'1cal que'>tion: \\'hat is tn1ly and essentially real?
\ \'hat is 1n the <..urr1culun1 1s detcr1nined h} ho\\ the question is ans-wered. The follow-
•••••
S U IJl)l\' ISl(JNS OF PI-IJLOSOPHY
I · . ~ cculation_, about the nature of ulti1nate rcalit). \\ 'hat'" real?
• ·~ t~tap l\ sics .. p O\\ lcd(!'c and L.:no" ing:. I lo'' Jo" c knc'" "hat "·c kno"·'
• l• p1sten1olo!{'. kn ch .. -h IJ " and "oughts" of our li·•C'>. \ \'hat and why do "c:
• J\ xioloEQ : \ Jlu1.. • 1.. ~ uu ~ . •
' .1luc i chin!-. Jc.tion. or rfdat.onl >htpdcal "i th i !>Ut:!> of ;.{<.><Jd and bad, right and
, 1. \ :ubdi'1'1on o ano Oe), ., • .
• F t l tCS; • ' · :>Od r bad or n<?ht or "Tong•
'' nin~ \\'hat n1J. t.:' .Jn acaonf gc_ l o , deals '"-ith issues of beauty. \\ bat makes
. . \ u -J1,.,, n o a'Co o~ ,
• \ es th enc . ~ ::- .
• lnl thin~txJ ..LO ·- orugl}~ . .i..; ... t.,n" i\re\\ethinkingcorrcetl}. 1~a
'l • e<lure.., ot correct u..,,.,... -· • I to u1e
• 1 osric: Ill n. ~ l'r pr~ - thcr cfuided mro dedu;ir.r Jag1c, from the genera
· ·" l )!!'IC' ' ' rur rat
~ tiI n1anJ11..
lo1r11.. • :~th::9<.'Cl::
and rndurrr..: t , trom ·fi=c~r=o~cli:e~ge•n•e-•.- - - - - - - - - - -
sp~ I •
tll\1'111{11'1 PllllCl\Cll'll' \'\lllllll ' ' " ' '
s
11\\ lh q>ll'l' l'tllt,11!1·1 ho\\ \ 1111111' pl11J11,11pli11 111\\\t I tlit qiH'\IHlll \\ h ti 1
, ICJI ",
11,,1111,1111,·1\ 1nd1 tl111t 1 \\1th1111t.1plt\ 11 11111\\I d~·•, iud1urr 11• 11 Ju,to .,1,: uur
1111
't•lt, .111d 1h1•n 11'l111d \11111 11·,111111'1 111 tlH q11t~111111 \\'1 111 d1, \, ,11 111 111 , rl: th~ r I
·"'"'' 1 1 ~lltl\\ lt·di.:1· th.11 'h1111ld li1• 1111 l111k•d 111 1h11111111111111 11 ' I hen, a \i'• 11 c d fu
1
1_111:1. 11111111111 \11111 ·'"'"1' 1 .111d1·11h11 r1111li1111111 11'''' 11. A., Y' '" cl•• thi~ }'•u" II h
111.111nµ \ ll\lt phtl11.;11ph~ 111 cd11t;H11111 .
\ ( ',,, l':lt \l1out 1\ll'tnphy4'ics. So111e ol tht· l'arly chapter\ tn t111 ... l11111k eXitllllne the
111or1• u .1d111on;1l phtlo~oph1e' of lcJeali-;111 , Rc;1li,111, and ·y hci-.11c kc:al1 rn 1Jr
l'll\ 11111,111). t h.n .ire ~rounded in 111c1aphy"c'-'Pct 11lauon ab1111t 11lt1111,11c rc.:al11
I 1n" t'\ t't'. other philosophies, !>ttch a~ E~1sten11ali~1n, P1ag"n1;1u~n1, Phtl<> •1ph1c. I
\11.1ly'1~, .ind Po~tn1odern1.,n1 ar~ nnnnu.~taphyi.ital 01 even ant11nen1ph}~tcal 1n that
th1•\ n.'JCCl s11c.:h speculation as 1neaningless, 1u1vcrifiable, or h1..,ronc.:al con ...1r11cn1,n
llSl'd to )-.ri' e one class or group control over others. Philosophical Anal) ...1-.. f11r t:
:11nple. \\On Id place 1netaphysical staten1ents in the c~1tcgory of tho'ie that c.:ann111 po'>-
s1hl~ ht: prove<l or Jisproved by e111piric::il n1eans. These nonn1etaph~~1cal po..,1oons
ari-.rtu:~ that 1nodern philosophy's challenge is co free it fro1n ics earlier metaph} ~•cal
past.(\ lore distinctions about 1neta physical and non1netaphys1cal phtlosoph1e.-. \\tll he
n1ade in later chapters.)
Epistcn1ology, Knowing, and Methodology

\\'ith n1et~1physics,\Ve considered what it is that \Ve know. What is it that is truly rt!al~
1 O\\ ' ' e ;1sk how \Ve kno\v \vhat \Ve believe is kno,vledge. H ere the concern is with the
general process of knowing. I-I<)\V do we arrive at ow· concepts and ideas about rt!alit:y?
Ask yourself" how you kno\.v 'vh::it you kno\v. \ Vhat do you believe is the most authon-
tative, crue, and vah1able w::iy of ki10\\ ing? It is possible to give several ans,vers to theo;e
1
questions, such as I know because I:
• Receive inf'o111111tion through 111y senses-sight fron1 1ny eyes, soun<l fron1 111y
cars, s 1ne1I f'ro1n 1ny nose, and touch or feeling fro1n 1ny fingers.
• Believe c;od has revealed truth to us in the Bible.
• Found it on the Internet.
• ( ;onsicler all re::JSOOable people \VOttld believe it tO be true.
• Believt! it is scientifically va lid.
• Just hclievc it is trne in n1y heart.
• 1-Iave been taught skills and knowledge by my parents, teachers, an<l profe,sors.
• Found it in a book in the library.
1 ht: above are only a fe''' of the responses to the question of ho'v you know. Al'>o,
note that the sources of our kno,ving rely on different kinds of authorioes. \\111ch of
tht•,t: authonties is 1nost creditable? To begin our stud} of epi!>te1nolog), \.\1e can con
'ich:r so1111• of the responses above in tern1s of the authority ancJ proces!> nf know1n~.
J'hnsc \vho rel} on Lhetr sense., belie' e th::it kno,vledge con1es fron1 outside~ throuµh
a prc1cc's of o;en~uLion. Those \vhn belie"e in the autl1oritv• of a sac.:re<l book 01
t l'\£, suc.:h ns the Bible or the Koran, belte,e kno\\ ledge 1o; revealed b) c;od. fho.,e ''ho
6 l'\~11 1'11111\-.;111 11111,111l111 \ ' ' '''"'
I I 11 , , '" 11 111 , 1 111111111111111\ d1

1 1 , I II (.;1111\1 ('I 'I 111 1
\.'1lll,11lt•1 th.II\\\ I ' " " ' ' 11,I""' • ! I
I 11 \ I h. II I
III II II l '""'( \lhtt "''" \l k111111htl l
1I 11111 • I
1
\'•l\\t'l l\llll.lk1·1l1,\\\lh•ll~
I 1
I I 1111111111 ll l•!l•lf\ l lllll\ll C
ht•,''''"'\\ ht II Ill'",. I 11 I "' 111 ' llll 111111.I,

I I
'"' I I II \\ l I
I I,(.; Ill Ill 1111'111111\ h)-(1111 I 'l ll 11
1111·1111 1111111 "" I Ill II Is I I I
thl1llh h 11\ll•"l'''' \Hiil \ii I I I 11
I l1tp1t 1tltl 111 tkr '' 11111' 111111 11\11111\
ll\I \II·''' Jt11l,11 Ill Ill\ l''ll\~.11\• 1111 I ti 11·1,1•,111 I II
,1\l11ut 11 1 1 1 • ""'' 111 t 111 111 , 11111 111 1111'' 1h1

\1 {h1.; put111 \\1· ,1ill h.111' i1111, ,11d 1111111· 111 111' I ti
• ' \ Ill d1tl I\ 1il1 iln• 111p11 111 lllt •l.11' I\ \I t S, 11 111 llll,
qn1·~t1t'n l11r l\ullll.' r 111q1 1 ' 111 11 \ 1111 11 1 ilt l' '"li~1q11t111
1' \,ll\\lllt'. ,\lid l'l'l'lll'd \\ h.11) 1111 h1•li1•1 I'
,tht111I h11\\ \\I' 1.!IP\\ ' \ ll '•
t , I Ii 'I I 1 1111! 1111 111 1I'\ I'I 11
I
l'h.11111•1,. rt:tun1 to" h.ll 'i111 11\ ,. " i n11·n ,1111I i 1 ' 1111 . 111111' l Ill IIt' 111,111· I IIf.: t \\l(I\
Ju,t ' ' lllt't ipll\ '1'' irl.111•, 111 1·11111111 11111, i 11 '' • I k
• •· • ( .. 11111111 , 11 f lin\I 111111.111' 111111
c'\ll'tt't11olni.,'I ind llll'th11d11lo~\ 111 111,11llll11111 1 11 H 1 111
rclJtt> t11 h;,~, .tn t1'.ll'h . !'ht• l nll11\\t1lj.!" ltTq111·111h ll'1·d h'.1thi11g ' ' "11 1'8 11' ' • ' llll'll
0
n1,nell 111 rern1' uf 1h1·i1 r1•l.1111111,h1p 1<1 i.:tll't1·11111l11µ\
I I .. , I llllll''lhl·:1111h111,p11'
• Rcadin~ Jnd d1,l'\l's1ni.i .1n .1.,s1µ111•d I1011" 111 .111\ ' " 1ll l • ' '
scss so1ne n111h1111t;lll\ t' kno\vlt·d~l' 1hn1 '' 1101 d1s1111h111g.
• l 'sing- the Sut:rntil· 1111•th11tl 111 s1111111l:111· ~111dl·111' 111 111111~ 1h1·1r 11lt'.I' tn l ' 1111
si:iousness •lSsuint.•s th•ll tht') poss1•.;s so1111· k111d 11l 1111l·11111 k1H111 l1·dg1'.
• Dutn!! u lnhorntor) l'\l1t·n1111•nt 11111.•st .1 rh1·11111'.1l 11'.ll'l11111 ,1.;,111111·.., th.11\\t'1.111
use our st::nse~ to 111e;1,11rl' :1 r1•s11lt.
• Ha,,in~ pupils ori~nni 1 c ohj1.•c1s nnd it1•111' 111111 .1111111.d,, 1 t'f!l't.lhll''· .111d 1111n1·1-.1I'
implies th<lt our 1nind, l'•ln l'h1•;.,tl) 1h1•.;1• oh11·rt' 1n111 r1•l.11<: d ~·;111·µ11111.'' ·
• t:s1n g 11 l'onstntl'l 11 1st des11-'11 1n \\'h 1l'h s111dl·n 1' l'11n,11 1111 1h1.•1 r hl·l 11.·t, .1 h1111t 1 c .1 I
in· ill\'Oh·cs llSlll~ cht' Sl'llSCS and t.:\pCrll'lll't'.
•
The various 111<.'1 hods

of inst rut'tion idcn11fil·tl alH11 l' '"P.l-\'l'St t h :1t :1 1·cl:11111nsh1p
exists benveen our ht:licfs nbo11t kno1vlcdg-c nnd k1H111•ing-, :1nd h1l\V \Vl' tl':ll'h o\lr s111
den rs to k:no1.v. If \Ve bc lic,•c knO\Vll'di;c is alrc;ld) prl'sent i11tht•111ind, 1hc11111L·thod' of
reaching 1vill seek to dr:I\\' forth that k111llvlcdgc. tr \l'C believe 1h:11 kno\\ lcd!{c 1..
deri,·ed through tht: senses, then teaching 1ncthods \\' tit c111phasi1c scn"u'1 lc:1rn1ng. ll
\\'e believe th:lt kno\\·ledge l'OllH!S fron1 so1nc kind of .1uthnrity, 1hcn \VC "ill ttSl' thl·
e' idence rhat authority provules to forn1 our belief!> about rcalitv• .
Axiology, Values, a11d Character

In this section \Ve exa111ine axiology, the subdivision of philosophv 1.h:n cx:1111111 c,, :1lt1l'"
in e1 ~cs and ae.sthetics. Ethics concerns issues o~ 1nonll right nnd \vrong 11111 1lll''>I hl'I 1l s
exan11nes ho\v judgnH)nts nre n~ade ab~ut 1vhnt is hcau1 iful or ugl}'· 1::- duc:ll toll, 111 ,1n,
society, seeks to develop ·~ particular kind of character that cxhibiL, prclci ll'd hL·h•l'
iors. For exa1nple, there ts ;1 strong move1nent for l'haractcr cducauon 111 \incrtl·"'
.;l.'hools. \\'hile ch:1ra~rer fom1ation hrui long been •ln cdutattonal t.:ontcrn. the <)lit'
nons reinain: \''hat , k1n<l
. of1.chnrncLer?
·-('h\\'hat
. kind
. of cLhical hl!h.ti"Lor 1., J>rC,1•C... , I'
I Il l .
T he \\'orl<ls 111a1or re 1gions
· ·
nsoan1n,Juda
. ' 1..,111 ' 1,1.,
" 111 1
.1 . , ;11)( 11'1111 I
11 11,1U\ll,JI)
dh1.,n1-all prescribe bchaY1or Lhat is pnz.cd as goo<l ant.I pro cr1he th;ll \\ h1t·h '' h.111.
t 11\l ' li ltt l "l; I 1'11111 1<,111 •11 \ \' ltl ltl • '\1 11 1 7
N ,1111111,, 11111, h.l\c µ 1•1111 ii 11111. " nl \\ Ii It 1 1111 ~ 11 1 111 (.' •• ,.,,d 11111111 J11p \ Jiii lit 1111 ,
l.11t j.tll lf l ' 1.llltl \ \\lilt,, d1 t 111 11\1.. 1111111111 !il11 111ld Ill 11 11 '11 1 111d tit jll'I I 11pt11111
,lt1111ld 11111 Ill 1111 )' 111 11111 I 111 1'1.11 t !111 l 11ll11 \\ lll l' I lllll l ll l 1i1pJ 1l l Ill 1111 flt th ll h I\
h{l 11p111111 \11111 I d 111 ,llltlll 11\d 11 ' 111.1111 Ill \ 11111 " l11d 1 1111\ c:tl11t. 1lll fll ''•II h11t1lcl
• I l,111111 ' " ' " 11u1d111 11td l.1ll1 l t.

• Rt' ' l'l"l I ,1111h1111I\ ,
• l.l~l' llllll'
• ll·ll 1111 11111h
• R1' 'IH'1t p11\.1t1 p1111H· 11~ .
• l't Hilt I tilt l "\ 11111\llll Ill
• l~t''"" I' d1,p1111•, Ill .1l\1111\1ok· 111 \Va ~
• 1'111 ht l ;1l, 1111· l.t\\ 111 cl.1111:1µ1· p1opc1t }·
0
• Not 'tl'tt•11I) p1· 111 d1.,1.·11t11tll:llc 01g:11n't 1nd1v11l11;il-. hct.llJ\t 11f 1a l t' r c li g 1011, gen
dt•t, UI 1•th1111 tty.
rhc nhove '>t:tlellll'lll'I poillt 10 ;J certain kind of t:haf'fttlCI" that is pn.: lcrrcd in
J\1ntric:1, and 1111nnny other '1111.:ictic~. ·rh c 1najor ethica l q11c,1ion.,, l1k1· 1ho.,c of 111ct•I
phy.,ic., :111d cp1'<t e111olog-y, :t re ha-;cd on our phi lo,oph y. Are 1here 11n1vcr'>a I ;1nd 11111c
le-;, pnnt:t pie' 111 1-tood :ind ri~h t? Arc 1he v;1 luc~ 1.::11 11 l!cl by thc'l! pn lli.;i pie' fo11nd 1n :1II
'o<.:ic11c., at all 1i111c.,? ()r :irl! v:llucs relative to diflcrcnt culturc-.r l)o 1hcy c.;xprc.,., ,.,h,n
.,on1c pt!oplc prefer :11 a given ti111l! in a given place?
Acsthcuc.:-. l!X:11nine<; hov1 we dl!tcr111inl! what i., hc:iu11ful 01 u~ly, and how v. c
Jecidc \vhat ,., h:111llonio11., or d1~cordant. J~ducauon 111 lncraturl! :inti poetr~ ;1nd chc
fine :Jrl'> ll1ll\IC, art, dra1n:1, and dance~.1rc thO'l! ll.,pe<.:t'> of cduc.:auon 1h:it ,\1111 to
cultiv:1tc :1l!sthetit :ipprcciauon and creation. 11 acquaint., ll'> with the 1:-trc•ll \Vork' of
art-hook.,, painting'>, n1u-.ic, and drarna. Ae.,theuc., a-;k.., the llllC'>ll<>n: \Vhat 1' It <Ihour
thl!!.C \York., of art that rnakc thcrn worthy of 1nch1s1on 111 the c11rr1tuh1111? \\'hat trite
rion of beauty do they 111l!Ct or fail to rneet? Arc thc'>c \vork' hcauuful hecau-;c the}
rl!Acct and rcprl!sent .,on1c universal qualitil!s of the h111nan cxpcnl!ncc? ( )r arc the~
beautiful because rhey exernpli fy the 111ode'> of art that arc popular al :1 par11cular tnnc
anti placc? What is hl!ttcr, cla-.sical or popular art? lJow do \VC go about teaching art
appre<.:iation in its variou'> fonns-literary, rnu~ical , tlra1natic, cinl!nlatic, and'><> on •
Doc!. appreciation depend on what a person li ke~ or are thcru '>tandan.1-. hcyonJ per
sona l prefer(;!nces?
Aesthetic lTe111ion refers to how wc expres!> our<;clvcs by creating hl!auty in ;111,
n1usic dance, painting', scu lpture, writing, anti other sin1il}lr pur.,11i1'i. Sing-ing, danc
ing, painting, playing 1nusic, working with clay, culling paper de.,ign'>, ;ind tlra\v1n~
1
ht:gin in preschool, kindergarten, and the pri1nary gratlcs and extend 11p,v;1rd 111 ntr>rl!
..ophi.,ticatcd kinds of artistic expression in secondar}' :ind highl!r l!ducat1on . ' I he.,c
arli'itic activitil!'> continue a!. an i1nportant part of adult and conunu 1ng cdu1:a11on pro-
gra111'>. ·rhc -.;11ne questions ahout universaliry and cultural rcla11vi"11 v.c a'>ketl about
<ll!~thetic :1pprec1au11n al.,o apply to aesthetic expre~s1on.
Ac-.thctu: jucl~rinent i., al'io important in che 1n11rc !-(t:l1l!I ;11 '>l!n'i1. 111 thal 11 cxa1n
incs what 1nakes a culture and '11c1ery heauuful :in<l hannon11111'>. '[ he .1ncicnt <;reeks,
'l
''
(I\ hr th l Ill ti h
' '.\ 1, , 1 1 11r h ,•I ' I
1
11111pll ' · 'i\ll h " \t
' '\ I I\ ,, t I \t I h
I I\\ 1(1111 Ill' II\ thtll thll 1111111 l (l f 11
I " I
r ltllfllll! 11\ &hl l Ull111 C
'' t I
' ' lh iuon o1 up, r- r- 11 1.ir11 u
lit ,, t' hr 111111\11 ln•
\~ l n t I , , \ 1 I t I\ 11 t I\\ '11 ' ' 1• L
• I l 1111 , h , 1 , 11 t~ 1'11: l .it t: .- 11t11t n
t • , ,1u.i n , h ' , ,,111-: P''"'1 ll ti lt: ' • I
' , tdue 11 11 in, 11111, l ' • p r 11to1111,
~ 111lt1'lllp1 11,11 '
l \It '' 1,,, ,, ' ' ' \
I Ill . 1, ,, 11 11k·
1
1i,,
.1nd "11rk . It '' k.'i th
fl) .h . ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' t , , ' ' . ' .i111 in ' ' f , Ill lt ll l ll 11\ \\ Illl Il l Ilt:\ I l\ C l h •tr
in '
\ ' ' ... • ... ' \ l \ u \ I 'I' l'. I I1(' p I\ \ ' II. . l • .....
' ,,l \ t , .\l\• l tt.t{\JI ,' t' ll\ t f l l01 lt'llt \\ t•ll dC'ilgilt:d llld ltt~rn ••
' , ' ' ., ' ' r l \un1. • 1 • I I I
t , .. ~.::'. :-tn,i I1.inn1 n1 •) , .tr··, th1'' t l1·1nt'lll' U!!I'. , h, id1) • .1n1. ,.,l ord nt
L11;-.-. th .,, ll'.h c11rrc>c1 rl'.l~tHllllµ". '" the .;uhd11 ''1011 of ph1l1' p
.111,I p r 11l't' '" iii
, • , t '\J ,,,0 , 1 111 " \\t 11r!,!;llltlt' :ind l'\press our thoughts. lt reL11 e ' to ho\\ \\c 1ud.
c:\ den ..~ .1n 11 t''l'l't .. our• .tr~'111nt'nts. lt 1s the p;trtern used to 111ake •l c.-.1,e fn~' me-
ch " :!· t1.l p:1.'' 1de .111 t'\pl.1n.111nn. tlr to or~1nize e1 tdence ttl re;.1ch :1 d ec1 -.1on 1 he n1
111.: <'.. ' J ttc'"'l!- \lt h,~11.-.tl 1.•\pre.;ston .ire deducnon ;tnd 1nd\1l't1<ln. DeJuct11e re.1" nin_
~ _ "' '' ich ~cn1. r.tl pnn1.·1ple:- or sr:1ten1enrs ;tnd uses 1111 nor propo~1uon ' .ind ' pe( f.~
... ,,t', l • ..1 cx.1111p1e' to .. upptlrt the sr:1rt1ng gener.1lt2;11 ton. \ \ ·e Jre all f;.11111h.1r \\1th t.:c
1. l,, .:- ' t'J tt'ntent 11f dc:du1.' f\On. {I) :ill tnl'n ;1re 1nor1.il: l~) $()t:r.ites I~ .i 111311. ( ~ l~t e·
•o re. ~<'Cr.tte~ '' 11\\l rt.i I. \ \ t' 1.':tn ;llso clunk of ho" 1·hon1;1s •Teffer ·on fra1ne<l ht~ Jr::t-
n1c:rr.. 111 the De1.·l.1r.1t1on of lndependence: {l) :111 nH.'n .ire endo'' ed '' ith 1nahenJh!c
r1~ 1c~ of life. libert~ ..ind happiness; ~2) the \1ner1c.1n colonists po ess che:.e 1nJhen·
.ihle r1!!h~. l \) bcc.n1se ( ~1·nrg-e 111, 1 he king of l<~ng-land, ":1s Yiolating these n~h ts. the
1.·olon1srs h.1d the r1!!ltt en rt•hel .1~1i1~st ~ritt.;h rule :ind tn replace it ,,:ith :I !!O\ erntn~nt_
ch .it JJhere-d t11 tht• n.ttur.il n~I~ r.; p11nL'1ple. 111 the ;1b0 , 1.• e\':lnlples of lietluctt\'t' lo~'ll'. ti
the prenuloe' .trt· rn1e. rht•n. ti 11e rc::\1so11 correct I). the 1..·onclusions "ill also he croe
DeJucrn e re.t..1ln1nt: tt•nd ... 10 ht:' 1h;u u..;eJ 111 t 11.. ) •• r:·• I · .1 h·t ht , · 111·h •'
• • · .. 1111 1 t: 1 .. l tttl)ll:u p 1 osop t: ... '
!Jt".th,111. Re.11t:-1n ..ind l h1l1n1~111 •. th.it rest on ;i 1111..•t,iph\ s1c;1l h:tse.
lnductn t' re.i ..nntng 1110' e:- lrn 111 Stl·•··i11·,. 111 •1. , . . t·•r•'t'r
.int t'!i, t'J!'les. or s1ru~1t1tll1' to.1 ":-
~t:ner.1h •.1ttlln th.u tn1..h11k, •Ind t'ncnttttll"", . ti , 1 I
T , , • ' • • • .... '
. I cl1e
. .. . . · ·'·' cs 11.111. llt \\ct1n11 1s :1 ke\ e en1t•nt 111
'1.1ennnc 1ne1hod .111d tht• u~t· of si-111 ,,11-.. 11 I · . .,, )0 I ..1111(•1111
• • ,, ... ; <.'\ II l.'lll'<.' 1; ) . ' . I
tt:'ndenc \\~tnts 1111111k. tlt't' . , . • 1 t t.:'\,unp e, ;l ~l t ·h
• • t '. ing- ptOJl'Ct1nns ln hir • . 11 . I • . I ' . ,,. tt'•ll
er' ~he• ~rudit•s etirnllii 1,111 · t .lt t •t to na fore1g-n ;1nµ11.1t:
· · · · ~ p:11t1.'1 ns- 1h • 11111 I · ' f 1re11.111
l.1111...'11.1\!t' c)J,s1·~ 111 the , 1.h .· · c 11 lt'r of stndl'nts enrollet1 111 l •.
' < t 11~t11ct 01 l.'r 1 1 ,
1111 , • I , 1111•11
c.1lh th.tr the h11•he,t t•niillliii • . • t:n \ t :11· p1.•r1od. lt 1~ dercr111111tt · .,
• :- t:111.,1.·11no;1o;cc 111 t t I . , ·l t"t·
l11llc1\\ ed b\ Frt'nl·h. "1th 1 . I I \ '·'' c lt.'t.'n 111 Sp;1111"h l.1n!-'1t.1!!c l ' I 1
• ' 11 .11 p I l'l' 11\t.' Ill l J> . I 11111•!1
l nrnlh111:nr,, tht.• , 1111l ' l llllt.'ll . • .11111. l,l,t.•d tln pa't and pro1el'l t'l ' .,,
1 1t.nt t.un1.·lu t, t , 111 II"
h11urc in "p.1111,h .ind th.11 t Il i l-. t 1.11 t.'tll·111l1nt.'nt' ;\rl' likeh fll '''~ .i
Th e ' 11 P'-r11111.·ntll·n1 11.1t.ht.··" I ·"1111011111•
I11 · l,l\·I11't 'Hl\tld I h1.• hired ro ...111,f\ t Il.t r nt'i'\l111
ll \ t ' ~l'llCI 11 • I 't'
tn111 tn1.·n1 ''"''"'' • 11.11u1n \\llh 'Pt.'1.'1lil-, 4u.111uflt•d e1ac.'t11
l he 1.·0111 't.' d1·'1L~l1' 11 , 1,d 1
I I I 1111111111.·111 I 111~'
l.llll •llll~. 'h t.•11,, r11111p11tt•1 )ll 1111 n111 .1nd 11\,\ I lllt'l 11111 "' !IJhi 111;11111.1b. 11 I
r"\1.1111, .ll t.' <11 1tll'fll ti
gn
1
1111 t.•d .l\·1..·11rd1n~ tn ,,11nt P·
• '
•
lllpl ~nnlt L"1>u1't' dl'l t.'ll' 'I lie gt lll'I ii p11111:1plt::<> ind ihen Pfl>\td.. .... II
tH'll' 1·1J .,,. 1111,,. I ... ~'t 1 mtl'il·
• • t: L' 1 l,ll c\p 1,1111. I 11 11,11Ill",1111d ic111lt11i;c t11c ...eor a1111 n I
th>n, l )1her' 1111r11d1lll I in1111h1' ul 'Pl'tll•l C..\ 111111lcs th it''"' I •·g d 1 g geneni IIZJ·
,, " I1 11 ... " "' ui en CJ :omni 2 tc
:-l er.I -~lli>ll' ll\ .\I l' likth 111lll\11h1. 11,1111( the SL1c1111t11.: 1nctlit>d d, ll 'rihsena
t11'n'. 11r l11lh:lt1n~ l'' 1dt'llle tn1111 ' 1'l'1.1f11. ,111111.l''
, l 'he 1\l)nH\12'1ntr p r1n1.1plt•, o f thl" 11.1d11111nal 'lllillt.:I nrattcr currrc I tend
t\>111''' .1 Jt·du1.tt \ e logic p.1ttcr11 lh•H '' <,equent1.1I Jnd 1.111111dJ11\ e. ( ,1,1urc·-umun ud1
e, )Jl • d c II •"'--"• 1 \ an
''' ' are org-Jn1z.e to 10 O\I each otht:r 1n a ~equencc that 1 prthrgant1• d and an _
~;:~e~ ith '' each o~her 1~ a pa~ern. !he tn1<l1tio~aJ 1,chool pattern rJf r1rgan1Lmg sru
t!' into grade tollo,, 1' tht'> kind ol !lequence. 1 he organ1z.1ng a~ .. un1paon of schoo
~Jde: 1~ th:tt leartung 1s cu111ulati\ e-each ,ktll or '>uh1cct learned la)3 a nect'S5ary
toundauon tor the next h1gher-order ski ll or subject.
P rogre 'Si,·e and Conscrucn,;st curncular strategies, 1n contrast, are 1nd11ca"e.
Rather than ha,; ng a preorgan1z.ed set of sequenced courses, units. and le'"°""· the
P rogressiYe and Consmicti,ist pattern assumes that the n1ost effeco\·e kind of learrunt!
come fro1n \\'hat students are interested in and frorn their direet experic::nc~. Bv
ex:~g objects in their environment, or by being in,·olved in hands-on, proet~ ·_
onented learning experiences, sn1dents \Vill \vork through the specifics that\\11J enable
them to consrruct their own generalizations.
These different approaches to curriculum and instruction can be illustrated m
t\\-0 different classes that are studying the same subject, the Civil \\'ar in an ..\men~
History course. In the first class, the teacher uses a deductive approach . T he unit on
the Civil \Var is presented in a chronological order, a logic based on time, in \\.b.ich tht
students srudy a series of earlier events relating to sectional conflicts o\·er slavery. such
as the .Ylissouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, the Kansas-Nebraska Act, the
Fugitive Slave Law, the D red Scott Decision, the election of Abraham Lincoln, and
the secession of the Southern States. After establishing the chronology of these e"·ents
and seeing ho""' one event had consequences for subsequent ones, the srudents then
read a textbook in 'vhich the author identifies the causes of the Civil \\"ar. The sru-
dentS are expected to know the chronology and the causes, \Vhich \vill be examined in a
test. According to the contemporary Standards Movement, this kind of kno\\·ledge
provides evidence of competency.
In the second class, the teacher uses an inductive strategy in \\•bich the srudenr.s
examine issues of civil conflicts or civil wars \.vithin nations. The students begin "1th
contemporary siruations of civ11 conflict, such as tribal conflicts in R'vanda and
Burundi, in Africa; religious strife between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ire-
land; and ethnic conflicts in Kosovo. By exa1nining these conten1pora1J conflicts, the)
realize that the American Civil War may or may not fit a pattern. They generare ques-
tions about civ11 conflict that they will use to exan1ine the Ainerican Ci\'il \\·ar as a ca e
srudy. They engage in research using primary documents, su~h as Linc~ln's H ouse
Div1ded Speech, articles from southern ne,vspapers and niagaunes defen~ng s.lavel")·,
arocles from abolitionist magazines, Harriet Beecher Sto,re's Uncle w11 s Cal11n, and
other documents froni the 1850s and 1860s. Afte.r anal~JZ~ng ?1ese docu~enrs, t?er
\\•Ork to formulate generalizations about the An1er1can ~~vii \·~ar and ~ow it fies \\.'1 th ,
or differs from, the general pattern of contemporary civil su1fe. In this exa1nple, the
10 P,\R rl Pllfl Cl!'>t>Jlllll''i C>f' l f)l C \I It>'-
•
RELATIONSHIPS Bl•'n \ 'EEN Pl 111 .<>SC)Pl IY AN I) l•' l)U<:A' J IC>N
• j\l et11ph)sics (reality): l~t'l.1 l t·~ 10 t u1 nt1d11111 (,v h .11 \.\'C k1111\v)
• Epistcrnolo~· (kllO\.ving): Rt•l11 1t•S 10 llll'thod .. or ill'>l l"lltlio11 ( li11\V \VI It Ith)
• Axiology- Ft.hies (good a nti l>nd; right :ind wrong): R<:l,1tl''> tot li.11.1t fl't 1 dut.1•
tion and citi1cnship
• A._'riology-Acsthetics (beauty): Relates to ail, literature, n1u..it , d.111< 1
• Logic (correct thinking): Relates to ho\V curriculu111 and insl r11c11011i..111 J(Jn11cd
in1portant ain1 of instruction is that the stuc.lentS have connected the prc<;cnt to the pa,1
and, most importantly, have learned how to use historical 1natcr1alo; a-, a mode 111
inquiry. Note, however, that the students may or 1nay not have arrived at a '>Cn\c of
chronology in \vruch one event leads to another.
• • • •
JOHN DEWEY, "THE FUTURE OF PHILOSOPHY"
In the following selection, John Dewey, a founding figure of American Pragmatism,

puts forth his ideas about the role of philosophy. De\vey argues that philosophy doe:.
not deaJ with metaphysics-questions about uJtimate being-but rather \Vi th patterns
of huma n cultural and socia l relationships. As you read the selection, you 1night \vish
to consider the following focusi ng questions:
1. Why does Dewey argue against the proposition that phi losophy should deal with
metaphysical issues? What are the implications of his rejection of rnetaphysics
for education?
2. Do you agree or disagree with Dewey's argun1ent that philosophy should nor
dea l with questions about unchanging and eterna lly true principles, but rather
with changing relationships?
3. Why does Dewey argue that the business of philosophy is to examine the rela-
tionships of human culture?
4 . When D ewey wrote this selection, he sai.d that 1•~quiry din to the1•phy0si0cayl ~~~~~~
h d outrun developments in human society, et111cs, an mora tty. .
h~s reasoning applies to the effects of technology on contemporary soc1ery?
Based on the selection, what is the role of philosophy, and philosophy of educa-
5. . '
tion, in contemporary society:'
h " Df'll' Later Works, Volume 17, © 199 1, pages 466-470,

.
F om john Dewey, "The Future odf ~~tzsoifp]:bn Dt'll'~ ©by the Center for Dewer Studies, reprinted hy
r. . all ublished in: Tht Colltftt wor :r o
or1g111· y p th blisher.
pemuss1on of e pu
( 11 \P-rER O~F J>l 111 OSOPI !) \ "D FDLJC•. \ 11<>'
lI
• • • tr~1 ion of 1.betran.,forn1ing power of culture, in

I shall begin by srnting briefly the s t~1nd this broad sen..e or ra'v material.
point fron1 "hich I see philosophy- the busi- . Because the bu.,iness of phtlosoph} 1s
ness of philosophy, that '' ith \vhich philosophy \vtt.h the relations that exist bet\\een man and
is concerned . I think that fro1n n1y standpoint, his worltl, as both are affected by culture, the
the poorest idea about philosophy is that it is a problems of philosophy change as the world 1n
theory about "being," as the Greeks called it, or which man lives changes. An example is the
about "reality," as so much of modern philoso- increased knowledge in our time of machines,
phy has assu1ned that philosophy was. As I may technology, etc. The problems of philoso-
suggest later, one of the incidental positive phy, therefore, are simply bound to change,
advantages of the present retreat of philosophy although there rnay be some underlying srruc-
is that it's becoming recencly clear tbat philoso- tures mat remain throughout ilie changes.
phy hasn't n1ade any great success in dealing Therefore, the history of philosophy still has to
with "reality." And there is hope that it may take be \Vritten. It needs to be seen and reported in
some more human standpoint to deal with. terms of the distinctive features of culture.
My standpoint is that philosophy deals There is a sort of formalistic recognition of this
\vith culrural problems, using culrure in the fact in present histories-they are divided into
broad sense which the anthropologists have sections on ancient, medieval, and modern phi-
made clear to us-dealing with the patterns of losophy, western and oriental philosophy.
hu1nan relationships. It includes such subjeets as These serve as certain headings for the mate-
language, religion, industry, politics, fine arts, in rial. But they are not carried out in the details
so far as there is a common pattern running of philosophical systems.
through them, rather than as so many separate I come now to my hopes and fears. The
and independent things. The principal task of hope for philosophy is that those who engage in
philosophy is to get below the turmoil that is philosophy professionally will recognize that we
particularly conspicuous in times of rapid cul- are at ilie end of one historical epoch and at the
tural change, to get behind what appears on the beginning of anoilier. The teacher and student
s11rfuce, to get to the soil in which a given cul- should attempt to tell what sort of change is rak-
ture has its roots. The business of philosophy is ing place. In all events, this recognition of
the relation that man has to the world in which changes, of ages, of epochs in the world's history
he lives, as far as both man and the world are isn't an invention of mine. Every history for-
affected by culture, which is very much more mally recognizes division into ages. We are
than is usually thought. approaching a change from one period to
There \Vasn't any "physical world" for a anoilier; we are undergoing ilie same kind of
very long ti1ne, or anything called "physics" as a change, as a change, iliat happened when the
subject matter as at present. It was only when medieval period lost its hold on the people's
human culture had developed to a certain point beliefs and activities. We recognize this now as
that physics became a distinctive subject matter. the beginning of a new epoch. This new epoch
A lot of iliings bad to be stripped off-animistic is largely the consequence of the new natural
things. The world was previously seen through science, which began about the sixteenth cen-
human eyes in terms of hwnan customs, desires, tury ~'i m Galileo and Newton, as the applica-
and fears. It \\'llsn't ti1 the beginning of modem tions of that science revolutionized men's \\·a>~
science (ilie sitteenth century) that a 'vorld of Li,"ing and their relations to each other. These
chsnnctivel)' physical came into recognized have created the characteristics of modem cul-
acknowledged existence. This is merely an illus- ture and its essential problems.
The more d~cu,·e feacures are more the old sense. Bur this does not mean that •nu.
prornrnenl than the more construetive phases. rcr has become a background to be rtlaceJ 10
for a while, no survey of the world "°'llS pre- human concerns, "hich could noc happen as
se:nu:d without son1e reference co the fission of long as the Nev.rtonian view pre\-atled.
the arom. \,\'e see now that this is significant There are many obstacles ln realizmg the
becau~ ir i.~ a syrnhol of the changes that b;a,-e hope I peak of. One \'ery erious obsmcle l\ the
heen gorng on in science. state of the " ·orld nov.', "·hich is so fearful, Ml
There's no secret in the &ct that physical fnghtful, in the literal. ense of the '""ord, that i t~
a\pect.S of '>Clenofic inquiry and their applica- very hard co f.ice. The ren<lency is ro look ro
U<lflS have very fllr crouun inquiry inro human some unreal solution ro res prohlen1s \1·h1l· h is
~Ub)CCt man.cr--«onom1cs, polrucs, and moral- essentially re3ct1onary-going back to the iclen
1ry. Thi~ over-weighting on one side gives the of Greek or medie,"lll times, or in philosophy ro
due to what ~houJd be hoped fur in a funher adopt a method ofescape becntbe \ve don't~eem
dcvcloprnent of philosophy. The ph1losophen robe able to lun<lle the ecru:il problen1s, 11 hich,
of the \lrteenth and ~enteenth cenrune> may rf" e are at the bcginntnic of a ne" epoch, would
h;ive thoughr they were dealing 1'1 th the thcorr probably m.ke cenrunes co 1'0rk out efTecrivcl).
of reality, hut they were a'-iually foN;anhnj( The rn~r <l&ouroging rhrng rn phlloso·
rhe new natural !lciencc. The)' 1'cre c:ngaj(cd rn phy '' nw-~olasttc fi.>rmah;111 , which al't<I
cnnuiing !IClenc::c.- a5 n lud c::omc Jo"n 1n th4." happened 1n the ,\lrd<lle A¥c:s. It 1 fonn tuJay
Muldh.· Agt'l fron1 An,mde. Th'1 1'"ttt p~ for 1tS 111'TI qkc. 1n \0 ffi;lJJ} CllSes. A fonn of
\t'nt1nf( the ncce""t}' for 1 different kind u( ci!J. furnu, nut funru of 'iUbfect matter. But me 'ollh·
11101111() In the tij(hteenth ccnrul"), ttpeaall} 1n JCO lmncr I) 'IC' cmouc ind ronfusc1l tOOJ}' 111
I· r,1111.e Junng the Enhtchtcnmcnt, anJ to MJIDC the •urfJ Wt II lS UtfiicuJt CO handle. 1nl> I\
e•trnt 1n Fnj(land. ph1l<~hc:n lttcmptc:d IO ho"f l 111oulJ c.rpb1n th1 retre:ir front \\1tfk 1n
t.lo \Ollltthrng uf thc ~n1c kind 1n human and lbe &Lb ot human life: into purcl> fonrtll
~K 1~1 \11h1et-r~. but chc n111enal, and tools"" ttt KWC' I hn1a1c to call thdn •~\\JI:'> htcau,~
1~~~1111( rhr) j{Ot nlf of many thrn~, but mar nothing ncr 1~\~ c.tCept rnurc: ltinu' It'
~Oll'tlll~ll\t •tll\1llC' ne\er amoun1e.I "' SIJ hannlcs. for ~Cl")Unc c.xctpt ph1J1nophl'n.
ttllllh J rh1nJ. 1h1t nn" v. c h;a\c pcitcnuall~ the Tht' rctl"C;lt lt,,"\:uunr:s fur the l(TQ" tnl!C <l1\1111er
lr11t'll4."\t1UI 11'-'lU~'n t.h.ia 1'ouW enable ph1IUi· ~t of the f!t'fkftl publ11. an the pruble1n\ of
11ph\ to di• "1n1cth1ng uf the ..a1nc J.1nJ for the prulcit0ph~ .
h1n\11l'll1n11 ol huuun 1nJ ---ial wh)«t) The lbti.luananum, !he a«crnpc to find a
ul1lf.'r ph\"\.al ~cnLt', ahcr •tnpp•nw P'll~ c:11n1plc1c kt ol blucpnnl! that •111 kllle nrry
lht• ;ll\11111•\IC \lll'\ l\itl• , h.aJ 00 COIK"'ffl'I v.1tb qUetuon, " IDOC.hcr funn •Jf rcacuon, and •
hunun pu1hlc111; 1nL• '4.,cn.;c '1111&\ about hnlc mud! more dwlttt'lAll funn. \\i: ha' c w:cn th"
U1 f.uasm and DIR wdJ , 111 my OptnJ<m, Ill
lu111I"' ,,, nu ttC! r " hl\:h " 'Cl"l' 'lt'pill":ltcJ from one
invther. c.i1 ,un~ 1n cn tnul ipKC anJ tune.
v. h..:h v. ere chc-tn<;tl\n ~natcd tram each
It tam considenbk rouraft tu~ mtn
other i>n1l ln...m (\~nUtincr tmi haprcncd.
the pmcn1 raanan, 10 * th.rou!b will he
Ph'''~I ""'°""~ ha• ~~ de~ th2t :losc~· sill be Ullt
me ..ork OS • bu! pe iod.. But the hope: phi-
uk.c ptn m the •n~
'II'
nt ol \'lCV. fhc nutaW C! tM Jib>
llOl..;i , h that. thn~ uic uic1casmt: 11,dl.. Dan , llJO>O II' DO du• V. be c&Jritd mrouP
'lJlll1I \ :!k~ ancJ , It ISllt i() lw hm•11n .aictm."\
ixm• ~ ~Tr ~\t human ~ ~ 11
• Thr ~ ~ fnnlfy p:»
Sci<~ 1t'lit' hasp rid al manu, m ·slbk tbe kind ofwork! dl2t 'ft art lfl
lll\l'LrRtl'\l l'lllJt)~(ll'll\ \'-llllH( \11<1'-
th.it" h1ch 1:- lil..c'h .,ho11ld at it'~l~t

((1 t\11\h.' . \\ l' :Il l' gro\\ 111 ).( 0111 11! tlH''l \\ 'l IH'ld Ill h.l\ l' .111
tlllll llllr C\t'$ hl\\,1rd it .ind l~lt'e 11 C\l'll if \\'C 1de.1 of '' ')'l1'111.111t k111d 11f \\'h.1t ''l 11111,d11
t'.1n ·, do 1nn(h ''1th onr h.1nds and 111\lscleo; ).(TO\\' into.
Jbouc 11 1~11c '' h.lt '' t' sh1)\1ld not do 1s to spin n Philosophy L.1n '1 \(·Ide 1ht''>C ''"'H'' ,t n \
ll1t tll " eh~ ti.) lipcr:1te :Is screens to keep ns fro1n hetter d1otn SC\c111ecnrh t 't•n11111 philo,11ph\
St"<.'111~
•
tht• re:11it'1• of tht• situ:Hion. In this con ld settJc problc111-. ol ph} 'It\, hut t 11tl.1\
n>spt'c't, ttH1n.tlis1n 1n:1y he a hopeful sign. It philosophers can ana ly1c prohle111' ,111d prc:,Lnt
111.i~ he the be~nning of :1 general recog-nition hypotheses that 1night g;1in ennuJ.{h tnrrcnt~
ch.it ph1k)sophers \\'eren 't I:>aetting ...
<lll\'\\•here
• Hnd influence to serve so that the\• conld he
lle.1hn~ ''ith 1n:irter ~It tn·ge, , :is \\ith son1e ulti- tested by the only final 111etho<l of te,unK, wh1ch
111,1te en tit). This re~1ction ntight be the opening is practical activity. (f\pplausc.)
l1f :i 111ore serious :1ttetnpt to f.ice the cultura 1 One thi11g n1ore, an<l 1hat is-yo11 ''ho are
prnblt>n1s of tod:1y. Scien.ce h:1s done t-1\\'ay \\rith students rea lly have as brreat an oppnrtun1ly ""
sn 1n:1ny of the <lualis1ns of the last fe"' cen- any student of any subject ever had at an} t1111e,
cunes. n1ind :ind 1n~1tter, the individual and soci- but it \viii take a lot of patience, a lot of courage.
t'i). ere. These ore sitnply echoes that once had and, if I tnay say so, considerable guts!
~' ,;rutin• bec:1use of culutral conditions. We
[1\dclrcss dl.'livered ro the Gr:idunre Deparoncnt of Philosoph)•, Colunibin University, Ne\1 York, N. Y.. \ l
N<)\1!1nl>er 1947. Srenogrnphic report in the Jann De1\•ey Papers, Box 55, folder 5, Specbl Co llection~.
\ lorris Libr.iry, Southern Tllinois l h1iversicy at Carbondale.]
CONCLUSION
This chapter defined and discussed philosophy and education in order to create ~1
fran1e\vork for srudy1ng philosophy of education in the rest of the book. It considered
the relationships benveen infor111al education and fonnal education, especia lly school-
ing, curriculun1, and instruction . It then exan1ined the areas of philosophy-meta-
physics, episten1ology, axiology, and logic-in relationship to education. As you
proceed through the other chapters in the book, you n1ay wish to refer to cl1e initial
pomts 1nade in Chapter 1. We n O\.v go on to examine some of the major systen1s of phi-
losophy of education.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
• 1. l lo\v do vou define education?
I 2. 1-lO\\' do ·the areas of philosophy-111etaphysics, epistemolog)', axiology, and logic-
rclatc to eduoJtion?
1
3. \\rhat is the nuthority for \Vhat you believe?
4. l lo\\ do .you kno''' \\•hat .vou kno\v?
•
•
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJECTS
1. Prepare your 0\\11 educational autobiography, in which you consider the person:. Jnd
events that inAuenccd your ideas about truth and vnlues.
•
14 l'\U I I f>l 111 t l\()1'1111 -.1J1 11>1 < \Ill>~
2 • \\ .rill' .} l'Jllll Ill 11 I111 Il \1)11~t11\. \1)111 II\\ 11 11l11luSt•l•h\ ul ct.l11a111on. \\ h•t I
• 1O)'ou
th1nL 1, r, 11 , 1r111, ,,io11d , f11 111111111 , l\IHl l11!(l l ii > f, icp the p.ipt:r in.I then r\.'\ISC It aft.tr
l1)rnple11ng " " ' l "11' ' l
J. In·' l''l'l't, , 1111• 10111 Ji,1, 11 1 illll'" .incl 1nd1l tll " " ' \1111lt11lcl1hc111
1"TI' R' t'T RESOt,'RCES

I nr hiograph1cs of lcJding cJucational philosopht·1·-; Jnd .?vcl'Vlcws o.f their philOSt;pb
con ult "The [ Jiston of Fducation and Chi ldhood" at "l1J1ncgen l.Jn1vcr,1ty, the Ncthe
lanfu at ·
"-"'"W.socsci.kun.nVped/whp/histeduc
For the philosoph, of education in relation to informal education, consult
www.infed .org/thinkers
For discussions of selected philosophers of education, consult Edward G. Ro?}J:li
"Gallery of Educational Theorists" at
www.Newfoundations.com/GALLERY. html
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Heslep, Robert D. Philosophical Thinking in Educational Practice. Westport, CT: Praeger Pubhshcr<.
1997.
Horner, Chris, and Westacott, Emrys. Thinking Through Philosophy: An l11t:rodut·tio11. New York: Uni·
bridge University Press, 2000.
Johnson, Tony W Discipleship or Pilgrimage? The Study of Educnti011ai Pbiiosoph_y. Albany, \TY· Snit
University of New York Press, 1995.
Knight, George E. Issues and Alternatives in Educational Philosophy. Berrien Springs, 1\11: .\ndre11~ l "1•
versity Press, 1998.
Nucci, Larry. Education in the Moral Domain. Nev.r York: Ca1nbridge University Press, 2001.
O'Hear, Anthony. Philosophy at the Ne-u; MiOenniu1n. Ne\v York: Cambridge University P~ ;oo~H
Ozman, Howard 0., and Craver, Samuel M. Philosophical Foundatio11s of Education. Colunib11.>. l
Merrill/Prentice Hall, l 999.
Noddings, Nel. Philosophy ofEducation. Boulder, CO: Westvie\v Press, 1995.
NOTES
I . Webster's Third 1'lt:W lnttmational Dictionary ofthe English Languagr (Chicago: fncycJopeJi• Sn-
tannica, 1986), p. 723.
CH.AJYI'ER TWO
• •• • •
IDEALISM
In this chapter we wiU discuss Idealism, one of the world's oldest and most enduring
philosophies. The chapter begins with a definition of Idealism; proceeds to situate it in
the history of philosophy; examines Idealist metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and
logic; and discusses its implications for education.
DEFINING IDEALISM
To define Idealism, we begin with two root words, idea and ideal. To have an idea means
to have a thought, a concept, or a mental picture about something. It refers to a mental
image that, while not material, may reflect reality. For example, you may have a con-
cept in your mind of a tree, which reflects reality. However, you can also have an image
of a unicorn, which is fictional.
Referring to the highest form and degree of excellence, an ideal is a perfect ex-
ample of something-a person, belief, principle, or cause. There is, for example, the
model (the ideal) of the perfect teacher who inspires students to learn and to emulate.
There is the principle that human beings can create world peace. An ideal is the high-
est kind of principle or standard to which a person can aspire. Teachers who have high
expectations and set high standards of achievement for their students are said to have
high ideals.
Idealists believe that striving for pe1fection is a desirable goal; while human
beings may not attain perfection, they can achieve much when they follow a noble
standard of life. Idealists reject the inference that they are impractical utopians who
live in an imaginary world. For them, the quest for excellence can be a guiding force if
one has the right disposition to be the best person possible, is \vtlling to struggle to
find the truth, and wise enot1gh to live according to it.
We now move fro1n these cotnmonly used meanings of Idealism to a considera-
tion of Idea lism as a philosophy of education. However, the terms idea and ideal, with
which we began, will resonate throughout our discussion of Idealism as a philosophy.
15
16 \ .
SI'I'l'.-\'l '~G IDE.-\1.IS)l
IJc.tl1sn1's ongms 1n \ \ ·e~tt>m thoug-hr ;1re often tr.1l'eJ b.trk co the cl.1s,..;1l.~.1 t (;reek
philo..;opher. Plato (4~~-34~ u.c.). "ho el>~tbhshed .1 philos1.1phi1.'l1l schtlol. the . \c;td
einy. 1n :\.thens. The i.rud~ of ph1losoph), e'en t\)U>l), often begins '' ith Plato's phi kl
sophicnl discourses or Ji.1lo!?'1e ben' een Sol'nites. his 1nenror. an<l the Sophists "ho
"ere his 1ntellecru.1l .1J, en..1r1~s. In Pl.1ro's di11lo~rues, $ocn1tes uses ;1 n1ethou tlf que~
oon1ng hi opponents "h1ch ton:es then1 to refle1.'t on .•ind .lttent\lt tt) defend. their
pru.1o~n . The que~non1nf P~?1.~:s. kno\\'tl as the Snl'ntttl' .\lethod. is illustrated 10
Plaros M:Ulego~ ot the ( \l\e, \\hu.:h appe.1rs Liter 1n this chJpter. The purll<,,e of
ocrntes' quei>oons ;lft' ro get the other ~ei:son to think ahl.lut his beltefi; JnJ tt> rc1..'<llo!
n1ze "h,· he holds then1.•.\re these be.ltets f.tl 'ehooJ~ h.1sed on il?noron,. . •
· · ' F I
tr.id1t1on, or cusron1s: or e\.unp e, srereotrp1n1r pet'$on, of u1ff......nt :- -.e. super,uuun.
. . • • ..... " nlt.'e,, et11n1t:1ne,,
anJ languages. upon e\:irntnanon, t\-p1e;11l\' represents unft>unJ .. ·' . 1 ·
• - . ' • •• . • ...u ulstornon-; nt tnll h
In the case of Plato ' d1.1lo~T\1e '.Socrates 1s tr)1n!! ro snn1u1Jte pt> .
Js~un1ptions, ro think cntil.-ully, anll ro rry· ro rea~h the truth ope 1 ~> quc'>nnn their
Pl.ito S;t\\' re:tht) its ernanJting fron1 the Forn1 nf the (: xi
feet. hie-hh· ab ·cr.ict et.)nt:ept fron1 "hich Jll oth.. J T<)( ' Jn :ii l-inclu .. 1\ t. Pl'r
- . • . - .cr1 1!2\Jreden\eJ F Pl h
ot lite 1s ro search ~lr the tn1th. ~ .ind be·•ti"' h h · or .110, t e ~tlJI
(rtx1d. Further.•tll e\ isttng thin~• thi!t' appeJr "to' 'u'\\ thruu IC C'O, ~ h f'.
, · Ill c e un11 ol 1he
unnrrft>ct cop1e_.; of etemJI. unch.tntnn!?. anJ "-"rfr>l.f d ~h ' 1ur 'cn'e' ar" n1erch
,-- · • r·~ " 1 ca' tlr c '" \
tonic l'\lOl'ept IS 1llll!-tr.lt~ 1n the - .\lle110n· ot' th.. c· " \ c..~pc-. ~1-··:11n, th1 .. Pia-
J\ c:. in Pl
• :- ·
Rtpufltc. •\.s <l1iol."\1,,eJ 1n (:hap1er I. the anl.ll'nt (. ·L.
...
Jtu)" clii,,11.. '' ork. 1"bt
hehe'-N rh:ir eJu1..·.1non, or f'JIJftJ, ".i-. a hil!hh int tft'c: 'J• c-.pc-1.·iall\ tht .\th~ nu1n,,
non in ''hith J nel.~'l'IJr\ :inJ rt-l'tprocal relant>n · . hl"!-,'T'J
• te •· nn.x:•"'" 01 h lllll.in hu1n:a
h . l ''ef"
heautit\11 St1t.'1l'I) an J t he in J1\ lllual pe~>n Platll'.,' reIll l"\l't a..
c:c-11 the ~t><.1d 1111,f
pu ltl •.in •JcJI .inJ ,.... t
t'' r <"l t 'nit
t ll \ 1"11 1~ f°\\(l 11>1 \11'\\I
17
., µ1>\trntd Ii\ \\I e 111\t ll.tl ('l!o il 1r p h ll1111ph 1 1 l 111• "II II Ill 1...
.1d1111n1,t\ r th e I 11c,l tJ1d1 111l 111~ 11l , 1111 111 L iii i'• i t I It ph1li1 •11l 1r 11 11
oncl p1 udr: lll 111!1 I 11 I 1\1'1 du II lllll II I 111rl 11111li 111p1 ti 111d "' I I ph I Ii I
h r11u~hr th, 111 ~1111\1 lcdg, 11l 1h1• l111111" 111111111 11 ii 1d t ' 1h 11 ,,, 111111I111 ti 1 11111 ,1
tht' (. ;,,.>d.
Pl.uu\ tp1,1,11111l11g\ ·'''111111•d di.11 ~"""" dr•, Id' 1hc ' ''"" ,,f th f , ,,. I 1
.ih,,1lt1tt ,ind !:ll'lll1ll : th,11l'llll' 1d1 .I!. , I 1!1111 111111 ' '" 1111111, \YI re !111 111 Ir ,, 111 ,f
knn\\lll\!' ..ind 1h.1t 111H: 1.1111\\lt•dt•• l 1lllH' tl1111111•li 111111111 111111 1 rl u r• 1ll 11r r
1
1
1
hcr1n!.! 11f 1Je,1' 1h:11 .lrl l.tll lllh p11.,t111 111 1111 li11111 ,111 11111111 l'l 1111 1h1 111 1111 ,11 I
he 111ULh of ldc.1lt,1 ph1lt"oph\ ">111111 L11111111t·111o111o1 1111 \\1·"11111111h11rc l1t1 ll 1 11 I
chat Jll ,ub,equcnt phtlu-.11ph'r '' .1l11u11111t~' 111 l'l.1111
Afctr chc Ll.l\\ll.11 ( 1rt<ck pct u1d, ldc.t11 .. 1JJ, 11111 II h,t\I d IJll l1 l 1l•1 pl11lu\f111h
r~urfact!d 1n the ph1lo-.oph~ of Plcn111u' (20) ! 1 1)), .111 I r y1111.111 pl11l11 ••f!li r wh11
beltt!\t!d that rt!nln) i ' an cn1anauon fro111 :i di\ inc ..011n ,. S.11111 1\11g11•11111 ( l I l lfl)
the Bishop of Hippo and an cnrl~ ( .hn,11;111 1ht·11l11g1.111, t 111111,111 d o,11111r ld1 d1 1
themes. :\ugusnne\ \'it\\. wa~ rhat know111g ,., p11,, d1ll· rl11u11..:li rltt· po\~11 1,1 d1 \ 1n
iJIUOltnation, tht light Of (;od, :ll \VOrk Ill the hlllll;ll\ 11111111 J11ht1 f )11111 S1 fllll 'I
(12 65-13 08), drawing ins pi rat ion fron1 t\11g11<,11n c, :1r~111: d 1ha1 II Ill' f.11 r It " I• 11c• ''"!> 11 y
for a person to reason correctly. TTe a''ertcd 1ha1 fi11 du.: 1111111.111 1111111l 1n 1111d1·1 ..1,111d
spirirual concepa,, it needed co be illun1inatcd by l1111h . \·V11h f;111h , 11 l,c< a111t· p11!!!til1l1·
for persons to understand inrellect11ally the nccc..,.,11y of C;od\ t·JCt\lt·111 e In th,.;
medieval period, Idealism was eclipsed hy Re:d11,1n, c'fll.!C1ally ' I hon1a' ;\q11111.1.,' d1t·1.,
. .
oc version.
During the scientjfic revolution of rhc .,ixtccn1h c:tnu1ry1 Hcnc l)t•.,t;11lt''
(1596-1650), a French philosopht::r, began hi!. philo1,ophical in(1u11 y hy J1H1IJ11llK 1111
authorities. Hjs reflections on truth leJ Descarrt::s to a log1c:ll <.:ont.lui.ic111. 1\hho11 ~h he
could doubt the existence of everything, there was one thing he c:ould not do11h1 th 11
be was doubting. To <louhc meant that he rnu-,t he thinkin!(. l fc , 1h11•., arrived at till'
famous Cartesian principle: "I think, therefore, I :1111."
Siruated in the era of important scientific <.li~covcnc'I, Utscartc'i l{rnpph.:d '~11h
the issues that science, with its emphasi~ on ~ensatiun, po'>cd !(,,. phi 101,ophy. 'lho11 ~h
accepting the importance of e1npirical ob.,ervaLion and scientific.: distovcry, l)t·\t•;11 t\''
concluded that sensation itself could not lead LO incontrovcr1 ihlc truth ; pt:oplc \\ crt:
often deceived by their senses and knowledge clerivcJ fronl ~cnsation j., often fln\\'l'd
The only reliable knowledge is abstract, such as thac in n1athc1n:11 i<.:!'i. But -.u<:h knu~ I
edge must come, Descartes reasoned, fron1 a hi~her 'lource, f'ro111 ( :od, and 1,
implanted in the human mind as innate ideas. 1~he conscio11., expcricntc 1h111 li111n:111.,
have of the external world i-. through a series of extensions fro1n the 1111101c idc.1' 111 tht•
mind such as that of shape, color, c;ize, rime, and sp::icc. I J1111i:111 cun,1.:1tn1.;ne.,., j., part 1,r
the soul, created hy God. Thus, the :1ffirn1a1 ion of (-iod heca111c a l'cntrnl p1111 of 1he
Ideali!>t '!tran<l in Descarte'i''l philosophy.
Although we sense n1aterial ohjects hy extcn"11on u\ing our l:1tcn1 powers in 1ht·
rnind, our thoughUi about them are ah1;tn1c1. Furrhcr, \VC think nhout thing., hy 11.,1ng
other thoughts a1i points of reference. For exarnplc, to think of -;on1t•rhing 1hat i., .,oft
requires us to think of something that i!> hard. rfhi., line of rhuught, which con-.1.,,., of
., lat C.:\\ l \ l\tel't'· ~'\)(:'\ lt\li.
1 t11 ,1nd ..,,,,h,, ll J'l l '. 11 11\I I 111 11111µ I I 1l I 111 11 t! I <'""·till
,,.1 " t ti J 1)l''l.llll''I'• \ 111Jlh.t'I' 1111 tl H• l lllll if l llt I II' 1111 1 111 1 111ii11p1 1 11111n,
'l ( ll .\ 1Ut' ,\\
\;_,\\ -4 f('\lc.'\\t\\ l'll\J'h.\'1' IP thl' llllJltlll.lllll' 11f if H 11t11 111,d l11vll id Ill ICJ.!llllll Ill Ill<!
11111 t ( 11 111111if111 du I \ I '
'''' ''''' t'' c.'1np1r1, .1lh 't' r1h.1hlt• l'\ 1dl'IH.'t' I 111t 111.il 11µ 11 • 111 I •
tl 1\l' t' 1\t. inn.Ht' 1d1.•.1, .ind 10 the..· ,.,,,tt'IH't' nl ( 1111 I. I I1.11 1'·111 '' I '"' 11' ""'' I 'fl"' I h II
1
I I h I I • ti I 11111111 111 1I I ,I 11'111

'''.I ' ' ' n l°'<,).,"1111111t\, l\l' th111k1nµ. jl\ll., L)c,l'a111.·, "11 1111 t H · '
• . II I .1110 ,,d .1 s 11 11111 1 111n,1f
11, t\,t• \;\tc.' l'll,fhtt.'t'llth ,\nd lllllt' lCl'lllh l'l' lllllt ll' ' • I l'. t l\lll l
. . '
1n 'Eltr''l'e .1nJ 1n \1ner1r;1, ln ( .r11n.H1\, "ht·r1.• l1 c..'.I 1''" 1c.. t ·"
I I I . 11( ti ll "' 11111 •
11.1111 pl11l1)'U
· · I . 11111n, 1 l•1c1H h111.11c111l
\'h\.1t t(\<)k,,n .i renc.'\\c.'d hie ,1,.1 ~1ron)!1nt t.' llc..·r1u.1 ll'.ltt 10 11 .,..· •
1 • • 11 11 thr ll' idt 1 ' 111 11l l' C11 1111an
.., .. \ .1n1.1 sen...;1t1,,n;1lt,n\ .•111d Br1ti-.. h skep11t.·1,111. " 1 I h
j
' •
.e\t\,\\ '-' flde;1h ...1n \\ere lnltnanuel K.int ( 1-2+-IXO·I) .111d (;t·c 11 g \\ l l'
111 1111 1·r1t i n L
ll l!"el ~ l - -l)... l ~ ~ I).
· ~Ult :.ought tn hring the ne\\'er 1'Jea-. co1111n!! t10111 · 111 c• l;rt>nch l· nlt1rlH r
l 1i111l 111
nltt' .1green1ent• ''1th the lnng-sc-;1n<l1ng • · l tIca 11s1 · tr:H 1111011.
· t 1 p1rt1l'\llir hl· " I' tl' t' ''
n ; · ·. ,· ·
in)! ;1g-.11n ·t D;1\ 1<l l lu1nc's e1npiricis1n, \vhich :tr!{'ltl'd that :.ensc dat.1 '' ·'~ t hl ult 1111.11 l'!
OJ.!»is of hun1Jn kno'' ledge of the \\'Orld. R:trhcr t h:111 discounting- ~1np111c1.,111 .111d , , , .
ent.•e a..., rt\~11,;e,,s. K.1nt sought to incorporate tht.'111 into :i l:1rg-er trnt11C\\ 01 k 111 ldf.tl
1,nl thJt en1phas1ze<l h111nan cognition anc.J it:. congrucnc) \Vith Idc:alt"t 1nt1t1'f'l \ 1111n
.ind int\llnon. K.Jnt':. 1nost in1pormnt books- The (,'r1tu1ue ~( l'urc· Rt•111'<111 .ind 11•1 C·,.,
ti~ z..t ~ f Pr.i.Tt«ul Rt'.ison-reflecte<l the Ide~1list rcn<l1:nc) t<> 1ncorp<>ratc '' h.11 "t' l' llll'" 11 1
he J1scordant or e\ en opposite elernents into larger !I) nthcscs. Hu111;1n ktH\\\ It d~, .
JC'\.'(lrc..hng to K...1nr, depends on 111ore than sensory i111prcssions; preex1,t111~ 1.·1111l' l'1'\li.1I
'tn1crures exi-;r 111 the 1nin<l that organize sensory infor1nation and, h~ c>rg-.11111111~ 11
~' e tt n1e~n1ng. 1\;o i~ternal cognitive org:i1;iLing principles, spa~e and tinic. p11 n 11k
this n1e:in1~g'. In K:tnt s rr·~~scendental I<lealts1~1, h11111nn kno\vledg-~ is lll:ldc.• 110,,t11k•
hy the~ pr1on ex1s~ence of 1ntellecn1al po,vers 11~ the 111ind, \vhich 1n,1ke it p 11,,1hll· 111
recognize ~.
the
c
totahl)· orI co111pleteness . of son1cth111g, the 11011111e11011. ..... • ,,1 . , ,
11 t.1:~1.t1
11 • I
1 { ,111 1
org-an1ze 1nror1nanon t lat con1es from the senses ·1hout U'\e Jl · I I
~ f h . · · • art1cu .1r '''Pl'~'' · 1 1c
pbr11 •1ne11on. o so1net 1ng encuunterec.J in ex1)erience Eth ·ic .. h b 1·
· · I h · · · s, e e ic'el.1 l ' 11,l,l'l11lll it
pnon pnnc1p ~ c ac are universally an<l eternall\ ap\)li .. bl Th
.1 cl ca he. e'~ pr111, ipll' 111
rnaue ear b}. a g-reat 1n1per-Jtl\
· · .e-th e c11tt''{.011r11/
. 111tpert1ti••
· .
to recognize · th e other person, not as a 1ne:tns • robe usetl. ~t'--t atre•1u11e,c.•1\' "1 •
ht'•' '''111
10
1t~elf. pos. essi~g the san1e intrinsic rights, duties, an<l ob;; ,.. e.xpl~,t~tl. hut ·'' .1111·nd 1"
se:.s and hare.· Fro1n the c:itegorical iinilcr·iti' , 1 gations th.11 .111 '111111.111, 111 1'
• ve I '\ere co111e • ·
that are to guide hu1n:1n actions· educ:ttion sh( 11 . . s a Set of 1\llll .tl 11hhg.1111Hi'
, • • >tt t instill ·1 s f I
to .ih1de h) these preexi!.ting and guiding piincipl . · ' ensc o 11 )hjot.1111111 ..1 du1\ .
(-;eorg \\'ilheln1 Friedrich llegel 1 3 highl e~. A
the hJ\lC pr1nc1ples or connnental Europe:in I·· •.), in ucnti.11 philp11,, /l•r l'IJJ, •
Id C'.l. Or l . nl\·ers::t I\\'orlc.l ·''11nd, in lhc·1\\Orfdt-tr-.tnt 1p 111 th
rt 1 ' ' C \lnfnl ding nf th<' \h,,1Jlll•
~,ofute took pl'1t't• chroug-h J d1.1letll<...'af prot.·c,.,' ' inanif<.'-.l,\t1<111 or nnli)ldin" •>I th
ot idea., 1n \\h1ch "hat \\:l' cnfolJcJ 111 1111 1 th.t1 111 'ol, cd the 01, . 1 11 et 111 1
.. h I • lC.l\\J.,11 f It ( h\l\tl I ,
I h
ph1 osop " c3111e ro e ""o'' n ii' \h<;olutc 1 I I n o t. cd <>r C\l I I Il I
1-. onh on~ expLt11;111nn for 11~;1lit> the c' l l'a ' ht'l'il\l'ot' of his < t n,t l'lt" I ' i:''
1 111
. t' II . I '"lt•ncc nl 1) \I ins1,11•n,·1 I 1111 t1" ''
:.in J .. u1n o a e\1~tcnce, ,., uni.' 1a11~ 111 LI' 111 .1 ''' ''<>ltn, h
ro. u Cl t't ttall\ II c. \\ 11'1' · ',),, ' lllll
11c
t ll\1'11 1{ l\\ 1> 11)1 \ I I \I ,.,
\ llt11d1ng 111 l lt gtl, d 1 il t 1lllill111 11 111li1 t\tr 11, ~ 111 11 1
.I n n11t1rht•1• th It'' 1111.,1.11.I ''"""'II I hl t i 1 ~ h (I I •h 1tl nil I
r
Ill .1 llhlll llllllpt1' h1•t1,l\1 1d1 t, I "\tttlll \ l 'i 0 \\ l1 11 l1 ti II I 11 t I I
ti
d1.1 lt'l Ill ti I'' 1 ll l ,, ,, II \\ Ill k 11-. tl11· I 1,,, 11 I ii 11 l l I S ( I '""' lllf If
I I
t'\ tr •'I 1 111·1 111111pl1 \ II\ 11111 ti tltt \ 11 n h the 11 s 11111 11:, 1he h 11 1 k I \1 I
lll' 'l' l tl ( h.1p11•1 I ~. \\ ,, II 1111\ d .I\ ,111 ldt.: " '' ' 11111 I ti t ' ll l llllllll f I I It ,
""'' ' '- ' \t ll \ , t hl f1111 n tll' l o l \I 11 \ l \lll, II I 11111•d , h11\\t \ t I , •ht dt 11 lll ;ii JI
1
tllt'\11,thll ll.1,h 111 1dc.1' ·'' tht 11.11111 \\11 1 ~ lo t ltt 'i tit 1lt.:1111 ii 111:itcr1 ilt r 1
1dc;1' '' tit tt'pl.1t1:d h} 1·onll1l t111i.: 1. l.t'"•l'I. J 111 11 11•11, tltt .. 1.11 c, c ~ I' tt.tl l) 1h f•
lllt>n•lrl'h\ , rt•pr1..•, 1..• n1 ed tht· hight''' ph\ ' 11.,1l 1·111l1111 l11111111 cit the \l"11l11tc the c, 1
\\ t>rld :\l1nd -( lll l' .1rth I ht• n.1t1u11 ...1.11 1.· .1 t1 1111111111tll\ ol p1·11plt <•I 1hc 411nr r
Jnd IJn!{\1.1~~. \\ J \ cndo\\cd h) .1 folk 'Pll ll \\ h11h .rl l 11' 1111.: 111111 · ~ \h 1J1cd lie•
l <le3li, n1 hc1.'.<llllc J 'uppo1t fo1 the 1dcolo~') o f n.1111111.dr,111 1h.11 pe11pl c.: (1 1 lrkc th
c1~ and lan~'UJ ~t.'--,hould ht. 111ll1cd 1n .1 11.111011 ... 1.1l l'. ' ' ·•111111.rl1,111 '' ex 11111ned u
Chapter I 0.)
Fr1eJrich Froebe! (1782-1852), rht: luundcr of thl' 1dt·.1 11f k1 11 dt.· rg 1rtt·11, \ 11
hea,i l~ 1nfl11ence<l by the rc1h111ing l deali-.1n in hr' nat1\e (;1..· n11 ;11t} l·rocht·I litl11:\ cd
there \\J'> <l -.park of the Oh ine in hu1nan being-'>. l~arh l'hrld r 11111.11ncd ;1 't11r11 u;i l
e~ ence "·hich \\13., the po\\•er of her or his life force. ' l'hc child \ 'elf .ICll\ll} , ... runu
lated b) the inner spirin1al essence, sought LO he cxLcrnah1ed. f•rochcl\ k1ndcrga1 ten
was designed a<, a \ipetial cduc:1Lional environ111c111 in whrth children could gro\\ ind
develop as they followed a tnrritulun1 of gifts and occup:1tio11'i, C:tl h of ,.,,hrth \\Cll
interconnec ted in terms of rel atccl forn1s. 3 Froebe I's inlportan t in fl llt:l1 t: l' on ct! lll•ll If 111
\vas the he lief that develop1nent began \.Vithin the t:hilu; education \\ a' the 1111:.111-. h}
v:hich the c hild's inner power<, were activated anJ t!Xternalrtcd . \lthough \1.tn I
:Montessori was not an Ideali!>t, .;he, too, \Va'> influcnt:cd by the' IC\\ th•ll thrldrt'n P"'
sess latent powers which corne to lhe surface an<l necc.I to be cxcrc1-.cu :lt certain -.cn,1
tive periods of hu111;1n gro,vth and develop1nent.
Although (iermany was the country in which ldcalis1n was n1ost do1ninanr, the
philosophy had its proponents elsewhere. (~eorgc Berkeley (J 68 5- 17 Ci 3), an ,\nglo-
lrish philosopher and bishop in the Church of England, \vas a proponenl of 'llOJt:t ll\ t'
IdeaJis1n. Berkeley argued that everything rhal e'<i..,t!> n1n~t be pcrtct\ed b~ a 1111nd
What seerned to be a malerial object was, ~1ccording to Berkeley, idea., in the n11 nd of
the per<;on and ( ;od.
Drawing upon Berkeley's work, a group of l~nglish philosopher.,, the c:,1111hr1d).Ct'
Platonist-., sought to provide a philosophical r:itio11;1lc for Christianity 1n \\ hil·h Pl.tto\
Forn1 of the ( ;ood hecan1c the Christian (;od. Later, the pro111inc111..·t• of I It•gt'I'.;
Ab.,c,lute f dcalio;n1 led to a rcconfi!,'ltring of Tdcalis111 in the United ~111gdo 1n h} the
Briu<,h phrlo<,ophers, T. fl. (~rccn (1836- 1882) nnd Be;>rnard Bo,anquet ( 1848- 192 l ).
<>ppo'icd to c111piriti'ill1, c;rccn saw the British narion, cspl'ci.dl) Ill tl'l lther;1l rorrn , :l'I
the flu wen Ill{ of the Ah-.ol 111 c in history. Rat her than being an a11t horit :11·1nn super-!>tatc
a., 'inrnc ( ;crnian ldcali'lt'i nrgucd, ( ;rccn 'la\v the 1.•111Cr!-(ing libcr;tl 'it:Hc \vilh it~ t'rt.'c
don1.., and rcprc.,cntative 1ns11111tion' as the 11nfold1nµ- of the Ahsolutt' in 1nodern u111e ....
Bo-.anquct, concerned with the nc,thctii: di1ncn.;1on, 'la\v the gn.!nt \\ ork.., in an, l1tt!n11
turc, and nl114i1C a.., rcAec:t111K univcr-;al the1nes 111 the111inc.I of the Absolute.
20 l'AR I I l'llU
OSOPI llU Of I· DUC:.AllO\i
· ln the Unit...,
· _,, •Stotes \.Vi ii'
Louis schools nnd n ' I ~n111 'J'.ir~ey I l:11ri~ (lf.13S 1909
'.>f Hegelian Idealism I J U. ~· Co1n1nl\s1oncr or l!.tluc:iu< ), <;upc:nnt~d«n1 •If
'a1nt
S
mg ideas. The North nrns interpreted the C1v1I War aJ :~~·a ltrong l°"''P'•rta11
darn \vhile the South i·ereprei.ented the idCM of industnaliuu1 cna•hf"betwten l•mft,.,
, . . presented trad· · • . ' , e nc1enrv 1
cornpeong illcas, in 1-lnr ·5• , inon, inerfic1ency, and slavery 'l h -,. •n1 fr«-
Scaces as a great indus~1 I interpretation, brought about a ntw . th e d~'h i,f th~
:eadingneo-Hegelian ph~lo:;~~:sowcr.~~iah Royce(JSSS-19~~. o~~·;,}~
o op~y anthd sfiaw ethics as acting on ·~~~I ~:e~~ the importance of the sp1nruil m ~
, a e lrSt half of the ninete .
SOites, where it took the fo f ;th century, ldeali!lm also reigned in the l:
~882), one of America's lea~ hil~nscendentalism. ~alph
o Waldo Emtr'llm (I;~
1s1n. ~or Emerson, the great !~d ~~hers, was an mfiuenaa.I proponent bf ldeaJ.
ide~~passed othe~ Ma::r~

that included and enc min was the Macrocosm, or Over Soul an
lesser subordinate alJI lesser illeas. Derived from the
which they came. Tunsc:~~~ma. l replicas, or microcosms, of the great ideas &~
which they could find the truth~:n looked _to Nawre as a great world forc.e from
Emerson, went to Walden p d. ry DaYld Thoreau (1817-1862), a colleague of
Tunscendencalism had the ~n to conte;plat~ and ~d the truth revealed by nature.
could overcome materialismin;,~;:~ e ucanonal implications that human hemp
themselves and bring about social refor::.g ~ narurbe,li anscbd could constantly unp~c
Tra s d tali • · ny pu c ool proponentS UlSplred by
. n c~ en sm, believed that State-supported education would be the r
improvmg and uplifting the moral and ethical character of Americans. means o
WHY STUDY IDEALISM?

Sine~ few_contemporary American philosophers of educ:ition identify themselves as
Idealists, 1t may be asked: Why srudy Idealism? There are at least three reasons for
srudying Idealism: (1) because of iis long history; (2) for global or ecumenical pur-
poses; (3) because it underlies many commonly held beliefs. In the history of Western
philosophy, Idealism's origins are often tn1ced to the ancient Athenian plulosopher
Plato. Srudents of philosophy invariably either begin with or mum to Pbw, who
asked the basic questions we still grapple with coday: '"'bat are uuth and JUStice? \\'hat
is the nature of the good society? Who is the good and just person~ How can we edu-
cate "-omen and men to be uuthful and just?
The srudy of Idealism helps co create a broad global perspective dut coombuta
co an ecumenical underswiding of culmres worldwide. Idealism pl"OVldes a~
Boddhi~
ic:il foundation of ho\\ re2licy is viewed in some of the 1111jor cultures of Am. e5pe-
c1ally che detachment from matenalism that is important in HiruhJism.
other Orienw rehgions. There are also elementS o£ JdealJS111 m the tDOre an.
expressions of Islam, Judaism, and Qinstianity. The cul~COO of~:'~~
and serenicr represents a present-day movement, especially among peop
~-ychic ~_'.:~ces =~rerna·
\\'d i·
emponess •ith the materialism and consumerism that
em culrures and socienes. le also is 1 fOrtt for those who look III'"""" io
_ D' o 10 \iolence m the \\'Orld.
CllAJ>T£R T\\ 'O IDP.ALIS.>.f 21
An examination of some co1ll.lnoo1y held beliefs reroms us ro IJeahsm. E.duca·

tors, through the ages, have sought to develor> philosophies and stl'aregtes ro educare
good and tru~ men and won1en. Among these educators are those who believe th~t
h'."11'.'n gro\\'th is a process of spirin1al unfolding of innate po"·ers or potential that lie
within the child. Among these educators were Plato· Fnedricb Froebe!, who devel·
oped the kindergnrren; and Maria N!ontessori, who fushioned the prepared eduClltive
envtronment. There are educators who see the process of teaching as an attempt co
unleash the spiritual potential that lies ,vi thin all human beings. They believe that t:n1e
learning requires that the false sirens of materialism and consumerism be O\.'ercome.
These educat?rS look for models of the good life and itS values f?r children and routh
to emulate. Sunply stated, the call of Idealism is to seek higher ideals and the kind of
life that exemplifies these ideals.
IDEALISM AS A PlfilOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Each chapter in this book will examine the major philosophies in terms of meta-
physics, epistemology, axiology, and logic and then consider the .edu~cional implica-
tions of these subdivisions of philosophy. Here we consider Idealism m reJauon ro the
four major subdivisions of philosophy.
Metaphysics
As defined earlier, metaphysics refers to that which is ultimately real. How we under-
srand reality has momentous implications for education, particularly in ho\V we under-
stand the meaning and purpose of life, and how institutions such as schools, and
processes such as teaching and learning, are defined and how they function.4 For Ideal-
ists, that which is ultimately real is spiritual, nonmaterial, purely conceptual, or a pure
idea. There is a spiritual source, a cosmic beginning or supernatural creator from which
all things originate; it is the power of that source that keeps all things in existence.
Each human being has a spiritual essence or a spiriroal or mental core that is her or his
essence or ultimate characteristic. For Idealists, there is one great spiritual or
idearionaJ source from which all lesser beings, including human beings, are derived.
Plaoo, for example, held that all existing things are imperfect copies of eternal, un-
changing, immaterial archetypes, forms, or ideas that originate in the Fonn of the Good.
For Idealists, God or the Absolute Idea or Fonn is the most general, most
abStrllct, and inclusive being in the universe. Human beings share in that overriding
spirituality or intellectualiry, but in a limited way. Human life is a striving for and
search for the supreme goodness and rrutb that exists in God or the Absolute. Idealists
believe that each human being then is essentially spirirual or incellecroal. \Vhat is the
most important, irreducible pan of the human being is the person's spirit or mtnd.
ReHgions idealistS scress the spirit, while nonreligious idealiscs emphasize the mind.
Frorn the mecaphysics of Idealism, we can begin wu:h an educational imperanve-
the moSt important and all-embracing goal is to assist in developing the smdent's spirit
or ca.ind.
22 P4JIT I PHJL~PHTF.~ OF · ·ouuTrO"i
A dominant thtme in ldeali901 I• the chain " 1 bc:ing aC(f>rding \t1whuh 1

ang things or ideas arc positioned an an ordered chain that hegln' w11h the nw Ii
plex idea of all, the Absolute or (1<x), and proceed~ downw11rd w11h It,_. n1n ~ tllll).
of complexity and completeness. M:cord1ng to the chain or being, the llllt~c~~ ~~,,
is an ordered h1en1rchy of ht1ng. '
Epistemology
JU discussed previously, epistemology ~amines i\S~CS or how we kn11w, f'lir l<J>;a •
knowing is essentially a process of bn~~ng to conscious~ess, to our \(llntual t d ~
tal surface, the truth that is present W1thUl us. The ldeal~ theory of kn11wlcdgt
iUustrated by Plato's theory of reminiscence or .remember1n~ or recalling the.~~
concepts that arc already present within our rmnds. According to Plato, pn<ir 1,1 t.:
our spirits or minds dwelt in closeness to the Form of the Go~d. ~c hrillianc.e 0/~
truth, goodness, and beauty present in the Supreme Fo~ 11l~m1nated our llll1ld,
However, the shock of being bom imprisoned .these pure idea~ 1~ a body of Ac,h ~
blood, with appetires, needs, and desires. The ideas presen~ w1th1n ~ were rcpr'-d
into our subconscious psyches. Thus, ideas, for Plato, are m the mind at b1nh 1lit
quest for truth is a struggle to bring these ideas, which contain knowledge of the ptr·
feet fonns, back into consciousnm. lt is difficult to do this, however, because the~
tractions and distortions of the sensory world ofappearance create images that confuse
us and lead us away from the path to interior eternal truths. Plato's Allegory of the
Cave illustrateS how those seeking truth need to overcome the false images that appear
to the senses. In ancient Athens, SocrateS, Plato's mentor, asked hjs students provoca-
tive questions about truth, beauty, and justice that helped them cut through the bym
of ignorance and opinion and find the ttuth present within.
The modem reacher who follows Idealism's tenctS, like Socrates, needs w moo·
vate students to be truth seeken.' 'Ieachen today have to combat the false images ere·
ated by consumerism and ditinfonnation that bombard people in this age of peMSJ~e
media that offers dynamic programs that appeal to the senses.
Axiology, in philosophy, enmines issues of ethical and aesthetic values. For ldC1fuls.
value fonnanon, or character education, is highly important in a person's educ:ioon. ln
~e area ~f values, l~lsts raftirm their belief that human beings are essentially spir·
~tual and mtellectUa.1. Smee the origin of human spirituality and intelleroial•ry 1s found
ma Supreme Supernatuml Being or an Absolute Prin · 1 1 ... th are un•·
venal, eternal, and mu=han . . op e, va ues, 11""e ~ , der·
· ·.....1*' d ·
lying spm._..., /""'° ~ ue rooted m -the
an mte ectn•ln:y '1'1.-
nature of the uruverse's un
•- • . · es pl.act»
environments,orsituadons. • .. ..,.., ue not •CQlbVe to different om •
Lop:
For Idealitt\ lop: ii h'Metl on a wh le ~
thin me Mn oihi ..... Panbea: :. ••t
reltrionsbip in which the whole •5.~.':ht!
• P't • •+ Fl be a · t w1th the "·&ole..\JlV"··
I ti 11' l 1 I I II I I 1111 \ I 1'1\I
11 1\ Ill llllllj l1l1 d1 11 l111•11 l1l1111l11 t111i" 11l.1111111 lo1pl,i1 Wt:•lldll ):tfll{l~l.t1Ufth•
1 llh 11111 11 h1111 t I" 11111 1.. I• ' • 1 111d 111 1ii 111 111111111 , ,, ,~ , , wnh that
' I•' 111 1 1
\\ 111. le IS !'•'II•' ii \111111111111 11• I• II h tl11 ,., Ill 1.d 11~ I .1111111111g 111' 11l.1111111,111111•1 the
~.1·· 11111 111.t I 11111111111 1h1 I ' 1111111,1111111 11111tl II I""' Ill 'I ll K• I 11111fy111y ll1l1<l:1'I Al
'tie. I llllh '\ 11111 II'"' I'' Ill 1.d I" 11111pl1 " I .1.iltl1• l11 d II lli I"' 11111 111 rt ol '•II fr111n II
11 "' ' 'Ill 'I'''"" I'
t111plt 'Ill 1.1'1'\ 11t.11 ill11\ ll .Ill II \\ lu fl Y..I .11g111 1111111 .1 f'rlOlll•le,
;•Ill '"1'111111111): ·11!!111111 Ill\ ll11·d Ill ll~tc I \lllh th,11 Ill lllt lpl1 ld1 .ill\t .. , l11ll•i\ldOg the
1 id 111'"'1,111' llhl l 1l,11u, ,111 q1111I.111 po1111 11111 11111111"'11·111it , 111 tl1111~11 g In ciluca
1
ll\\11 , hh·.111\t l11i-:11 \\111k .. Ill di \1·l11p llHIJlll , 111111\lll 11lt·." '" llllll 1'111\ Ill the '> lll•lcnt
"' 11 "1 \, 111111' 1111· 1111111ilo111t 111 1111·,l !-(It.II p111111ph·\ /\' \ la1ccl 1111111r t.1rlu:r 1lt.:hn1
'"'"' 111 ld1•11l1,111, 1111·" p111111 plt·' .111c111pt to tc'ill It 1he· h1gh1•\t l1·v1 I ot ~'t:llt r;il11y and
i-:1111h· 't.1111 l,11 d' 11l 1·\11· ll 1·1111· "1111·h , t,11 11 lnrd, dr11101dcpc·nd111111p1nlf1n poll' 11111 ,ire
d11111•d 11 11111 \llllll'l\1il 111111g111d111 g 11 111 h...
11 >I•' \I ISi\ l 'S I•' l )lJ( :A' t 'l( )NA I, IM 11 1.l(~A' l'lONS
t•rl11t·j1•lt• ()f <;t·11t•rnlity nncl the l~o l c of the School

ldl".111, 111 ""'t'I t" 11 1111i vt· 1,al p1 inc.: 1plc of ~c n cn11i1 y according 10 wh ich tll(Jrt '>pettfi<.:,
1111111t·d1.11 1.-. nnd p11 1111·1tl111· g-11111, nre de ri ved front u1o'c 1hat :ire higher, more ah<,rratt,
µt' tlt' t nl, 11 11d 111t'h1\1Vt', If the prin1ary i-:o::i l of ed11<.::111on i' the '>tu<lent's sp1rirual or
llll l'llt·r111.ll dt•vt·lop111t•n1 , then the -;chool's prini:iry purpo . .e :ind fun1..1.1<Jn~ hecome
t'lt'.11 . School' .ll'l' i11, 11t 111ion,, c~t:i hl i,hcd by ~ociety, for the pritnary purpo<,e of <le\el-
11p111µ .1 , 1ud1:111 \ ' p111111nli1y or int ellectuality. Ju't :1'> (;od or t.he Ah<,olute i., eternal
.ind """ t•r,,11, t ht• p11rpo~e of eJ11c:it ion 1 coo, j, un1ver\rtl an<l unchanging. le remain'>
tht· .;a1lll' 111 1111 gt·nc.:r:\111111 to generation. According to the principlt: of generality in
'' h 1ch "Pt't·i lic j.to:t l' :trc 10 :tgrcc 1vith 1nore general goal,, all ot.her goal'> and aims are
, 11h11rd1n11tt• 10 the gcncr:tl goal of o;piri tual :ind intellecrual <leveloprnent. ~oth1ng
~ h ould h1: pt•1111i11ed to inte rfere with , di111 in ish, or ob.,cure that prin1ary goal.
' Jc 11cltc1·s and Srudcnts

Cf 1he pri111ary goal of -:chooling is students' spiri n1al and intellecrual developmtnt.
tht•n t he tcac:hc r's role also heco1ncs very clear. Teachers must as~i~t ':>rudencs in devel-
opin~ to rhcir po1 cntinl :incl achieving their fu llest spiritual and intellectual grov. th. To
•• • ••
1()l;Al .. ISt\-1 ANI) ~l~lJ E SUBDMSIONS OF PIITLOSOPI-IY
• M ct"1physics: R<.:.1 li ty ipiritual, intcllecrual, and non1nater1al
• l;pistcntology: Knowing is a proces., of bringing inttrior ideas co ton~ciou'>ne'>c;
• ~i ol ogy: Values arc uni\crsal, timeless, and enduring
• l ,ogic: Based on whole part and genc:ral-co-spcc:1fic patterns
l'\"11
Pt'I fl lllt\ 1hc..·11 1111 • I

l ' It .I\ l\ I\ lh"1•d Ill I• 1lit1 t 11 II 1111 I 11 11 1(1111< .I h I 11< 1111111 I h 111
I
(.. ·'''1'0\11\\ 1\\,\1' 11.l 1., , \
•. ''P" 11111 1 111'111111 II< ( 11111 1v1111,, 11 "hr1 .. ,111111ltl 111• 1111J 1g1d
I
'" t IC.' ·~· l'•\I 111111 •ii 1 •Ill 1111,11
' I ,,,1,1111v \llll1llt' I 111111111!ipt111111l1111d 1111rllrt11111I rll
I 1
1t''l'11pn1t•11t I 111 .I I>1111,1,II 1111111·1, 1h1· ld1 ·""' ,, 111111 1, '"I'' 1\111111, 1rtl11,
\ i··'' 1111111,:
I11r 'tlld1•nt.; ' "b1.• •1 !\ ,I•I 111II\\ Ill I III ' 1i-\11 l\1 I1·1 I)~t 1lf 1111pd,, " hi 111 t 11111 ii 1111 •dc•l 111.11 111111
1
lllillld.; tht'11 rt•,pc..•1·1..111d ht• 11 hh· 111 ,111 ,1k1•11 tl1t·11 il t·\1 11 111 h .1111 1
.\lt~lllllµ"h tht') lll ,l\ h1• 1111111,111111• ph\ 'll.llh .111d \1111,ill\, \l11d1111\ 11111, 111 "1'111
1
tu.11 .inJ 1ntcll1.•l·t11.tl pt•1,1111, "ho,t• p111 p11,1· 1, 1111·\11·111.il1 • 11111 .111-. 111d l11l1tll 1h1"
innt'i: pntent1.1ht\ \II 1•1h11.·111111n ,, 't•lt 1·d111-.1111111, ,1111111l.111·d II\ '~1111 .111• i. 1111" '' '111,
lt\.r: St)l'f",ltt'S, 1l1Utl\ ,\(t' thc..•11 \lllllc..•111' 111 ,,.,11 1h 111tl11111 h1•111'1h,.,1111t11d tlu It 11th th II
1°' latt'ntl) prt'St'1'1. l'hc..• lll\t' \tlld1•nt , \11th 1h1• lt'1h ht•1 ·'' .I fllldr, I' 111\ I 'p111111,il IJld
1n(ellecn1al jo11rne) to tind "h,11 ,, llllt', i.:ond. ,111 d h1·,1u1d11l I lt.11 111111111•\ h1·~·111' 1111h
parents and tearht•rs "ho l'uh1v111c· tht• t•.11 h 1h,p11,1111111' tlt.11 "ill 111\ l111c.. 1h1· '111111~· '''
rake the first right Slt'ps ro\\·11rd 1r11th- 11nd 1h1•111n 1,1k1· lu1g1·1 ''''I'" ln11\.11d
Curriculum
ince n1etnph)·si1.:s deals'' 1th qut•srions of " h.11 11., ult 1111.11t·h 11'.11, 11 h,1, .1 ,11on!-(1111111
ence on curriculun1, or rhe ""hotness" of t•d111·11111111 . \ \ h.11 '" 11 t h.11 "t' hold 1t1 he: 11111,1
real and imporrnnt? 1 lo" <lo our bt•lic:fs t1h11u1 11·11111~ tlt·11·11111111• "h111 ''-'II' .ind 'uh
jeers are taught in the st·hool c11rricuh1111? In 1·11n,1d1·11nµ- 1hc..·'t' '1"""' 1011.; f111111 .111 hie
a list perspecti,•e, be ~r11ided b)' rht· 1nn1or prin1•q1l1·" ulr1•11tl) disru~st•d : ( l) 1h.11 "h1l'h "
nlrimately real is spiritnnl or 1dcntionnl; (~) 1hn1'vhi1·h1s 11111111•di.1tl' 1111d p.1rt11:uh11 1~ t\I
agree ,vi th thnt "'•hich is n1ore 11bst r11c1 nnd ~t·nt•rnl ; t \) st·hn11ls nrt' 111 t•ult j, .Ill' -;pii 1111
ality or inrellecn1:1liry.
To these rhree principles, \\'c l\O\\ nLld 1\11n1h1•r \\'ork111i.c 11ss\1111p1ton nhoul '111111.111
history and cuJrure. For l dc:1lis1.;, h1~1llll1\ ~1i~ttll r rt•prt''\t'l\IS t~\t.' \ll\l~1ldi11i.r t\1 It'\ l'.lhll~
of the ideas that are prescnr 1n the nund of (,ud, or tht•:-011111 ul r1inccpl°!' th<it t'\ 1, 1111 tht•
great unifying itlen of rht• :\b-:ohuc. These 1dcil'i, lil.t• tht.•1r 1'<1\11\'t'. .H"t.' l'lt•t n,11, lllll\l't
sal, and unchanging and arc not dcpcndt•n1 011. u1· 1t·l111n t.' 1n. rh.111 µ 111 ~ 111111.... , 11 u.1
tions, anti cjrcu1nsn1nccs. \\'h.11 is ~oud, true, 11nd ht.·111111ful 1s 110\\· and nl" l\\.; h,1, ht•t•11
goo<l, rrue, and beautiful. rl'hcse cnt11~rin~ trn1hs 1111d \'1l ltlt.''i h:l\c..' ht•c..•n l'llthtldlt'd 11\
great \vorks of litern111re, 1111, nnd .'nns1c, h.11· 1.·x1\1n1.'lt1, 1h.11 \\t•rc..· (ishiun1.•d i11 thi• p.1,1
and have inspired people ncross t1111e.1111~l gl'lll'111111111s. l'ht•sc..• 1:lussh:s 1111• p1.·r 11 1.i11c11t
1
sources of C'TOtl's or 1he Absolutes 11~1lold1n~ or.1·1•vt.·h1lion to 111111111 11 h1.· 111 ~:;. \ \ 'h.11 till•
arti'il, \\"ricer, or contposcr ho~ don~ 1s shnpc or h1sl1111111ht• t•n1h11111~ td1.•:i .uid 11 11.,11111111
a \\'ork of ,1rt. The'ic \\•urk-: of ort. l1tc1-iu 1H·c. ti nd 11111,1t' \'011-.111 1111• 1ht• 1..,111 '" lt:di.ti' 1h.tt 1,
of the hi ghe"t \VO rt h 11 nd o,ho11ld furn\ 1he cu 1111:u h1111 t.'111 t.• \ h1111 k\ t.' \u·i t'll t p;, 1111 1.111 t,
is nor the criterion fur 1ncl11dinl{ 11 1n the: r11rr1r11lt11n, l'ht• , 1.,111 1•,t 1, th.it 11f tlllll' I l.1'
It caprured 'ion1t·1hinj.{ th.11 rc..•;1cht''• touc..·hc•,, .111d "''lhlt'' pc·iiplt• ,1r 1, 1, , tht• .iµi'' ' 1f 11
ha'> then ir belun~s 1n the.• c11rn1·11l11n1 l'\Ht'. ldt'.d1'1' ,t111nlo('I) nppii<:t• th11, 1• t•ih 11 _111 , 1 ~
,vhu argue th:1r s1utlcn1.; :..ho11hl hc.· 11~·1• t11 l·hn11~t· "h,11 the.•\ \\ ill\I 111 't"'" :ind l\lll hl'
co111pellcd to tnkc II r~41111:L·d t't>lt' ot suh1c..•t t~. l•u1 lt111-t '" p111\ idc ,1 t'11l111111 l t1lll' '' 111
hrcuk u link in ihe (:hn11\ of b1:1n~. to l'fl'lltr II l'h11:-111 ht•t\\t't'll dtt' p.1,111nd th1· Jilt'''"'
<11\Plll{l\\t> 11>1\ll\\t
and co d1-.11q11 tht• lOlll\l'I 111111 ht l \\ l'l II 1111· 1•1·111·1 .11JI11\'1

rnnther., .ind d:111~h11 '' " l11 •t\\11 ·11 l.11l111' .111d • 1111 -. .111d
•
Id1.-;il 1
'1' -.11h,1·11hl Ill 1111· d11111 I
I . I llH II p1cp1t .1111111 Iha il11111l 111111111l11111 '"
l t •,,gnl'l to prl·p.1r1.· '-lltd1•nt-. 1111 .1dul1 lil1 It ht·lp, ' 111d1111., ah v1111 111 11 ,kill· 1• I
1 111 1
l '"1ge to r • · T
p .t tc>gnrl.l' ilfH,I llH
· Il.'l ' l 1, to 11:1111 to lvn111 that wh 11·l11 ., 1111111111.1111 1111rite '• ~1"""
111111 1
rcp;lr:tt ton pre.,11ppo\l'' I hat the :id111111 j,,, .11111' •llH I 1<·:11 lil 1' wh11 K' 1v1 111 ._1 11 11111 111 cl
tir~ranrze the l'un1l11l111n :lie 111a1 urc, cdut·atcd, k1111"·k·dgt:1hl1 acl111t , \t 11cla 111 .,. 111
11111nau1re
• but JlOSscs'
• · ·1
• t li;s1
· · rc' t o Il'<lrn. ' J'Ile 1I01.·1r1111· of· p11.•paratu111 1111pl11·' tit.tr 1,.,11 111' •1..,
'1" kno\\ ledgeahle <ldults kno\v \vhaL is in the bc~t i1111.•rc:..1'• ol ,111d1·111 ' 111 lt'a111 wllcl11t'I'
or nc>t the~ :lre ~1n1nediately interested in k·:irning it at the p:ir11c11la1 1i111c. '
. For I~eahsts, preschool, earlr childhood c<.luca11on, :ind the krnderj.(.trtln \h1111lcl
provt<l~ children \Vi th an en\ ironn1enr th<lt encour;ige'> thc111 tn find are;I\ of 1ntt·11·'1
th:l~ st11.11~late their Jcsire to le~1 rn. Th e kc.·y to this learning lie.; 111 the children\ own
'iel.f-actJVlt)'. which, in rurn, arises fron1 the inner nt·ed'>, drive-., :ind rc.,011rcc-. of the
child. The early educational experiences, building 011 those of the horne and fa111il)',
create the right predispositions to learning so th::it children w:int 10 p::irtici p:i1e in then
education. Acting as guides and rnentors, teachers nrr:1nge the educational environ
1nent so that it sti1nulates children to use their pntcnti:ility. Ex:11nplcs of thi' kind ol
arrangement are the Froebelian kindergarten and Montessori's prep;1red cnv1ronn1cnt.
The elernentary school t11rriculum shou ltl cu lti vate the b:isic skills of liter:1cy,
numeracy, and civility that prepare srudents for 1nore <1dvanced learning, especially for
the srudy of the classics. In this respect, the le.lea lists !>t1pport hasic education- learning
to read, write, and calculate since these skills are the early '1nd necessary 'ltep'i on the
educational path that leads to the sn1c.ly of the enduring philosophical, historical, and
literary works of the cu ln1ral heritage. Idealists al'io act:ept the use of cn1npt1tt!r -;kill,
and electronic inforn1ation-retrieval rechnologies as tools in acquiring inforrnation.
They insisc:, however, that the inforn1ation acquired nec<.ls Lo he judged and analyicd
so that it supports the quest for true knowledge and docs not becon1e an end in it'iclf.
In fine arrs and Literan1re, Idealisu; encourage the st11dy of tht! great paintings, litera
rure and poetry, and music as rne~1ns of cu ltivating appreciation for the high point' of
aesthetic achieve1nent and as avenues to further creative expression. Civility i., defined
in cultural terms as a respect for another person's right to develop their spiritua lity and
intellecrual ity through society and irs instirutions.
The principle of a hierarchy of generality is used to organize the .,ccondary and
higher education curriculum with the most general and abstract subject'> being of the
highest importance and deserving the n1ost tin1e, effort, and rcsonrc~s.1'hc tool skill.,
learned in the ele1nental')' chool prepare srudents to read, srudy, d1scll'l'>, and reflect
on the great works of literan1re, phjlosophy, politic-,, and h1.,tor) in 1ni<ldle and -.ec-
onda.rv school. Mathematics, especially algebra, geornetry, and calculuc,, w11h their
high a·bsrract concepcs, rank high in ?1e curriculun~ hierarchy. Ide.a list'> al'to .inclu<lc the
phy~ical and natural sciences, bur wt th an e1nphai;1o; on theol) ..11 the Id~all'1l ope1 :lie'
from a religious orientation, then the holy and sacred bcx1k<t of the particular rt!li!-{H>n
are a highly itnportant pare of the curriculun1. Fo.r ex;11nple, the l Icbrc~ 'cr1pturc,, the
Christian Bible, the Hindu Gica, and the I~larn1c Koran arc held a-, 11npor t:1nt ll'~t~.
located at the sum1nit of tbe curncular h1erarch~.
26 l' \ K I I 1'1111 (l\\ll'JI l 'lll
' lllll\11•1'
Character Education and the Inequality of VaJu c~

-~though ~dealistS recognize that the hiunan hc1n~ in ...ot ict) ,.., a c·1 1111plt·x pc1 1111alit
" 1 th physical, social, health, anti eco110111ic need.., and 1n1crc.,1•., thc11 pn11nt1c~ fc,r
cha~acter education are based on the principle of lhc h1erarch: of ~cnc1 ,llll} ""lu Cl!
earlier. H un1an needs and interests are nor of equ;1J i111por1an<.: t:. '-ionic .1rt: 111111c
i1nportant, or desirable, an<l more enc.luring than others. The pnnc1plc ol l{cnc1.il1r~
can be compared to a moral yardstick on which value~ can he ordcrc<l 'f ho,c \ tluc:s
that relate most directly to our defining spirirual and inrellccn1al nature arc tllll\t
important and e11during and rank highest on the moral sca le. ()ur higher-order 1ncc:l
lectual and spiritual values are those that are most abstract, gcner:il , anti durahlc and
give order to and regulate our lower, more specific values. The school curril.:ulu111 and
teachers need to en1phasize that not every value is of equal importance, hut th:1t tht
decisions of life need to be based on principles that wear well over ti1ne.
Creating Perspective
Idealist-oriented character education places great emphasis on developing pcrspcctn c.
and on imitating models or mentors. Perspective means that the person is able to l:Jkc
a Jong-range view of ethical and aesthetic choices rather than acting on short-renn
immediate concerns. In a great painting, for example, the artist portrays the suhjccr b)
using relationships of color, dimension, and space so that the viewer is presented \\ith
an integrated sense of wholeness. In viewing the painting, it may be necessa ry co ~tand
back from it in order to see its elements as a whol.e, or to place it in perspective. Fur
ther, the artist needs to capture something in the painting that speaks to and 111o'c'
people across time and place. In education, developing perspective does not con1c eu~
iJy or quickly but is a deliberate, slow, gradual, and maturing process. Arrninin~ per·
spective means that the person has developed a sufficient psychic di,tance to
appreciate the wholeness and relationships of ethical and aesthetic choices. By stud~
ing the great works of art, !iteramre, ~hilosophy, and history, snidents can al.'q111rt! ii
sense of perspective that unites them W1th past generations and places then1 \\ ithin the
ongoing cultural heritage.
Mentoring and Modeling

In the history of philosophy, one of the great n1entt>ring situations occurred in anricnr
Athens, when Plato became Socrates' student. From Socrates, Plato learned hi' h:i,1t
C I L\P T R I'\\ l> lt)l \l l,\I
l.7
• • • •
• S\hl)\11 11lflnl'd h, 1t' p1111111' 111ll 111 '1111111111 1111clllttu I nd p" I

•''L\.'1
• (.' umcu I Uln: ( .1111'1't' 1\1 ,L.11!, ..n,I 'ld•Jt:lt' Rrt'lilll£ld 1n a 111 rar h r J nr••~·
1
\\ t11 t 1.. n1,11·t: ~lll\.T.ll .1nd .1'1,tr.ltt h.1, 1111! p111111t\ 11\lf the mr1r n.·, 11 <:
• I . \ . , ..
n tructton: '1r1lt\ of 1111..th,,d,, \\1th pr~f~rl'nt·t l!l\ Cn 1u 1ht " x:rat
•·, u\.:1ni;;. 1nJ '"'1tJt11•n
• Te.icher. \ lllJturc.' pt:rson, .in l. \pcrl 1n lno\\ lctlgc 111 a 'uliJtl tor rneth11ds,
r,1 ...J ilnJ c. thic-Jl nll~c:l tor ,ruJent'
• tudents: lrnnlJntre person' \\1th J latl'nt dt·,rrc. to kn11\\ anJ Cit \ itc 1hc1r learn n
:>tr-Jtt'g'\ ,)f prob1ng for ttuth through <l1J.logue con' er,Joon .. 1n ''hit h the. parnCl
p.mrs ask and an .,,·er each other's leading quesnons. ;\ loden1 l<le.1h't', fl lo, 'c:L· tht:
t:eJcher-leamer relation hip as a source of character fur1nanon. ln .1Jd1non t11 thc:'1r
peJ:agtlgiL'.1.1 kills and ki1o"·ledge base, Idealist teacher!> ~houlJ he n1otltl-. of the: tul-
rure. per ·ons ''·ho inspire students and are "·orthy of their en1ulJcion \ccurd 1n~ t11
Butler. 1nlic:aoon and modeling pro,;de srudencs "ith rnoJes of excellence .inJ c:nc.ou r-
3ge then1 to follo'" these patterns. Being exposed to n1odels of e\.ceUent:e 'hould nor
leJd ro nurnicry. but to a"·akening the desire ro excel as a person."
~ .--· .. -,-,
PL.\TO, A 'l'RL"E ''ISION OF REALfl'Y

Plato's "..\Uegory of the Cave," found in his Republit, has been selected ns n prin1.1r\
ource reading because of Plato' importance as a founding figure in ' ' 'estem phtl,l,~l
phy, and because of the dramatic illustration rh:1t it provides of rhe discerning re.1ltt' 111
a ,,·orld of images. Plato's Republic is a philosophical '''Ork abo\1t an ide.11 polis. or ' Ol't
en·. in " ·hich justice reigns supreme..~djudicate<l an<l a<lntiniscered b) philus,lpht'r-
ki~gs. justice in the Republic is the hannonious relarionship of the 1ne1nbet'li of the>
sooen·. '
based on each doing \\'hat he or she is be 't-suited to do hr . their nnn1re In the•
election from the Republic, '''e examine Plato's cave, in" hich he rnakt's .1 ft1n1llU' .1nJl-
ogy ben,·een the reality of true vision and the illusion of sensation. In tht• ril\'t'. Hlt'n .1rt·
chained o that ther can see shado,vs on the "'alls, in1:1ges of ohiecrs rno' 111~ .iru1u1d
outside of the cave. ' ''hen a man, freed fron1 his chains, leaYes the t.\I\ t' .ind ~t't'' the.'
real ohjt:crs in the light, he at first disbelieves " 'hat he is i;eeing. \ she :dO\\ I) ad1n!>t:- n1
the light, he recc>gnizes that \vhac he is eeing is real and "h.1r he SJ\\ in tht• l'.I\ t' ".1 ..
n1erelr che sha<lo"' of che real obJeCt. Hu\\·ever, "hen he rt.•n1rn.; ro those .;11ll l'h.11nrd
in the ca\e, he cannot convince them thur "·hnt tht::) believe is re.1 I is inert>\) n -,h.1du\\ .
.-\ s ,·ou read the .,election, you 1na} '"ish co c:on-;ider the follo" tnE! focu-.1ng que,utin:-.
•
1. '\'hat points abouc metaphysics anJ episcen1olog) does Plotn llhlkt• 11\ tht•
selecoon:
28 P.\lfl'I Pllll<)~t)l'l l ll,tll llllC \ll<l'
'
2. Suppost' ' g P Iatn '~ " /\II cg
\ 011 \\'l'rl' rt'\\ r 111n . T( 1f}' or the ( :ai,,c" Ill l the r hpresent. <la }.
l dent If\ · dc ...c11hc .,111 111· o l· t Iit• " -;·I1,1<
· · .111d . IO\v" " of l<>n tl'nlflorary
·
11e t at d.i\ton
· a
•
tr\lC \ i~H ll l orl"t'.li it .\ .
3. 1n \ n 11 r O\\ n c..• d11l':ll 10 1 Y .111 )' (' CC'l''·> iOn., OJ '>llll<l t iCH1~ tn. \\•htch ,\' ou
' 11 ca n yo11 1.<lc nt 1.,..
\\ t'~·c helped h\ u.~;11:hcr$ 10. rccog-n1 ze :ind 'vork your w;ty thr<iugh images and
~hatlo,vs that tl istortcd •yot1r vici,,v of reality?
0
4 . .i\fter reading the selecti on, ,vhat qnestio11s would y<>ll ask Plato about the ".\Ile-
go ry of the Cave"?
~O\V then, I proceeded ro say, go on to selves or of each other, beyo11d the shad()~·s
con1pare our natural condition, so f.ir as educa- thrown by the fire upon the part of the cavern
tion and ignorance are concerned, to a state of facing t11em?
things like the follov.t\ng. In1ag1ne a nun1ber of Certainly not, if you suppose them to have
men living in an ltndergrounc.l cavernous cham- been co1npelled all their hfetime to keep their
ber, with an entrance open to the light, extend- J1eads unmoved.
ing along the entire length of the cavern, in which And is not their knowledge of the things
they have been confined, fron1 their childhood, carried past them equally limited?
with their legs and necks so shackled, that they Unquestionably it is.
are obliged to sit still and look straight forwards, And if they were able to converse with one
because their chains render it impossible for another, do you not think that they would be in
them to turn their heads round: and imagine a the habit of g]ving names to the objects which
bright fire burning some way off, above and they saw before them?
behind them, and an elevated roadway passing Doubtless they would.
between the fire and the prisoners, with a low Again: if their prison-house returned an
wall built along it, like the screens which con- e~ho fron1 the part facing them, \.vhenever one
jurors put up in front of their audience, anti of the passers-by opened his lips, to what, let me
above which they exlubit their wonders. ask you, could they refer the voice, if not to the
I have it, he replied. shadow which was passing?
Also figure to yourself a number of per- Unquestionably they would refer it to that.
sons walking behind this wall, and carrying Then surely st1ch persons would hold the
with them statues of men, and images of other shadows of th.ose 1nanufactured articles co be
animals, wrought in wood and stone and all the on ly realities.
kinds of materials, together with various other Without a doubt they would.
articles, which overtop the wall; and, as you
Now consider what \VOlild happen if the
might expect, let some of the passers-by be talk-
cou_rs: of nature brought them a release fro1n
ing, and others silent.
?1e1r fetters, and a remedy for their toolishness,
You are describing a strange scene, and
in the following manner. Let us suppose char
strange prisoners.
They resemble us, I replied. For let n1e one of the111 has been release<l and con1pe1Jed
ask you, in the first place, whether persons so ~ddenly to stand up, and rurn his neck round
1
confined couJd have seen anything of then1- alet nJ walk with open eyes towards the light; and
. t hat he goes through all these
us sup pose
From Placo 111e Rrpub/lc of Placo. ' franslared by Juhn L. l)avie~ aJld On rl J \ T.
and Co., 18S8, pp. 235- 258. , 'vi · aughan. London: ,\lacnu llan
29
a'tl•'n' ""h pa111, 11nll 1h.11 th~, . iii-'
• ccnllllf 'P1en nor\\_'\ 11urrrurs1n 1<at.er or on ahm ground, but
Jour rvi,1," . 1\101 111oa1~hlt' ol th·~min If I 110,e
-~ A~ 11111n itself 1n 1h own temtory.
'~"' 1)1 '' h1ch he "'Cd t01111t<rly ro ~cc the ()f course .
.JleJ11" \\'h~t 11n~\\C1 'houltl ,.011 C.\Jl!'CI hirn I Ii ~ next ,t;:p wiU he to i.lraw the conclu-
to 11 le-. ti '()Ill(' Oil(' \\ C'l't IU 1dl hun tha1 Ill s1on, that the sun 1; the author of the seasons
th.I~ Jly~ hC' \\J!t \\'atchuig fooh~h ph11nlorns, nnd the years, nnd the guardian of aU thmgs 1n
but that no'' hi' ~ so1newhot nearer tl) renlirv the visihle world, and in a manner the cause of
wJ ,, rumt'tl towinh things n1ore real, and see~ all those things which he and hll companion'>
nl(ltt COl'tt\.'tl)~ abo,·c all. if he'' ere to p<.1in1 out used to see.
n1 hun lhe se' enll ob1et•ts that ure passing by, Obviously, this will be his next step.
anJ qub'tl<m him, 11nu compel him to anS\,·er \\'hat then? \Vhen he recalls co mind his
"hat they att) Should )'OU not expect him to be first hnbirncion, and me wisdom of the place,
puuled, 11nd to ~rd h~ old visions as m1er and his old fellow-prisoners, do you not think
than t.he obi~ no" forced upon his notice? be will congrarulate himself on rhe change, and
Y~, much truer. pity them?
And 1f he ~vere further compelled to gaze Assuredly he will.
1t the bfrht usell, \\Ould not hi eyes. think you,
be ducressed, and \\'Ould he not shrink and rum And now consider what would happen 1f
111\'11} co the things "·hich he could see distinctly, such a man were to descend again and seat tum-
1nd COl\Slder thein to be reallr clellreT tllll.n the self on his old seat? Coming so suddenly out of
thmgs pointed out to him? the run, would he not find bis eyes blinded "ith
JUSt so. rne gloon1 of the place?
And if some one "·ere to drag hin1 \•io- Certainly, he would.
lentl) up the rough and sreep ascent from the And if he "'ere forced to deliver his opin-
ca1cm, and refuse to let him go till he had ion again, touching the shadows afuresaid, and
dra\11l him out into the light of the sun, 'vould to enter the Uses against those who had ah,'llys
he not, think you, be 'cxed and indignant at been pnsoners, while his sight continued dim,
such tre:1unent, and on re:ichtng me bght, and his e)'eS unsteady,-and if tlus process of
\1-0uld he not find his eyes so dazzled by the initiation lasted a considerable timc,-\\·ould he
glare as ro be mapable of maling out so much not be made a laughingstock, and would it not
lb one of the obicas th11t are now called true? be said of him, that he had gone up onl) co
Yes. he would find it so at first. come back again with his eres1ght destrO)'Cd,
Hence, I suppose. habit "ill be necessary and that it was not \\'Orth \\'bile even to ane1npt
to enable hm1 ro pc:rce1~-c obJectS m th:u upper the ascent? And tf any one endea,'Oured co ~t
w'OrlJ. At first he "'ill be mosr successful io dis- them free and carry them to the hght, "'Ould
nngw~1ng sh1tiows; then he "ill ~ me they not go so far as co put bun co death, if they
reft«tions of men and other dungs in \\1lctt, could only rmnage tO get bun mro their po~er?
111d aftcnl'mls the rcabnes; and after chis he will Yes, that mey "uuld.
raise hi C\'eS to encounter the bgbt of the moon :-:ow this umginary case, mr dear c;tau-
mJ -.tan,· tindmg it l~ difficult m mid)· the con. you must apply in all lb pans to our former
hC3'-enlr boches and the hea\"CD nself by night, mremcnts., by rompanng the region which du
dWI ~sun and the SUD°s Light b) my. C)'e ram, t:o the prison-bouse, and the li!fht 0
Doubdnl. the fire themn to the po1o\er of the qm; and iJ
l...ast of all. I unagme. he .,u be able m b)· the upward ISCt'nt and the contcmplauon o
obect•c 9Dd aiamnpllK' the naro.rc of the sun. the upper world, you undermnd tbe ID(~
l0 l'\I<I I 1•1111 ct\111•1111 ~ c11 1 11l • I 1111'1;
•
w.1y 1111' f1t 1ttl '''"'alt llhll I J11 C\ th a1 ,,
ot the '!llll 111Ht tht• 1111t·lh u11.1l 1t·l'IPl1,
,.. y1111 \\ill
111
1111 tht· tl'ndl'lll".r 11 f 111yo\\ 11 ~1111111.,c~, 'l llH• ' y1111
...1y, hy \11ddu 111 ,111\lllf•"'111lw1 11,1111 11K•t11, 1
1l.11l111 ''• " ' f11,111d.11L11t:~'l1t1 ltyl11 Anti lll'li'="
dl''lll' to IK• tuld wh.11 tht•) .Ill', 1h1111j.:h, 1111h·1·d,
( icKI onh I.nu"' \\ht·1hc1 tht ~ .11~ to11t·t1 11111 ,
111.i.: tlic ~.11 11c uh~ t•• l,i; lll•l'l11.al1lc 11, the kllJ)
whc lll"VC I '"t lt .1I'' r •1 •11 M:C.\ :I ,,, \(l lrt ~hK h th;
he th.II II\ II 111.11. I he \It'\\ \\ htl h I 1.1Lt• of I hi'
'>UhJC~t 1, to the: iollowll1!(Cllt•tt. 111 thc wur lcl 111
1111ntl " p1·rpl1·•1"cl ;11111 1111.1lil1• 111 •l•Mmgu 11
oh JI'<1~ 1 li t· wil l 11111 la11gl1 1rra111111.111y, 111n i.~ .,11111
Lno\\ kdgc, the c,,cntinl 1·111111 nf ( ;ood " the
c~:11111n 1· whether 11 li.1\ )'l\t 1p1111cd a I.righter
httlll ol our llHJUtrtc\1 ;111d t .111 harcly he pct
cel\cd; hut, 11.htn pert:c1vcd, \\e c:;1nnot help
life, :tnd h:t'> !>CCII hhndcd l1y the ti••ltlty (If
cla1kne\\1 or whether 11 ha~ t1irr1c fr1,1n rhc
cuncludtn!( th;tt 11 1\ 1n el'el) lJ'>C the \Oline of
depth' of 1gnoranc<.. into a ""'rt hnllrnnt lirt,
11 11 that i' hrtlo(ht nnd bcn11uful 1 in 1h1.: vl\1hlc
and ha~ Ileen clazzlcd hy the 11nu\u;1f ~plcnil11u,
world gning h1rth to light nnd it\ llta\ter, nnd in
and not ull then will he congra1ul~t1: the '•nc
the 1ncdlct1ual worlc.I d1,pen\lng, i1111111:drn1ely
ancl "1th 1\111 authonty, truth and rea<,<111;· ~nd
upon it\ ltfe and cond1uon, ancl <:<1111pa\\i1Jflar.e
the other; and tf he choo\e\ to laugh at It, suth
that who\ocvcr would a<..1. w1\cly, either 1n 1>n-
vate or in puhlic1 1nust set 1h1~ f'om1 of ( :oocl
laughter will be It:\\ ndiculou\ than that whtth
hcfore hi~ eyes.
i~ ra1\ed at the ex1)en~c of the \<Jul that ha1
To the best of my power, ~aid he, 1 quite
descended from the light of a higher region.
ai,rreC! 1vith you. You \peak with great judgment.
I lence, if th1~ be true, we cannot a101~
That being the ca\e1 J continued, pray
agree with 111e on another point, and do not be
adopting the belief, that the real narure of edu-
~urprised1 that those who have cli1nbed 50 high
cation bat variance with the account given of 11
by cenain of it~ profe~sors, who pretend, I
are un\vilHng to cake a part in the affairs of 1nen,
because their ~ouls are ever loath to de.sen that
believe, to infuse into the mind a knowledge of
which it was destirute, just as sight might be
upper region. For how could it be otherwise, if
the preceding si1nile is indeed a correct rtpre-
instilled into blinded eyes.
~entation of their case? True; such are their pretensions.
\.Vhereas, our present argument ~hewon, and an instrument enabling each of u'>
plat:ioo of c.livine object.s for the study of human
to learn; and that, just as we might )oppose 1t to
be impossible w rurn the eye round from dark-
infirmities, should berray awkwardness, and
ness to light without turning the whole body.~>
appear very ridiculous, when witb his sight )till
must this faculty, or this instrument, be wheeled
daud, anc.I before he has become sufficient.ly
habiruated to the darkness that reigns around
round, in company with the enare soul, from
he finds him.,elf compelled to contend in cou~
the perishing world, until it be enabled lO
''.f law, or elsewhere, about the shadows of jus-
endure the contemplation of the real \\ orld and
nee, or nn:ige<. which throw the shadO\\o'S, and to
the brightest part thereof. which, according to
enter the list:. in quesoons involving the ••b"1-
us, is the Form of \TIX><!. Am I not nght?
tra ry suppo~1oons entermined by thoo;e ...who
have ne~er yet had a glimpse of the essential fea-
You are. f
rures of JUStu.:e? Hence, I continued, this ~el) proces<i 0
~o. it Ill anythmg but m:irvellous.

revoluooo must gJ\'e rise to an :in. reachmg Ill
"'·hat W'llY the change will mo-.t ca,1Jv and ~-"t
Right: for a sensible man \\ill recall
effccrualJy be brought about. le.' o!.:~ will not
ihat the e}t) may be confu,ucJ .111 . ,ea
be "' cwo c.l1~nnct vi r
~----~----~-----------to - generate 1n the ~r.<>n th.: P''"'er o. st:e-
< 11 \JTI I R I\\ (l ll>I \I l\\I
11
1111(. On the con ·
ll'lll)', II :lS\lllllC\ th.11 ht· )O\
,c,,e_, it, Uioul(h he I\ rnmed in :i wron g d1rn.:c \IJl~,-1h1· lur11u-r lt1·1 ·""' 1l1r) hA•r '"'""Mir.
tum, and does not look LO\\ arch the ngh1 ma1 k In l1lc, 1<-h11. h th1·> Jlt' " ' 'ttll\lltt11r tl11
llllano::~; and II\ :111111, to rcmed} thi .. defect. encl .md a1111111 •II th~u l•.r11l11u 1.,111 111 pm 11
So it would appear. an<l In puhhc, th e l•m·r, tw1""'r ihr> -.di 11111
Hi.:n~e, 11 hilc, nn the one hand, the other act "tthtJUl ll11t1pul,11m, (Jill) '"Jot •lt•t " 1111,. 1 rl
>t>-called 11rrues of the soul seem to resemble alive, they ha1 c: hccn 1r.m\l,11etl 111 ihc "1,mil• ., 1
the hlcst.
tho\e of ~ e ~>dy, inasmuch as they rci1lly do TI1m is 1nic.
nm pre-eXJSt m the soul, but are formed m ir in
It I\, therefore, our ta\k, I t<1111111uc.I , ,,,
chi: com~e. of time by habit and e.~ercise; the
Ct)nStra111 1ht nohle\I d1ar11uer• in our lrih•ll)
i i nu~ of w1sdom, on the other hand, does most
to arrive a1 that \c:tcnce "h1d1 "" fur111crl) pt 11
cenaml~ .appertain, as it would aprear, ro a no11nc:ed Ll11: highc.'1, and 111 \cl <)t:' UfHlll 1ht
more d1vme ~ubsrance, which never loses itS good, and to mount 1ha1 O-.t:t:nt \le 'f\Olr ol,
energy, but ?Y change of position become~ use- and, when they have mounted anti loolctl Ion!(
~~ and ~el'Vlceable, or else remains useless and enough, \It mu'>t cake t'3 re w rc:fi."c them 1hJt
m11mons. For you must, ere this, have noticed liberty wh ich i> a1prt\cnt penm11etl th1·111
how keen-sighted are the puny souls of those Pra) what 1s that?
who have the repucation of being clever but The libeny of ~ra> mg" htrt tht:) ore, ,111d
vi~ious, and ~ow sharply they see through the refu..ing to descend ag:un 10 thmc pmoner.., 111
things to which they are direeted, thus prov- partnke of their tmls and honour;, be the) mrJn
mg that their powers of vision are hy no means or he ther c:xahetl.
feeble, though they ha11e been compelled co Then are we ru do them a \I rong, dnd
become the sen-antS of w~ckedness, so that the make them live a life t11at i~ wor"' thun the uno:
more sharply they see, the more numerous arc within their reach'
the evils which they work. )'<Ju have a~rain forguncn, 111}' fncnd, d1at
Yes, indeed it is the Clise. la" d~ not ask itself ho,1 wme one cla" m J
But, I proceeded, if from earliest childhood >ra te t) to live cxmordinaril)• well. On the t(Ul
these characters had been shorn and ~tripped of crary, it mes u> bnng about tht~ resul1 111 1he
tho~ leaden, earth-born weightS, which grow entire state; ...
and cling t0 the ple:isures of eating and glunon- Then, Glaucon, ba1e ""' not here 1ht'
Olb enioymencs of a similar narure, and keep the acrual hymn, of which dialeCtJcal rca\on111g "
eye of the soul rumed upon the things below;- the consum1J12uon? This hpnn, falhng a, 11
1f, I repea1, the}' had been released from these does within the tlomam tlf the intdlc:ct, C>tn ton I)
snares, and rurned round to look a1 objeas that be imn:ired by the facull)•of ~gh1, "h•l h, ,., "r
are oue, then these very same souls of these very said, ~trivcs to look steadily, fil'\t at 111a1rrrnl ~111
same men would bal'e had as keen an C}'C for such mals, then at the stars them.the), und l3>t of 111
pursuits as they :1ctll2lly ha11e for those in which ar the very sun it.,cJf. In 1he ~amt wJ), "heno:' er
the~ are now engaged. a person sm1·cs, by the hdp of dulccul, to 'tan
Y~. probably it would be so. in pu~'llit of C\'t:I) real ti) b) a .unplc pmc:c>.> of
Once more: is it not also probable, or reason, 111dependent of all '<ll•UOU) 111turm.i
r:1ther i it not a necessary corolla ry to our pre- oon,-ncver A1ndunit, unul b) an dCl 11f thr
\110\IS remarks. that neither those who are uned- pure mcelhgcncc he h1b gn;ped 1hc rt-al n~1111 c
ut"ilted and ignorant of truth, nor chose who are of good.-hc am\"" at t.ht •cl') end uf 1he mrcl
\llffered to bnger O\'Cr thClJ' educaoon all their lect\12l "orld, JU>t aJt the b;1-mcm1uned J'C.'' ""
bfe, can e--er be competent ove~eers of g am~ed at the end of rhc: \lilble "orld
1111111'illl'llll \()f I l
>l <.ATI J'
' •
t
I' \N I I
( '·~< I l \IC )1~ 111 1

11' 11ldl 'ii • IHI 11111 I t"I I I
1 1 ~111 one 11 f 1hc " I rr 11f h111n:u1 n lllr t" I 1 I
'i
I I 1
111 t h 'I''' I l \le rl 1111111~'1 '• • ' I und irucll<'l lll c•• I 111 t rht ll r
• &111• ~p1111111 I "111 lllllfl C'i ,, , J
pl11l"'"l'lt11 \ \11i1111111111g 1untl rn1 "' '"o It I I
"""'1111111
I II 1 ... ur1 nn < 1cn111y " uc
,,,, ""' 1111 II I'I II I'~"PI) I I 111irh. ~(1(11 1Ill' }·'--·
,,.i 111.l 111•11111 l•.111,.11 11111 '' ' tcill ~
1
1111111 c\i·ryont 111 C\cl) plrt 1 on J I
h1~•l 11·,1 ,,,,,I 11t 1111t1.1l11\, 1111 iht• ,,unc ": lcid 'lttrdtnt'l 111 r e.;11!11· ' " J f ii
\\ li1111I '' Ill 11111·llr1 llhl( 11g1' lll)1 tlc'i~rt\CI Ill •.. ) llld Hlltllt•<.:111.11 j.fllllle r J ,cJ
th 1• h1~h1•1p.111 .. of1h1·11n1n111·. 'J'c.al·her' 'llC ..tp1r1t11th ... •
of1ielf-di'>t'o\t.' I) h
11t 1 c Ln1Ll
11,c111•1111~ .ii, h.11.1111.1 ''ho lt..111 'i1111lt:nts on 1 lt: p.i
1>1'( l ~\l()'J (.)l I !-.11()1'

h f ti rion i'> relC\ ant or irr1:IC\ .1nr to c
t. 1>0)1111111:111•\'t' ldc:.ill'1mnsa philusop yo c uca
tt·111p11r II) l'd11c:.i11on• I I
i. l)t''lrilic .lnd nn;lly.,e ho\\/ the Socratic dialogue operate~ J~ an t:l uc.iru ina J!ttr'Jte!!}
\, l lt1\\ t.1n 1c.11.hcr., he niodcf<; of values? Js the Idealist conccpnon ot rnt> c tno .1nd
n1t·ntonn1< rclc"an1 co concempornry cducnaon?
4. l}u ~011 think contcrnporary Anicrican cducacion need~ 1<.Jeals, 1ncJ<lcl,, Jnd i:.lt:1n
pl.11,> I· 'l:pla1n your all5'vcr.
5. So1nc l'th11:r11ional 1hcoric!i point out the differences between people 1n tl!m1., oi ra t,
l'thnlc.11), g"<:nucr, and cla~'>. Idealism tends to 1nini1ni7e these difference-. b, 91.:t:1:ntu
uung u univcrs;1l human narure. Whjch side arc you on? \\'h)'?
6. f)c,c.:ril>c anu analyze the Idealist view of irnitation, mentoring, unJ ... ctf-.1Lll\ 10 1n
cduent ion. •
7. I>t·s7rihc how the hierarchy of generality operates in the organization of th~ fJt·.tl"t
cu rr1 c11 Iun1.

I. I lave '>Cvcral students obtain a copy of the oal 0 f h . .
\vhich 1hcynrc teachingordoingtheir cliniJ c s .: c school d1str1cr or :ith1x1l 1n
project, analyze these goals and det . .f xpericncc. As a colln lx>rJrt\.: ll .lrt1111!'
ciple of generality or if they are p enninedi they ~re ordered nccordini.t u1 .l p1111
}dcali~1 rcaet to these scatcinents of ;~~~:e as having equal valu.:>? I It)\\ 111i~h1 111
2. ntcrv1c'v several experienced teachers and ask q . h I
nnture of the teacher and the lea Th ' uestJons t at elicit rhc1r 1J,..1, ''" t \l'
. I rr . 'f
u1 icrcnt rrron1 t hc fdealisl conccpti rner. f hen , dete r1n 1nc h I
I t cir iJc,l'.'> ,\fl' .. 11111 .11 .11
3. c:onslruct, in outline fonn a cu ?" ,0 t e teacher and the lc·1r11cr
. II . ' rr1cu um th . b . .
t·ia Ytho!>c of n h1cra.rchy of gene L' at is ased on Jdcali-.r pr1n,iplt' ''f"
4. Il I,en r'fy • I anu. 1 rcvte\v
' ' rcat' •
a classicra •ty and . doctrtnc
k . the · of prcpar.1t1un.
· '
c~ass1c. wor in litcraru.re. Detcm11nl! \\ h\ I h~ 111)(•~ '' •
S. ( 10 co an art !{&llcry and study . . ,
, J) , . paintings th
n1aslcrs. cccrin1ne why these · pa1nt1ngsarcca1J
. . · at aredreuarded C\
as th c\\uri..\11
•.
1. t tht' "t.!1• ~·
e masterpieces.
I
( JI \I' 11 It I \\ 11 1111 \It ,\ J
I I I· RNl·· r lt l~S< > U I~ ( 1:~
P.1ul h.n1t·r1111\ l.''·'}• " ltl• \11 11111,11 11111 ,. 1 I Ii

. t. . "' t '.I "1111, " I
ti\· '' I 11
II •• ' t If
' ' \\ \v,p uloi.oph) lo111111 ...t·n111/c'i'lllY'/lcll 1tli., 111 ,111 n 1 1
I hl· I ntl:nll· t I· nc.yc. 1011l•l II .I Cl I 1'1 II ICl'llfl II) l Il\lll't'-11 .., ( 11' 111 1,111 ltl1·,iJ1•,111.11
W\V\V.11ti11 .t:d 11/ /rc'ICll rt·h/it•p/ 1(1/(Cflllid l·u.111 Il l
Untl\h l1k..t11, 111 , t•n11"il1
f•11 r •I d1,c..11\\lllll uf
www. p ..a.oc .ukl,pl(rp/hlcnl i'ln\ .h1 cnl
I oc l· rccdn~h S\.hcl1111i.:'s l1,1n,lt·11dt·111.1l"1phdo ..o ph y,11111\ult

W\vw. n Ill rx 1'> l' .Ori(/ refc rc11c.·1:/, 11 hj cc·1/phiIc1\oph yl '"' 1rk,/l(t:I"<'I1cl Ii'' I<. I11111 I
suc;c; r~s·1·10Ns F()R JIN C;

i\hrcn,dorf, Pc1cr J /'hr /)r111h 11/ \11.,1/lr• 1111tl thr I l/1 11/ /'b1/t1111phy 1111 lflt1•1/111·1111l111111/ l 'l11111'1 /'/1111·d11
Alh,1n). '1Y· \1.11c L111111·1 "t) 11f "\t 11 Yod.. l'r i.:• ,, 1•J•J~
1\n11;1,,Juli.1 111 /1111 ud111111111111 /'/,110 1 Nr11u/t/1, ()\luril ( l1nr11l11111'1t:"'• J'JIJI.
11100111, \II.in ll•r Hrpulr/i. uj l'/11tu 'l" '•11~ 11.t \ll 1111<1~•. l 1Jf1H
Budcr,J l)on,1ltl l./r.1'111111n I tu.1t11J11 't." '"rl.: I IJIJKI 11111{111•, JIJf.ft
I 11IM:n,J Peter / 1/.1tun1, ,\oi1r 1'1111tt1t111 'J l'r111cc:t11n l 111\tl\ll\ 1'1c.:''• 2001
C:.1ulrotccr, \1e11hi.:11 /)rJrn1tr1 ' ' ' tr111 1 \ tu> I /'I 1/0 pl.., :-.:(IA \'111L ( .1111hr11l1<1. l 11111c.:r,11y Prt·,,,
2002
C1rah.1111, \ \ 1lh.un /Jr.1/irm In l'JJ. 11, \foaph " ti Jtnd <"" .1/ llr"111I l K I h11c111111c,, IIJ!J I
c.ncr, \lc thcllt:. l\;Jll/ 11 />oi111nt 11/ /11JnJttllJf/lt.:1I l/11111 II :-.:c\\ York. ( ..1111br11l1<c l Ill\/( '"'Y 1'1 c;,,,
l 00 I
I lomt:, I lc.:nnJn 11 //!, /J "'°'''"'' l 1Ji1l ,pl·> ~1 /.;/IJi,Ul •fl 'c.:" '"rk \1.u nullan (.o, 11)12.
l r11111, lcrcnrc / 1/11101 I 11°111 'c.:11 '"rk I ),tor1l l nl\cl'll~ f'rc ''• l'J1JS
Kcr\lc1n, \a111utl.J >..1111 ' ~r11.I• /11 rl \up1r111r /'11n.iplroj \luri1/1ty. 't"' Y11rk (,a111l1ndicc U111vl·1
\ll) Pre''• JOO.?
h.uchn, \IJnfrc.:·d /n1111.1nurl J\;1n1 11 lltoqrarl·, ''\\ \ or k· (.scnlinilgc l'n1,i.:r~1ty l'n:•-. ZOIJl
' t:hJ11t.1\, .\ lc.:\.lllclcr I uturs uj l111J.rnt1t11) I .Jl n / 1/.1111 .i11J S01.rdUI. Pnntct1111 '-J 1'11111111111
l'111,cr,11\ l'rc''• l'i'IH
' cuhou,l:r, I· r..-.ient l l 011n1L1110111 oj I lrv,rfs ~IJI I brof) ' I 1u.1ltz111g I rrrikm (.a111hnilgc, MI\ I IJcv4rcl
l Ill\ er.II\
P re.:·,,,,!()()()
l'cnl.1r.t. 1\:rn . i ltv,rl:11 Jl1a'l_111ph '\cu \orL. ('111nhndgc l 111vcrs1t} Pre:·~'· 200 I
l'bt11 / 1'1 R1p:i/oft, C~ R I I crr•n. c: I ' c~ Y11rL: <...a111!.r11IKC U111,cn l) Pre '• 211<10
PIJt11 .\~,.,rru111m oj /'Lua 111111 (,ntri1h. rnn Hcrkc;lc~, < \ l 11no.:r'll} 1,f <•.ll (1,n11~ l'rcs l 1JH1l
1
H.{'l·hc r, ' 1..:ho!J, /lum.1n \Jfllrt 1n /Jt11l1Jt Prr prtll~t l'nncettJ11, ~J Pnnlo.:U1n Unl~lf\llf l 1c 'i,
IW.!
\ ,·htlhnll. rnc; lri h \\ 1H 11 JId.JI'"' 11nJ :Jot l:.nd~amt of /lrrrt l :.SIJYJ I:.1l11eil anti 1ran~IJ11•rl liy
' \ 'It •,. L·ru,o.:nil) of ~cv. \"cal l'rr:si., l J')~
1
(h, 1n1' l'l1ii \1 1 1 \
\~ hl•rt. (.~""' \ Pl.t::i 1 .,._ .•,,, .\J~n), :-.; \ Sate t;m .emr; l.f :-:~ Yrirk J>rcs\, 211'1'1
\t.ii.ttt:P, l>el'Cn P'4 ) In ~w: rht f};u Jum<t Alb.in), ~ Y Sr..:.c Un1,·c~t)' vf l\~ Y1 irk
pre-,., , :001
\\o.:bb. Thomi' F Tl:t In/ · Jm:A ~s --F.tr.1J1et1ldt4hrm Hr ol, l."'K:Thr.<mmo I /'XI
~ 1 £S
L .M •11 - el ~ 1 I C,... •f Sit>J.TJf'h •L'T Yark; Cunbrid~ t.! Wl"Cl>ll) Pr , ~00' )
. i« 'S:VJ.iw1zys acife, '*Ci z:od ~ ~ lmm•nucl Kmi. ~ Annette Ch~
1 •
a! \om \i:x L.:...aei::-=;i ci~P•t:a..10!> '

So+ •w Q k:o '*! i'.:....£,ia::is ' ei.· \hrlc HCU) ·'- Ahnms. 199 ), pp 14--J
11:«.a.DL.'J'Dcfi !infs& JUJgib E Sut!ll. "JdealiC!!!· •.\ OaniialJOll af an Eduanlcmal Phi-

b;pt~.,- F fe r;,M,{T ~ :; 6 ,,., 19J5). :6J--_:- J..
j )•'!:r1 £..Cc? 'A r • .v~ JC..iwn .-4 r.i>t- .in tf Tud>.alg (New \Orie Pirman, 1967), pp.
3-H.
L J.F'Jor:V= A:i!ei, 14 6
W• Eb a; r~ \'cd: Huper and Row, 1966), pp. 98--103,
- hr!.~ rOi llL
• • • • •
REALIS~1
'I'hi~. cha pter focu'c' on Rc:1li~1n, \\hose foundauon., go back to •\r1,torlc 1n .inLtt'.nt
cl:is:-ical <~rcec~. Reali sin asserts the reality of an objective ortll·r- \\'hat i., 0111 tht!rc. or
~xtc.rnal l<~ us, 1<; real. \:Ve begin the chapter by defining Rct1lis111, followed h\ an ex:in1-
1natton of its po~ition on 111etaphysics, episte111oloh')', a'\ioloh')» and lo!-ric. \\·~then dr.t\\
out and d1!ic11ss 1t., irnplications for education.
DEFINING REAI ..JSM
In defining Reali:-111, we begin \Vith its root, real. 1() be real rneans to ha,·e an ,11.:tual
physica I existence that is not n product of the hun1an intellect or i1nagin:1tion. Re,1lisn1
111eans having a practical understanding and acceptance of che \\'orld, rather than an
idealized or rornnnticizcd ver!iion of it. In philosophy, Realisn1 n1eans that u1H\·ers;1I.;,
scientific principles, anti l'! thical ~ind aesthetic vnlucs exist independently of people!'s
thought'> or perceptions. When people think realistically, their ideas and concepts
conforrn to what exists in the real world of objcccs.
Reali!i1n is n philosophy that asserts that \Ve li\'e in a '"orld of objects that truh·
t:xist and arc c:<tcrn:i l to us. Although ohjccts exist outside of us, \Ve can acquire 1nto;-
1nation about thc111 and corne to kno'v the111. 1~he basic pre1nises of Realis1n :ire: ( t) " ·e
live in a \VOrld of ohjc<.:ts, persons, and phcno1nenon that are extern.ii to us; (2) \\'e can
acquire infor111ation about these objects :inti, indeed, co1ne to knO\\ then1 .ind nnJer-
stand ho ..v they funclion and relate to each other; (3) generalized kn<)\vledge, t)r theoi;.
about these objcct'l is the hest guide to action, condul't, :ind hehn\'ior. '''e L'Ollle! to
know reality through our sens:ition of d~un frorn objects and the proccs · of L'onc:eptu;1l-
1z:1tion orK:inizinJ{ concepts in the n11nd thar correspond to the obiel't 111 reJlil} .
Rcali-. 1n, with irs crnphasis on objective ~no ..vledge-krHl\\'ing \\hut ts out ~he~e-can
he l·11111ra'>tcd with l<lea lioi1n\ cl:iirns thnt ideas about kno"vledgc arc suhicctl\'C nnd
latently pi c-.cnt in the hu111:1n 111ind. A!;\\ ill bl! ~ccn in later ch;1ptcr.,., Reali.,111'.; t.•111phJ
.,,., on obict:uve rcal11y that ex1'1' prior 10 our c:cpe11l'nt·c L'<>ncr~~t' ~\1th the ~n,1run1cn
ta "'' view of knowlcdg'e found 111 P nl!(llliH 1s1n (di'l'llssed 111 ( .haprer ') .111d the
phcnon1t.•nol0Kil::1I vie\V of F~is1c111 i:1lis111 (111 <:haptcr fl).
35
36 P\RI I Plfl lO..,l )Pllll'- ( ll ll>Ll \lll >1'
SITUATING R.E..\LIS;\ 1
·k . lt tcni ( ;1 ecce. \.Vhtlc Idea li..,111\
Rt:>;1l1s1n's onl!ln... like 1host' o l c.
r l I utlis111' ~()., >:H.:1 ~llIO .ll < .) f(>11ndcd Rea I1-.111. I I 41kc h'''
I
11
.k>unui:>r "''" ' Pt1co, h,., ~tulIetit 1\ r 1stotlc( .(J 8'kt ' l'>
S<
•
>j>hcr log1
· ·
c1an anc
I nat uraI and
.. en l Tree p11 1
, 1
n1entor, :.\.1iscotlt:> \\'ttS :1 lei1u~ng- .inci

. 1• , • ' •
. •1 Jhilosoph ica l sch<1ol 111 Ath en .. and,
poliricill scienrist. He established the Lthyce(~ ~ ' ' 1B,., ..1t 1se he e1npJ1a-,ized ob'iervat ion
1 1
f. Al der e Tl ear ""'' ·

t(>r a tin1e, \\·as the tutor o exan Ar' tl~'s versic>n c>f rea lis111 is ca ll ed Nt1111r11/
Jnd classification of 1~an1ral phenoinena'. ist~ . . ·ho when they act acc<>rding to
Re11/i.m1 . •o\ristotle defi ned huinans as rationa.I hetn gs, w cu' re The life lived acc<>rc.l1ng
:c.. th h' h . lity of their uman na .
rea on, exemp l11f e ig est qua . thics Aristotle advised people to
ro reason gives humans their greatest happiness. In e ' d .
r10 11O\V th ego/.'den 711en11, an e th'1cal stan ce and attitude that takes a mo ·e rateAri pos1uon ti
bet\veen extreme repression · and uuru1u-=-L:b·1ted an d unrestrained expressio
. n. sto e •
for example, believed courage is a virtue that lies between ~oward1ce and recklessnec,s.
The coward Bees every moral and physical challenge while the reckless person acts
rashly without a plan or strategy. The ti-uly courageot1s person knows when to advance
and \\ID the battle, but also knows when to retreat strateg.ically to live to fight anotller
day. For Aristotle, the good life was one in which decisions were determined rationally
according ro k:nowledge and in which the person chose moderation. Together reason
and moderation made it possible to lead a purposeful, balanced, and harmonious life-
free from ignorance and from extremes of behavior.
From the trunk of its Aristotelian origin, Realism developed several branches.
Thomism, named for Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a medieval Dominican scholas-
tic, is a God-centered, theologically based version that is also called Theistic Realism.
(fhomism is examined in Chapter 4.) Classical Realism is a modern version of the
philosophy that returns to its Aristotelian roots.
Sense Realism emphasizes the use of the senses in gaining kn l d b t the
·d id d· r · . ow e ge a ou
ours1 e wor , an m 1onrung concepts about it. In educaa· d ch 1· S
· th ·
Realists emph as1ze e importance of using obJ.ects as the p · on an s oo rng, ense
d f· ·
They argue that pure1y verbal forms of mstruction . wh · h dnmary mo e o 1nstruct1on.
inadequate in forming clear ideas about reality. Tb~ t ic epend so.lely .on word~, are
rily in education especially the hi'sto f d . errn Sense ReaJ1sm 1s used pr1ma-
, ry o e ucaaon h d f
H . ? t 0 d'tstmgws
· · h th
John Amos Cornenius (1592-1670) and] 0 h e met o s <>
those that are highly verbal. ann einrich Pestalozzi (1746-182 7) fron1
Scientific ReaHsts assert that objects exist and . . .
independently of us. By using scientific re h inter~ct with each other in reality
objects and the patterns of how they fun ~earcS, ":'e c_an discover the structure of the!lc
'6 . . .
ti c 1nvesogaaon seeks to locate identify d
0
c on. cientific
. R e alism contenus . 1 th .
at sc1en-
'.11'd uno?ser:vable" aspects of our' world.2 Th:scri.be, and explain both the "observa.ble
1s the setentific method. While Scientifi R ~pistemology used by Scientific Rcal1~t~
1
means of arriving at the most authoritatic : isrs rely on the scientific inethoJ as the
discovering how the world works. Unlik v~ powledg~, they see it as an insrrun1ent of
also emphasize the scientific method the se· ra~atJsts (discussed in Cha peer 5) "ho
. how rea 11ty · operates rather e c1ennfic R 1·
, th
discovenng ea ists see it as an in.,rnimen t o1·
an as a mean s o f rnaking · reality 1;onfonn 111
t II.\[ l IR 1111<1 I RI '\114'\t
11 p111p1"l" < >h1ctt1\t

11 1
r1 :il11\ 1' 11111 1hcrc, Sl1cnllhl Rc 11 '' ,, rt. re r:irdlt:'' It
" L1,d 111d 11• 1l11u .ii 1111It111111 '· \ l 11:1111 hl cl1t11r1c' ore c\pl:in 11111n~ 111 ho\\ ph'' 1.:
11
Jnd
1111111 1111· 1ht\ ll111c111111' .111d Ill: 11111 '11111 1h h11111.1n lllll"ll11c1111n<; I, r \ Lrcnutit R<al
1 ~ 1 ,, P 1111•111' 111 phr11cH11111.1 .Ill' d1,r11\cl .d1l1 II\ 'lll'.lllc 111d 111 re I 111 de , t 1 pe 1 llt•ll
th II !''''llll the l1111t111111111g ul tht: ph~,1t 1l .1nd 11.11111 ii \\nild 1 ht' p nem' rc\e I
It µ11l,111t \ Ih.ll opl I.lie\ 1n tht• \\ orld l '111µ 't.'lClltlhl lt 1hnolog1cc; "' c tc , n' t tht:
'l ll'l ', 11d' u' II\ tht• d1,co\t'I') ol the P•llll'I .,, of rt:.1111). I h1, c:1cnt1tit kn''' cd e 1 the
11111'1 .1111ho1 1t.1t1\C guide to undcr,1.1nJ1nl! ph)'l<:.11 ind n;1t11r.1I re 1ht'\
'-11tl' th.It 111 "rt:1cn11ht: Rea lt,111 , ,1, 111 cnher \anet1t.''> of R1·:lh,n1, chc cn1ph.i'1' ,,
on d1,rovering \\hat t\ out there, untlers1anJ1n~ it, anJ u'1n!{ ll ·yh1, appro.it:h to~ 1-
enl'l' ·''.in
' . .11:1 of intnr1ncd d1-,co' en. differ!. fro111 the Prahrn1~1 '"
ti'1 cn1ph.1"" on 11'1ng the
'tl ll llllht n1ethoJ to con,truct <l soc1all~ preferred or con,cn.,u;tl detin1non of kno\\ l-
edge (J1,cu,~e<l 1n ( hapter 5).
WJIY S1~U l )Y REAi .ISM?
"fhere are at least three rt:asons for sn1dying Realis1n: (1) for its h1stoncal s1gn1hlJncc.
(2) for it' popularity as a com1nonsense, or nai\·e, \\'ay of kno\\tng: (3) for its edut-a-
uonal 1111pnrtance. L ike Idealism, Realisn1 is one of the major philosophies thJt hJ'e
an enduring hi!>tory in Western culrure and thought. Its origins date to -~stocle n
anl1en1 C~reece; it was a dominant philosophy during the 1neJie,·a l period \\'hen 1t ",1,
rcfonnulated by Tho111as Aquinas as Theistic Realism; it \\'as used by educators such •l'
Pe.,ta lozzi to develop object-based instruction in the nineteenth century: it \Yas refor-
111ulated as Scientific Realism and continues to exercise an influence on contemporJr.·
thou~ht.
\ Vhether they officially ackno,vledge the philosophy or nor. many people .ire
co1nn1on,ense or na'ive realisrs in ho\v they conceive of Imo" ledge and thought: 1f 1r·~
out 1here and I can see it, it must be real. Scientific Realism is often called a co1nn1on -
sense philosophy in that its basic assertions are in line with the generally accepted \\a~
in which 111any people develop th eir view of the \VOrld as a result of direct e:\.11erience.
"J exist and live in a world of other persons and objects that I can see, touch, s1nell. or
fcel," is the co1nmonsense expression of the Realist position .
•
VAJl lETIES O F IIBALISM DERIVED FROM ARISTOTLE'S
NA'l'URAL llEALISM
• Clussical Realism: Emphasis on human rationality in Aristotelian contC..\ t
• T heistic Realism, T homism: En1phasis on a God-created unl\Cr..e
• Scientific Realism: f.1nphasis on science and the scientific method as the 1110,c
Juthorr ta rive knowledge
• Sense Realis1n: E111ph:1sis on using the hu111:in senses to acquire inforination :ibout
the \Yorld
j~ l'\Jfl'I PillLl>Sl)PJlll'il)l ' l' l>ll'\lill'
l1ohilll1L~ .1111 II h•ll .I~

. 11 I hl' de\,. I1 •pll l\.I ,, I
11 I
r
.111 I
I
lot
Realism \\Ji. '1g-n 1ht.1n1' I. '"1'1111''"'1' 111,1 h1111;i • 11,111d,1d1111

I tt•1111d " ll n 11111
. 1111 1 dh tltc "' 111 \ 11 .. 1111 I1 , I I11 • •'.1111 1 , 1
111 ,nl.lction. In rhc 111t'lI ll'' .1 I '
I I 1ht• lllt'll'lll ll'\I'· l ' . •
ror:. en1ph.1sizcd 1he ,nu' u •
1 •1,. 11c,· , .Ith .II• 11, ''"It ·'' < 11111111111, •111 .i
. • ' I. 1 I he .tgt' ,1 ' l , • I
l'h;n11p1on ol Re.1 1s1n. n .. 1 111 in "ti 11 II 1ht .. 1111 1·111., !>1111 111 .f 111111 .l 1,
I • t\C ol :-.cnsc 1c.1 I' •
Pc~r.lluzz1 e111pha.;1zetJ 1 ic 1 • , ·I 1tlllt' :-.c11·1111h1 1~1 .111 ...111 1 1.1~ 1111111<'111 1'<1
, 1· nbcr :JtH 1nonll' 11l •
•ind learneJ their or111, nut • l t )t"' , 1 \\I\ 10 d1,t o\1 1 .111d 11111111111,,h
1
' d
edul'illionnl str:neg1cs 1:it use · l 1l t' 1
'}
• )()['~I l
·' ' ' ' ' ' 11
c\ists in 1he physic.ii '"orl<l.
tu:.\l IS!\l ..\SA PIIlLOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

In t h.rs secoon,
. '<l Re 111·s111 ... c ,re <lid 1Je;tl1.;111. 111 tt't lll"t oft ht• fo111 111.1 111r
'''e cons1 er ' · ""' II
-•· · ·
su but\'lStOns o f ph'l1osoph).: metaph,·s1
·i·cs· • episren1olo•n.
• :--.
:I\ 1nlo~'\• , nnt O!-(H. •ind thtn
develop son1e educational i1nplications.
Metaphysics
For Realists, the basic asserrion about realiry is rh:1r there is :1 "real" \VOrld of objects
that exists independently of us bur th;1r '''e can ilcquire \.:no" ledge :thout it. These
objecrs have a <lu.11 con1position in that they are rn:1teri:1l (cotnposed of n1atter) and
organized according to a design or sm1crure (:1 fon11). :\ [Jtter is the n1aterial front
\\•hich objects are 1nnde. Fonn is rhe de..;i1.,rn or stn1cn1re thac 1natter takes in order to
-
become sorneching. Nore the dunlif). or f\\ o-ness. th;tr 1s present: real it} is comprised
of objects that (I) consist of 1n1111er and (2) n1L.e •l fon11.
Hu111nn beings possess the po\\·er 10 sense oh1cccs-the\· can see hear feel
h •~ •
sine II , anu tnstc 1 c~n. 1, he sensory proct'SS brings sense nnpressions-inforniation ns
.I I t I
"""' d:1n1-~o the n11nd. fht· hun1t1111nind, lilt> .1 Ct)tnp11rer, h.is the ability, the internal
progrnm m.1ng, 1.0 son ou t 1ht·~t· ~ensol") i111pressin11s ;inti ro recognize the forni or
structure, 111 \l'h1ch tht.•y rt·~idc.• 1111d 11rc Jll'CSl'llt \ \ 1 1 •n th" <l ,;.... '. ·
. .
basc<l on t hc Ionn of nn ohJl'l'I. ,\1-'t1in nott' th it 1.. )\\ n · · <: -. nun •\1m1s a concept, tt •~
11 1 I f d
I.unc11on· : scnsa11011 · \\•111c • 11 tlt•111, "11h ' 111.Hrl'r ·lnd ih t ~ resu rs ro111 a n,·o-pronge .
·, · d · ·
that dcol.; "'irh fnnn \ \ 'h .11 , , .
1 · · sll"\ll tion, ;ln concepruahzat1on
1 1'' l'111111'u ' I )f b' I I d
the cxistl'ncc of othl'I •
,11•1t " 111'l ,,I\
l'h t. It'
L.
"•lr'
't:l 1 o 1ecrs, ,,.ea so inc u e
. . ' ' l'\ j)Ollll ' ' th II r' 11' . b' . to U'i-nOt
.
1n~1<lt· u<t 11s 111 tht: l'tl't' Uf hli•:tli, 111 lnu ,, , . · c:. •t) ts o 1ecave
1 11 11 1
I I0\\1 l IHI I"'\\
I t t · .ll'\i1 11.110" ·1hle r)
l
11rld l'lll1t1• 11\ltl l'\1\1 \ 1. , ... F . { us.·
tht:l'l' -it l'\l~t ... l.'111 l'ht•i.,111· Rt't\li l tr r' ~ \)I 'llllle Rt':lltsrs. the \VOrld i~ si111pl)
\\' I10 I1\11 It tll lll t' t't'Utl\111 111111 ,. 111, 1 •in' ' · Ill II\ \fl\1~1, · • th <:\\OT ' ItI \\':JS created b\ ('rO. J
• t ,..1 11 11 •t\. und 111 .11• '-' • ·
cn1•t• 1n p rov1d1•11 1'11.· 111'} nh11111 lh« 11 1 ·r h ti , "~·1cnnhc Realists look ro sc1-
81~ Bnn~ ' l' hl·t11)'· t\ lc·1'11ph} '"•Ill• 1:1 gtn '' i t' 111'1\ t' l 'l\ '111.'h ·''Chaos Theon or the
· "
•ll'l't'pt r I11• l' " 't1•111·r nl 1h1· "i1tld 1111 I I
tl'i111,11l1r11t
L • 1, '
I
I lt' 1111p1>rtJnt point ·
j, thJc \\ C
l I lt' tlnl<'t l ' lll I
• ' l't't ,un, 1n 1c ,1, external ro LI"
Fpiste tl\olui.;)'
Rt'.lh\l\ 1111\\\ l ' I I"· 11111 \I 11111 " 11
I11.1 I"'· I Ollt't'Jllllll\ ' <111 \ L:
II\\ •
l 111 II .1lt1 I I' '"'"
\ t \ht 111 th, \\<111.t
l'll \l> lFR 11lRFr RF \l TS\I
39
e.qnipped to .!..no\~ this re11.l11~ by \\hat Ari~totle i<lcnufied as our <lefinin!{ characren'>-
lll~)\1~ r:inonality. Reali-;t philosoph) c1nphas1zes the cultivation and exerci')e of
r-Jt1on:1ht)' s:; ednc:11ion 's prinlar) funcriun.
. ()t1r t":ltio1~,1lit) is haseu on the n\•o-fold hu111an ro,verc; of sensation and ab<,trac-
tion. Hun1:1n beings possess sensory organs: the eyes \vhich have the Jl<''ver to see·1 the
ears to hear; the nose to sn1ell; the tongue and n1ourh to taste; and the finger<,, to feeJ.
These se11so~· organs focus on the 1naterial characteristics (the matter) of the obietu
,,·e. encounter and can give us information about these objects, such as s1ze, shape,
,,·eight, color, sound. odor. If \Ve encounter an apple, our senses inform us that 1t is red,
round, hard. and S\\'eet. Ho\ve,·er, in the initial stage of our encounter, we have before
us an object. :\pple is the name \Ve give it after \Ve first use our senses and then think
about it and arrive at a general concept of \\•hat constitutes or is necessary for an apple
to be nn apple.
Sensation of an object's matter is the first part of the knowing process. It gives us
crude iI1forn1ation about something. In computer-like fashion , our minds begin to sort
this infom1ation and grasp the objects' underlying form or structure. It is the struc-
tural components, the necessary qualities, that \Ve use to generalize the object into
concepts. or large categories. To return to the example of the apple, we may discover
that there are many objects that are like the apple \Ve observed- they have the general
qualities that n1ake them an apple but do not have the qualities other objects possess.
Those formal or structural qualities that are necessary for an object to be what it is are
called necessary tonditions and those that are sometimes found in the materiality of the
object are occidental ones. For an apple, the necessary conditions are that the apple is a
round, hard, edible fruit that gro,vs on a certain kind of tree. However, some apples
may be red and others yello\v, some may be 5'\'eet and others sour. vVhat we generalize
to is the concept of an apple. It is the po,\·er to abstract from our sensations that gives
us the po'lver of rationality. \\'e may enjoy or not enjoy eating apples. We may choose
or not choose ro buy apples. If '"e decide to purchase apples, we can decide how many
apples \''e \\'ant to btl)'. These all can be rational decisions, if we so choose.
Axiology
Realism1s ethical and moral principles are based on the belief that all bwnan beings
participate in a general human narure. All people, regardless of \vben and where ther
li\·e, have the same general needs, hopes, fears, and desires. As Aristotle stated, the
•
REALIST EPISTEMOLOGY: HOW DO WE KNOW?
l possess senses that can focus on an object.
•\1v senses give a1e infonnnrion abour the object.
~1)· rrund sorts this inforn1arion into necessary and accidental charaeterisncs.
I amYe at a concept of a generJJ class of objects.
l''Jfl I Pl ULO'>OPllU:S OF FDl.:CA 11<>~
common defining fean1re of hun1an11:y l\ the power t() he ,.aoonal and U> have the frca.
dom to ntalce the choit.-es that aem)t thi~ rauonality. Because of thit nuonalny,
people C\erywhere ID the world have developed and 11~ lent(llagc:-the milt nf' !Jn
11.nd wi:in:en C\pre ion and coinmunicaoon. Dei.pice different k1n•h1p and yn.ap rcb.
oonsh1p!>, all people ha,·e crc:1teJ a culture and developed 11 vic1ety. Dap1u: differ-
ences of expression and St} le, all people have created and ob1ec;o6cd tht•r '""Pm
literature, ~us1c, and art forms. At the highc::.t level of gcncral1cy, there., a hared\}'\.-
rem of ethics based on a shared bun1anjcy. This general level of cthu:s 1• univenal and
is not circumstantial or siruational. Though languages and ~tom vary, these vana-
non) are accidents of siruations. Because of our rationality, 1t 1s possible tti rran~late
from one language to another and reach common underswidings. Thi general teme
of humanness makes it possible to respect others and w speak of the nghts u! all
people. The freedom to reason and to choose is an individual nght, but one m:n
requires respect for other people as reasoning beings.
In terms of aesthetics, Realists tend to believe that although there arc panxular
cultural expressions in the ans of what is beautiful, all people have a sense of th~ con-
cept of beauty. Through various an forms, they give this sense concrete expression. ln
aesthetic experience, Realists jdentify the object of an-the painting, mus•~ compo-
sition, or literary work-and the recipient, the person perceiving and appreaaong cU
wo.rk of art. It is possible to make judgments about how well the artist, mus~ and
wnter has mastered his or subject and used the appropriate meclium and technique ro
express her or his artistic intent. Although each pcrson-.n:ist and recipient-brings
something to the experience, the interaction between the artist and her or bJ.s work
and the recipient is not completely subjective, or solely impressionistic. The more
informed the recipient is about the work of art, the greater the appreciation.
Logic
For the Realist, logic involves a tw0-fold process of induction and deduction. In the
first phase of the knowing process, the learner acquires sensory information abo the
outside world and then in abstraction, the. second phase• 50....., •..., th15
·
i
· n fo nna.non
. utinto
concepts and then proceeds to categonzc the concc""' Th-a 00 .... _
· tual th .--· ~ ncepu can uc:
arrangcd mto concep systems, c theorcrical framework of di · lined kn
edge, or subject matters. In the first phase, the process of Imo · . ~~ . ~ l-
it moves from specific clements of sensory information wmgr: m e m tha.t
ReaJjsts, such as Pestalozzi, devised object lessons desi to gme .. concepts. Serue
mation based on sensation. In the process of moving ::! to 00.htatc concept for-
thcre is a logic of going from the specific to the general and sensanon to •bstractioo,
abstract. In addition to the sensory or inductive . . ~ the concrete t0 the
data and information is the basis for genera:-C..:.._~ Rea!isa hold that sensorv
obJCCts. . . . g a....,ilL'UOllS, or concepu, a~c
Over ume, SCJcnnStS and scholars, through .
covered knowledge and have orpnjgd • • ill1D~••estii-gip11ta-ki
'un1t and felardi h .
suucture of objectS, their categories, and :C~~·MI "9'ana Iha .'_,,ave dis-
"°'* of the human body CUI be ii Mi( •uucuons. Jn pue>L .L... -yaatn the
eel IDd • ll)'lecL C.. --. _. aarnpie, the
lllin c:lOlllbinabOns of
( 11 \I' I I k 11110 I kl '\ I I\
11
41
ge ne, tc\uh in drllt•rt·nu· .. rn 1I11
( :cncuc \Clt'lll 1,i- , 1 1 ph y, ri:al ;1ppeararKc anti he;1lth of ind1nduak
, Ill } I1IC\t• "t'll\' .11 l I .
lft•nc., c:Hr' c rn h •1·1 1 "" ' · H ~t:rH.: r att 1ypo1 h c,c\ h1r example, certain
... 1
l I ('( ( l\C·l\e\ 'l l I I I r·
accu1"1tc di 1.,11<>"' . " ' ' H >y rt c nu Yin)( 1hew !{Cm:\, phrrcian~ can make
• . I '"" '~' .lllu
. 111e'l' ' rll>"c .1ppro p1·ra te trt:atment.
[) c1 ll t1. 1vc logic 111 R ·al 111 k
''""" <> T"ll>rl ' . .
~" '~' •
'r
u.::111011~ o a ire
e, " • la e\ plnc:e when rl.!a~onm11 '.' u\ed to make ,pecific
,,,. . hli" Ji .. <l . . . · "' ncra I prmcrp • • "'
1c. Once the authoritatrvc knowledge ha\ been
~. 1•1 , ~ ' H •~ 11oss1 c to a I · · ·
• 11
i
' PP Y 1t tO many pa rt11:u Iar m~tances.
REALISM'S EDUCKI'IONAL IMPLICATJONS
The Purpose of Education and the Function of the School

Accord i n~ to Realism, the purpose of education is to cultiva te and develop the power
?f reasonmg_so that individuals can acquire knowl edge and learn how to use it in fram-
m_g_and makrng choices. Using reason, people can become free from ignorance, super-
sn~on, and error. Informed freedom empowers people to formulate alternatives of
acaon based on the best avai lable knowledge in order to make intelligent and rational
decisions.
Reflecting the purpose of education, the school, as a socially constructed and
sustained institution, is guided by the primary purpose of informing, developing, and
guiding human reason. In the context of schooling, reason is developed and exercised
by the teaching and learning of subjectS that are based on authoritative knowledge.
Nothing should be allowed to interfere with or deter schools from fulfilling this pri-
mary role. While schools may provide health and psychological services, offer recre-
ational activities, and sponsor athletic reams and competitions, these secondary
activities should not be allowed to obscure, interfere with, or diminish the primary
function.
Show and Tell: Animal, Vegetable, or Mineral

The Realist predilection for classification can be illustrated by the activity of "show
and tell," often used in kindergarten and the primary grades. The pupils bring some-
thing to school-a small pet, a rock collection, a favorite toy, or a plant. They tell their
classmates about the object, describe it, and indicate why they chose to bring it to school.
Illustrative of Realist epistemology, these items can be sorted or classified into
categories. Using their senses, the pupils can sort them out. Some of them may be ani-
mals, such as a fish or a hamster, others may be minerals, still others might be plants.
There are also human-made items, such as toys or books, which are social artifacts. As
these objects are classified, the pupils are learning an important Realist principle: some
things are alike and other things are different. Going back to Realist epistemology,
those things that are alike share similar or related necessary qualities. Although the fi sh
and the hamster are quite different, they breathe, eat, and move-they are living mem-
bers of the animal kingdom. They do not have the qualities of plan rs or minerals. This
rather simple illustration can lead us to higher-level and more complex Real ist educa-
tional principles.
42 1'1111 I Plrll ()~UPI Il l!.'> OF EDUC.Ano"
A C urriculum ofCatcgoric:tl Subject

Through the Process of sen~atron dnd
ob,tracuun uf oh
-.e am~e ac <:"Oncepis, :i gener.rl 1tleu that rcpre\<:nt~ a cl:~~:~,~~nd an t~e cn,,1rhnn1tn1,
a111e necessary or e~~cnnal quahnc~. For e:c.rn11>lc we n J«n t at p<xo;e,'M:l tht
tree~-pan~. tir.., cedar.., oaks, eltns, linden,, and ~aln:T~~ ;an~ldifrt rt~t ~•ndl lJf
fcrent types. Using the process of ab~tractiun we can· fo re a trees ut art d1f-
bascd on those co1nmon chamcteristics or an~r'-ule" all rm a chonce~~,of "trctneo,,•
son t he~e trees into
. those that are conifer' t~een'' thro • gh~essare.
ch )we~~-L u. u1cr
.1 'd ( 1 . •
are uec1 uous sled therr leaves once .1 y~or ond t.h n .
'ti' u out e year and thoie that
· · f • ~ e ~pa out new 1caves al the a
pnate t1111e o year, usually Spring). Trees nnd other planes are studied int.he d' • p~ro-
?r subject. of botany. '""e can srudy botany as a body of knowledge, as an acade;:;t~~~~
JCCtjfn th~s 5°;1dy, we can learn a.bout trees in the general sense, the theories chat apply
t~ a cr;.es. \\ e can aJso learn about trees in the specific sense, abouc a particular lond
o tree or exampl~. \~e can gain information abouc che geographical range of certain
trees, about ~e clunaoc and soil conditions that are favorable or unfa,,orable to their
gro~, ~c d1se~ses and parasices char are harmful to them, and so forth. RealistS say
that ~s kind of mfonuaoon, often the resulc of scientific research and discovery, is our
best lcind o~ L:no~ledge and should guide our practice or behavior. While this theory
based on SC1ence ts \•aluable in its own right, intrinsically, it is also valuable in that it is
a useful guide co our practice. The study of botany is a useful foundation for such prac-
ticnl activities as foresoy and agriculture.
Nor only can the srndy of trees in botany infonn us theoretically and practically,
such srudy can also inform us on policy issues. Environmentally, there is a scientifically
based concern about the effecrs of reducing the earth's rain forests by harvesting their
trees without a concern for maintaining the forescs for the future. Some scientists
believe that ha.rvesring the trees in the rain forests contributes to the depletion of the
earth's ozone layer, co the growing belt of deserts, and co increases in skin cancers.
There are also issues regarding the presen'lltion of forescs in the United States and
debates beN·een those u·bo \\'llilt ro harvot a larger number of trees and those who
argue !Or more conservation. On these issues, Realists ~lieve that informed poli~
dec15ions can be made by smdying the lacest and best available research. The RealiSt
approach co decision-making is based on the belief that the deiining chara~eristic of
the hwnan being is rationality and that it is possible and desirable to mak.e mformed
rational choices.
As in the case of the example of crees and th~ srody of bo~f· ~uman knowledge;
iiself, can be sorted and classified inco \'anous sub1ect.matter discip~es. Among th~
caregones or classes of l-nowledge, we have such subiecrs as cbemis:rr, phys1csh•. zoo.
1 , Ian political science literature, tStOI),
o~; biol<>g)~ anthropology; socio ~·sh. gwbeges, areas ofbi~:ledcrt' each subject
d so on ,\Jrhougb there are rehoon ips Netn o-• bodt of
:a ~~ and di..scrett body of kno.-led~. In order tOa~1i:::.=eadm::nd
know k<J-. we n~ command of the fundamenal procCSSiS o ·'-owled- tnd
~-
•Titin --.nd andunrtic. e iUSO Dccu to li.llv- ..,_
• \ \ " -'- ---' 1- - - b,... co locate aa:urace a.u
.
e-
to~ •-ho u a legimnat:e authority ma field and who 5DOL
4J
•••••
Cl.1-l \f
lnsttucnon
·~ 1\111 '"'' 1111 t•llilt\•
• •
I~ I \I I ' I I ' ' t I{ l c. t It >'
I I \ \ I I I It I I
' I ( I \ \ \It' < t l \ l I' <l ' I ' I '
h I ,, I ' h II
\ it h f \ 1h11, '"l ' I' 11111 1 \11l•1l1 t 111d " h 11 l 111111
I
I.
1. , \ sl. II 1 1 M l•t•'i I th 11 "lh• hi\ ll~ 111111\t• 111 1111 11
' · \ ~!11dt111 " h.11, , 1p nhl1 11111 11 111 11.i 1li1 .. 11'11 11 1
-- -
---- --~ - ~ -- - ::-::,. - -
- -
-
- -
'
l,t 111'1' llll!lh,1,111• d11• lllllhlllllht II I 111 I It l 1111111 ~ h1p l• t l \ltt I I 1h , , , 11111 I·
I
I ht' •llll' ,k 11111~ ''"" glllll d p.1thlll'1 Ill '1~ 11 • 111 I 11 I
11111111 11~ 1!1 11. ~
I
• II 111 ti '1111111 tl l!i
1 111 1 ~ llllt th 111
p.1111l·11l .11 ,uu.1111111' P1 .1t 11t·1· "'i'l11hl 11 1 p.11 1 •
.
11\ l't Illt.111111\,tl P'\l holup}. 11111•1, I
1'\I' .1n,111111., 1
I 11 lt11\\ .. 111d1 Ill " 1111 " ' I il l ,,, I
) . I · I \lllh l1 It ltl111 Ill lllhll111 l 111 IL11
I 1.1l I ll't'. "' p.11111111.11 t l.1'" 1111111 ,,·1 unµ, , 1 ''' '
. lilt 111111lt1d111il11 llilt h1d111l1 Ill II
l 'I\t'lll) ••ll 11' h1 µ hc•1 lt•\t•I ol µt'lll'i,I I11,11tt111 , Lill
l'l lllll' \I .
\l11rt·~l'f\l'1,dl),1'1h1l·at1111\1,pr11pt-il) 1l11't'l1t'd1n1h1· ~ 111d\ 11 111 1,•llli ,\\ l11il, 1r
f.tl'llcr.1ltL.anun' found 1n thl' 1;1r1<lli' .1cadenlll d1,11pl1111·, \111 Ii 11 11111 \ l11111 ld 1111il~
jlr.lllll'l' 1n tht' ''") ih.11 ph), 11,..,, "h1rh ,, 11101'-' 1h1•111 t•111.tl , ... h 111 ild !-!1 11.i. 111r1111, 1111~
'' hu:h 1., 1norc appl1l·d.
Rl';tli .. c.., \\ould race tht· tht'orctical .;11h1t'cr,, 1ht• ltht 1.tl .111 ...111d :u 1< 1111' lt11il1 r 1
in the currtcul u1n 1h11n the p1.1t·11cn I onc-.., 11 nd h1~ht• 1 1h,11\ '' 1L ,11111n. il Ii .11111111• " lti. 11 1~
li1111tcd by 11-. .,pcctficny to pnr11cular s1tnn11un•., lndt't•d, 'tilillt1111.tl 11 .1111111).! ,1111111li11 l
lo so111l' Rc.!alist•., is nH1rc cffl·c11vcly le111ncd h)' n h.1nd' 1111.1pp1r11111c•.,ll1p1111h1 11. Iii
rhnn in t1cnuc1nic scuings.
or
The Rc;ilii.t pl:lt'l'lllt'llt priority 01\ the lht'OI t'li1,tl ti\ t'I thr \ 111.11 h111 .d 1111\ 111111
i.il:{nificanl i111pl1cntion.; for cduention nnd for 'cho11l1ng. l'ht1 '1111111~1 !> l 111 tl11•, , l11ipl1
cntion'> i'I LO create tl u11,lli'llll or h1f'\ll'Cillion in t'Ulll-illi1111 111 \\ h 1L l1 the tlh 1111111 ,ti hill~ ~
higher than the pn1c:1ical or tht' popular. (<'u r t!\<llllplt:, ltht't .ti s111d1r., i .111l l11µli. i tl1111
\'OC<ltional training, fine •lr1 rant.., higher thnn popuhu .111, l l,1.,,11 . tl 111 11 .,11 i 1it1~ , 111~1" 1
than conte1nporar) 111us1c, and 'o on.
~lch~ugh !ts 1nct:1physical orih'lns are ~lif~t'rtt\I, tht• l~t'llh-. 1 rniph 11 ,,,1111" Ith 1,11
chy ot subJeCl.'i 1n rhc curr1c11lnn1 nppears lltlllilur to thill 11 t thr ldr·ult., 1., 11 1 ~ 1 11 ·1• 1l i11
~:h:ipler 2: 'fhc. dualisn1 hct~vcc1~ theory and pnlt'llL'e is 111111 e po\\'r' t litl 111 I•
1
"'"lh
1h1111
1n the Un1~cd States. !n the Unit ed ~hares 1norc prtll' tleiil und , 111 i1111111 ,t1 ., 11 111 ,, ,., .t••
intcgn~tcu 1n the curncu~1 11n, cspccin lly in t hti cc.11nprt• h t'H'llVt· hiHh !>r 111 " ii 1· 111 11 111 111
c<l11ca11onal
•
systcn1s
• .
typ1cnlly• have •sc1)11rn1ed '' "'ltl••tllt
... • ..
. I I
I t'l 111 .1111111 111111 \I H '
lilt11 t.il
1ra1ning into d1st1nc1 l)'PC' of schools lt neetls 111 h ~ ,, , litl ,.. 1
. , , . t llll' l1
ll1t l l 1 1.lptlllll'li(I'
phcr-. .,u<.: I1 a., Jo hn I) ewer. d1i.c1t,'it•d in ( 'h·llltt•r , 1 11
I 111
. 1 .• _ d ' ('h· · · lo ·I ' ' 1
11111 1111111\ 1uµ11,.,1\1 111111
ul'><.:lL'>~e 111 , .1p1c1 o, 1.: lnllcnged the J{c tl t'lt I I I· 11 1 I
pr al'I ICC . ' ( 11.11 .. 111 I I.I I ..1·11,11 ,111 .. I 1\1111\ I
T he Rcalii,ti. hel1cvc that ~ub ~ ·

llltlll II• j.il
llt'l l ll\11111\1 I 1,i.,'> l111l11il till

-
C 11\PJ IR 1 llRf'I· RI \I l.,\I
45
Sarne curricul11n1 'huuld hl' oflcrcd
aJ1usancnt:5 of a 't1h1cl 1 to a 'ludcnt~o ~Ill. i\hh1n1rh thl'rc 1111ght be Kradat111n ... and
the suhJeCt!> that arc t:on,tdcrc<l nece:: ".a t~ll> .1,nd rcad1nc,,, nil 'n1<lent, 'hould '1udv
s~ary or I le trul y cdutatcd pcr<,on. /
Realist Ethical and Aestheti'c Ed u cation

.
Though they prize knowledge as indis ensable to r . . .
kno\.vledge alone, if not reinforced b ~ . auonality, Realists recognize that
itself, lead to ethical behavior 'Th yd" e pr?1~er dispo!iitions and habits, may not hy
tions of moral c haracter originateei~r: 'i5P0~1·~dohns t~ ethic~I behavior and the fou~da-
inclinations and beh . th . . ar y c J oo as children acquire the atutudec;
, aviors at dispose a pe. th . h •
guardians, and teachers are impo 1 i so~ to e .n g t values. Parent:5,
young. rtant mora agents in developing moral habits in the
pain .In aesthetic ' be i·1eve th at the various

d J" education , R e aJ JSts . art forms of music dance
bodi~;~f an iterature can be studied as to their genre, structure, and style. Like th;
. . knd owledge, art forms, too, can be classified and categorized Aestheo·c appr·e
c1aoon an c · · · d th. · -
we can n . reatt?n is oe to is ~o.wledge of genxe, structure, and style. Although
hei h aively enJO~ a song ?r a painong, knowledge of the work of art enhances and
.g .tens o~ exper1en~e of it. While we are free to use our ingenuity and creativity in
araso~, musicaJ, and literary expression, knowledge of genre, strucmre, style, and
tecJ:iruque enhance our ability and enlarge the range of artistic expression. Our life,
ethically ~d ~es~etically, is enhanced through knowledge, knowing reality, rather
than by naivete or ignorance.
. .
..
HARRY S. BROUDY, "FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL" AND

"CRlTERIA OF MORAL EDUCAT ION AND DEVELOPMENT"
The following primary source selection is from Harry S. Broudy, a classical Realist
phjlosopher of education. It was selected because Broudy, drawing from Aristotle's
Narural Realism, presents a clear argument that the school has a primary purpose
and that moral education, following the principle of moderation, should lead to self-
detem1Uiation1 self-realization, and self-integration. Broudy's designation of his phi-
losophy as classical means that its origins go back to the ancient Greek philosopher,
Aristotle. T he use of the term, realimi, means that it follows the general assumption
that there is an objective order of reality that we can come to know; this knowledge is our
besr guide ro conduct. For Broudy, the school, Hke other social institutions, has a primary
function-the cultivation and appreciation of knowledge in the young. linlike the
Pragmaasts, Progressives, and Critical Theorists (discussed later in the book), Broudy
oppo es a \i.e\\' that the school is a multifuncaonal insriruaon and that the t.-ultivation
of kno\\ ledge 1s only one of irs man}- functions. In "Criteria of Moral Educaoon and
Development." Broud}, like •.\ristotle, proposes that the purpose of education is to aim
Jt the good life, a life that is self-determined, self-realized, and self-jntegrated. As you
read the selecoon, consider the follo\\'ing focusing questions:
46
l'\li I I 1'111111\1111111'1 >I I Pl I \I I•''
I i1 •1 11 1111111h.11 tl11·.,tl11.11lha,ap1111
I , l>n 11111 , 1µ 11., 111 "''·'!!"'' 1111h B111111 \ '• I 1ry
111111111111 I , pf 11111111 11 ·"""'''
11 ,,11 1h ' 1., ,1 p11111.1\ 11111111•111, wh .. 11 ~ th

z. H.1,.-d 1111 ll11111d1 ·, .ll~l'\lllll'111 th.II 1 Ill' 'l t
lllll 111 till' (l' llhCI 111 'lll'h ,Ill 111,lllllllllll
who c i ii11 11 111 1.1·'> Hr1.11dy\ <r1ten f

1. l)l.'~l'n hc 1llHI C\ ,tlu:tt c 1hc kind o f pcr,on "'•
111nr,tl de, c lo p1 ne nt.
4. D o you .1grec or d1s.1grce 1v1Lh Brouuy !>

.1 • •• ·Lc·ria of 1noriil <lt:vt:lop111cn1~· Exrl' :un
<.: I I
) our ;Jn!>\\ er.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL 4. The school is not Science; it is not the

agency that is established primarily for the dis-
By ~utlining the functions of government, the covery and development of truth ....
fumi/y, and the church in a rational social order, 5. The school is not an industry or busi-
the specific role of the school may become ness. It does not produce, transform, transpon,
clearer. or distribute material goods, however much it
1. The school is not a lei:,rislative agency may be instrumental thereto.
that makes laws, nor is it an executive agency 6. The school is estabHshed by the group
that carries them out, nor a judicial agency that when inteUectual habits need to be deliberately
p;isses on their legaJ merits. formed in all or some of the citizens.... That it
2. The school is not a family. It does not reinforces some of the emotional teachings of
co1ne into being to bring children into exis- the home and frustrates others; that it tries to
tence. Conceivably it could undertake their promote physical and en1otional good health
tolal rearing from the moment of birth on, as goes without saying, but these latter cannot be
Plato suggested it do for the children of the the primary goals of the school without disrupt-
C;u;irclians. But so Jong as we do have famnies ing the division of labor within our social order.
in our culture, the school is not responsible for When the school performs its primary job
the entire rearing. Especjalfy not for the atti- well, then anything else it manages to do is
tudes formed by relations \Vith parents and "gravy." Anything else it does without doing ics
other children in the early years of life. primary job makes its title to being a school
J. The school is not a church. It has highly dubious.
no Divine authorization, authority, or special It will be objected that this account of the
revelation. various social agencies is too narrow; especially
From J-[arry S. Broudy, Building n Philosophy ofF.duartion, 2nd ed. Engle"·ood Cliffs ... , , p · -''-" 1961 PP·
J00-103, 2 "T --:> ·
'3'~0lsed th . f...t..
"1 pennlSSlon o u1cKriegerPublish1ngCompany.
•·"J · renocenJUJ, .
< H.-\PlTR 111 l: R \ll'\I
"111 i~1~ Jl\11nred uur th.1t 1l ' c.·111, .h tf (}fll) tht•

I, hun:h. l"it: ' Ch1,,l. .tnJ the.• t.11111h <ln Jn\ t•<lu- I he 110,\\tr 11 lube t 11md tn the m:.t"rde-
pc:ndence ol 1hesc agcnc e.. 1n the sc..aal onlc·
C".inn~ J, 'll't •'1en tht' thc.nrc: e:lui.::.iu' ~: \re
nt't ui.hL' n tnd t lllf J;u(~ \\ork 1.:Ju1..'Ut1\e? 1, .,·r In .t i\\ org:anizauon lhc:rc: ,, the uorlan:
l''u1npnon that each elctnent u11l contnbu en.'
'1C'•11t-c.-f''1 f'I in a tl\l~e or a l.th..lr un10n c:Ju1.'3-
'hare to the: \\ho c c:ntc.rpn-.e tJilurc: in an\
f'\ e' Dl' n11r ht"1l:-. 1n.1~.iz.i nc: ... 010, 1 c:,, relc:' _
,1,1n . •1nd r:1J111 edu1.':lte?
1 pan 1111 pcf'l'l'\ for an: leninh CJf urne d.i<tllrb'
the\\ hl)lc: JCO\lt'\.
· _- ·The,e J~c.ie!. pro,1de learning oppor- •
\ \ ben an~ 1n,aruoon ma:..:e, one of It'
run oe... bur . r;,..,.frrlt.J/!\ to other funcoon~ that inc1<lenral or !>c:c.onaa': funcaon, donunant,
are pnnur: tor thea1. The~ educate infannJ/h. 1t cea c:' co do 1~ pnnopal 1<>b. To w;ac c..":tc::i;.
\ \ nen the the3rer goes in for deLberate in-;truc- the oc1al order t maimed and beinn~ to db-
n11n. "e call .1t <lidactic an<l top going. The pri- ~
incegrare. ConsequtncJy. \\·hen an 1n}aruaon

n1;1ry taSk 0 t ne'\ papen; i · not ro instruet, but changes HS funcnon. 1r makes chang~ necc:.sar:
r.1ther tO report. Onl~- m its edirorial columns does in all other tDSoruaons-a rotal rc:arraniremenr
a Oel\..lp.tper mke an educao,·e role. The same of the relaoons amonl?'. men. and this rar.:h.
-
ma~ be ~ud about the e<lucaaonal acti,iaes of occurs \\i thout ereat -ames of trouble.- rouse a
1nJ~'tries. l:i~r unions, and other organizations.
~
phrase of :\mold Toynbee. The progress v;e

One of the clearest criteria of educational need can be achie\'ed by changing the :.:·O) in
µenwneness i the motivaoon behind the acti,·- \\·hich a social institution performs ics function
1~. If it is not the perfection of the ind.J,idual rather than by shifting the funcoon. Children
through the control of learning, it mar be any should perhaps be reared differently today than
one of many \\'Onderful things. but it is not edu- they\\ ere 50 years ago. but if the rearing of chil·
cation. For this reason ,,.e can sav• that ,~·hen a dren is made subordinate to the economic or
teJcher or educator has as his or her ultimate affectional function of the fa.m.ih-. . there \\ill be
n1oti\-e anv• consideration other than the realiza- a-ouble. \ \ e ha\"e changed our methods of
non of the pupil's potentialities, he or she JS no indusa-v,
' . da,-for
but it ""-tl.l be a sorIT . us all \\-hen
long-er an educaror. That educators earn their
~
it makes ad,-ertising instead of production its
hread by teaching is important but still inciden- chief concern. The schools ha,·e changed their
t:il. ~uns , pnest:S, and parent:S \\ilo do not eim methods and can change th.em much more
their li\ing in this \\'ar nevertheless can sol! be \\-ithout tr)ing to play the role of the family. the
te;1cher.. in the true sense of the 'vord. \\'hen church, or the government.
soClety does not pay its teachers adeq~atelr it.is
rhe fr1ult of societv. and the remedy hes not m CRITERIA OF MORAL
education but in 'scaresmanship. All of \vhich EDUCATIO~ AA'D
1neans chat teachers do at times have to be DEVELOPME:'.\'T
policic1ans, bur this is never to be confused "'ith
their teaching function. If self-determination, self-realization, and self-
The generJI objection co th.is chapter may incegration are genwne criteria of the good life,
\\ell be that it sets up essential functions for the then ther are criteria for moral acoon.
'a nous 1n ·aruoons as if they \\-'ere somehO\\'
tixe<l fore' er. It \\1ll be held that instiruoon~ do Self-determination
ch;1nge their functions as ocial condioons vary.
.\loral education aims at the development of
\ \ "hv. then, hould not the functions of the
• freedom because \\ithouc freedom of choice no
:-.chool J.lso ch.1.nge?
fH I \f, f I 1'1111tI,111111,111 1111 I \I It I
1 111 ,1Ju111I }'"Iv.ill ·.. 1~ I d11 pl111
11111
It I I\ flit II ii Ill tp1 tl1t\ 1111\I dt1 \\I I d111.lfl
11, ilt 11 11111111111111 1 h•1l(t 'li 11. ..
p11ptl,111l11 1111 I
11 It IC pt1pl I°' ' '"
, . • , 1111111 ""Ill.Ill
I l l, 1111 l1t •l 1lt11t1• It
\\, llll)'llt 1111'' jllllll l' 111 11 lltl 111 111 1111 I
111111.111 ,
1111 do• ·' , 0 liv v. ,iy 11 1 I n11\A.lt·tlg1 1\ 'i v.c l1·;1r11 111,11 t
I ' II .I\ , I h11tl1 lit l111·1htlll l111d11111"1111
111 1 .tl111111 1111.1 \\111 Id 11111 ' "' ial <11rl1 i " " " .111•111
1
"'" Ill " 111• '"" ' ltll I
I \\ l II "Ill "'''"'I
I ) 11
''' It.I\• l•1111i.;1 '111111.111 h1 "'I'' ,,,
\11111 11• 1111 11 1·1·? 11111 ,l. IvI ..'• •ltiWt
• 11 01 lu1111111 11101t and 111 , 1rt·
I );i \\\ " · " ' I ll "'I'• p111pl1 111 \\,1111 Ill h 1· l i l'l'
", , 111 v 1•
11 10 tht cla 1111'> 111:11k 11p1J11 11.,:. A11tl ... 11 11
11 11 111101"11.11111 I 111111 11'.11 l •1e 1111 11.1111 1°111111 I hl'i knowlcdj.{l" t':l ll W C 1µ111,11 d1t 'lllC\IJljJl .1, {11
pnlt11t ti d1 'f1u11,111 , '\!11 0 111·, I 'l1µgc, 1, 1tl•1•1b. t o 111 h:t1 11111 rc.,p11n" l11lt 1y 1' to tl1l t11n11111 11111},
lie 1t1ld tn 11.1111 tltt, k111d 111 ll 1·cd1 11 11 \ V1• u , 11:1lly 1.·in rntry, 1;1111 ily, '>l.'hool, and 10 011r •1wn \t'l~c.:,:
\\ llll llltllt'OI 111h.1n \\\'l ,Ill pu..... 111, h :lVl'. J•unhcr, 1hc u.,c of knowlcd~c ''' I IJH
. I h111· 1,, ho11 1•1«r, .1 lrL·1·d11;11 1vh1r h not our <.: onuni1111cn1 ., i!'i wha1 niakc'> 1hcn1 r;1t1<Jnal
.ill ol u, \\':tilt . l11d1·1·d \\'t ' io.01ncti1111•, dread 11. ll nil her than t:apricious. 1 cannol ever f<Jrt:'>l<: all
" the lrt·1:d11111 1h.11 L.1t11t•, the p11t:c t;tg ot the t:on!.equcn cc~ of 1ny co1n1n 1uncnt, l11a 1f I
1c,po11.,,htl11y. ;\ 11goron' L'r111t: o t an orga11ii a- int1ke it on I.he best knowlc<lgc I c.: t1n .,urn111on,
11on '" :~1 lcn'it 1no111cnc1rily di'it:onccrtcd 10 linJ 111y t,ratnblc with Ufe ha-, its suprt rne JU'>t1fica-
h1111,~lf fl' prc,tdcnt. Before, he coultl ' "!{!{CSt tion. No 1nan can do 1norc.
the 1vildl!st 'it:hctnc~. the hokiest n1casures; oth- The first 1noral law for every 1nan ii; to he a~
cr-, \vould -;hare tht: rc~pon sihili1 y if they were rational and as knowing in his choice:. as cin.1un-
adopted; and there would be no respon!.ihiliry stances will pennit. This law implies another: it i~
if they were rejt:t:tetl. Now 1n;incrs ;1re re;1lly up every man's duty ro learn as much about thc.:
LO hitn. world, the sociery, and himself as he can.
\tVi lh the aw:i reness of freedon1 con1es tJ1e A reliable symptom as to whether a school
fnghrening realization that we hnve heco111e or a school system is working at moral educa-
subject to a clain1 that \Ye cannot ignore. It is tion is its respect for knowledge. It matters little
eac;ier, in the short run, to have one's life shaped whether a school has one or a dozen courses
by others and by circumstances over which one n1arked "character education." If its attitude
ha., no control. toward human knowing is derogatory, if it is
\.Ve are indebted to the Existentialist writ- anti-intellecrualistic in its philosophy, if it gears
ers nnc..1 especially to Kierkegaard for a recogni- its curriculum to the minimum needs of getting
tion of this aspect of freedom and of the along on the job or in the group, then that school
existential aruciety that is a part of human system has no genuine respect for persons a~
nan1re. vVe are all anxious, whether we know it potential moral legislators in their own right
or not, because we have an inkling of what That system is not aiming at self-determination,
hun1an freedom means. but rather at the determination of the pupil by
Moral education has to discourage flight the group, by the economic order, by anything
fro1n this Jcind of freedon1. To make the individ- and everything except himself. . ..
ual pupil sensitive to the possibility that at every
mon1enc of his life there may be something that
he can do to shape the next moment is an educa- Self-realization
tion for freedom. Self-determination means
that one ha · accepted the responsibility for the \\"e ought to choose freely, but what ought " e
niaking of his future and perhaps of the future to choose? So far as education is concerned,
of all other men. choice should be to achieve self-realizaoon.
IU \I i\,\ t
49
ti' rn1 n 11 heft' 1hi.' , 1
rr'ltaa11on li~s in hi~ ciii ll 1.1111 'P•1 ,srnnd,, ~l'lf
llrl' 1•nrtl lh~ l11\]\v1tl1111I \'~II hl' letl ll) C\-penence Q \'lllllt' Of
tor, I hC goal IS the self l"'PI ' ' ll' t'\ 1lll"'ll
u hl11hc1 1111ler 1hun hoi h11hcno ha.\ ach1e,ed,
•r • • ~· 11~111011 . 111 oil I"~
pup• Is. " orull)• al)t.il:hi~. enl·h 1111d Hhe 11~ln11wlcdl(CS 11 QS higher, then he J~
reulit.c his ro1en1111litirs unil th ll11·~1il u11.~bt tll nuvo a 1hny 10 cn111rlhu1e lhe l('ret11est values of
. h ' c ~\ 1(1\\) 01/il~tt
to 1."UIO\'nte t c JlOtt!ntutliC1es of "' c , " 1~hich ho fq c.m11nhlc. ()nee he ~cknowle<lgcs that
Thi~ Sl!t'tns so ot" ions ns I\) he trwinl 0 pdupll, 1· fifM· rn1.l' ~dence 1q hener than second-rate, he is
not hu1nnn nnn1rc foi'Ce us to . . ' • r 0e.~ ohli!(lllcd Lo hcccnne the besi kind <Jf st.1enost of
I. • , • s1nve 1or sell.
re~ 1iaoon. ls there llll) choicll on · . which he is cnpuhle. I 1.e is heedlng the claim of
the 1nauer? ' Y ougbt tn vulue icsc.lf. ' l'his clal111 iq unlver;al, that is,
The answer lies in the ,.
11 •11,y le I· f wh11te1 1er Lq Judged to be good or right is judged
. . h . ve~ o to be so for ull 1nen in tne same circumsronccs.

~cn11ng t itt are poss1hle so that Rltl· 0 L •
, • 1 ug11 srr11·- Thot is why in the scnool we have co mice
1ng L~ a un1ve1"St1I fenrurt1 of huni•n .
. h . u nature, ttS ad1'1!ntage of our position as 1eacners ro set inro
precise c nrncrer IS not. Nlnn cnn Ihm n•t
'-·h' 'h vuriern 1norion tl1e process of self-realization. Indeed,
~~ ion ~it our pushing himself to rhe lin1i1 of this beco1nes our moral obligation. The source
~~scnpacuy. He ?1n be ignorant of his potendnl- of lhis clahn is the nature of man itself, for ifwe
1t:1es, or he cnn ignore then1. There is n choice know anything about hum:lll nature, it is that
here, .and thei:e can be on 011g/Jl'-if we c11 n the particular direction of hwnan striving is not
esrabhsh n clnJ1n upon hitn nnd ger hiin to predetennined by the genes, but by the power
acknowledge the clnlin. of the hmunn mind to envision patterns of pos-
As nn educuror, there is an argu1nenr 1'0 sibility. To direct this striving to self-realization
which one can resort: if I, us n teacher, kno1v the through knowledge, therefore, is what the good
\'lllue of n S\Ulsec, a friend, a generous ncr, or nn life de1nands of the school.
insight ioro the truth, and if I know you, os n •• •
pupil, hnve the capacity to realize these values, If, however, there is such a thing as human
then I ought co disclose these possibilities ro narure, then 11 value is what perfectS that human
voo and reach you ho\v to cultivnte thein. If nnture. lf benlth is good, it is good for all
ihese wlues cannor thereafter speak for then1- hu1111m beings; if education is good, it is good for
selves, there is no more that I can say for thern. 1111. If, in brief, it is my duty to realize rny capac-
Suppose the pupil argues: Does ir 1nnke it:ies, it is everyone's duty ro do likewise. I have
uny difference to anyone bur myself whether 1 to respect this clain1 \vherever it is n1ade. Indeed
cultil'ute my capnc:ities or nor? ~uppose ~ co~ld I hnve tO 111ake t.h:u claim for all manlcind.
become o first-rnte poet, mus1onn, sCtenost, In education, the in1perntive co self-
doetor or carpenrer. Suppose I nn1 content to realization has definite <.'Onsequences. It means
re111ai~ ~econd- or even third-rot'tl. Cnn you tell thnr "'e have to urge, cajole, and, so fur as \ve are
me that I ou1rbt ro become first-rote? allo1ved. insist that educncioo be nor curtailed
o· nns"·~ in the af6 nnuol'c,
\\'c can · bur only and truncated for an1• •
indhidu:il before his
cupacities for learning have been e.\-ploited as hir
if we are prepared ro arRUe t hllt nion kind hos Q
claitn upon the full self-reali%1lcion of e.ve.~· os we hove the resources to exploit then1. lt
n1eans that if a boy ain learn Hterarure, he 11-iU
man \\'hat could be the basis for such a cl111n1rd
· · dernan• ht required ro learn it; if he CllJ1 master
· \ Ve cannot, 11.s a n\Qrter 0f JU.~nce,
. , . beyond what 1~ trigono1uetl). he will be required to do so; if he
that anvone realiz.e his powers . !Or the Clln be! lll'tlscically compettnt, be 11111 be
nttJcd. rc.1 n:<'(lfllpense hlS fellow nien requ1TCJ co be cornperenc "·ithour wor11ing roo
Yllues thev enahle h1111 w rcahie. lf, howc,er,
•
1 \k I I
'
,, '
I ' I 1. 'h•• I \\ I ' \ •I I 111,1 111 1111
•nuc h "ht'th r It \\ 1 I ~ ht 11 , 1' h 1 ' 1
,, ,, .. II " Lllll\\ t I \ \ \.t~
I II h
I I
ihc ' ' 1hu1h, u111\ 1n r tu1•111th t n11•11 1 lhtl'

I~ I\ I h II .. 1 I 11111II,,111 I , '"'"·~
Inc ''I( uunal t , lu ,, <•I h , ' hu1.•I \I
h 1
\
I \II ._f \\ h' \

ll 'I..' th l'llJ'll ~.Ill \'\\Ith lllh 111\I ol\\"\11 \ 1 h Ill "' h
" the \I,, tllh1< ,, llf tht• ,, hl•Ol -n1,h1' (\I ,, hJI
r\11hl11tll t•l ti' ''It> T•l l•t II 1111! h II\
\ n ,1utl, ( • ,1 , ur~ n-h11' "" , 1-111\" \°'\lht
1•11p1l 1h;it h. 11\. "I' I 11111 >I ' II \\ I I
I' , .. A11,' , ' , , n11 ht. \ \ h 1 1h ~. 11....
l 10\lll 11<' t1illl:tl I"'"< , I : 1Ul th l'll}'ll
l llllhll l ' ' \ d1''" 11 [,._ l\ th U1t1•(k ' l\tJ' I\
tli• , {II 1\I, '" I I 1111< \11!f• Ill I 'l\111~1 I I
41 • c: lent' 11• r '' ,~ 1rt ,,, h gh th.11 uni,"' '" I'• , , 1 " ' , •1 \, 11 111. r11 1111 "" I ,~,
l "11, ,1~ .11:111l\1n., tilt n 1r J'l<:llt"h·-. 1 l < I"''' II lh ' l 1 II ,, llh I • h •\11
''"-"<1nJ.1r\ ,,.h,)(11, chc: t·h.1111.'t'' ,,r 11J~1t1.ltt h 111111 h' ls· "Ill 'II• d 1' I '""" t•I \ I h II I
c.:Ulrl\'.lnn~ l>nc\ r:-Jl1,1n.1I rc'•'lln"t, r l.ttt'I i.· hJ1.- '"lu,l h1 l\'1 '• II• \,l 111 11h11 \I \I I
.trc.• r('t1\\1tc. '.l\,llJ.1111\! '"'''''•' 1:,,;111,, , ,,,, • lf\11.:

1,1 'A plJ, ' t•I\ 1ht' ,, ,,~,. , 1•1 111 \ltll\ 11111.Ht, I~
" ,1 \'\It ''" 111n,l1111111,11 I' ,.1.1,""' 11 IJ , tn.
Sclf-intcgr.ition \\l\llll•'"' l,·11 ,,
~elf-t ncei-rr.inon n1e.ins th.it h.11t' t,1 put tht'
\\l' l'h.-,,A ,1r .i.h111nt•,lh 11hl1"'• t "" 1h, ,
clann. thJr rug Jc u' fro111 Jll thrn:non' in ,,1111t' °'\ ('1 cl ch,•I,·-..,, 1t th.- "' •1 l, I •I,,., h 11 111.tl.;r ,, r.._
1nrelltgible order \ '.1lue ,·l.i1n1:. t'\1oti1cr \\uh (\I J llUll, !\(' I' (\I hi It ,!, • ,• h'I 11\1, '"
each other. L• ntll "e cht>O'-t' bet\\ et'n nlrt'rna- 1',n,111 lt'l~i· U\(':- h I 1\1\,I \\ h.11 ,,•n,,• l ''' ~ ,
ri,·e \'aJue~. 11·e are tom an\llOI?
•
rhetn To Jt•t·1tlt' th1· 11,1rl,I .in,I h' 1h.1t ¢\t ·1u ' ' •111 ~ 1111,
"h1ch 1 alues ~h.tll donun.tte .1nu •~udr \1ur l"\ ('I'\\\\
efforts to self-realization 1i. 1r~etf 11 1noral dt>1.·1-
sion, pt:rhaps the n10$t stnous of all ucc1'1l1n' J
\'h1t1 'f\I\"<\ I( .I ~l"lh'l,11
pupt\ J \'\11\fhl(l\,"t' II\
. h1, lt\111\ , ,I(\~\,
(',\n, '
\'''"<'I \II ..h 'I If "
.\ loral etluc-anon 1n the !-cho<1l, thcrl't(\fc. lb(' l..n.)\\ lt',h::t". ,11\d II :.:n ,.,
includes the leam1n!o! of cht' 1neans, or •It lc-.1>.t l>t
. '
II h1111 I \ . \ ,•
' t'n't' vt h1~ ''" 1\ , .l\\o\1.'lfh'' "'" ,\ 1\1;'1•,, •-.
so1ne of them, for \'alue 1ntegranl1n. H11\\ llu 1
h1' 11 t' .11..nr ""'· th.it ' ' I ·1 1,11'' A '-"'' '
1ve go about thi)? 010).: " ' \(\(l"~t.lt\\\l\
' '
...
.Kno" ledge 1nighr bl' the t11111 t'~I 1ntl'~
gn1ror, and in this book IC t:> taken tor ~lntl'll
CONCLUSION
t 11\P11 R I llRI 1· u \I
"1 l ~\I
••
DI CU
- ION Q U'ES1' l()NS
l.
INQUIRY AND RESEARCll PROJECTS

1. Compare and contnast .UlCL
a11ns
•
o f cducauon
, expressed 1n. your local !cliool '"'~rd•
,
~t:ateincnt of philoso h •h h f . . ,
2. Coniparc and con·-p yhwll ~ ~ o Rheahs1n, especially Broudy s po<ll1on.
( ~ , u•Stt e.pos1oonont efunctionofthesc:hool taken bythe1uthr1r
o a . ow1dauons of cduc:aoon text with Reulisrn , especially the views of Broudy.
3. Des~gn a lesson based on Realist epistemology.
4. R~v1cw .the current litcr11rure on school rcfonn; d~tcnninc jf it rcflc1.1:b a Rcah•t
or1cntaoon.
INTERNET RESOURCES
For a discussion ofNeo-Realis1n, consult "'rhe Philosophy ofNco-Rcalism" at the Radical
Acade1ny nt
http://nidical/acaderny.com/ad iphilncwreiillsm.btJnl
An essay on 1\1oral Realisrn can be found at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy at
www.uon.edu/rese1ucli/iep/m/m-rcalis-htJnl
For a discussion of Sdwdtic Realism, consult Arthur Fine, "Sciendtic Rcalisin :ind Anu-
Realisrn," in the Roudedge Encyclopedia of Philosophy at
www.gbhap-us.com/rcp/q094sam.btml

Alston \\illialn P.• ~ Rt#lur CONtf'tJall of1hlth. hh1ca. :-.'Y: Cornell Unl\'l:f'Slty Press, 1996.
!\nagn~os, Gcorgios. Ansmtlt Oii tbr Gtllls 11111/ E.ucmm ef Etbu:s. Bcrl<c~·. CA; Uru•i:nny of
Cahfom11 Press. 1994.
-1 Rt11/irlll
Bnnk. D,,,d 0 · • 1.. ~
•*
tbt Fo~ ofEtbia. Cambridse . •
Cambndge IJ01Vet11ty Prae,
I~ 5 'BrulJz1tf•P~efi!.Jwotrlllff,lrult4 EnglewoodO.ID,-.:j;Preoriitt·llall.1961.
BrouJ), ll p u1 \I Sn..:..-1:. RN/IJJ'f •ru/ !ht Plmidty ef \fmJ.. Cambridge: CambriJgc vru•"Crnt)'
Ch urch1 , I • ,.....,;~
Press. 197 · 9 ,,J7r.tb. (hforJ, l}K:Basil Blackwell, 1991
D1,1rr, /\ lichacl. ~~"';'...i.-JiolaSt Difr"sr ofSdnrn/i R.#1/ulrl. :-=cw Yoril.: Garland Publishing Co. 2002
11
Gan!l(lfl, J)ont ·'i-·-

51. I•\!(/ I 1'1111 f> ,111•1111 ,!II J 11LJ<-,,.;fl<'
• 111--
I .I
NOTES
1. For discussions of 1\nstodc, see D J .\! 3IL. TJ:e Pru;; ;-/::y --,'!r...-::::1:2 ~Z:: :::r..i:.-~ • l.'-:-
sicy Press, 1970); G. E R. Lloyd, .4nnotk 71:e Grrr.:rt n.! =r-•~ :H::r T ·.....r- '--t:::l.'T:. ~· ...u:;.~
bridge Universny Press, 1968).
2. Richard Boyd, Philip G.isper. and J D Trout. ~ 1C-t i'~
MIT Press, 1993), p. 780. ..r-• S.-:..'!f.::? t':c:..""r:: l':
3. Richard W .'vtiller, Fact and Jlethod Exp;..r11.Jrn1t, C•firnu:::..~ ~....~J .... m J• ,,~71 11t:
Soci11/Sciences(Princecon, i\']: Pnnceton l·ru\.-erncy P~ 10~-}. ~'>--.oc , - ....:Jtk: i:::~·-.:-o S:cJaiU
Re11liSTn: A Critical Reappraisal (Boscon D Reidel, IQS-).
• • • •
,.l 'I-l l~ IS' I~ I ( : R1 ~~A 1,Is i\1

(' l ~ l l()Nl ISM)
In rh1sl·h.1pter \\t'\\dl. . ,
. I , ,,. . ' . . t \,11111111.• 11ll' l).tlt' Rt•.tlt,111. 111 l 'h111111,111 ••1 pl11l11,uph\ 1h .11
t 111 )1,1\.tS •I s\ntht·~is ol \. . I,• n ,
·h ·.. ' ' I ISIO\ l S l'-l'.l 1ISlll Hiid ( 111 t'll.111 d1t•11l11µ\, p.11It\111.11 I\ th .II
\\ Illl \\·as artl\:111 Ht•d i11 \ r 111 • \ .. 1·1 . .
• \I . • II l l g°lS. ll' ll' l Ill' I ht•l).\ll' l\t'.lli~lll .111d I""''"'"' .111·
llStl • 1nterchan11t"1hl\·
t" • • 111
tit,l l ·It ;1p1tr.
. l 'I)01111,lll
· ·IS I It'l'l\l'I I lrtllll
· I IIt' 11.1111t· ,,, I ·li11111.1'
.\ll 11 '. 11 ;~s "ho nrtit·11h1tt•d iht• philns11ph\· 111' l'ht·1,til· Rt'.1lt.;1n. l ' ht' l'h.1p11·r dt'lttH' '
r ht'ISlll' ~ealis1n, l'\:11\lll)t'~ 11.; .;~11thl'•\I~ of \11.,ttlll'li.11\l!'>lll .111d ( 'h 11st1,111 tht•11l111!\,
d1.;cu "··se s· tt s• 1n:11or
· · · It''•
pr111l·1p .111d dL1\\.; 011111'1111pltc.111011' l11r t•1lt1l·11111111 . ""
Df<'l'I ING 'l'H EISTIC Rl~ \I ISl\ t
rheist IL' Realisrn \\ .1 .. de\ l'lopt•d II\ thl' \ l1ddh.• \~t'' .ind h11111t•d .1 h11d~t· ht•t \\ l'l'l\ t•\.1,
<:iC~ll (~rcel thonght, C.. pct'l;lll) th;ll of \rtstotlc. ;11\d ( 'hrl,ll.11\ll~. \n (:h:lplt'I \, \~1·;1!
isrn \l':tS defined a~ the ht•lil'I that \\C li\t' 1n .1 \\orld th.u l'\ists t)h11•t•ti\l'h .111'1
•
eXternnll)' t() llSj thrtHlµ'h ii dual Jll'tll:l.'S" lll M..'1)<:;1111111:111d11\i'll1ll'lll)\l, \\'t' l'tlll f(ll'lll t' (l ll
ctplS :ihour th:tt \\'Oriti, .111d th1' pro\tdt.•<: the h11''' 111 0111 kn11\\lt•d!-{1'. \\ h1•11 \\t' ,1r1
accorc.Jing co thar kno\\ lcdµt.'. \I l' ;trt' .ll'lltlJ.{ 1.1uon;1ll~. ( Rt•11d1·r, c.:.1n rt.·fl•r 111 ( 'h.1p11·1 \
for the de::f1nirions of 1'1'11/ .1, u'cd 111 R1:•1lt,n1) \\ c.: no\\ turn to the tc.·rui .. rl•1·11t1r" .inti
J'horn1).11t, another na111t.' l(J1 J'ht•t,ttl' Rt•.1lt,1n .
J~he r<)Ol of thc1'itir '' t hcisn1 , '' bcht·f th.11 •l 'llpt·111.1t111.1l .inti ht•nt·,1111•111 ( ;od
rrc..'oltt.'d the" orld .ind .tll hc1ng' 111 tt, •Ind t',1,1hh .. ht•d thl" l.1\\ '• p.1ttc1 n,, .ind 11·~111.111
t1t!'i 1h.1t 1ro,·e111 the un1,·cr,c. l'hi' hclief 1' .1rct1111p.1111cd h\ t.inh 111dl\11lt'1t•\tl.1t111n
•
•\c.:c1ird1ng rn rc,td:111on, (;od, thruug-h 1n,p1rt•d 11tt''':1µt.'' 1t1 'Pt'ri.111) dt",1g11.11t•d I\\''
snn)., d1sclo-;etl t111rh.; rh.11 \l't'l'l' rc:l'orded inn !{tl'•ll hnok, tht• B1hl t:, .ind .111· ill·t.1•pt1•d
h\ the faithti.11 :is the \\11rd oftht Lord.
· T honusn1, <HH>lhl'r n.unt- for fhe::t,tll Re: .111 .. 111, ' ' dt•rl\ cd t'r 0111 the 111 .. 1 11.11111· 111
' l'ht)tll.l' .\quin.1' ( 122'- 1~ "'4), \1ho, 1n tht: rh1rtt.·1.·1uh lClltUr}. for1nul,ul·d tht· tht•11
l<)gll'.11 .1nJ phtl1>!-0ph1t~Jl h<lJ\ ut thou!?ht anJ '' nt1n\!' th.11 \\Cfl.' rt·ir.1r1l1:d ,1, .1111h1111
r.1 Ct\ t' dcx:tnnc.>:- for n1c.>J1t'\ JI ( hr1,nJn 'cht>l.1,t1c.: 1'"' ~ ntl 11r t ht.• R11111.tn ( ll he 1111
( 'hun:h ..\qu1na' • '' <>rl.1n~ prt: n1,c.- '' .i~ ch.it ph1li ''<1ph\ '( t L., truth th1 u11~h 1c.1,1111 ,
.ind chetll<>~ ~eel., It thr1n1~h J1,1ne rt'\el.1r111n fr11111 (••>ti "•n1.t• '' h1111' ttllt' 1" t:tr.:111 ii
'"'"l I 111 11 11\l 11'1111 .. I II I Ill l \ I Ill
I 11 if 11111 lf1111 l11f'I .11 11I II I 1111 11111 I 11tl1 Ill '••111
::ind lhc• ,,ll Jlt l' \1f\llhc 11', ph• "' 1 II I I• Ill tit 11 II I " " 1t11I I 111!1 t1
JI.I t! Ilie .ind 11111 1·1111111.!1111111
II t t'
ll1111 t 11 , 111 ut H 111
, f,. 11 1• llp11.11 111.i
' 11111 if lf1t , 11111111 1I I l 111111 1
1u~
1. 11
' ' 11111pl1 111e 11111 1 !!•"• 1111·d 1h111 ..
1 11111n
, 1. 111 "'" d1 .d1111 1 111, 1
I · •11 II I\ ' II 1 11111
If 1 111 1 111
t'llt't' h, t:'.ln '" , , p .11111 111111 1' · I I ·1 11 1 ,, ,, 1111 1111111 hi11i
· I I 11 11111 11111 1 1·1 1 111 11 1111 11
'lljl~r n.1111r.1I .111d ' t l l' lllt' 1111 1 IIt •
, , 11
• 11111111111•• 11 1111111 I 1111\11111 I II
111 ~,~
I 111 l li t' lflt·lt' ",1 I ti r
' ''" rt",uund, 1n c•du, 1111111 111
I .. I
t''·
I ·
dtc 101
·I I I 1111111111 lu "'I' " ,11111 I 1t1l1111 ..
I
u r1 u n1''' · 11 lo 111ld 1h•ll (,n, tit• ctI 11 1 t .ittt •
al ttl•• , 11 11 . 111., •.11111>.µl111p 111 \
,
I I I I I lt'L'lt'' " ,, flli 11 l ' ' I 111
II l\I lt' I CIC th.It th1· 1111µ111 II l lt' 'f •Iii Ii,.,I 11111 dr l1111l11111., l1tt11i,l ltl
11111 f
111e 111 c h ,1ng-111g11111ro11111cn1,. II11
fltlllt' \l t 1 tlll• I
' ' • I II , 11 lti• 1 11 t1.,11 c·d 1111111 ,111 1
late"·''
1n'''' th.1r (.od,
Ll'C.llt'd h1 ,1 \upclllJllll.I I Ill).! ,
1111 1 I
n1Jrer1Jfi,nt ho1.h .ind .1 ,p,;·1111.tl 'oul ti 1 111 •11

. fl l'C" I Ill
1, ,I \\ Ill 1 11' •1\ I 1111111 11 ' 1111 I 'I lit
The1,n1.. Rt'.tlt\111, 01 I hunu,111, · I II \ 111111 "' ( 11
~.11ur.1 I R. I II
I Ille 11111 11
. ' 1 ' 11 '11111
1
\\e,tt'm thuughr \ r"totlc., . tJ I' I
'1i1·11ln •11,11i111r111,111111t111 I h1·1 , 111
"ic.:hnfJ,nc.: Theolu1r\ !'hci..lll Rc.il"n1 rc:lt'r.., 111 11 "1 i.; '
:-.
the he lief 1n the: C\t'>tl'nt·l· ol ( ;uc..I ,,., the '11p1·111.1t 1" •11 ( ' 11,ltlll II 1 I 1It' lllll\t' l\I •1111I11
11
be1n!!" 111ch1n 1r, Jnd to Rc;tll\111, the pI11 I"'"P Ilit .I I Ii1· 111·1 Ill ,Ill l'\lr't 11.I 11 111 II 1•jl t ll1 r••
. go1 crncd b\ n.11 ur;1f I·' '"'· ;1n1I t t..l 11111·111 1l11t11· 111 .. ol11·gttl,1111\·
on..lcr of realit\
.\lrhough. h1,1oru.:.1ll). a'"1t1.11clI ''" l1 ( '·•111 1111• 1 • tlu111l1111\
"· 11111 1 111111~1111111•
11 11
1 1 1
Thom1,rn ha., attrJttc:d phd11.,opht'1' 'UL I1 ,1, " u "I. It: 11 I I111lh111 , ( IK J J l J77 >• i\ 11111111111
\tiler (1902-2001), .111c..I other. \\ho do nut Jtlht·it· 111 C 11h11h11,111\ lt•lii.;11111-. d11111t111 ·~
.inti onenc:inon ( fht: cdu1...11 111 n,1J 1de.1' of I f11h. h111., 111d \dh·1 ,111· 1·\,1111111rd 111
('hapcer 1-, ''h11..h JcaJ, \\1th Pl·rc:nn1.1li..111 ) ' I h111111,111\ gt 11 .. 1.il ·'l'flt'it l 111, 111 '''
J''t.'n1on char there .ire: 11a1ur:1l l.111, th.H ,111· h1vhc1 1h.1111h1· .. 1.11u1t·., 1·11.11 tt·tl It~ 111 11111
L~I regune or h~ p.11J, ol pop11l.1rop111111n '\.1111..ulturall) tt•lat1\t' 111 p.1111111h11 ..1111,1
c1on,, nmc~. anc..I plate,, n;1111n1I l.1\\-gr1111ndtd 111 tht· 11111\t'l"l 11 ..c·ll '' 11111\c l\111 ,
unl·hanging, Jnc..I func..la1ncn1.1l 111 hu1nan nJnuc ~nd lilc: '&11111.11 l,l\\., 1, 111 111· t11 ..111\
t.'recl b) hun1an rc;1.,on. l l u111.1n 11µht, 1 1hcn, .111• 11111 v1\t·n h\. f.!t1\t•r1H nt 111'1111 \Ill h th'•
bur :ire inherent 1n hun1 ..1n nature 11\clf 1 he · rhu1111-.1po .. 11111n1111 th1· t•JC1,11111·1· 11111,11
urJI IJ\\ chac go, em nor uni) 1he ph) .,,t~al "orld hut 1><.·r-.1111, .anti \Ol lcllt'' ll'.1tl .. 111 .111
c111pha''' on unt\er,JI pnnL1plc' 1n h111113n e1h1t' .ind ht·h,l\ 1111 J ht·'t 111111111'111
1..l.11111' are d1,putecl b} n1orc l'1Jlltt·111pu1 il.f'\ philo,uph1t•,, \lit h ,,, 1'1 Jg111.111,111 (1!1,
t·u,,t.'J 111 C~hapcer \) J.ntl Po,u1111dcm1,111 (1n ( hJptcr ~) .
'11'l \ fl"G THEISTIC RL\LI t\1

l~ \\·F~~l'l'R.'° 'fHOUGI-IT
I lf\1•111<1111 I\1 t 11 IC •\11 ~ 11 1
\\uric! ( hr1~1111111\ 1 iihil.I 11111 1-:111.11<·1 I 111 li11h.1111 ll11 1,11I.,1 ,1: 111111.l 1111 \\ , 1 111
1
( n.:ck '} \\ ,I }, II1 ( 1lc·1•t't •10 1I I'-.11111t \ 1111111v 111111 I I1 11111\111 1111 I 111. 1111111 1 111
• ·1,,111c 11
\\·II I -.11111J1"'1l1111111
I ,. I itllll II.II II ti I I ' III I'Iti I11-.1111I'" .1 .l l'l 1111 ,11111 '" ~ '""' lb
( t:h • ' \\It 1I Ctl 1C:I 11h11t"11111 l i t ' \\IL I I ·" I ph 1111 1111 .. 111 '"" "'''",.,Ill I Ill 1111 ' I II I I
\\, rt\t1a11,, lt1\.\t•vt:1 1 the Bil 1Ic a111 I 111·I 11 11 I1111µ' ,1111l 1h11 1111 11' 1111111 t 11111111 I 111111
·hcrt: 11lt:tr para1111111111 •tnth11rt11t", .1111 1 11111,1 p11·11·1 11111 ·1 1111·1 1 l."·•ll •11 1'111\11 11111111
\~ ·1I( 1 "(.;fl: '"'lll 1'11 I
)
h • IC:l \\ll h llt I P·'K·'" p11\t N1·11 11l11•l1·''• l'l.1111'.. ,111d \1l111•tl1
Ph 1I O\np •c' n.:111·1111cd
· I
1111po11ant '"11 111•, 111111111i.;h1 111 thl' \\, ,11 111 11111111 111 il11
c ar Y yc::u·., of <:h11.,11ani1y, '11111c ( '. h1 i'11u11, h1·l1r\ o·d tl11· '''"~" .d 11111111•11•11h11 11, 11
c1angcron, rival 'Y'lc111 'o I non I ht'l\lll' 1I11111µ I11 1h,11 11t·1·111·1 i I 111 I 11· p111 !'' d Ii 11111 1, I11
r
cauon 1
()thcr 1hc1 1111~1a11,, 1.,111.:·h <I'> '".,,11111 \11~u,1111c , b1·h.-\1•d 11\Jt 1h1 111"'" 1l 11l11h1 '"
h
It.. C:IJlllplt:lllt:lltt:tf (.hltt.,LJ:lll lhl·ulog\ 111111 dt1tlllllr' I 111 1•\,1t11ph 1 \11 )!11•11111
H:lie~t<l that '>ll1d> 1ng the lthcral .111 .. ,111~l ph1lo"•l'h~ 1·11t11111.1µl·d 11 I'''"'" '" '' "'II
lor_.,ull higher truth\. r ht\ 'ic,111.. h lc:u Ill till· B1hlt·. ll\l' ,,lltt•d '111p11111•,, th1·11h11'\ '""
u lurnat.cly to a rnorc 111at nrc .ind µrc:•llt'r 1111d1·1 ..1.uu l111g 1ii l :od
1 _ho111a' 1\l1111na' 1 a J)o11lln1L.1n 1h1·11l11µ1.111 ill 1h1· l '11111·1 ..11\ 111 l',11 1., , '"11~· \11 111
rcccin<.:1lc the apparent L'onl11ll hl'I\\ cell t l'1I" 111, 11·p11·,1·1Hc:d Ii~ 1111''" ,d phd11,111•li\
(e~pc1.:1ally \ri,t<itlc\ Rc:tlt\111), ,11111I.11th,1 1·p1 1·,1'1H1·d hy 1ht' ( ' \11\,111111 \11lil1·1 d111
rr1nc .., and bclicf,. 1 1111., 1no,1 1111p1111.1111 ph1lci,11ph1r1d ,11111 tl1t'11l11µ\l'\\I 11111 I,, \11111111,1
'f~Jl!()/OJ!.lflt', \VlltlCll ht•t\\l"Cll f )(1lJ ,111tl ll "'l 1 tttll· ~t.lll'd lltld h1llllltlll\/t'd \tl\tll\1111111
phdo,oph} .ind ( .h11,11,111 d11L111ne I he: ph1lt"11phtL.1\ ,,,1t·111h,1,1·d1111 t\11 '""''"'' '' ,1
\.<lr1ct) of I hl'l\lll Rt.'11 ..111 th.11 ·'''" hi:.11' h1 .. 11.11111 1 I h111111,111
Intcllecrual S}Ti th e~i~

,\qu1na'>' l1111hl1ng ul :111 11111·1111.tuJI ltr11lg1· l1t·t"1lll 11.1,,11.11 \11 ..11111•h1111 pl11\11,11ph\
.1nd(;hr1,t1Jl1 1hc:11l11g) and 111' t 11 .1111111 111 1 ' ' 111h1 ''' h 11,1·1I 1111 1h1 '' '' .. 11·111.. 11\
rhought ulfc.;1' the opp11rt111111~ 111 lt1n,11lt·t 1h1 d1ll1·1,·11l1· hrt\\1·r11 phll1"''l1l111 11I
;ippro.11..: ht·.. thO\l' th.II ... ~ ,~,lClll l1111lll111i.: ''"" '"'"L' tl1111 \l\t' 111111\\ \l\ 1H11l 1h \till
,trut.11on \l1t11n.1,' g1.1111l '}nthc:''' 111 \11,11nh·\ 1{1.1lt .. 11111111I ( '1111\ll 1111\111111111· 11 p
rc.;\t:lll\ .Jn llllLg1 .11101111l t"ll ll HIJl ll h11il11 .. 11l th1111~h111\111 lll\t \11) h11~1 l' l'l11h11,11ph11
'}'lLlll \q11111,1' ,11111 u1ht'1 '}'tl'lll hu1hh11g pl11l11"1pln1,, ,u1h '' llt~l'l lill\\ll,,11\ 111
( ;hJfltl'r ~), Jltl'lll(>ll' d Ill t:lt'91t' U\CfUllhlng, Ill llllht,l\L' ,ll"lllltc ll\lllll \tl11!1"11pl111 •,
• • • • •
' l'lf() \1fS,\l :r\ Pllll ()~()Pill ,.1\I '\ S'l 'lll \1\()1·:
b:ascd on tht.: ll1ltle v.nung,. ot the I ath~·~ ul die l h1111 Ii 111111
t ' hn,nan ,lncir1n
~l1r.riou' heli t
•
1 I pl < \I IC''
l' \ ll 1 r 1·11111 1,ci1•1111 ' 11 "l' 1
·olll l'P'' lo11nd 1n dil
I1, l 1111 1111111
II c\1, 11·11ct ) . 1t·11·1·111li tc11111ry1 l\.lrl
·I. 1., t'' pl11 111 ,1 I 1'hole 111 I 11 l: 1111 I I 11
1h.11 11111111111.''' 111d "' 1111 c111.11cc ' 1 .
1 1•11111
1r11 .il y 11 t11·111 lrcn 11
lc1111t 111tl'll1•1111.1I '''1 111 "
. 111111 ·"' I"'
r t\l:irxi.;111, iv hie h 1., 1tlH•., 1., l1111ld1n~ .
(M
:11'<1.,11 1 "
. I I I ·111111,111. II • 'I" :11 .. y1
\l.11,, d1.11l111.1 111.i 1 I 11 1!- ;111, 11 .. 1 ·ill i·11lo111pa.,.,111111n1l·l
. . I . 11(11 11·1 1111 .1 1111 . • ·11·c !-{' .1111 ' ' r-
t 1111111""'· n·111 1•,1 11t11 ·' 'I v111hc11c ')' "lclll'' I . l "t l "C Mure 1:0111c1111)111·11·y
'I ' 1 l ) I ll''l' ... ) I' • I)( CX I' .... .. •
,.,.11111111·d 111 < 1.1p• 11 ·
'
• iluin ;il l ol n:i1 ll Y'1 I ·ini., 111, l'l'Jl.'Cl ' I ho1111., 111 \
k·1111il l·d1'111'' 1h.11 p11rpon tol't 1 ~ hi c<il 1\11;1 ·1 ysi., ·
ph1c:i . I A n,·ilysis
· · (cx;1111111c< 111 . 1ap1cr
f 7)
t:1.111d .1pp111;1rh .ll 'Y'1c111 huildinj.{. 1' 1~1 o~o inorJerto .;11hjc1.:1 i t. 1 o~hc 1 c.,10 ~111p11
h1 l'l"'" do1v11 1h1• l:111g1wgc ll~('d in pl~ilo~opl Y. I od of dccons1i u1.: uon1<;111 (cxa1111ncd 111
11..11 ie11li1·:1111111. P11sunodc1n1-;111, \viii~ ''~-~~~<~1~1is111 and I legclianis1n as rcprc~c.nt1ng
(' h·1iucr H) ,('C' such g-r:111d syntheses ns . 1 fa Jon1inan1 <.: la<;\ at :l p:in11.:11l;1r
1ht•. 1denlogn• the r:1uon:ilcs fc>1 . . powci ,. ni1d conuo,o, . >resent the ra11ona .. I·c ll'ieu
. ·' l>y the
>J• Th 01111. 111 \VOll 1( 1 rer . .I .
pc:nud of h1..,tory. For cxnn1plc, ' . ·"in its status and power uunng the
•
do111111:1111 ch11rch-relateu . 1 I . 11 1
c cnca 1.e, 1·ar1.:hy
' to 1na1nt" . . ·nn. will be very d·1 1·r1crcnt 1·r· we
. · and to 1nsu uco . .
1\l1ddlc 1\!{cs. ()11r :1ppro:1ch to etIucnuon . , L" high level of explananon, or if
.I I . I ·ysten1s rep1 csen ..
:1sltu111e that the !{l':lnd pI11o<;op1~ca s ·, , f breaking through what purport!>
1
\\IC take thc approach that a1~aly~ s r~pr~sen.ts ' ;:i~~~truCL'l political, socinl, and eco-
1
to he the source of educat1onal pnnc1plcs an c .i .
110111ic insights into ho\v po\ver 1.s hc1(1anu. 1 ex"rci'ied .... in 1nouern soc.:1ety.
' fh cre arc historical and conte111pornry reasons for studying Th eistic Rc11li'i1n.
~rho1nis111 which Jon1inate<l Westen1 th1nk1ng during the medieval period, especially
the thirte~nth century, \vas rhe ..,tant.larcl ant.I approved n1ethod of scholar..,hip used in
the 111edicval univer:.ities. As the officially san1.:rioned philosophy of the Ro1nan
c:atholic (~hurch, it \\l:JS used 3') the intellccn1al foundation in Catholic higher educ:a-
1ion. In the twcnticlh century, there was a significant revival of Thomism, especially in
the Integral Rcalisn1 ofJacques Maritain (1882-1973). Because of its lc>ng and contin-
uing influence, the srudy ofThci'itic Reali..,111 i., U'icful in providi n~ a perspective on the
his Lory of philosophy.
Thc>1nis1n's inAuence extended beyond C:atholicism. It attracted tht:: attention of
theorists \vho were in the tradition of C:lassic-al Ilu1nanisrn and Aristotelian Realis1n
such :is Morti1ner Adler and Robert Hutchins in the United States. lt has inAucnccd
1ho11c \vho w~nt tc> .ba~o;e ed~catio~ on enduring principles and values 3., an antidote to
111odern 'IOC1et)r'". 1nfatuauon with consumer-driven 111 atenalisrn :ind prescnti\ln\
delihcr:itc forg-~tfiilness of the past. It hao; also been 3 strong influence on the educa-
uonal theory of Perenn1ahsm , d1'icus..,ed 1n C: hapttr 17.
Tl IEIS'I'IC REALISM AS A PIIlLOSOPHY

OJ<' EDUC:A'l'ION
Metaphysics
l 'ho1111'1t n1ec~1ph} c;ic., 1nl.lut.le<l a synthtc;is of thcolo . nenc'
h.11,ecl on ( :h r1.,nan docrnne and belief.., and ph . gicha I or 'upt:maturaJ conlptd' "
· 110 op Ila} C(>rnpt>ncnt~ Jen\ e iroi11
< 11\l'IJ Rl<lllt
J J II I'> I I< . l< l:AJ l\\I (J lie J\11 !\I/
57
\n.,11nlc\ RLa lt .. 111 . ·1 ht- 1'11:1 Ir
Lhc''" ca111l' lro1111hc doLtnn' '1'c.:~I d11c 111111!~ 111.11 1\•1 ' ' l c<I in fn11lrl1ng his yn
CXl\ICnlt: of(;od. a11 •1111n1p1 ~~" I c in ..d1eval ( .hn.,11.11 <.I •1n:.:h. At.t111n .. s as •·rtcd Utt
lt:ncc, llH.:lu<l1n11 h11n1an 11•- 'cn1(,)pt:1fcLt, :incl ~11pt:111a1 uJI l,r,:1ng, wh11treatcI tnntp•Jt cnt 1111.:ans aII l>'•V.crtul, 1•1. rfl;(.'t rr "ans C.tJtn-
( ;<>ti <.:reatecJ hun1an be1n ., :n1~1e~n' ah1Jvt: and li1..;11nd na11u1.: '''the ph~t~I v.•,rld.
bod). During li fe on eart; h b t~doY..td ihcrn w11h a 5p1rt11Jal <Jul and a phyr.1ul
\\:OrlcJ. The earthly <l '. l e o } connecl'> tht pcrc,11n "' the nan1ral and "h~'Stt'al
.
particular ame and inimens1on
a lof hu1nan life ' th c un1t
. .,pent <1n l.anh, takeo; plat:e r- •
at a
for t:temal life enabl thpan1cu ar place. After the death ,,f th<.: b<1dy, tht ~'111\ dt untd
L.
o 11eing
f \vi th ' ( ' od es
th e person to en1oy tht b<:an fi c v1c,1<Jn-t . ht c;ornplttt happ1ne\s
beings an intell:ct' h~ ~~e~atural_ (~reator. Through the c.oul, ( i<>d gai,:e human
which enables th ' w ihc rs e ba..,rs of i.elf-a\varenec,s and rau<>naliro and a will
and Eve the em tof ave freed om 0 f ch01ce.
· Becau~e of the or1g1nal., ,sin of Adam'
. d od.the human race, th e human berng,
' depparents
spiritually · at birth, enteri. the world
order to rede rlv~ an !~perfect. God sent hii. son, Jesus Christ, to Earth as a man in
To aid h enb1 .uina~kind through his death, resurrection , and ascension to heaven
God Ch.· uman e1ngs . rn regain "ing th err
· sp1nrua
· · I hentage
· . the vision of·
and to enioy
th '.. 115.t ~stablrshed the Christian Church to teach all nations and to administer
e gt ace-g1V1ng sacra1nents. 2
. . Aquinas' synthesis was co1npleted by integrating componentS of Aristotle's ReaJ-
tsm into the philosophy. Among these components were the principles that:
1. Hu ma~ beings live in an orderly and purposeful unjverse that follows patterns of
regularity known as natural laws.
2 . Hurnan beings, endowed \\'ith intellect, are rational creatures.
3. H~man knowledge begins with sensanon and is completed with conceprualr-
zaoon.
\ Vh.ile Aquinas accepted these Ari~totelian principles, he believed that they were
crue but 1ncompJete statementS of realit}-. For example, Aquinas believed that Aris-
totle's narural process of knowing was enlightened and completed by the human
being's acceptance of the truth of Christian doctrine as an act of faith, and cooperation
\\ith the enlightenment of the intellect through gifts of supemarural grace. Like Aris-
totle, Aquinas believed that the universe itself \Vas rationally designed, functioned
accor<ling ro patterns of regularity, and that existence was purpo!>efu1 and not acciden-
tal. Ho\Ve\·er, for Aquinas, the power behind the purposeful universe was the mind and
hant.I of (~od. \ \ 'hj le Aquinas accepted Aristotle's clicrum that the greatest human hap-
pine ·s L-nn1e fron1 h\ing a life based on reason, he believed that Aristotle's view was
hnute<l because he did nor have the gift of Christian faith. for Aquinas, Aristotle's
earth)\ \le\\' of happiness. \\'hile partiall} rrue, "as incomplete. Human happines~
\\"'as c~n1pletely realized m heaven after the death of the body when the soul achieved
the beaafic ,,51on of bemg m the presence of the Creator.
•.\.ccordmg co •.\quinas. \\·e lire in a God-created " ·orld that :ollo"-s narural la"·s
and operate according to the dinne plan. Further, _the human being has .a purpose m
cxi'ltence co eq>enence the beatific v151on of God in hea' en. For Thom1\tS there are
nro 1.:omplenienLaf} secs of goals or purposo. the uJomare one., that relatt: to the n10-1
I \i; l I lllll•''•')llll'•'l 11'1' \lh'
ii l \lhl lllll thll\\' lh11 II

11 11
II 11"'1I1111'11o( ,1t h11111;lll ' ' ' ' ' ' 1\1' i... 111 1111 1h '1 1' '• 'I ' 'Ill\!\
'''
Ill~ hi<' 1111 t',ll l I\ \\hu ht
l'I•''"" "' ... II. \I t I Ill 11111• I II I• 11i.l• 1 • " 11 ' r>I I l l ~·11\t 1 llt'I t iI\, , 1111
'I ' \ llll\l\I· llt
• 1111 "" •h .II• ~ .. I ' • I I l) t'\\c\
'' ·1"•111111 ''th'' ,1111 1'"''""·1" ' ' ' \I hll h \\<' 1 ' 1'1 · . ll ll\
~·'•' 1 , 11 di.II •II' II 11111._: h ' lll\ ~u.11,
1 11 1
\111'1 , 1111 1111 1 ,1 ,11,f ,•1 111111""' l IIt II III 111111 . ·'
.l 1'1li,,'111 111\I •'11hil•''•'t'lh' I ill\• II'"' I Ill l "'''"'I ' llp 1 111
, h '\ \\l 11· \II t\1,lll!ll, lt' lllllll: , •llll\
lllll\\ l1t'l1\ll\I I 1
11, I• 11••1 I r.·
11,1hlt )l llhl1• hi I 111111<11 1 '"
Ill\\ I I l{l,1hl c
l ' fU'(l'llHll11~,
I . ), 11 ,, 11 ,tnt1l't''· I)" inc R t•1t. l,1111 1n
I Iloll \ 11\I <'}ll\h'llllll,1~1.111 I I\c'lll I 11 I "'""'I C''
I 11 i..' 11' It'' I
I ' I\ 11111n ut n.1tu1.1l 1)ht:nu111t'-
• I1 111 · 11r111't''' 11 :.t '•
1h1 1 111~h 1hr t\1hlr 1111<l \11,hll <'h11n 1,(",\ ' ' . .
1
''t''' olkno"'"~ '' d11al1't1t·
l ' t'Jll' 1 It p1 ii-. '
111111 .111.I .1h,11.11111111111 ' '' 11\111\ 1I11r.11nll11111 1 I \llSlrt1c11on . /)11•1nr Rn.•r/u
I ' II ·n,,1111111 111H I •
''"''''''"~ I'" 111<' l~c·1 1 !oo
111 rh11111n 1\lh n 11n i. · '
II
11111 1s " ' ho ha1 c rc.:top\ .. 1
1 llll1I\ It . 'cu
'''"' lll<'.111' 1h.1t ( ;,1d h,,, lt' \t'.1lcdII''"'<' fll I
I' · (
fl'llll'l'l
u1n..;, sue:
·h 11s ·\ltllilll 'i the S"•'r"tl
· • 11 •. • . · ""h'"h
I I \(' 'I(' l('\<'hllllll\\ Ill ti ' lll' l('d Ill h11h I \(Ill" . ' 111
1 ' h11s1
•
1111 1I ., ii ( ' hr1su.1n 1vnr l VIC\\' 111 '" 1c
h1111k 11 .1, the• l11hlt·, 1h1• 1111111 nl ( ;11tl . In tht' ' it ' • : • I ·l bc)·'y l>f•lo • t ·
·
lh11111.1,11p(•1111<'d 1hr H1hh.,11l1111µ11111 ( ·1
1 111 11 11. ·I lot' I r1 nes·•
101111e t
J• Iu , t> 11111 •1 1c
(h
' · I
11 lllh, Ut'\'t'J'lt'd 11\l hlllh , I ht• l ' llll lotl t' l'll\c'l\('1 Ill l1(1
k 11· 1111r I" , I bt 1Ck pcrson
nrc • t 'lat \ t t:
~thl\\ C'I) hc•l1t•\t'' 111 h ,1, h111h th.11 1ht• 01 11 I nclv.• 111 ...· ptret. uo , nnt rcto11.
1 t' I' 1r11 I\ .t l I\ 1 l'I
1111t'' d11• ( 'h111t' h\111.1~1,11• 1111111 , 111 ll'•ll' h111i.r n 11rht1rH) · .

• l' jll\lt'lllll Iti..'\ ,I, •·1··
\qtllll ,l' I 1•li1•, 1111 \11\llll It•' 1tcl\• tlc!>.cr1h1n1
.. l · t1r '_ • , !:> ho\\. hu1nan
7
kItel\\ 111~ lll'\"lll' 1h1 t>ll)lh 11111111 .ti pi , 11• 1.,,t., ut 't'"'·'t ion 111 oh1cct · 1n the en:1 ron1.n~nt
.111d .1h,tt.lt't1111l 11l tl11, 't' ll''"' d.1c.11n10 cont·cpt' ('ct• ( 'h,1ptcr 3). Hun1an beings, living
111 •111.,11 ;Hid t'\tt•rnnl ,1nrld 11l 11hi1·l t,, 1ht' tht•tr ,cn'c' tt> .1t·qu1rc 1nfo1111ation about thcst:
Ohlt'l'(\, l'ht' lllllld \Ill I' 1h1' 'll'l\\Ur\ dithl, l'\11<\l'I\ tht• t!'SCnt1,1l 4ualirieS Of objects, and
.1111\ l'" nr t:•>IH.'t'P'' nh111111ht• 11h11·1.·t ,,, t\ l'la'" ur l 'illCl-(OT). B) arrnnbrin~ these concept'
in tht•11 n11nd,, 111dl\ 11111.tl' t 11n µt•ncroht<.' lru1n th1-; 't.'11\0f) expericncr anti con'ltruct
f)<1,,1hlc nllt•rn.111\t'' ut 11t·11un,, l'h1' 1.111011,11 prucc'' cn.ihlcs pc<>ple to cxcrci'c frcc-
dcun t>I l' IH>tl'<.' \ \ 'ht•n \1 c 1n11lt· .l l ho1cc ha,cd t>n the hc..,r U\ atlable inft>rn1ati<>n, \VC arc
.u.·1111~ r.1tu111t1ll) . l lo\\e\ct, dt'l't,1on' ;\re tu he Oh\Uc ,\cc<>rt.ling to the great purpo<,c for
\\ htl·h httlllill\'- .1rt' <.' ft'1llt'd -the ht'.\ltfic \ 1'1011 of (;<>0, \\ h1ch WVC<., C<>lllp\ctc happt11C'>'-·
( 'ho1rc •. \ qu111.1..; ht.•ltl'\cd. lollu,,ed the purpo'c f<>r '' h1ch hnn1an beings were created.
!'he truth rh 11 hu111.1n, ~t·el ro ~it.It' thcnt <>n their jc.>urnt:} fr<>n1 Earth to
l lc.1' c.•n 1s uni\ cr,.11'till'<:1r or1g1nttre' fro1n the i,an1~ J1\'ine s<>urce, (.,oJ. Fc>r Aquina'I,
re' cl.11 H>ll anu rt';1,on, It kt.• the 'upcman1rnl and natt1ra I <>ruc::r..,, are cc1n1ple1ntnta ry
p111<.'t'S'it.'s. \\'hen ''l' r~.1,on n~htl}, thl're '' nc.> C<>nAict b~rv.·et!n fctilh anJ rt:ai,on and
rt•lagitlll .1nd lll' ICOl.'t'.
1\xi<>IOg)'
J11,1 ... , the' truth '' unt\ eNl and eternal, Thc>mt t also h,>lcl that \~lues,
J''<'rt thur
tclc), .are tn1t\l'~1I ;inJ ntn('lc'' .\lthuut?h omc: \-Uriati"<>n h h h · 1 .iue
" 1 un1an e avu1r eX'J!I u
0
re> ne1..'e,,ill"\' adJpt:it1on, Ct> Jatferenr nm«:'I and plac- the ,,.. n-
. . ... ~. es~ent1n 1\.'1 1tie~ are tran""'e
denr, 1run'1.'uln1nll, anJ 1nJepentlent t>f differing siruati·c n 1i 1· 1 t
, s. rue 'a1u are \a 1u a
111111' llld Ill 111 pl l1t'' h1 I lll\1 111 Ille 11 1•111-tlll 111 ol l11\ 1111~ ,11\d I ,11 lllg ( 1<1d, ,Ill I'll 111.tl
llhl 11111\1 l\.d l 11' 111•1
\ ll p<'lll'lc-, lt'ft.11111,,, 1•( ,1!11111 .11d1111•11·1111·,11111tl11111111 •d h\
l111H ,111.I pl.tt'l' 1 .lie.:
l' lhht\\ t'd \\ tth .Ill 111111h•l 111 '11111 .111d \\ 11h .111 1111<•llt·1 I 111.11drl1111•., 1111'11 h11111.11' 11,11111 L
ll1•1 111\t l'f th1• 1li~t11l\ tlf tin \lt'l\tll1 , b.1,11 hlllll.111 11)lhl\ I \1\I th.II \I ,Ill\\ \'IH I j.!l'11µ1,1ph
11.tl, p1 1h111.1I, "'11.1l, 111ln11.il, .111.I '" 11111111111 h1111111l.1111·, I h1· '111111111 ' lilr, ,,, prt'\LI il1L·d
ll\ 1·11111111'''· ' ' t1111· 111 "h11·h tl11· p1•1,1111 l11ll11\I, 1111· ' 11111111.il 11·11µ11111., µ 111dl' l111 c,, th \!
1111·,1 1 'I' t "in, .111 d p1 , ,,,·1 1pt 11111,, 1111 1 h1· ~ n11d Iit c ·'" t1111111 I 111 d H' "'ic1 1p1111 l'" .1 nd 1h c d111.:
11111.tl lt'.t1·h111~' 111 th1· { 'ln11t'h \l.111\ 111 t h1•,t·1111·,c11p111111.; .111d pn1:-.c11p11on,, ·' ' ln1111d
111 tht• 11•11 ( \1111111.1111h11t•111,, r1•l1111• 111 ht•lt.1\1111.; tln11 ll'.1d to hn1· ol 01hc 1 h11111nn h1·111~.,
ind 111lu\t•111 (;ud In 1·111111111 1·111111 \11th ll\111~ .11·1 111d111,.: 1111hr t1.'aL'h1nµ.; nl'S1· r1p111r~
.ind th1• ( 'l11111·h. lilt·,, 111 11., ,1, \11,t11d1· ,,11d. th.11 '' li, 1·d :1c1:11rd111~ 10 rc.1,on .
1h1· ).:1111d
lt I\,\ hll' 111\\hn·h1.111111111111 \ µ11\t'lll' thl'\\tll .111d d11• •'lljll'lll('S.
\ \ htll• jlll''l'''l\11' llf kllll\1 l(·dµ(' I\ \l'l'flll Ill lr.1d11tµ th(' )-\Olld lift• :llld in flll lllill g
l'htlll't'' Ill .IL'llllll, ll llt't'd' hi ht• d1tt'l It'd"' .I I 1µ,h1h ltll llll'd ('tlll..('ICnrt• the d1sp11si
t111n,, 111t·ltn.1cH111, , .111d .1111111111•, 1h.11 1·111111 d1111t· 11111111k111µ,1:tl11r.lll) co1'1'Cl'I dcc.:1sinns.
l 'or \qu1n.1'. 'llp1.:111.11111.tl ~1 .li.'l'. .11-11111111111t:11d.1111. hilt'',\ ]ll'•:-.0111n :ll't nobly, hcne\'-
<'lt•n1h ••ind r1ghd, lht· p1t''t'llt1 111 tht µ it .II 111111.tl C\t•1npl.11. Jc.;u-. ( ;hrist, and the
.,,lt11c,, tht• h11l~ 1n1·11 .ind \11111\t'll 11h11 h11l11\1t•d h1111, p111\ 1dl• 1ht• ~p1rit1111l n1odcl.; for
hu1n.11111111t:\1i1111 In L'' 1'1 \d.1\ lllt'. l ' Hlt•n111101.tl1'\t•111pl.11' '11t·h ;1., purt•n1.; and teacher..;
prll\ldt.• tht• \111111µ, \\llh 11111d1·],t1I tht ~·~id hit 1h.11,llt 11orth~ of 11111t:\t1on.1'hc ld~l1f
( 'hr1,t .111d cht• ,,1111r-., 1h1• 1t.11h1n>-" 111 tht· ( lnt1th, .111d hun1.1n 1.u1on<il•1) con1rihutc to
1ht• ft11111111g-11f h.1h1C, 1h.11111thn1.· .t pt•1,1u1111 lh1111'l' \1h.1t ''µnod nnd right.
l ~ogic
l 1>~rll\ lur l'h1ln11'1'· 1, d1·dut ti\ l' .ind thl.'y t".1ll 1 i11,/.t r1•111n11. Ri ~h1 1ea.,1111
h.1,l·d on'' h.lt
1-. th.lt h\ 11 hu:h 1hL• pt•r,un\ 1111nd, 1llu1111n.1ttd h, ~r.1c.c.• .ind i.-l'\11dcd h) 1,1tu1n.1l11}, t1"c"
h1µht'l". tit 111tlrt• !!t'ncn1l pt 1tll 1pll'' .1-. .1 µ-utdl· ltl 'l'l'1 1f11. h1·h.1\ 111r. I he iicnc1 ;11 pro
-.L·r1pt111n' not tn ltt'. 'tc.\11. .ind l.:111 r1..:l.lll tn Ill.Ill\ -.pl.'1.tltt' 111.,t.1n1.t.'' 111 lalc .ind 11r~c
pl',1pll• t11 tt>ll tht· uurh .ind 111 tl'Pt'll u1hl'1,' ll\t'' .ind pr11pttt\ l-nllo\\1nµ dt:dut.11vc
h11.f1t.'. h1\\t't"ordl'I tir 1..-.1,c· 'l't'tthl pr111~1pll'' .111' dc.•11,cd licH11l11µhc1 ,111orc J.Cl'llC;'r;1 l
'
ont•, f\11 nt:ul.u 1...1.,t'' .trl' tu rontottll to tht lu~h1.1 ll\ll pr1n1..1plc JI th1.rc app1...1r., u1
he .t l\1t1ll11.c. 1t ,hould h~ rt·,til\t'd 11n the h.1 .. 1, 111 l."t1nf11r1111t) 111 agtcl.'ttH.~nt \i.:1th the
h1~he-r 1u·dcr pt 1n1..·1plt>
•
'l'l l1'' 1S'r'l(' R1'"..\l ~IS"l' ' l~ Dl 'C \ l'l()~ \1.

l1\1Pl.IC \ l 'l()~S
·1~he Puq)()st• tlf l;"Jut'aricln ~nd \ cht><lling
1 1 ll1l\\ 1ni: tht> ~ het th;\l <,o.,: "rt .t!cd purpc. eful uni' ers , clu t1on. un 1, 1 I
pri>e.t'''• Jn\J ,1.hc){11.,, .i-. agl'llt.lt' dc.,1gned tt> ed11c le, r1: (>UrJ'M, t11l tn , h , pn
111 n pu1 l)(.''l'' rhat :are 1ntr1n'1'" l'f'l1r"lin t{I th~1r n t11re nd uncti n ui
I
. , , '" (-.,,, tJI adv;ilH u1g 11vhv1d11ali; t•1 fHr

•fr ln11d1•1lt11i1/f11 til cd111.t11•1ll a' tl1i Id e I ill) 11' f 1 I . Iii 11 1110 111111 ~· t}
1 111 1 I11 I 111 11
( ., ..,., I '" :l I !'., • l
1111.d n 1d 111111!1 1111:11 1· xl• •ll ' ' ' ' VII
ha~ rlit• l • I ltll• • the la1111ly, an. J
s 1:111•, c 11 l "
111v.,J ,,,.11i.111y••J<1.al.1v1111 ·1""a11 J P',."' 111 ""''' . 11H .111 1ill a 11 1111•, t hc
· I· . dr,11 CJ a 11·1
•1d111 1111•11111.rl , d1JL.11111., 4 Wl11lc11lht1 :lj.!..,ntri '>Pay'111 11 , i
. I - I I1.,., lict..ll ~1vt 11 bt~111111 <.lilt 1·1111<;a
i•ll•1•1l1~ d11 f111111al:1g-1r1<:y, 1hc111.,111u1ioJl,WJJLl ' I I 111
1111 ary aut 11111t1t., 111 1 11;1r l 111 1cn'i.
""'' ·" 11 '> lllJJ1.,dHl1111 ., hy p:~rc1ll'>, who art I J1c JH I I
·
• d111 .1111J11 ' J li1n1J11)l'l li1.;J11•vt 'l<.:hool'> t:XJ'>t t<> cu Iuva
tc hu1ni.111 1au11na ny a111 t '>p1111ua 1·11y. Whtie 1)n111Hry tinp l:l'>ISj ,., g1 Jt n 11 1
1 1
1a11111111;1J and 1n11 Jl1•1.. t11al Jcvclop111ent ('>1ncc th e'ie arc

, , the JllO~· t lnLrll1'>lL I ;1111 llllptJJ 14 11t
,1
d . c. 1nattcr.,. a "" neelJ 1
• · J
;1,.111 ·1,.,111 h11111a11 na1u1e), phy.,1c11l, '>OC1a, an econ<JJJ11 L tlllJ >t <..1111 -
• •c.l r1 r j Jeaven 1 livt'> 011 a r l.
"'' I,.. 1·1·d he< :111.,e the hu1nan bt:rng, though ut!o,t1nc .1
0
J)unli~rn and t11 e Curricular llierarchy

l .1kc• Ar 1 .,totle'~ J{ealisrn, which as'>erts the dualism'> <>f forrn~rnatter an<l '>Oul-hody,
'J ho1111.,111, too, i., a duali'itic phiJo.,ophy. For ThC>n1isn1, the 1111portanr <luaho,n1., art
th:tt ol 1lcHven and T.:.arth an<l soul and body. c;enain matters relate t<> the i;oul, <J1J1tr~
t<> th e 1>1,dy. Aquinas aso,t:rts that !>oul and body are not at wa.r wid1 e~ch other but arc
c1>n1plen1cntary. ~fhough they are complementary, that wh ich 11, '>p1r1rual, or 1;f me
soul, i'> higher than and of greater 1mix1nance than that which relates to the hotly,
hccau.,c the :ioul is destined for eternity while the body has a finite ex1\tence.
B:i-;e<l on the soul-body dualism, there is a hierarchy of hurnan intere!'its, need!!,
an<l activities with the spirirual, because of its uln1nate purp<>se, given a higher ranking
<)r j)riority tJ1an the body. Jn creati..ng a turnC'ulum, thc)<,e subjects that have a theolog1 -
cal foundation and relate to sp1r1rualiry are m<>St important an<l are thercf<>rc g1vtn a
higher priority than tho:ie that relate co the phys1cal world. Sening t.his kind of pr 10111y
<l()es not mean that subjects dealing with the phy ical world are uni111pc>rt.ant; 1t '>lfnply
111can.., t.hat their importance is lesser than tho e relating to the sp1r1c.
As noted, the human being has a body that lives in a panic:ular place and t11nc
Further, the human being lives, conununicace~, and wc,rb 1n a sc>c:iety of <>tJ1cr ptoplt
.t\s Cl>mmu11icating beings, humans have de\.eloped languagt:, the n1eans of <>ral and
\\Titten e.\-pression. The human per on then has an autohicJgr<1phy, lives at a plate
and hJs a geography; and lives at a given rime and has a history. I~i .. ing in \<>ci1:1it:s,
hunLlilS hn' e go\'emmencs. Ther also work to suni ..·e and have dtvelt,pe<l ec11n<>tllii::s
and pursue occupanons. In descend.mg order from the theoJ<,gical-)pl ntual ~urr11111t
c)f the curricular hierarch;· arc the SUbJtro that relate to the human•s tanhly life·
language. hisco11-. geograph~-, mathematics. science, political !lcicnct:, S<>eti>logy, .1111.I
econo1n1~.
Thu.' far, the curricul~ hierarchy has the the<Jlogical-spinrual \uhji:ct at 11,.,
su1nmit and the ub1ecrs dealing \lo1th t:arthl}· hfe po)1tiuned 11 1-..c;r 10 the 1.:urri ::i 11urn
.,trucrure. Occup)iilg the rruddle, and linking, pc~iti11n 1n rhc hierarchv arc th1J~ uh
JCCts ~ac relate both to spiri~l1~· and eanhl) lif~-ph!losoph~' and ul>dJ\ 1 ,.,n ;ts
~peoally met2phys1cs and logic, that e.umme realit)', thinking, and \"a)uing
' '' lit,, ,,, l• \ I ',,I I I" I\ II' \I
6l
l t\\' \ ''~h' <If '\1hi \\
\\I UICI \ ) 1,.i,1111 1\tHHI
\1\, 11 '''ll\h(lc•1\
'
"' '
i.., '·i.
1
' '.-h,i ·111 •1
' · \ , , I 111111
l~.'"'' • 11111, 111 I 11
I .1 I I• lllllll'I I Ill Ill llh1111 I' •II 1t.lllll\ d 111\ll ' l \l.1 ·
• • '• •11 n, ' "111 h \ 11 I
.I. II •' ' ' ' t l 11 I 1 ' •Jlllll.1' ' .1 c' '' '' 11111 I h1uh 111 .1111111111l 11L•I
•• .1111~.-.l \.11c1" I1 I 11 I ' '
!h, , '" , ' ', 1• "l • " 111 ' H<' 11 oq~:11111.111t111 ol ' " 'JPl I lllllltL' I\ tollo'''
' 11 "I' ' '''ti. • 1 1 •~11
.. '11h11 • '' .1, 1 • t 'p11 .1 II , 111y.1111111 I ;11111111 !11 , .,r
11 1 111 .11111
l ..
. .. 'I
,,r 1•1 , 1111, , , ih II ll
I l
•1ti It I I l
. . ' ' 11'1 ,, l \ u I'll I, I <'11\ \'I t I 1111\ l.:'.'<\ll 1111\Clll 1\1011 I \I
'' " ' " ' •• " •\II\\ ' \\ ' \ .• 1 I ' I ' . I
Ill . . " 'I ,,,, \ <II h.l\(l\\ «d1t1• I h<' '" '' p1,,,,1p\1·, tll l' 1111\11\\Cd h1 \•'(
\ • ' • '• ' '\ \l(\l H 1 11\ I h 11 1II I I
1111 ,,, .., I , · ' ' · 11''' :llL' \ ll p11n11p <' I hl·n. 1h1• \r\l1h Ill th e p11nltple
' I 1' ll;llhll\ JI\' 111J\\I\ 11\1\1:I1'1llh' hl,IOI\ ,
l ' lt<' l ' t\1lt\\tSt l '<':\,•ltc·r :\Itel l C'l\l,l <.'I'
\, 'i-,·n.~i .l111 th<' •'·''"\\ 1th l\1-.1lt,n1, llH' 1'ho1111~1 te:1l•h1ng :ind le:1rni11~ 'ltr;1tcgv 1ha1
\,}u 11 ' ' •\II '''l • . "
"' 1 1, n1 ' I<' I1I'<'1,ltt' 1n,1111l·111111, rcl\.•r-; to t I1c proces-; 1n
' \\' 1·11c
. I1 a
' J, h<'t ''''" ih ' ' .1 ,,n,lc1\l 111 .1 '11h11'll 'Ill h :1, h1,to11, 111;1thc111;1uc~, or lolt•c.5 Tcach-
1
i\~ ''"}\Ill< ' th1,•,• "•'\<'''·"' 1•h •11H' nt' .1 lt'.ll'hcr \\he; i.; cng'.ll(Cd in instruction, <1 -;kill
•'· '"""\'I l..11,,\\ I< iii:,· th.111, tht• ,1h1t< t 11t 111,1111lt1on. ;111d :; student \\ho 1s 10 le;1rn the
'ttl'!< 'r ., rh\",<' thl<'t' llt'1'<'''·ll\ t•l1•11tl' l\I\ 111;1\ ;lppe:tr to he Clllll11101\SCl1Sic~I\ 01' ohvi-
'1\\' \ , , , .1l111,111 \thlll lll\tlh1, .111.11h(I, .1 lc,,1111. ;11111 J 't11<lcn1. llo\VC\'er, it IS CUS}
t\' hn.l ,1t n.u1<'11 ' 1n ,, hc1,1I, "h1·1t• tht• l.1' p;11 t .1 ,l,111 nr suh1cct-is 111issing. In the~e
,·.1,, ' · 1'''''''11,in 1lc.i-;<'llt'1,111, 111111 p<11ntll·,, d1'1 u,,1011' that ;1re off the subject. ()r
1 1,1 f\h t t• '" b,•,'\ '"'' ' .1 1", 1 p.111 prn, ,.,, 111 '' h11 h 1111 "" h1cct '" taught anti the 1e:1chcr
u,,' th<', .1''''"'"'
h1r' II 1·1nt11t·d l''\1..hnlo._,ttc..11 nr politic;1\ purposes. ~rhere arc also
'·''t'' 111 '' '"' h 'tudt 111, 111.1pp111p11.Ht hl•h.1' 101' 111tcrl1..•rc "1th the purpo-,e of 1nstruc
thll\ cht le Ut\11\~ ,,f ,1,k1ll 111 ,uh1t'LI.
ln th t11.1d 11! tt .11 ht r. 'uh1et 1••ind '"llll'l\t, the ~ood tc:1cher is a 1naturc pcr~on
" h1' lrltht•r .u l'h \ ht ,,1..• It .11·h1 ni: .1, .\ '11t .111011. \ '0~~1t1on, ln the 1~ho1 n is tic con text, can
l,,•• lt'hlll'1l .1, .I\ l pl.II\\ t' 11t' .1c.11\ 1111111 (;t\(I to enter the life of teaching an<l beco111c an
,tu, lt111 \ '11\.'.ltll\I\ h1lhl1, ,, dt''lll' 111 'l'I\ c other-, ~ind is niotivaLc<l by love of truth,
°'' <" ,,, t'lh1..1 p<'t1plt ..ind lt\\l' ot (;<xi 111 thl! rclti..11ouo, cnnte:\t 1n \\hu:h Tho1111~n1
d ,l•lt1i'<.d. 1ht• ('<1111..'1..'pt 111 .\ '''";1111111 "·'" ·'''01..·1•\tc<l \\1th bccn1n1ng a pric'it, n1onk, or
••• • •
l'l-l< )\ tlS l' <..' l RRI<' l l ...\R I l fli R.\R( 'I t\
•
•
\1'.e'\1l,1~ ·
' .
,h1t11•, '·' 'Ullhn, d1 tnnc. 'cnpnlTC
l'htl'''''Ph' · 111 ~1r'1''' ''.and 11 '?l
• t i~t"ll1 \"' and~ ·ten~'! langwi~. mathem:auc . 'cacn1..c, h1'>t1Jl), gcograph), art
• " ('( ~" Slill'": rt".ad1n~. \\nttn2. llnthn1tt1C, rra}C.t
•
111 \1111
I Al! I I 1·1111 '·~111 1111 '1
1 111
I I •d1 cv: d lc!a1.hl' I
I llCJ'I I Ill \ \\ l'r
I I
I
,,,1) 111 I1 . 1 "'""I' 1
,,,,, lXll'"' IctI t o ll':tchcr, t
11 I ,,, I, "'~ ' " " ' 111111
1 I I •
111111 ' ' " " ltJfl~ '""'Ill
1" 1111 111111 l pt ,, . Vl' d 111111).{ l ClVl', lhl' trp.. I
·c 111\\ 11 111 'l'I n "''
I""''"''' 111111~. '' "r ''' 1t1" I ill .,1
,1 , ,11.11111 I o hi· ~no\vlcdcrcahlt! " ·'
111 ,1dcl1111111 111 I " '
1 I 11 1
t, 1 11 1
, c11hc·1.,,
I 1111 11 1"'1 ·' '
Ito h ., le;1rncd "
a he I"nu.
1
I I '' ' c·1 1uc. 11 • , ., .,1111 w . . '' Yot
ti .11 ltt".'1 ' ' n111 11111\ 1111 11111 I ., ., •I 111.111111 11 I I 11 tc i lc·11 n "11<1 n
I 1 111-.11 It \4/ \Cl \411' • " r·ll'i\C.!
' " " ' " 111111\llll< 111111 I It >t•H I
ic· 1I11\ 111 1111 10 \(Ill \'Ill '
ul k I t . \\
1H1\V 1ow o organ 17 ,.
11 11 11t u11 tf \tit'' 111111111111111111 •1
ch I ,1 ihoro111411 1Y .11 .c ll
111•1 ' " ljl' l
ti , I 111 ,, ,I(""' 11111 \I l.110\\ I11 \ '"
1111 1111 11111 />ti\<' ol 111.,1111111011 . to l l':ll' h ·11 1nve1
· tht.: teacher
lvt''i .' . ·•n two
I ht• k1111\\ lc•d).(t' ,,, :1 .,11hjl't'I :111d 1HJW • I ·11.: tion. c:on1 c n1pla tton l'i nsualh1
. 1c11111l:111on I · ,11H •
.1 lct>th ol• .,p1ru11a
. • . <l'1n~. ln'
I untIcrstan
1 c·J. 11r•d ph.1, 1., of pi i•p.11 .1u1111 : 1.:1111
10 · < • k'
I
•''~"' 1.1tt•d \\.1th 1hc dl·t·p 111t'<11:111011 · 1h·nlc1H" . . •.,..1rch :1nd 1h1n ·1ng a I10\lt a suhject
. I " Ill!) doing' c'i-.· I.
ll1l' l ,,,.of 1C"""'J{ rt•:tth to 1c:1t: '· 11 Jii l: · • • , teaching the 'ill '>JCCt to studenL<;,
111 111
ancl ho\\ to prc,l'nt 11. Next toinc~ :tl'llOll ' ' ' y ·. 'lt 'ic>n of a suhJ'ect into first prin-
1
• the org:11111..
. 11 1111
1
I hl• ·1h1n111't l'onrcptu>n o ,·r.r . I• "llC 10\V ;l t ..1,. ,1.. r sh<>uld J)lan and deliver a
1
1
t.ipJc,, 1ll11,11a11vc cx;1111plc,, .1111 I ra'c' 111 ' ic. . J' .. >j"in ·' prior knowledge of'tu
c.... . . .
I I I 0 f 1·c·1 1ncss < 1 • u " -
/c,,on . ' l'hc rca...:hcr need, to kno\v c eve 11 • · ·. by ski'llfully choos1'ng th
dc111,, and then connect the ne\v lc:1r111ng to 11 •
· I ·tt cx1Jcr1cncc I · · . ti t ·11 k the
c;,,, reel l:.ing11~1gc, :ippropri:Hc cxn1nplcs, 1·11 us1ro110· 11·s''and ··inn og1es 1a w1 ma e e
<lei ivery of 1he lc'ison cflcc:tivc.
• 1 .ho1111s1'l
For . the 'itudenL 1., . a pcri;on o f .u1gn1cy 1· •
an <l w<>rth who possesses .a so uI
anti a 111ind, ha~ a ,;urpo\c for cxi.,ung, a purpose in life, ?n<l a pu'.-pose for being in
'ithoc>I. 1-he purpo'>c of being 1n .,chool ,., to cc>opcrate with the g.1ft o~ S\1pernarural
K1ac:c and with the Jl"'''cr., of 1nrellcct in rccogn11.1ng the trutli that is being presented.
\Vh1lc teacher.; can do their he'll to rnouvace sru<lent'> :.inc.I can \Vork diligently to craft
cffcc:trve 'itraregie' for teaching, tht: acrual proces'i of learning can only take place
within thc srucJent. All per.,ons huvc a potentjaJ to learn that is part of their human
nature. StucJent'I necd to acrivate their porent1al for 1ntellecn1ally grasping and under-
stanc.Jing trulh . I-laving frcccJun1 of will, they rnay or n1ay not choose to cooperate with
111., truc:tion. Thon1ists believe that this cooperation Ct>rnes from an interic)r desire to
kno"' tl1at is furl.her 1Jlu111inatcd by t.hv1ne grace.
• •
~CQUES MARITAIN, INTEGRAL IIUMANISM
In rtus .,election, Jacquesop }' o Integral H · M
i1npt>no.1nc fihrure fur t.he re\italization ofThomi m uman1sm. l ar1ta1n wa~ an
t.·entUf)'. I le belre\e<l that a re\ived Th . . 111 the se~ond half of the twenaeth
tc>calitarian d1c:tator'\, eras' rnatenahsm o~sm " 3 s needed. in a "-Orld threatened by
ti<>n j, incluc.Jed a~ a pnn1ar')' ource read: ~m~n~ ethical relaa ..1sm. This ~elec:
arten11>t to <.'r('<lte a farge-~"2le theoretiJ S\nthuse. it is an example of a phllc' ophe~.,
argue'I for a general education that embra<..:~ bo:is =lnte~a.1 Humanism. i\1an121n
~"''"'ledg.e and \'lllue' 1n the modem ~·orld. In m .a hurnan1sac and religious v:iew of
1n e<lu<.'llt1tln, .\.Ian tarn affimts hu, acce a.king the case for Inteanl Human1 m
Ptance of th Ch . . o· - _1
e n t1an ideal <>f the educatcu
C. l I \ JTJ LR I Cl l R
111 ~J.'i 111 k
I '\I IS\I 1 llfl\11 \I
pt:r\u n idtn11li<· ~ ~d111..• 1111111 '~ ' 1

11 1111
conccpu on . \ , \. 11111 , ;. 1 c • •-. 111d 111 u l f' r.0 M1 11.1•1•r1r .~ 1111 '"" ;it\1,11 1l 1n"
1
l~ . , ' I II '~~ ,., llltll , )' 1 1111111~•1.1 1<1< ' " ••11 111< j, ,l!,,w 111g tflll fll •fl•
1
l. 0 1
' Jo1.>:s ,\ l.1nta1n cit hnt ti c
h1, dc:lin 1111111 : 1 1 •c .!111 " 111 11!1:.1 ,,1 tli• I• r 1,11 ' ' '' y1 111 11~1 \lol\h
" I 11, 1dc.1 'l'lll 11 1111.111 I'" 1.•1111t "'I'''' ••}' Arn 111 111 ,I 1l 1••'•'
r 'Pl' 1111}•lllr ,tfl\\\. er
l. f'or \l an 1;11n \.l/h·
hi.,ar~>i.11ncnt~ 1 1rut· :i111"11l 1cl111 .ttJ11/I fJ11 y1111
a t arc.111;; ·~11·1·1 11 clc ft.•H''' w1tl1
3. Pragrnat1., 1n ha<, h
Statti. D ccn
1nftuc:n11;d pl11l11\t1pl1y 111 c d ru .111••11 111 1h l 1111rd
an
(rhe · '' }~~· agree or d"agrc:c with ,\ l.1111a111 1 .111111~ 11 1 "1111'••11tr p111.n"
cacio P0 '"hl 1) iffcrcnc:c httwct:n ,\'1;111t;11n :incl 1'1;iv111Jt '"'" 1. 11111•• ,, 1.1111 111 rdu
1
in Chna p ' 1o~oph y·• y0111nay c1 th er n.:ac I ;ihci1d u, tl 11· 1'"'11
I ,.,.,,,, i.l l' r.1~111 .11 1\ 111
apter 5, or dtlay an.,wtnng 1hi., tp11;.,11n11 1111111 .tf11·1 Y''" lt;i \11· 11• 111 1h,11
Cb apter.)
4 . According
. . to •Mar1ta1n, ~·hac 1s th t rolt 1Jf the 1cachcr• IJ11 Y''" ;1grt·1· 1,1 •I''·•K•cc
\\'1th him ~
THE CHRISTIA.t'l IDEA OF MN'-1 t xptc.:tcd tr' have, fr1r n1,nc can prt:1cncl a t.111:111)"
to ohta1n the lncral un1vtr.,:i l "'"1·111 111 11\1
There are many forms of the philo~oph1cal and m1nd..-n<Jt hccauc,c of ,1ny wc:1knt:'>'> rn ol,11·1
religious idea of man. When I st.ate t11at the tivt proof hur hec.:a11c,c (1f 1ht wca knc-.., 1nh1· r1·111
education of man, in order to be complettl} in hurnan 1n1nd...
"·ell grounded, must be based upon the Chris- Tht rt d1,cc, t Xi'>t, 1ndt:ccl , ;111H,ng tl1t:
nan idea of man, it is becatllle I think that this d1\.cr..e grta c mccaphy.,1cal outlh,1k.,, 1f tht:y r 1.:t
idea of man is the true one, not becau'>e I i.et rign1L<: tht d1gn1ty of the <ip1rit 1 and :unong tlu·
our civilization actually penneated w1t.h th1'> d1v1:r'>C fCJnnc, of ( ,hri.,uan crt:cclc,, or t:vt:11 ot
idea. Yer, for aJJ that, the man of our c1Vllizau<'n rt:hgiou., trt:ed., 1n gt:nt ral, if they 1cc11vn11.C tlH·
JS the Chrisaan man, more or less seculanztd. div1nt de'> nny of 1nan, a con1n1un1ty of an ale·~~
Con!lequencly \\le may accept this idea a., a a<i lontcmc; pracucal alurudt., anti tht: rcal111 111
conunon basis an d imply that it is co be agreed acuon , which malccc; poc,c,1hlc a ~t:n111nt: hu111.111
upon by the common consciomness in our civi- coi>ptraoon. ln a Ju<lco-C1rtcc.>-( '. hr10.,11an <. ivi •
lized countne!I, except among those who hzauon hkt c,ur<i, th1., lu11lm11n11y ,,f analo~w.
adhere co urrerl) opposite ouclooks, like mate- which txttnds frCJ1n the 1no<tt t>nhc1d<>X rt:hj.'t1Ht.,
naltc;ac meraph) )lCS, po!110\1sm , or sk.epci- fonn!t of thought to tht: mt:rt: h111nan1 c;u l 1111t,,
c1~n1-I am nor speaking here of Fascist and malct'i it pos't1hlt: for a C~hnc,rian ph1lt10.,<,ph y 111'
r-Jc1.,c creed.,, '' h1ch do nor belong at all in the education, 1f it 10, well found ed and r;1111,11.1llv
c1,1hzed "orl<l devel<1ped1 t!J play an 1nc;p1nng pan in tht <.11n·'
Xo"· ruch a kind of agreement is all that ctn, t:\·en fc,r th11se 14·ho cleuine in moral philosoph~· can be creed of i5 supJ>'intrs .. . •
•
f rornJ.a.cqurs ~un::ain, Fb:m 11 •r :bt C~ ~C'Vi ll~n 't'ale \;nt\"Crnty l'rt:Ss, 1'1(,{) pp. f, 7, I 0 IS,
43-45.
64 P\R' fl PlllJ l)S()J>l ll i':~ (l l l·DU( \11(>1'
of us, l ini:an that freedon1 which .i' !>pontancity,
Jn an~"·er to our que!.tion, rhcn, "\ \ 11a1 i~ expan.,ion, or antono1ny, and which we havt: 10
111311 ?" "'e nla) gi,·e rhe (;reel-, .fc\\'t~h, .:JnJ gain thro\lgh con,tant effort and struggle. And
<:hrbrian ic.Jea of 1nan: 111a11 a~ an :1111111'11 what is the 1110 rc profoun~ and e~sential fonn of
enJO\\ ed \\'1th reason, "hose suprc111e dignity is such a de'>ire? It i:. the c..les1re for inner anc..l spiri-
in 1he intellect; and n1an as a free tnc.liviJual in tual freedo111. In this sense (-iree~ philo~ophy,
persvnal rel:ition \1rith C'rod, whose supre1ne especia lly Aristotle, spoke of ~he independence
righreou~ne.ss consistS in volw1tarily obeying the
which is grantec..l to me~ by intellect ~nd wis-
law of (;ocJ; and n1an as a sinful anJ \VOUnded
dom as the perfection of the human being. And
c.:reacure called to divine life and to the freedom the Gospel was to lift up human perfection to a
of gruce, \vhose supreme perfection consists of
higher level-a rruly divin~ one-by stating
love.
that it consists of the perfecoon of love and, as
•• •
St. PauJ put it, of the fr~e?om of those "".h~ are
inoved by the divine Spi:1t. In any case 111~ 1s by
Concerning the Aims of Education the activities that the philosophers call 1n1ma-
We rnay now define in a more precise rnarmer nent''-because they perfect tbe very subject
th e ai1n of education. It is to guide 111an in the which exertS the1n, and are within it the
evolving dynamism through which he shapes supreme activities of internal achjeven1ent and
hirnself as a human person-arrned with superabundance-that the full freedon1 of inde-
knowledge, strength of judgment, an<l moral pendence is 'von. Thus the prime goal of educa-
virn1es-while at the same rime conveying to tion is the conquest of internal and spiritual
hiin the spiritual heritage of the nation an<l the freedom to be achieved by the individual per-
civilization in which he is involved, and pre- son, or, in other words, his liberation through
serving in this way the cenrury-ol<l achieve- kno'' ledge and \visdom, good will, and love.
menrs of generations. The utilitarian aspect of At this point we must observe that the
e<.hrc:alion-which enables the youth to get a freedom of which we are speaking is not a rnere
job nnd rnake a living-must surely not be dis- unfolding of potentialities without any object to
rehra rtled, for the children of n1an are not made be grasped, or a mere movement for the sake of
for aristocratic leisure. But this practical aim is movement, without aim or objective to be
best provided by the general human capacities an:11ned. It i heer nonsense to offer 11uch a
de' eloped. And the ulterior specia lized training movement to man as constiruong h1~ glory. A
\vhrc:h n1ay be required must never imperil the ~o\:ement without aim is just running around
essential ai1n of education. m Clrcles and getting nowhere. The aim, here
'\TO\\' in or<ler to get a complete idea of the ?n earth, \Vlll always be gra!iped 1n a partial and
ni1n of educnrion, it is necessary• to take into imperfect manner, and m th1'> sense, indeed, the
closer consi<lerntion the human per on and his n1ovement 1s to be pursutd with<Jut end. Yet the
deep nnturnl aspir.itions. aim ~111 somehcJ\\ be grasped, even though par-
aaUy. ~1oreo\er the spinrual acov1oes of the
THE CONQUEST OF ~'TE~~AL human being are intmtzon.al activitiec;. the\ tend
~· _narure tov•ard an object. an <>hjectiv~ aim.
FREED01\t
which ~ill measure and rule them n<Jt maten-
alh·
• an d h\.' means of bondage hut t
...p1nrualk
The chief a'lptrJtions of a pen.on are asp1raoons and b ' I •
ro freedo111-I <lo not mean that freedom "luch } means of l1bert}', for the c>bje(."t c1f kno'' l-
j, frt>e "ill unc..l "'h.ich is a gift of nature m each
edge or of lo\e is inrernal1z.ed h\• the aCO\'lC\
itself of the intelligence and the ~ill. and
< ll \ l ' l I 1< (Il l I{ I Il l f'>f l(
l<J <\I l~ \l ( llH>\ ll S~I J
65
hct.·11111e, \~ith i n iht h
- lTllC.:\<:111 fh
lct.1 'f>Otllane1ry. li-uth-"·hr h
II c.: ,, I trr per- a llll.'".1n1nl.(, '""'' a11Jin in s111ne n 1e.1,11re (he II
''" "' hur r1n u hat 1<-1ru1h '~ <Irie, n111 depend CYcn in 1h1.; '~ 111h11l-, of .1 rna1ht:rnac11.al intt re-
rnatlc fr1rn1ula~ to ht pa I no1 J 'ct"' ready- t.atron
f ofphtn11111tna) ' v.hat 1h1n.,, rp 1
" 11rr or 1.:•111,,,
hive th d '>'>l\tyrc.:c:ordcd,.,oa.,to
I.; rnrn c1O'>ed and enc:lo<,ed b . th '.' unto ihcnl'>clvc'; II ·~ bec:au'>e hurnan thou •ht
I~ an in.,1ru111cnt <ir rather a Vtlal cncqz µ ol
'
lnnh "an infinite realrn . fi . y . tm.
wIH>'i<.." h"cne'>!>
J
-a' rn n1te a'> being
rran,<.;end., 1nfi nne Iyour po\v- ~owlec1ge <Jr ~piri,tual intuition d<>n't ~ltan
(l
. . knov,•lec1ge about.,, I n1ean "knh\\ ledge inv1");
er' " f perctption, and each fra . -
ltlll'>t he !,'Ta~ped through v1~ent of w~~ch it I!. becaust. th1nlong begins, not onl) \\ith d1ffi.
u11ernal activity This c< afnd punfied cul?es but \\1th 1nr1ghts, and e.ndi. up 1n in"i~hts
. >nquest 0 being th. \vh1ch are made true by rational pro\tnl! or
progre'>c,ive attainment of th ' is
· new tru s or the e_xpenmt:ncal vt:rif}ing, not by pragmatic ~anc-
progrc<,srve realization of the ever- '.
ever-renewed s1gruficance of ~~winlg and~ non, that human thought is able co illumint.!
aLta1ned d area } expenence, to realize desires \\·hich are human
·' ' CJ~enc, an enlarges our mind and life because they are rooted in the prime desirt.! for
anu really situates . them in fr.. -. ed om an d auton-' unlimited good, and to dominate, control, and
01n y. And speaking of will and love rather than refashion the \vorld. At the beginning of hu1nan
knowledge, no one is freer, or more independ- action, insofar as it is human, there is truth,
cn1' lhan the one who gives himself for a cause grasped or believed to be grasped for the sake of
or a real being worthy of the gift. truth. \ \'ithout truSt in truth. there is no hun1an
effecnveness. Such is, to my mind, the chief
crinosm co bt: made of the pragmaac and
'I"JJE TIIIRD MISCONCEPTION: insaumentalist theory of kno\\'ledge.
PRAGMATISM In the field of education, this pragmaoc
theory of kno"·ledge, passing from ph1losoph\
1Jere we find ourselves confronted "ith the to upbnnging. can bardlr produce in the youth
inappropriateness of the pragmauc O\'erem- anything but a scholarly skepricis1n equipped
phn'i' in education---a third error or m1,con- "1th the best techniques of mental training and
ccp1 ion thac we meet on our path. ;\lany things the best cienofic methods, "·hicb \\1i\l be unnat-
arc c~cc llcnt in che emphasis on action and urall) used against the very grain of 1ntelhgence,
"prax1c,," for life consists of acnon. But acoon so a to t.-ause minds to disaust the ,.el) idea of
.1nJ pra.x1'i aim ac an ob1ect, a determ1n1ng end rruth and wisdom, and to gi,·e up an) hope
"1chouc \\.h1ch they Jose d1recuon and v1calicy. of inner d}1larTIJc unity. ~1oreover, b) dint of
\nd life c~1c,tc,, roo, for an encl '"h1c.h makes 1t ins1 ong that 1n order co teach John mathe1nat-
"onh\ of hcinl! 11,·e<l. Concemplaoon and self- ics it 1s more important to kno" john than to
~
pc1lcL·non, in '' h1ch human life aspires to Imo"· mathemaocs--"·ruch is rrue enough 1n
tlo\\ Cr fonh, escape the pun1e\\. of the prag- one sense-the reacher -w1U so pt:rfectly succeed
111:-itic nnnd. m knO\\ 1ng John that John "'lll nt:\ er '>UCCeed 1n
Ir 1' Jn unfl>rrunace nli~c:ake ro define kno"ing mathemaacs. :\1.odem pedagogy ha~
hu1n.1n thought a' an organ of re,pon.c;e to the made invaluable progres~ m Strc::'>)tng the nece"-
SlC)' of carefully anal}-zmg and finng 1~ gaze on
acn1al 'ti1nuh anJ 1ruacion' of the c::nviron-
rnen t. that 1s ro s:J\. to define 1c in terms of rht'. human subject. The v.TOn!? bt:!.?in.., "hen ibt
•
anunal kno" leJ~e and react: 1n, for mcb a deb- objtct ro bt uugbr and cl:t fJ1 tma~ of tl:t ob1m 2re
' forgonen. and "·hen the cult of the mean..-not
n1uon ~\11Ctl\ CO\ el"i the \\'3\' of "chinking"
. . - co an end. but \l1rhout an tnd-only end., up tn
proJler only t<> animals ~ithouc r~on. Oo the
a Jhl-ChologicaJ "'orsh1p of tht! ..,ubjcct.
t.oncran, 1t ' ' OellU-.e e'ery human idea. co ha•e
•
C. ll\i'llRl1>L'R 1111 f 'i ff( HI \ll,\l ( llfll\ll S\l l
hecon1e, \\1lh1n tht>rn lht \'t.:I"\ fHl of th1.:11· p1•1-

fecr ~pontnne1[). ~l hlth-" h1Lh Ll111•, n111 dept:nd .1 llll 111111µ, 11111\1.111.1111 "' ~1"111.! 111t'.t~1111• (he 11
t:\cll 111 1ht \j'111l111I\ 111 1111adu.:1n.111l.tl lllf"'l"C
on u' l~ut un :::h1111J·-1ru1h " not .1 )t.:l of r1.:.11I\
1111011111pht110111111;1} wh.11 1l11ng' "'•' 111 t1111\l~I
n1aJe lorn1ula!i tu he pa,.,I\ cl) rt:~:orllcd, \O O\ io of lllll!l tht·1t1\1,d Vl'\ 1 ll
1
I\ l 1t·l':tll\I.' l1111111111hr111ght
hJve rhe n11nJ L·lo,ed Jntl enL·lo,cd h\ thcn1 " an 111,lrtllllt:lll Ill 1.11h1 I .1 Vil ti Cllll"g)' 111
Truth'' an 111tin1te realrn-a'i u1fin1te a' i1eing~
kno\vlcdgc or 'p1r1111;1I 1n1u111on ( J cl1111'1 111t·:111
\\ ho!ie \\·holcne~!i tran,c:enll)> tnfin1tel) our pO\\'-
"kncJ\vledgc ahou1 1" I 111e;1n "knc1wlt:clyt 111111 ').
er'> of percepuon, and each fragn1ent of \vhich ii is hecau~c 1h1nk111 ~ beg-in.,, n1a 1111ly w11h tldti
~nu!it be gr:J!>ped through \1tal and purified culuc' but with i111igbts and end' up 111 111c;.1rh1' 1
internal .activity'. T his conquest of being, chi!!wh ich arc n1adc tntc hy rational prov1n~ cir
progre!>s1\·e attamment of ne\v truth-, or the expenrnental vcrify1n~, not by prab'1113ltc: \anc:
progressive realization of the ever-brro~i ng and tion, that hun1an thought is able to 11lu1111nc
e\er-rene\\'ed significance of truths already experience, to realize desire., wh rch are human
attained, opens and enlarges our mind and life because they are rooted in the pri1ne dc:.1rc for
and really siruates them in freedom and auton~ unlimited good, and co dorninacc, control, anJ
omy. And speaking of \VilJ and love rather than refashion the worlJ. At the beginning of hu1nan
kno"·ledge, no one is freer, or more independ- action , in~ofar as it i!> human, there is tnith,
ent, than the one who gives hirnself for a cause grasped or believed to be grasped for the sake of
or a real being worthy of the gift. truth. Without cruse in truth, there i'> no hurnan
effectivenec;s. Such is, ro rny rnind, the ch icf
cricic1!>m to be made of the pragmatic anJ
THE TIDRD MISCONCEPTION: instrumentalist theory of knowledge.
PRAGMATISM In the field of education, this pragi11atic
theory of knowledge, passing f ro1n philosophy
Here we find ourselves confronted with the to upbringing, can hardly produce in the youth
inappropriateness of the pragmatic overem- anything but a scholarly skepticisn1 equipped
phasis in education-a third error or n1iscon- with the best techniques of mental training and
ception that we meet on our path . Many thinbrs the bei,t scientific method'>, which will be unnat-
are excellent in the e1nphasis on action and urally use<l against the very grain of intelligencu,
"pr::ix1s, 11 for life consistS of action. But action so as to cause n1ind'i to di">trust the very i<lea of
and praxis aim at an object, a detennining end truth and wisdom, and to give up any hopu
\vithout which they lose direction and vitality. of inner dynamic unity. Moreover, by dint of
And life exiscs, too, for an end which rnakes it insisting that in order to teach John 111athen1nt
v.·onhy of being Hve<l. Contemplation and self- ics it is n1ore important to know John than to
perfecoon, in \vhich human life aspires to know mathematics-which is true enough in
Rower forth , eo;cape the purview of the prag- one i,ense-the teacher will so perfectly 'i\1ccccd
n1atic mind. in knowing John that John will never suc<.:ce<l 1n
It 1s an unfortunate m1scake to define kno"·ing mathe1natjcs. Modern pe<lagoi:,ry h:1s
human thought as an organ of response to the made invaluable progre<>'> 1n stre'>stng- the netc'>
actual stimuli and siruaoons of the en\.'iron- 1ry of carefully analyzing and fixing it\ gaze on
rnent, that is to sav, •
to define it in tenns of the human subject. The wrong begin., when tht
animal kno\\ledge and reacoon, for such 2 defi- objtct to ht taught and tbt primacy of tht ol'}trt are
niaon ex.accl,· .
. cover the \\-'3\' of "thmlang" forgotten , and when the cult of the 1ne;1n., not
~
proper onl) to anunal \\1tbouc reason. On the to an end, hue without an enc.1--.>nl} end., up 111
contniry, 1t ,., bec.<Ju-,e every human 1<lea, to ha\:e a psychological v.·orship of the ~ubjcc t .
r ,..
I' I I I I 1111 •• I 11·1111 I •I I 111
,,,1111
11 ,1 It•, d•illl 11 1 II 1 11 1111 1111

I 111 • S< > I I • N I t 1\ I •I I 11 •" l111r•• tl1111111 "" I I •
1t1111 .1 111111111 ·'"" Y"v11 11 ,
111 1.11111 Ill I I ttlt I I I .
( ) J • 1111• 1•1· 1(\(>N lfl1l Ill 111 I I ttlll W 111 l •1111 · l
11 I 1"'' 11 1111 I II 1I
'\ ' • 1 ,, II 11 , 1 1 1111' 111ol 1 1111111111111 hiw
I .p11I I II,,, rl11 ·· ~1111 1111•11 '" 1111 111111 11111
li .111 "'" ""'" I
l111tl11 111 1111 ,1
I
11111 I ~\' t 11 11 1 111 1111 I1 1 111t11111111 •nth
•
, ..., ....,, '" '" ' tl ..111 111tl , 111 ·.1 "' di, 11111111 11 '""'
'°'/1111111 iJ 111 I i/11111 1111 ,1·i o11ttl I '•I 1111 .d 1111111111 111111 I ' 1 I 111. tillll l°' Ill It 11 11 Ill I VI11I y tolt(' \\ 11 Ill)•
111 111 I I tt 111 111 .1111 I H I' II 111 p tll l
i/11~ cit lllll I !111 tf1 tit 1111 1111 ·.J11lll I It I II tlh 1111111 Ill I II 11 I 11 I I I
1fo1 .11lt11 tl111 .1111 1 11y ..11111.1\ 1
111,111111 \Ir d, 1111/ !111 , 1111 d11111 I\ f111f.1 ·d Ill'•'" I ii 11111 lllllllH I1 t I \ \ 1
ltllt II Ill II •I'' 11 .. M.111111111 .. '11111
/tf1 ·11 lli/f11·~.1 l II 111111 1•1 11 •11 1111' 1)
00
1h ltll I " I I ttl I II I 111 I I
'•I II 11 \ ~1111111111111111111\ 111111 ..1 II Ito I lt ' ~1t111p, ''""
\I I \ l'l
1,1/ ' 111 111 1 111 111 It 1111•, 11111 111tf1 111 11111111111 Ill
. 11 1 111111~ lj •,J'"·" 1111 1)' lty "l' I \llll).( ltt,111
l ll"lll l 11 \I 111111111 11111 111 1111111,111 111111111' 1 !11111 I ~, I I II ' 1{111111' ' I
111 II l\11 11 .111d l11 ·1·d1•111 II llhlll , .. II ll1lll il 1tll ) 11111 I I1y 11 II
, lt/lllf'
'
tf 111l llltlll ""'I
l ,lt.; C' I ~ \vh\( h
I 1
, , 1 11111 lltltl .I VIII ,llt•lll \Y 111 I I\ llot
/111/1111 , d llllll t.lf, tlt1 \ I\ 'I I 111 1111•" 11 '11 th ,11 '•Ill I t ' \I •If 11 I I II j; 1
II\ , fC'lfl lll td 11} 11,111111, I\ ,11ft11·1 1tf 1i1111111:ft 1111 l111lt if 111 tf11 1' 11111 1'
f11 ·1 tflll\t Ill , ,111tJ f11 ·1,lll'll' 1111· 111111 11111 fll 1\1111
\\nit 111,,.11 t11 11
1lt1· d1v1•l1111111cn1ol1hc
tit 111,111d .. " " t 11111111111111,1111111\ 111 " " "" lilt
fl1r11t1/.{ft tht• 1tp111111· ~°' illltf ){ l ' IH' lll'lll) 111111111 Ill I111111.111 1111111 I • Ill II he• 11 11 1 ll ht •\\ 11111\ CI 1.1l lal1li
11111•111µ1·1111 · 11 1111 l11v1 · 11 ~ 1v1·ll "~ 1i111111plt 1111 111 '' 11111 1111 111 ht •\I l'l llllllllH ' lll Ill llll' , . lh11tl~,
111·1·d, 111 11 11111111111 111dn 1d11 1il 1111111 11;1k1·1I ,11111 I 111111 •• lll d t 111d1111111 ,11 1.• lh l• 11111111 IHH111.
111 11111.1
dt •\llllttc· I"""
II I\ 1h.11 \fll t.tl ltf1 11·11.i, Ill 1 lti
'
>'" ,,1 ih11iv ,., \111· .1\v.1kc11111g of 1hc inner
c 111.1111 ip.111· 111.111 1111111 1111 1111111l 1v1 111111.111·11 ti 111111111 .,,11 11 .i 1 11 .1t1\1t\ I h1· 11111 of l l't.hn1l·al
11.11111 1· 11 '>1ilu11d1111111·' du 111d111d11 ti 111 1lt1 111, 111 ~ 1 1111,11li ·11•tl ·' ' 1111p111v111l( 1he 11111ul .11111
I 111111111111 {.(llltd, ftt1t ,11\\1,I}\ 111 tlltft I tft.11 tf11 • 111111ht1llll( !otll'IHl' Ii\ tht•ll 11\\.'ll Vlll lll' 111U"
1111111111111 ~1111d IJ111Y lt,11 k t1 p1111 tf11 111d1111111 "'• f!l\l " ' ') 111 11 ' Pill 1111 lhl• ' 111111 11111 1 d:t\vntn~
lllld rl u ll tfit •)' 1·1ljt1~ tlt ,11 l11·1·tf11111 tif I \11.111\11111 11111 lltll of 111.111 ' I· d111,1111111 1h11"1 c;a\1-. lol' 1111
Ill llldt'flC' lllft' lll t• \Vhit h l'I 111\llll'tf 11\ tJH l 'l 11 1111t ll1•1111.1l ,, 111p.11h) .111d 111111111011 1111 1h1:pan
111111111 ~· 11 . 11 .111ttt'' of l.tl11J1 .11111 fl'>'lll I l11p, 111 1h1• 1ta1h1•1, ..: on ll' lll 1111 tlu tl'tc.,111111-. •Hit!
p11l1 t 11 ,ti 1 1KJ11,, t 1v t I \ 1111 It ', .111 d t It t ' t IC It 1\ ' 'I 11111 dt1111.: 11lt1ci. \\llh \\h11.h 1h1.· 1111nd c>f the ~11111h
of the 111111cl. lllU\ he t 111111gh ti \\II h11111 h1.•111g .1h l e Ill j!l\t:
J\ \ II IC~lllt, II I\ 1111\ 11111\ th.It 111,111\ t d1t1 I l"\jllC!!'ll1t1 111 1ht•111, ,I fl .1d111t·~-. 111 hl' .11 h;1111I
tllltl 11111 .. I lit• t lllH l ' f Jlt•d \\II h tl1t \I 11 1,d ..i1 llllJI \\1th le'"'"" ul lolr(•l' ,111tl rt.1.,01\1111( 1h.11
1h1•
11111l 1111·p .t1t• l11111 Ill pl.I) '"' p.111 Ill" · Sh.1p1111( 1nv11c 111 11111111 the \1111.•1 1c.; 1s 1•tl ll.l\1111 ol tla
1111111 111 It ul .1 11111111.il, 11\tlul ,111d l'll11p11,1f1\t )"'"" Nu 1r1tl.: ~.111 1111 thnt, 1111 'll ttl fl'lh
lilt· 111 th t llllllllllllllt~, 111 fo,'111d111H th t: 1lc\t•l11p n1t1111·'i, ltu1 11nl~ p1.• r"M111 a l 111c11u1u1 111the1n11t 1
1111•111 11l 1ht h11111.111 pc:1,1111 111 the ii !1phr1c,
11c1 hlo!o 111111ng 111 thC' rn1111n,1l 1111tu1 • 2ncl th en lctll•
UH,1~t·11111H 111d 'itrc11gth1•1111l!( hnth h1, sc11,1· 111 lt111111nK thJt l1111hl1nK rcaSt1n \\ ll h a ~ystc111 ol
lrt·l•tl11t1l , 1111 h1'I 't'll\t' 11111hftg11t11111 1111cl I C\1Mtl1• r.1111111 I L1111"leclg ·
~1 111 111,, ,, .111e''cn11.il ~11111 . But 11 I!! 1101 the pn- \\ h I IJl:tltl"I!> Hit l 1n 1lte ltl1 11f rc:i~1n IS
11111n .
, • 11 1" rhe 'et:11nd 1r\ C!l'>Cllllal i.1111 I he
ulu1n,11c end ol educ u1111 C'C>tl\.:cm the hunl:ln
1ntcllc.. llll 1n ..1gh1 ur 111t\11U•1n . ·1 hl'rc 1s no
nun (Jr le ming fi1r uia1 ' 'c:t 1f the 1 c.hcr
J>Cl"SOll 1n ht!I rcrs<1na l lite nd !1plntwl prc1gr I
k. cps in \1N lw.J\c IJ th inn r center (l' \1t.il
nc•t 1n h1' relnnoni.h1p 111 rhc ~ K. ml en\ 1run- 1ty t "''r 1n the 1>rco.1n ous dq-t h 1 tl1 h
rnen1 \1 .rcu\er, "1th re rurd ru the 'llC(ondal) li. the 1n1cll1 en c, he lrnl) c ntcr the t..'q\11 1111 n
11111tSCl l ut \\ h11hl11111 pc king. "c 111u't llC\ r·
rit knt1" led nd ltd f, "111 u• n the nnnd
CltAPTEJt FOL'll llillS1
lC: RF.~\! (n lO \JJS\fi
67
on the freeing of the child\ and tha'- )~'vU th' tntu-
10\e J>O"CT. 8 )' whar means? B) moV1ng i>"'anl ln chc fim 1ppr0Kh "' rru~ua. ph)'Qa,
along ch~ P2ths of SJ>OnWleous interest and rut- or phdosoph)", let U\ •Cc 11, n !hat lhe oiudent
wu.I cun~1ry, b) growidmg che exeret5e of acaully gra'ps each step of che s1mplc<.t mathe-
~ m intelligence, and primmly by gi'in matical dernon~traaon, howe\·er sl11w thU may
courage, by listerung a great deal, and by causm: be-due he acrual.ly undem:m<k m the lab<1ra·
the youm m trust. and g1'-c expression to those tory how logic.allr the statement o( the ph\-u-
ClSt emerges from the cxpenmenc-th.at • he
SJ>Ol112lle:ou5 poeoc or noctic impulses of lus
becomes intensely invol"ed, through the \erv
o"n "·hich seem ro him fragile and bizarre,
amiety of hJS mind, tn the first grt:at ph1losoph·-
btause they are not assured by any socia.I sanc- 1cal problems, and aft:er that, that be really~
oon-and m &er any a"·kward gesture or rebuff the soluoon. ln asking a youth to read a book.
or unamely ad,ice on che pan of the teacher can let us get b.im co undertake a real spiritual
crush such timid sproutings and push chem back adl'enrure and meet and sm.iggle \\1th the inctr-
inro the shell of the unconscious. naJ world of a given man, instead of ghnong
I shouJd lilre. moreover, to suggest chat, over a collection of bits of thought and dead
in order to set free creative and percepri"e opinions, looked upon from without and with
inrcUecruaJ intuition, the path through '"itich sheer indifference, according ro the homble
it 1s JUruralJr a"&L..-ened, the path of se.nse- cuswm of so many ,;cums of what they caU
perccption and sense-experience and unagim- "being mfonned." Perhaps with such methods
tion, shouJd be respeeted and foUowcd as far as the curriculum will lose a little in scope, which
po ible by the teacher. Abo~-c all the Ii beration \\iU be all to the good.
of wh1ch "'C are speaking depends ~tWJy Fmally che \"ef}' mood of the teaching is
on the free adhesion of che mind ro the objec- here of crucuJ import. Ha reacher himself is
me reaJ1tr co be seen. Let us oev-er deceive or concerned with discerning and seeing, with get-
rebuke the thirst for seeing in youth's intelli- ting vision, rather than '"rich coUecting factS and
gence! The freeing of che inmitive power IS opinions, and if he handles his burden of knowl-
tduC\-cd m the soul through the object grasped, edge so as ro see through it inro the reality of
the intelligible grasp.mg to'"-ard which chis things, then in che mind of the rodent the
power narurall) tends. The germ of insight power of inroicion will be awakened and
tarn ,,,;thin a preconscious inreJJecrua.I cloud, Strengthened unawares, by the very inroitivity
aru1ng from experience, llDllginarion, and a a:aversing such readung.
kind of spinrual feeling, but ic is from che OutSCt
a cendtng to" ard 20 object to be grasped. And
ro the enent that chis tendency LS set free and
the mcdlect becomes aCC\btomed ro gn.sping, THE THIRD RULE
'ltt1ng, cxpl"OSlng the ObJectS lO'"-a.rd ,,, hlch it
tend! co that ,·en en.enc its mtwtive po"-cr is I come now to the third fundamen12J rule,
hbenceJ and ~gthened. Before gning a \\ hich I shall cry ro express as follows: the wiiole
}ooth the rulo of good ~-le. lee us cell him first -avrk of edUC2cion and teaching must rend to
M\tt to lnite tn)-dting which does not Sttm ro umfy, noc co pread out; it must mive co ~I.tr
him really bcauoful, 9."h1lte\W the result mar be_ intem2.1 unirr m man....
68 l'\l<J J l'lfll <>~<ll'lllJ·<,OI l'DLC \JI<>'
C O"IC L US ION
·r h1., chapter txaminccl Theisuc.: Realism. or Thornis111, a religiously b<l~ecl ph1l?sophy
fi1rr11ulatecl h> Thorna'> Aquina'i 10 the ~1eclieval Period. As a S)'t)t;hes1.; of Aristotle\
R1.ali.,rn and c:hruaan rheolog). it serYe<l as a large ai:ch1recton1c.: ph1losoph) t~at
>haped We.,tern intcllecrual life, e,peciall> for the Cathohc Chu~c.:h. s.i:.e<l o_n a <luahs-
t1t clefiniuon ihar sec'> the human being as spiritual an<l physical, Thon11snl uses a
hrerarc.:hy for c.:oni.rruc.:nng rhe curncu.lum. 10 \\ ruch treneral an<l mor~ .1bstract snh1ectS
rc::CCIVC; priont). In Thon11sn1, ccacrung I) defined ...... a \Ol'<lllOO (.)I l\)\'C an<l sen ICC
" ' 01 her'>.
Df<,( . U~SIC>N Q UF_,S rl IONS

1. <.on.,idc:r I hcl\ll<.: R<.:Jlt..rn, ur ·1 h111111 , 111 , ,1., •1 ')nthc''" of l.1ri;tc hod1c.:, of thou~ht.
I lo"' do "rc.:h l.1rgc ph1lu~11ph1<.:.1I '}-:-.tern' ,h.1pc <.:•duc.11111n.tl ~u.1_\, .ind c.:urrtlt1lu1n;
2. ( ,11n,1d<.:r the I h111111 ,1 t1 1, 11 n1.:u 11n li<.:t\~c1:n 11lu111 Ile .ind prux1111.1tc i.tn.1\-; .ind pur-
l>O'>c,. l )o ~ou 11trll' 1tf tl1,:a~rcc "11h this cl1 llOlllllll: l'r11\1tl1,; C'\,\lllplcc; nl uhi111:11c
go.11' 111d h11\\ thC) i.hapc curT1c11lurn.
J, I f ll\\ Jrt~'uch ICrtll' ,tJU 'lltl J11np/lflil ndf.""lrt•!IJldCllnCd: c:~n \llll tinll l 1Jlll\,lll'J1l
0
or '11111l.1r h·n11' lic1n •med, hut under different niun , 111 \.iontc111por.11"\ cd11l.l\tun•
4. Pro\ ttk c:'- rnplo o roni11 t bc1"ccn those "-ho huld 111 pi 111\..tplc., ol n.1t11r.1l I.I\\
JnJ 1h11sc "hu licltC'\ 1h21 cnactrd l2u.1i arc supcr1ur.
5. l )o \nu hcl1c:\c: th n: 11rc hunun n hu' \\1ut t the raunnale tnr \11ur IK:lict "' lli~-
l1ll11.: f'
6. f)ocs \"4u1n2, IX"hC'\c th.at tnunl' nuc n be LllU ht': I lu~ due ht'i \IC\\ ,\Ktl!C 111
.f1,~i:rcc "1th contc:rnponry pr m., • ctun ter cdu uon':
7. I >l''lrtl)C \11111n ~· "'" Jl1 ot rhe tc:athcr lJo )OU •rec or d1 2urc1 "11h the 1111 "1·1
111 the tcarhcr' c ~
l~'\l
" ' I"\
" \'". , I) Rt..,I \R Jll'RC)Jf· ( I~
n nd h1c:r11r h)
iUIJJtt."'t.
n1111~ tf Aqurni
J~rTR.~FrRr ot~CF S~---------------------------------------

1'or d seu:s....-:nru .. £
fU It
,..,,..,..-: qu.imsoolint.rom
t l l\1 11 1! 1t>lR
1 111 1\ llt 1 1 \ I l '\I l l ltl \\ \I
I 'I Ih1 "' I I I I,,

I ,,.,,., I I,.,,, "' 11h1t, I 1 \ \1r11 10 l n1 r I
\I 11 11 < 1111 I >1· p 111111<· 11 1, \ l.1t 11 1111 I h \I cl1111111~111 ht Ill
I h1 •lllh•ll I' i.,, "' '.1 II
\\ \\ \\ l1111\'l l '-t 1h 11 1ltlllll' I 11111 plitht \I tftt 1 111111
( Lu I.,· \ \ '\,111 1, I 1 , . 1I rl
\ ' .. ' /1tn!l1, oJ /'r11 11 :'<\n1t c l>u nc, 1-..; l fH
'\1111, l l 1111, 1'1,.,, , llJV I
( 111111 I\ , l'1,·rr,•, .111.I \p,111~ k 1. \\ 111 \\ " h 1, I \ /r . '\• , •I 1.1u11 • I \1, mrn111'\I of l 7u na Ir
1 1 1
1
r "' ••f I ' '''''• .,. \lft.1pr11i. • 1 .111h1111, \Ill l "'''1'"' \'11·''"' \ 111,tt• •n, 1•ru,
1)_,, 1'''• lln.111 l br 11•1•1J.i:_ bt 11/ / 1•,1111.11 l q1111111 ' ' " ' \<111.. l \110 1.I l ·1111, ' ' 111 \In·,,, I11' 12
l)on1>hu1-. Jllhn \\ ,\ f /lo,1111a 1. lift"''·'' t- f.fu ..1t 1• 11 '\ 1-11 \111 I.. l~.1111!<1111 11111" '" \'lf11!
t •.il1.1~h 1• 1 • l).11 1d \\ ,'"I. l l-~111 1• lq:nn.11 .111.1 1111 I< ~·'•' \\ .1,!11111<11111. Ill l 1t h11\i, \ 111\•r!>ll\ ' I
\n11·n, .1 l'rc''• I w -1 ·
( ~r.1nt. F,111 .1r,I ( 111, / ,111./ Rr.1•1111 111 tf.r I /1,/JJ, l11r• '\ 1•11 \owl. l .1111h111l1t< l 1111 <:1'11\ l'r< ' ' 'Oil I
I lud~1,11 , l)c.11 \\ • ,111d \\ur,111. ll1·11111' \\ ., 1-.1~ /1•f /'11t111 r of /'1•1111111111 '\111rc \).11111-. 1'\ l n111·r>1\\
of~ucrc l),1111c Pre''· 11>•>~ .
)l·n~ins,Jt1h11 I. A.11vr:•/rJ~,. ,111J l·~11t/t 111 11•11111.1• 1111111111H 'l1·" \ 11rl..' ( '.1111hnd!{l' l 111\l' r'll\ Pre''• 1' 1' 1
JurJ ,111, \ l.1rL. I) /'br 11/,·.~r.J ln•tal(/i1111~vH of {'/.11111.11· / 1111111.1.1 1111011111 Punnh1 .11 ln,tllUI•' ••I
\ ll'J11•1 .11 S111J1c,, t tX>~ .
\lt·ln.:rn), lt1lph \\. St. 11•an1.1.• lq11111.1.t. '1otrc IJ.1111c. I'\: LTnlll'l"lll 11f "101rc J).1111c l'r"''• \ Ql{I
\lclncrnr. R.1lph \I. ·I Pi~t c;t.1111r 11t St. 11•0111.1•· 1111111111s:. I /l.11111!~11.1k /iir Pfr·p111.i:. f J•t>1111<r. '\1111 c
l)11111c, I : Llnivcrsi11' of Notrc IJnntl' Prl·~~. I1)110.
\loorc, i\ndrc\\' Rr.1/i.~111 111it1 ('brlsti1111 l•i1itb: (,"od, (,'111111111111: 1111il \/1·1111111g. Nl'\\ \11rl..· (.'..1111hn.l!l:c
LTnivc....,111• Prc~s. ~00 .l .
I brrc II, Jcan-P1crrl'. ~~1111t /7Jo1111JJ " lq11u1as. \ \ .1~!11 n!ltun. I)(': { '.11h11h1· l ln i1 en.II) of \1ncric,1 Prt:''•
1996.
\ \ c~cberg, l)an•l·I. Rigbt Pr11rt1r11/ Rr.1.rr>11: . ln.•tr>t/r, . Ii tiou. 1111d 1'1·11.tr111 r in . l1111i11.H. '...c11 \nrl... {' l.11·c11
<lon Prc.~s ()xfonl Llnhcrsl\)' Prcs~. Jl)C)-1.
NOTES
I. For diSl'lll'Siun of 1ncdicvnl schtilnsril'is1n, sec F d1vnrd Pcrcrs, l-:111'0flt' 1111tl tbr .\ liclilll' 1,1("(
11
(Fngle11•ootl C:litls, NJ: Prcnlirc-l lnll, 1983), pp. 17 \ 184. 220 21 7.
2. Neil G. j\ lcCluskc.:y, (,/1tbo/ir I'it-::·poi11to11 F1/111".1t1011 \Nc11· \ nrl..: ltn•l!(C Bonk,, 11,l(il), pp ;~ "•>
J. John \ \ '. l)onohuc, S. J., Sr. l'bof1111s .1111111111.r & FJ11c11N1111 (Nc11 \or\-.: R.111<l<,111 I lnu~c. I IJt'I!\),
pp. 59- 60.
4. Ibid., pp. 58- 64, 82- 89.
5. lbid .. pp. 59 60.
6. !bit.I.
cl-ll\PTER FI\
pRAGM.i\.TISl\11
Pr-J.gmJllir \\ 1... dc:,elc peJ tl\ .\Jneric.in philo,ophcr; c:'pec1all) ( 'h.irle:; S Petf\' .
\i\, - amja ~ C'. ~dJc '"in De" c::\-in the cJrly l'\ c::nneth cenrun. It '' not .1 nlt tlph\ ,_
1c-Jl ': rem · c:~pha,·zo the p·.t1..'t1C"JI lpp11lJnon ut 1dcJ' h\ te,t1n!! then1 1n h\l1 11Jfl
exp-c:neocc. I<lc:a' are not •Tn1uc3blc unt\cf'JI concept' rc,1<l1n~ 1n 'l)l11c n1et•lphv'1\.'.l
re::ilii:;-. ar:d do noc tr.1n5Cend hWI1Jn t'\pcncnLe J' P lto 1..lJin1eJ RJtht:r. t\.le.1' t
mstrumene>--bypotbc:'c:', l'OnJecturt'. :ind plan . .-for 'oh ing life\ pr,\ble111' l\. c ''
ba"e J .;o1..'1Jl on ..'lil anJ re: le\ anle 1n chat the\. .ire h>nnulated 1n the \.·tintc:'\t ,\t ... h.1
~
e.1t-enence m hum;m ll''oc13aon ' The: emp1nc;il te't of an 1deJ 1~. dt\e, it ' ' tir~ [),~,
tc produce che con,equc:ncc:' '~e de . . 1rc:<l \\hen '' e .lctt!J':
... f["l_\: G PR.\G.\ l.\TI .\I
Th~ r in our ,tud} of ph1lo oph~ of e<lUl4aon, " c ha, c ,tllUic-d IJC". 111, 111 nd Reil
, ,,.-fll ongmared ~1th Plato and \n,tot!e in an~:ient ( r .._. d ,t1 l'_..l
· . 1 th
luc h l' 1d cnoheu :r """""e• n i; "~"
, \\'1 Thom.t, -\11u1nh
,
Junno ...
th'"' '1 d·' I
... • ' 1 u c.: • ''-',
'", , ,1 \1 e
t aI
th Pra~asm a pr.iJo,oph~ thac ongtn.i:ed nth; L"nited Stat an . ~~ 1, t' t'n
cie ce tun m the \\1lrk. of Ourle, \ Pt>tr e (1 ~9-1914 \\ 11 J ,
l ! _-191 . ndJohn De\l.e~ (I '9-19' 2 ' ' tlln al
PeU"C"e a ID:lthenu.ncun rurned phtl e d 1
H th h r, e\e oped a th he
t:rt:.7WJ!.'m;Clrll'!. ' Q:') eld d-.2t "e can ct on our be h th ~~1 ul"v'"'l
SOJI?ettlln~~ , l:nO'\\lr:.? dut e\-en '\\c ct, e }1X c:se' r iuc: t ' '
- C2Il, and probabh \\ill, re'"'e th ..
I II \I• II I{ I I\ I
1'11\1 \I'''"'' .. l
r11.111 ·~ 111· ttt•11t I ti

f' I I fl II h p11,,1 Iii I t.
1 111 11 1.. ,·,111~1t•ltlu111!1•1 111111111 r11r1h11 1 •111•
\\111 Idtr1 11 111 ,ft 111
1111' ()11111 I\ I ~
pt11litl11l111 St 111 II lllJ 111t!•l' l l "' "' ' " ' " l l l l l lhl\1,d111•11•h Ith .,, 111
1· 11•11,1111 111111111 Ii 1111 , I
t\ pt oli.tfilc ti 11
I ' ~ I 'Piii I 1 II 111'11' Ill 1 \\ I\ th 111 111 Ii 1 'I' lt'\I, II
lll11fi l'l llHl tll" ' ' " I 11 ,11111111 .. II 111 ' I
l>\1111 111 I\\' 1\11\llC I \ l'\\111"1, 11 "111'\.\;\'ll\ \I•
.11 11111111,,11 11 1 1 1 11111111 I I
t >111 ~"''"I· I . · '• t 11·11"" ,,., , 111· 11·11111111 1111hr t'\~11 '""'"" 11
l 1 /.(1 I 1'1>111 \1>1111·111111. 1 I 11 I
p 11111 cf 1., 11 ~ '1'' 111 1 1 1·11111·11lt11111·111111 ll1 •11 , 1 \'"'"•l••lni
1
lllllJ.: I ' II II I I ' I " ' ' ' " ' 1111 I·I I1~1'111
• I
1111'1111>11 1111I I""" l 1l1• 11111>11 \ \ 11h f\Hl\ll!h
• I l\1,tti.:.1111111 llld th I •I 11 ..
i.111 111•1 • "'!-: 11, 11"I''"'''1· II• h•111111l.111· 11·11111 "c- J..• "• 1hr 11111,11,
l'I llllll l 1.It1 1ill\\, 1h11111 ho11 lht• \1111 hi \\1111..'
1.11111·,, .1 P'\·1 holt ''
h I · ''"'''' 11 11 111·1I p I111"t•ph1·1,
I 11·i.:.11d1·d 1d1· .1' ,,, ,1111111l 1h·1I Iii 1hl.'
111 ll l ll 111·1·1 I Cl I """'1• I I1lt· " '" ' 1•1.1111111-: 111 ,, g11r11,1111.1111•11 \ \ hl"11 \\ \"
1
h
11
•t'll\Tt'l\ ii'""
llCl\l' illl( I llllk, Jilllll'\ 11-.l\lll\l:d, 11111 l'01'l hl\lllll' l " lll i.:1111lt• 11\ll II\ lll'll' h11l lh,•1 II'\'
il 1' " Jll'O\ 1\111nal 11111 , 11l
' IJt'l'I Ill 1IHI 1\t'I l\'\'l\11111 , t )111 ht·ht·I' ._:111• II' 1111.:• ' 1h.11 11,· \Ill
II
t .i ~ood .111d 11 llt' 1 •I
• ig 1t 11t 1v111ng, 11h1l1· 1t·.1lt1111µ 1h,1111t• 1111\\, .111d lil..1·h 111\l, l..,·1·p
rt'Vl\lll).C tht· g11tdt·lt11c' .. , \\'l' l'lll'OllOlt'I d11'1t•rt•111'tllhlllClll'1111ht 0 l'\l\lt\l' lll \it\'
. llc<'olll\C of ht,
'1g111fl1'.1n1 1nll11t·111·c <>ti t·d11t«11111n, 11111'1 11l 11u1 d1'\'\1''"'11 "1\l
IOt'\I' un l)t'\\'l')1\ vI1I 1l •l) () f' 11t'i1g111.111 ..111, 11'I)tl' tI " l'll ln1tcn1.tl1\111 . 11 \t•t·ord1n~10 F\pt•ri1nc111,1ft,111, 111· 1h111k 11u1'1 .11.·r11nlh•h ,1n1.I t'\•ln
plcic:ly \\' hen \\C ll~t.·
tht.• l'\)lt'l lllll'l\llll, (H l'l'll'llltllt', 11\t'dllld l\l It''' \\I\ Hlt'4\ Ill 't'l' 1t II
\vork,, 'oh·t•, 11111 probh:111 1 .1nd hnni.t' uh111111h1• 1t''llh' 1h11t ''l'
11 11nt l '1·11111tht•111,1111
nicn 1.111,1 pt·r,pt·ct" c, tht• hu111.1n ht·111~. po''t''''"~ .1 h11-:hh tit•\ i.•lt1p1·1\ b1 .nn. lll't \ t'
;~1d111g,, 11nd .1lll0\,1hlt·1h111nh .ind lurctin!-'l'I, 1, ,111 111,111111u;•n1111,1\..,·1. Ill h\1.1\ 111 tll'\
J ht.'\C lll\11'\llllt'll[,, p.111ot1n.Hlri.tl 1·ult111t·, l'.111 ht• ll't•d l\111\\\'l'.\'t" htlll\.ll\ \'I\\$'\ II\
order co h.1rnt''' tht' ell\ 1ron11tt'lll .tnd ,uh·t• ,tll l111d' 111 p111hl\·111'
1)1•\\ l'} lt:,tcd h1' t ..1rh 1d1 .1, .1ho1n rt·l.11111~ 1ht• t'\Pl'fllllt'l\1.1\ 111t•th11\I l\\ t·,\11,;1
11un .11 tht· l 1H\t•r,1t\ ul ( hu..1~11 I .1l~1r.it11n "'"'"11, "htlh ht• 1lttt"t'l\'d h\\ll\ l~O('l 1,1
I 'J04. I ht• 'chuul \\,l, .1 l.1l><11.no11 lu1 It''""~ 1dt'.1' II\ $l'\\t'\ \ ph1l1.•,,1ph1 11t \'\h\\,I
t 111n, c'pe1.1;dl) till' "11nH) of ~no11ll'Jg1• "~ lor \)t'\\t'). tht' tl'1111,.111") ·A· . '•· ,, 1lt1l
nt>t 1nc.1111h;11 .111 Lnu\\ lcd~c j, ron1.1in,·d .111,t dt'll\l·d h\1111''"l'1l\t'1.1r,·h111~ ~tt'.I\ \\It" 1
ur forn1 111 1ht· J>l,1ron1t. 't'll\t.' R.11ht'r, thl" u1Hty 1•t lnt11\ lt•.li.tl" 111t'.\l\t th,u ln1'" 1n1;. ,,
11111111;1tcl) rt•l.llt.«l to 1111d t.·unnct tt•J to Jtllll!{ 1\1 lnu\\ tl\C',11\' l\1 l'\l'l'l ll'l\\'t' tht• ""'"'
q11cnt.'t.'' 1h.11 t.·t1111c lrcu11111.uni.: un .1n 1dt".1, \\hath'' l\'t'lt ,, pl.11111l .1\tl\>I\ •
\ t dit.• I .1hun11on ~rhoul. '1111lcnr-. l'll~.i~t·d 111.1'11r1t't\ 11l pr11h\t"111 ,,1h 111~ ..1\ " '
11It.'' 111 ,, c.·c 1l l,1hc 1r.1t I\ c 't.'t t 1n~. Ht· ht•\ 1ng chat hu111.1n 111tl'lh~t1\l t' 111'r' h, 1n1 .t pt \I\ t''' , 1\
o,ot.· 1,1111 1tt.•1 11ruon, l)c,, C} p111 111.111\ til thc p1,1hlt•1n ,,1h 1nµ lt·:ir111nt-: t·p1,tKlt' 1n 1 )! ''HI'
't'llll l ~. 1<'01 h1111, tht' lrt't' t'\t'': l't' 11f 1n1clh~t·nt't", li.''lt'\l h' thl' t"\\1{'11111 nt11tl 111t'th11\l ot
'l'tt'lll'l', htid 11' bt•'t rh.1nt.'t.' of \\Orlin~ 11\ ,1 dt>llll'l\r.1t1t. ,,,..,ll). \ trul~ d1·111t\\r.1111.·,,~~
t't\, he rt•.1,onl·d. ''J' frt."l' c1f ,1pr1<11i11b,,1h1tt'' 1h.n 1ntllltml \\1th 1hl" frer.l111u "' t<''t
id~"''· t'' t'll 1f th<· tt•,11ng l h.alh~n~t·d Ion~ 't.1nd1n~ l u..u111t' vn,l tni~httt)I\'
\\'I I\' ~"I I>\' PR.\(~ \t.\'l'IS,\l?

( )f the\ r 11 ,u .. phiJo,oph1e' e\ 1111n('(l 1n thl' bc)(>k, the e \ r tud\-.n P ptlau...111 '"
nuing the ni< t darC\."t 1n th:ar n fit-- \\ II u th tht- .\n1en n utl Li: nd lt'l\lp(' n nl.
_,
,_ \
'
\\ l
en
PR\t; \l \ t 1~ \l \S
:\ ll·t.lph, sics 1 hinn 1, 111 , 111etaph} ''l' v. the

Rt"a1t ..1n .•till 1 I h h
In thl' Pf"t"'~,~u .. '- JplC.r- ti l ( ..,c:J ' '" . Jin inlll prin1.1p t'' upon '" IC: the
1111n.,nant "~J•nt ut l ~ 1. t·v'lrJ n 1lS. tht ttlUO J• l 1f the rca Itt\ t h .tt '" \..1~ • nd or
r· ~ •
'"-J.t11e "'h l>• >nh\ rc.. tC"J \ lctJPh'~ 1 '-' ·
i'
• the ,tu ' t
h
•
·•I ,, lr!J f 11r Pr.1!!1nat1"t' meta-
• J I thchep \~1c.. ' •
:ilx'' e ph' ·1 q . the ....:1ence thJt cJ !'> " , _• r•I t\ Pr.1gt11an~t' are not con-
., h 1I0 ·ophen- ntJ\ r' • • · •
ph' ' tt. 1.. J kmJ ot -rn1nJ g-Jme P ~ b· · ..111110 c be an ·,, ered. For then
h· rheY e 11e' e t:. •
cemed ,,,th n1et"Jph' . 11.'lll que:;oon:. r J t • 'rt•~tll" llr sc1e11t1h<.'3ll\. People are
· · J oYen. en1p1 .... J • • •
que non mu.st be Jble co he 'en·h·e or pr narure of nlnnt~tte re:11iry and tntth 1f the\
free to play metaph~ ic-JI g-.1n1es .ibout the h 1.1) oph\ needs ro be concerneJ
" , ·h. Ho,,-e,·er. Pragn1arisr..; behe' e that genwne p d cff e~ce in hun1un life.
,,, th reai. · 1 flesh and blooJ ts)ues
·· · · thar n1ake. a concrete . t er
. d Tht)t11isn1-are based on a
The rraditional ph1lo ·oph1es-Idealtsm. Rea 1sn . .ln 1 1
· · d th d chanae but i~ ecern:11l\· present. unchanglng. and
foundaaon ot cernru e ar oes no~ =- ·ch· . ~ For ther11, the unt\ erse , .
rrue. The Pra~aci 'tS d1scounr the idea of the un angin:-.
-
in constant Bux and change. 0
-
The H11man Being '\'ithin an Environment. Ruther ?1an looking fo.r an~rer · t?
meraph)-sica1 que tions, the PragmaristS look ~r llns,vers tn the ~un1~n s1n1ac1on. ' ' e
.lmO\\'. empirically, that hu1nan beings are upr1ght vertebrates \\'1tl1 highl)· developed
brains and nen·~ and a n10\'able thumb und forefinger. Hlu11ans can con1111tu1icate ;\n<l
are social. Like other organ1 ms. ther li,·e in an en,ironn1ent. The identifying fean1res
of the human being as an intelligent, social, comrnunic;tting, and ii1strun1ent-n1ak1n~
and -using indi\idual li,1ng in a changing environn1e11t points to ho'' Pragn1atists loo\..
for ans\\·ers to life's que tions. Inste'1d of searchi11g for in11nutable ans,,·ers in 111er-J-
physical realms outside of hwnan experience, Pragt11arists go dircctl\· to the inter-
actions that people have \\ith the environr11ent. These internction r:lis~ prohlen\~ rh:tt
9eed to be solved if hun1an li~e is ro continue nnd to be li\red in a satist);ng \\ tl)'· Tht!se
problems become the quesoo11 thnt need to be ans\\ eretl in the ht1 n 1 ~tn '" ()ngo1ng
experience. ' \7bat. must '"e do to olve a p;trticulur 1)roblent? \'\nae inforn1~1t1on ,
r~s~urces, and acaons.are nee..<led to res~l,·e the problerll? \\bat tt)()IS aitd technolo-
gies are ~eeded to sol\e ?1en1t ' ' 'hat social organiZJtil>n ~lnti JCO\itie" '"ill be neellt!J
to deal \\'tth the problen1:- Rather thnn tninl7 to po ·nila h , ..t.·' -
. · h . · :- te ere ma 1•lnS\\ et' .. ., t e n .....
phly~1caJthphtlosoak~ e~s, the ~brat gn1at1st~ are C()ncerne<l \Vitl1 t1-;ing- a t11etht>ll tlf \ll'<>hlen1-
so VJng at m es tt poss1 e to arnve at flexible h, > • ' • • • •. n he
revised and reformulated to n1eet ch · ,· . ..1 <>the e~-an '' ers tl1.1t 1.:.l
angtng s1ruat1(>ns in hun1an life.
.......
i ll\1'111.:11 \ 1 l'\{ \ I \l\ ll' \ I ,,
t 'II• ,j, II\ C'l lh, h 11111 111 t• • 1111
' " '.ti "" '"· "''" " "" ''" "' """'"'Ill
11 1)i~t\" ll H )I\ 1~ \
l i11
1111\
h ,,, I' \\\\\
1'1,11.;111.tt"'' ' " '
I I
• . , 1 I " ' •"' ' '''\\III 11•111,111, "' •l''''•''""'''lfl• lll q111,lhll\\
\ I \I \\I' lo.1\\1\\ \ \ h II I I
\lllf I l
II t' .I, ll\1 h1•lt1•1, "
,,
I
I \\' ""''' ,II\ \II ,\I\ \\,I\ ··I ""''" 111\l \ '"" '" ' \\ c "'""' 1h II
' ,, I I
I \It' l'.\' 1111' 1\I 1, I , II\ .Ill'-\\' I I\\~ I \\' ' \' 1\111 'lh'll' 1
1 \\ 0 I 1.11\\\\ 11
' '1'\ll\'1• t I\ ,I\ I\ III"I \\' I lh.11\ hlllll.11\ \ \1'1' 1 h"I\\
I llll\{11 ,111111\1·1111 I
\\
10
I II\ \\1·~11\ I\\ •lll'\\1°1 11\1· ,,· 1\11\''\ll'll' \,\ h'>•\..1111< JI htllll ,I\\ hit. lh II I , ll
h lll ll.11) h1·111•·
"' .., I I 1111 I'll\ 111•1111\\'lll I ., 11· p11•\ " ' ' ,11 h\ Ill)' I \\Ill\;\\\
'"II\" I
.11 ~1111 ''"\I\
l'~>t\tlt1\hUl\ 1 1\ Ill lhl' '(l\'1' 11'' ll\\11h1•, 11\h' \,l\tlll\I\ 111 ll;lll'>ht\\IH' ht ,Ill 1111< I.I\ \1\111 ,
t t" h\1111i111 d11t'' \111111•th111~ 11• th(' l'l\1111111111~111. \\l111h 1111111111\,1,11111•ll1.1t 1111h11n111
ht" 1. 1· 11\
1--. • I\\11\hlll Ilcl\ II\'\'\)' h•1 j\111\1, \\11\\' I, 'h\'"''I \1,, {\l\\lh\ Ill,\\\ Cl\\I
1\l\l\·I\ 1.' :\I\
l\)l1ll\(."I\( llhll l'\11\t<llll' 111111~:0. lh\H 'illl'I\ lh\'''' \\1','1\, l hi\\('\\'\, \he t'I\\ "''111\\t'lll .1\,n
h,l, t•k•llll'lll' lh1ll lhl't'<ll\.1\ \1\1• 1\11111.\1\\ '\II\ l\;\I \\ 1hl ;l\\1\11\\\,, '\'\1\1\1' \'hl\\;\ll\
L'han~t·,, .111d 111ht·1 1111,ulr h11111.111,, h•1 1'\,1111ph· Ill\' ''''('l\t111l p1'\1ltlc1n ' ' \\ h.11 \..11\1\
()t tr.111,,1,·111111, 111 1111t·i.11·111111' "11h II\\· r1111111111nt·111 "1\1 1.•n\\~1n~c ;llhl '\1'''"" ''"' 11 .1\
it11d 111.ilt• hit• ,,,11,h 111µ' 1>,'\\('\ 1·.111, th•' 11''''"''' ,1111\t .,,, •t11111 hl.'t11('r11 the l\\11n.1n
lll\d tht• l'll\ llt>l\11\t'l\l I'\"''"''·"
' fhe P1't>blt·r11ntlt• Stt1n1t lo11. l111hr ,·,1111,r 1'' '''l''llt'\\1'\' lh<' 111t1.'1;11.·1111n hc\\\Cl.'11
rht' h11111,1n ht'lll~ 111\ll lht• t'll\ 11\1\1\IH'l\I "''' 111111\ 11\11.1\ Ill;\\ C\\1.~\\ll\ll.'I \'111h\c111 ... th.II
bl111.·l h1' 111 h1·1 1111~,1111µ lllll\lt\ l'h1.·,,, p111\llr111' 1111,1.' \\ht'\\ the l\\1n1.111 cn1.~n11111·1.;
'on1~·rh1nµ 1h11t 1..; dtll1.·1t·111 111 !'o1>1111· \\,11. ,, 1\r\ 1.111t. "'''" 1n '\ "'''" l..'\pt•11c11..:t· . \'h1.•-;c
kInd..; pf pr11h lt•t 11' l'lll 1 I .111~r h \ 1\1 I ('\ \'t \ 1h1' I II\\'' h I t h1 l\~' \it \ ,,,\ \\;\\ 1111\\\I :\\\\I I I\\ (.'1 II•\
1111p1>t llll\l'\' F11t t'\,llllplt-. \\ h1•11 \ 11\1 h~·~lll\ \ 11\11 '" ' ' 1'111\1'~(' \'ll\11,(''· II \\ ·'' ,1
llOll.11
nt'''' l'\pt·11t·11t'<' h)t '1111 \11\1 h11d ult<'lld1·1\ l11~h , ... \\11111 ,111\\ 1..'\1\1l1l ,h ·'" 1111 th;\\ 111101
t'\Pl'llt'll~'t', h111 \ 1111 llt't'd1·d "' I '\ll)l,.ll\l '1• \I ll\ th1.' l\t'\\ '1\\1<1\\\ll\ \ 1\\11\ '('\ 11\\l\
n.111onal ,1nd t1Hc-111111u>n.1l p1,1hlt•111 r,·,\llt\'tl h11111 th<' \t'\1,111,t .111.11\...., 11111ht• \\111ltl
rr.1dt·c·('1u t·1 '" "\1·" \ 111l < '11, 1111 "t'Pt('111l1·1 11 . 'llO l. ,,h('n '''" 1111.\\\..11\ pl.int·..,
l't 11,ht'd 1nh1 the· ( \·ntt't \ "'" r1,, dt''''''' 111~ \l\(' h111hh111f' Jn1l 1..n1,111~ ~· 1. .11 hl'' 111
It ft ' lh1.• \t l\l'llCi\l\ Jlt'llJllt' ,1111\ t ht' I1;\{t\l1\,I I ~'\ \\ t'l l\\\\\'l\l l.ll'<'1l 'l'l \ 't'l 111\1'1 p111hl1.'lll'\
th11t tht'} ht•µ;u\ Ill'''"
t' h\ ll \
1n~ \\l '''" tht'll l'·''t l'\jl('I 1('111.(' \ti d1·:1I \\II h \hl l\l'\\ 1h1 ('J\
l~ot l)t•\\t'\ 11nd the• P1.1~1111111'''• thl' ""''"'''t\ll hit•'" tl\\l' 11\ \\htl'h 111dl\11h1.1\..,
11
nd µrlH•P' t'IHt;\11\lt"I, dt'l\11(", ,ind ,11h<' p1,1h\t•111' \'h<''<' p111hlc111' 1111 th(' \h.11\('n~e
th.1t tt''t 11111 itbihtit'' .ind d,·,('h1p 11111 11\1c·ll1b"''\\ '" 'l'h\·~ It 1,\ ''' 11111 1111ll'\'"ll )ll''" th
und tit'' t'h,p111rn1
• •• • •
'fhC': pl'\lhlt"flllttit• 1ihu1ttion (l\ ' ' ' ' '' hc:11 th\'I pr~. 11\ 111\ 1t\, nr 111\gi111ig C'\' rt<!nl
1>1111 Led i,, t 11,.,, 11t.~11ll l<l.

74 P\RT! PHILOSOPlllF~OPFDt:C.\nO'
The Complete Act of Thought. Thu, f.ir 1n "'" Jiscunlon of Pl"lgmawm, ·~

ha,·e 1dentilied the follow 1ng 11nportant pnn1:1plc' (I) our ideas, to be \"llubtcd. ftttd
to be re,ted emp1n~•lll) in acnrnl hu1nan e:rperu:n~c; (2) cx~ncncc resuln &0111 the
1ntcracoon of the ptN>n \\1th her or hl'i en\,rOnntcnt; (3) 1n the 00\l!W of ~c
or en\,ronrncnol 1nrenacrion~. the pcr;on encounrc~ ne-· o~ that bJod.: on
1ng e"-penence. \\ith these three pnnople~ before us, we can nov. dl5CUU how ,.c
about solving these problenis.
For Dewey, real thinlwlg 0<.'CUJ'S when we use the SCtenofic method m ~c
problems. He developed the following five-step rendition of the scienribc method.
which he called tbt tompktt att oftb11Ugbt.
1. \\'e are in a J1r0bknwtk sitruztion when our ongoing actriity is blocked by

encountering something new and different, a de,;anc from our expenence
2. In order to know exactly what is blocking the Bow of erpenence, "'e need ro step
back and reflect on the situation and locate and defi11e tbt prvbkm. In Uu,,
important step, it is very important that we L:now what the problem IS so that •-e
can find ways to solve it and resume our ongoing erpenence.
3. Once we have defined the problem, we can begin to swrwy, ilrvtstiptt, llM
rrsttnd h. \Ve can consult our past erperience and see how the new· problem IS
similar to and different from what we have experienced in our past. \ Ve can go to
the Library and use the Internet to research the problem and gather mfonnaoon
about it. \.Ve can discuss the problem with fnends and other people who might
have experienced it.
4. After our research is completed, we can begin to think about possible ""ll}"S to solVI!
the problem by conjedln'Vlg possibk llhD'7llltiva of«tW.. Here, \\"C W'Ork out in
our minds what we might do and what JS Likely to happen when we choose that par-
ticular course of action. For example, ifl do this, then this is likely to occur. \\'e do
an estimation of the results that are likely to occur and determine which of these
results will solve the problem and bnng about the desired consequences.
s. Up to this point we have located, defined, and researched a problem, and ha'-e
strucrured various hypotheocal ways to solve it, but we still have not acted and
therefore the process is stlll incomplete. :-:ow, we choose ~ lllm-runit't, the
hypothesis, that we think will solve the problem and bring about the results that
we want, then tat it by ":'!"g on it. Hope;uity, our action "ill soh·e the problem
and bring about the anoopated result. \ \ e add this problem-sohing episode to
our to~ expenence and can move fon.-ard unol we encounter another problem.
If we nuled to solve the problem, we need to review• the pl'OCeS) make the needed
COJTections, and try again: '
~Solving u 1 Method of Instruction. l f our thmlung is complete" hen \\e

':.:::-ideas accordmg to the scientific method, then the most effecti\e met.hod of
t g and leammg IS process-based problem solvmg. In school as m hfe, all ltn~
( llAJ• 11 11 M VJ
l•Jt \(,\IA.11\M
75
of problcu1' O<:l' ur Tn. .
h':l• lcn and priniar.y "racdy ranl(c 1rt"ti Lhe 'imp le ~Ila ring and taking rums of the kintler-
1aI>oratory of the •n~d I to L11c ~oph·isucatcu
" · e~, ·. .• cxpcnmcntanon
· . done in the <;cientilic
~ •ca re,earch <. Th .
to cIcvelop prohlc1n-sol"'n ' ,k. enter. ere are inany ~•ruauon~ that can be u\Cd
anccd aquarium de . . g ills. Ainong them are the following: ~tablishing a bal-
a "udent government ' signing
d I'sets· fr,r
. .
a stud ent pcrionnance,
' . an elecnon
conducong . for
ing involved ;11 . . ' ea ing wnh •~sues of racial and gender discri1nination becom-
1 here are seve cnvironment~I
I. . · · · pu bl'1~hmg
acuvities, . a school newspaper, and 'so forth.
centered· (2) thra 1mporcan1
. . foaru
. res of." · ·
u•e s1ruaoons . d ahove: (I) they arc !,'Toup-
11sre
A , : d. ey are 1nterd1sc1plinary; (3) they can be rested in action
our ide~ "" in. 1ca1ed' De wey ber1cv • ed .u1at
.. we hecon1e .intelligent
. ·
as we develop and act on
cooperati ~ group-ce-nt"etl social setti ng. Working with others collahorotively and
1 3
nh . ve Y ennches our cx1:icrience becau~e we can incorporate the ideas of other

,.~up 1e into our action I
•ct· Pan. If we Lnave d1sagrce1nents
· •
Wlth others while developing
•. ion p1ans• we can wo rK.. to reso Ive these d1;.agn:ements
. democroncaUy. . d1scus-
using .
\llln
rn andthconA1c1-re)o) ution · s1ra1cg1es. In working . on s1ruaoons
. . . .
such as those 1dent11ied
? ive, e re~earch is i11ttrtl1sC1pl1nnry in that i1 involves many academic disciplines and
~s not confin ed to :t si ngle 'uhject. for exn1nple, a social-service class project r.hat
involves an nnti\moking ca111p:11gn directed at high school students would require
re)earch in.to law, health, chenllHT)', and the J>')Chology of peer pressure and addiction.
To de~enn1ne 1f our ~oluuon to a problem 1s vahd, 1t needs to be tuud in art ion. Unlike
ot.her 1nstru~t1onal ~trategie' that 1nay stud} an 1>~uc but not test for the validity of our
1d~as nbout 1t, prubletn solnng atcordmg to the 'iC1encific method requires us to act and
to )Lidge a )011111011 by iu. COn\CtjUCnces.
Axiology
Al't:ording to Dewey\ world vie",''' 11\·e 1n on open-ended universe where everything
1\ changing, relative to parucular s1111<1uons. The a priori principles found in the 1neta·
ph) ''~of Idealism, Reahsn1, and Thorrusm arc not reg:arded as being empincaUy valid
10 !(Ulde human behanor. h \ue of "'hat ~ good, true, and bcauoful have not been
de1 cn111ned for all ume b) the narure of rcahl). Rather the) arc prOJectS 10 be wc>rked
out 1n hun1an ~perience. Since human e~peru:nce anses 1n concrete and particular
e'enb Jnd )1ruacion~. the values 1n such expencnces are al 'iO relauve to the panil..'1.llar
"ruauoo, co people h\ing and acong at a parucular omc, 1n a parocular place. The eth-
tl'JI JnJ moral relaa,<>m a'50Clatcd ",th Pralmlaosm has provoked cnuo~m from
tho..e ,, ho bche' e th;it acoon hould be guided by unin:NI ethical and mo1'21 ~tan
Jo1rJ,. !ll)teatl ot pn:sc11b1nti and proscnb1ng belu\'lOr on universal standards as do
IdollbtS. Reali•cs. and Thom1U), the Pragmaosrs umead argue 1.run our values arise a\
v.~ tind 52nsfacton· and san,t\ me 'n\'S t0 Inc that ennch our upcnenct \\'hat teach-
er. l'tJ\ do is help ®dmrs ~ cbnf) their~
eWnme
ln the area of aestheoc '~ De-tr;C')· emphasiud the publi.c nature of an. The
\\ orL: of art is a \Chtclc of Jiattd commumaoon and apenence bccwun the artist and
th~ v. ho v.'en: engaged tn the acsthcoc cxpencncc. Th11-. the best L:ind of aesthcuc
e~nc~ roold be shan:d ~ tht v." ldest poa1ble public.
16
~ on cn1p1nc-AI \cnfi<.-anon, \alu.laun

11 l> l ' l"C'1I <°'i Th 1~ test rcnuir-g
....._ . 1 --· ~ II\ Pn!!'" n"c .tnJ puhht te\t
' nc ,._.. "'"~ - 10 I <Ctcn " bl ., "
Jra, th.tt ans<> "' human v:pencnc<'of their ob~el'\-able and n1c;1,ura e <.'Oni.equcnce.,,
thac <>Ur Ida> an be snired in cem» lluoon by requinng that auto1nob1lc:s in a !lar-
r,..,- c.um..L. -~1 ro reducenatr po 1s an d 5Ulldard~ can he er
....._ • I"....,,....-_ contro cmp1ncally verified
h . .
o..-W.r sure ~· spec.be cous.io the conrrols have becn in enect, ' c:n tl •s War-
Ii the: qtnlan· of aar IS 1mpro•~ after Id Furtber, th<.: proposa l can bl: rephcai--•
IS WllS \'8 1 '
'
rantM ro behe>-e ihat the ypoua<!» h .i.
d be public. Interestecl in. cl'
· 1v1d1uls have'""a
....._,_ ,_, __, f est also nee s ro
1n odu.•.T suces. • = J(Juu o t ·ne the e,~dence.
n!?flr ro consider the proposal ~d ro ex~uctive reasoning fron1 a priori fir~t Prin.
Empirical ,'Cnfiaooo, re1econg neralizarions, or warranted assenions
aplcs, is ~~ indoco,-e--comin!:~rcion, 3 gener-alizarion based on existing
based oo panicub.r UlSUD(:eS. A warran f e_q>Crience for a time. It, however, is sub-
C\'ldeott, an be~ m ~.the co;;; ~f subsequent experience and new evidence.
JeCt m funher cesang and rensiond m '-· -'above in the section on epistemology, con-
lbc ~ Act of Thought, e5CI'l""'1 .
ams the hem for the logical organization of expenence-
PR.i\G.\tATIS.\f'S EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Educational Goals and Purposes

De"~' was ~ wuy of educational goals and p~ that came from sources,
authorities, or movements that " -ere enema! to the child. For example, parental
desires for a smdeot's future career, the p-emment's goal t0 educate patriotic citiz.ens,
aod the business secror's deimnd for trained workers are all ~pies of goals that are
cxtemal ro, aod imposed on, the learner. Genuine educational goals come from 'o\;thin
the persion, not from some innate spiritual essence as the Idealists claimed, but rather
&om the penoo's own aaiwity in the environment. The sole goal of education is
growth. ~ asserted. To grow means t0 hive more activity, more problems, more
resolutions to problems, and a graiter netvo'Orlc. of social relationships. Growth means
that the ~ is leamin~ more ~·~ meaningful, and Slltisfying W2ys to live, in
order ro deaJ wtth a changing reality and direct the course of her or his own life.
The School
F~ Dewq) as v.'ell as~ Pragmatists, the school is not a single-purpose institution
'With a ..-dl-dc6ncd pnmuy pmpose, IS claj~ by ld-1:......... d ., __1 : _ ,, __L the
school . mu!: - . ""'1.DU m IN:<llQU. NIOler,
_,_,..... .is.• bpUlThe~ sncial.insti.tDtioo conneaed to and related w the society of
..UIUI It tS I pi.rt. lagDatJSt lpproec:b to ..-iwwJ;.,_ - walls
that enclose the schools from the rest of tbe cnl---..uug JS to get out of the four
me larger socict1, the aw•uallllitt. 1
wt md h"iety and open the doors tO
The~ itself, is a aiono•nnw of ~ _11v
- - - t · a.. ...;.... h IS
"""'6"!'~- m -~·
· a spei•laied
· ··en
1
. R®m•s and trtri..~ -'- - are nJIWJA"T
A ..... wnu
•umrn; ht in wb.icb expericncts are simpb-
' ll 11' II 1111\ i l•N ,, \l\tl,\i
77
l '\1 \\I\ ''\ ' 't>'\( I 1• I'

\C)( I \ I \<: I ' ( \ t) l I Ill ll(ll t' ( H• l l lt :O.C ll<l <> LA\A
111'.I, 11111 ihl'1I, Q1'd lnil .•1 t Si I

ltl"il .• 11 illH ' • • nrl' 1 It• 1·111'lron11wm I~ complt·x, cxperlcnt·c~ nre simpli-
1
lllll'i ~1"
. 1 ' 11111( h• t 1'" 1... , " I 11 f Il'il l 11 IIll( r~nthnr'' ol, s1udcn1s u11d ari~e from their own
h~ 111 ; ' ~ 'll"'11l"ni·.-, ~ii< p11rihr1I, 1n rhnt '"hcK>I clue' nut promote 1hn\c that are
111 111 1111
11~ ~1111'1 1 t 1'\ill ltt1h
.•I 11111l 1lim1111'h lhl' l'<""'lh1hl11'' for gro11 th. Finally experiences arc
I• th. I •
' • t\ ilf<' in1t•l(i•1tl"t nnd l11wirl'lnled ~o sn1dcnts cnn M:e how one
l'\fl<'t 11' 11 ' 1• 1111\'\ ' ' 111111 ll'~d' Iii onu1htr.•
C.' u r ril·u lu111

For l'i.11111111n't~ '"'h II\ Dt'Wt), thr 1.urnl"Ulun1 '" nnr nnccccdent co the scudencs; it is
11111 'f)(\lhl'l.I "'"' '"'''t·nll\"J In "d\1lnce Rather, th<' currkulum co1nes from srudentS'
"'1'1\'nC'lllc.'' th<'u lllh r '''· ncctf,, and problenl\ Dewe) 1denufied three stages in cur-
flllllu111 (I} nuL.1n111n1l 1lu111g, (1) h1,1ury and l(fi>graph). and (3) science.9 Ln the firsl
,t,l){t', '1utl1·nl,, Jl.1nt111lnrl) ththlrt'n In the elc1ncn1ary j.,'Tildes, nre involved in personal
11nd l{n111p fll'llJt°\.1' that fun1~ un acnvioe, 1n '>'-h1ch they 1nnke thing~. In th is smge,
lctnlllll{ " 1hlTll anti l l tn c. Ch1ldrl'.'n 1n1gh1 he in\'Olved in designing and planting a
..... hool Vl'"lcn, \ctllnl( up a huul 'tort. e,1•hlJ,h1ng a h:alanced aquarium, creaong
Jl<l,tcl'\, 1l1'llf1Hn!( 'Ul(t ~''·anti '4i nn. \!~ling and doing involves having a problen1 or
nc:cJ, e,1.1hh,h1nl( h)ll<llhe~e' or pl.ins on how 10 resolve the need; cnrrying out lhe
n~t'tl l'\:..ean. h, 11nd It Unll' on the ,eftt<c<l h}pothe-.s 10 acruaUy test it in experience.
l ht' ,~'t>nJ 'tagt', hhtOI) anJ geognph}. involve acuvnies and projeas that
tit'.'\ clop anJ 1JJ 111 \tUdcnl\' •·unttpuon' of un1c (~t-prei.ent-furure) 1tnd space (or
plJ ...'t'). l unr .inJ ~JlJ(l' rcpre\cn11hc t'\10 great 1:ategone\ that relate to hun'llln experi-
rn~ Oe\\c\ i ' not<,() 111ucll roncemed "lch Jt,clop1ng a i.eni.e of dates or chronology
h( 1, \\uh J~cloping tht' t\lntcpl that C\cnh 1n hwnan c.itpericnce reproent a Oow
11 ,
or a l'\>n11nu11n1 of 11 ... u,1ue<.-th1ng- that happened, arc happening, and wtU happen.
Ine n111111n of e'l°ltncntc abo mean~ that 11 talc, place in a '>cmng, an environment, a
pl-,~. J lu1n.an plitt',-humt<>, nei!(hborbood\, 111wn\, citic'>, ~t.ates, and countries-are
intt'rttbnon,h•P' of 'i ...c
ThC third \°lll 1 °"'"ftnCC, 10 Q~ t} °> VICW of cumculum, refe~ to bodies of l~ttd
h' JX)thr' , , 0r \\trranted 1,>trt1on.,, 10 \"'l.OOU> arCti of humtn thought, rcse2n:h, and
l'tld~~\t>r, \ \'h1lr the nJrunl and pb) ,icaJ Sl'ltneb arc mcluded under the lirger head-
10~ • en..~," arc other area rach as '!OCdl rod1es. The\e somccs ~e m fa1rl)
rdiahlc cnl112t10f\' uptm ,..illch •"an bsse our tc0ons. Hov.~cr, it ncecb to be
cnipha•ttt.1 that th(''C \'lnou5 ~..,cocc" are not made up of fixed anJ tinal uu~, but
lrt' tcntall\"C 1 ,'6tlon' anJ are b]«'t ro funher rcscarclt 211J reconccptuahzauon.
1)1 \\I\ ., (()NC 11> 1· ()1• C l ' NNI( I \Ji\1
•••••
JOHN DE\ VEY, 1' 1lli COMPLE'"rE AC'f
OF1' 1JOUG IIT
. h we use the scientific method.
In this ~t'lcct1on, Dewe)• di~cu~SC) ho~ wet~~ we enplete Act ofThought, which car-
H" l"t'nu1uon of Lhe ~cienu6c 1nethod l) call~ e ~' atic situation to acting, and
nes 11 person fron1 the initial srnge of being in a pro er::i This exderpt is selected
rhereh) tc~ting, the hypothesb selected LO s~lve the pro .e~. of Pragrnatist logic and
for inclu~ion os o prirnory source bc1..~1use of as clear exbpo
l s1uonl . g teaching and learn-
. fi . . · d 'gning pro em-so v1n
ep1suin1ology, and or its unporrnnce in esi .h nsider the following focus-
ing scruregies. As you reud the selection, you IT1:ly wis to co
ing questions:
1. [-low does Dewey's Co1nplete Act of T hought reffect how Pragrnatists define
thinking, intelligence, and knowledge?
2. How is problem solving an inreniction between the person and the environ-
n1ent?
3. \.Vhac rypes of siruations caused Dewey to examine particular problems in his
experience, in this selection?
4. Identify the steps in Dewey's Con1plete Act of Thought .
. . . we sh11ll m11lce an analysis of the

1. "The other day when I was down town
process of thinking into ics steps or elementary
consriruents, basing the analysis upon descrip- on 16th Street a clock caught my eye. I saw that
tions of a number of ertremely ~'imple, but gen- the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that
uine, ct!ies of reffe<.'tive expenence. I had an engagement at !24th Street, at one
o'cloclc. I reasoned that as it had ta1'en me an
f·ron1John l>n-f)·, •Anaf)'115 of the Complete An. of Thought,•~ 234-241, Dr.tty !.1,JJk IHwit, V~t
6 C 19'.'I On11J1alf}· published 111 Tbt CMl«rrJ Worit ef]oint Drr C by me Cmw- fOf o,.cy Snulin,
~pnnted by pcnn••on of the publisbt'r. 9
CIL\PTI R 11\T 1'1t\t<\l'\l1S.\I
79
hour to COJne do\\ n on a ,urface car, I ~hould
probably be rwen1y n11 nure' l;;ire if 1 rerume..t hou,.... 'o 1h:i1 th,,. 't<'<'1'nu11 ,.,,l11lt.I <'il 1h '<"<' 1t
Lhe >lime Wll}~ ( nugh1 'a' e t\\ enry nlmure~ b1•11 \lurco,er, 1h" op \\J> cnnui:h h1l!h<'r dtan th<'
subwar express. Bur "-~s 1hcre n stnuon near? If bn't. ~o 1hat, frorn 1h,,. p1lo1\, po~iuon, 11 1nu,1
uppcnr 10 pn11ec1 for u1u m lront of the bo.11
not, .r migh1 lose rnore than rwenry cninures in
looking for one. Then I thought of the ele- .\1urco1er, the pilot he1nil n.-"r tho front of the
ho.11, he wonld need <!line •uch J('\ti<lc ns 1u ii<
v:ited, nnd I saw there w11s such n line within
direcoon. Tugboats would nl>u neeJ poles t\.•r
NO blocks. Bur where \\'RS the sration? If it
. uch a purpose. This h) f)l>the<is wus so rnuch
" ere several blocks abo1·e or belo\\• the street J n11lre probable than the others tha1 l 1100!pred
"as on, I should lo c ti1ne instead of g>.iimng 1c. a . l fonned the conl'lus1on that the pole "as
NI} mind \\'Cnt baclc to the subwuy express ns set up for the purpose or showing the pilot the
c1u1cker than the elevuted; funhen:nore, J direction in "hich the boat pointed, to ennble
rernernbered that it wenr nearer rhnn the ele- hin1 to steer correctl1·."
v;11ed to the part of 124th Street I wished ro •
3. "ln wushing uunhlcrs in hor so11psuds
reach, so that tin1e wou ld be snved at the end of nnd placing then1 month downwnrd on n plnte.
the jo11rney. I concluded in fu1·or of the subwnr, bubbles appeared on the oucside of the n1outh
and reached my destination by one o'clock." of the run1blers and then went inside. \ \'hy?
2. ~Projecting nearly horizonmll} from The presence of bubbles suggests air, which l
the upper deck of the ferryboat on wtuch I datl)' note nimt come from inside the rumbler. I see
cro s the river, is a long \\h1te pole, beanng 1 that the soopy wtter on the place prevents
gilded ball Ot its tip. It suggested a flagpole CSCllpc of the 1.ir sa1·e as 1r may be cought 1n
"hen I first S3\\ it; 1rs color, shape, and gilded bubbles. But"' by bould n1r leave the rumbler?
ball agreed ";th this rden, and these reason There was no sub mnce entering to force it
seen1ed ro justify n1e in thi behef. But soon dif· out. h 1nust have expanded. l t expnnds by
ficulues presenced then1selvcs. The pole "as tnet"ea}e of heat or by decrease of pressure, or
nearly honz.ont31, an unu5Ulll posinoo for a by both. Could the atr ha,·e becou1e hented
Aa(flx>le; in the next place, there \\'llS no pulley, 1fter the rumbler "-as taken fron1 the hor sud~?
nng. or cord by "h1ch co attxh a flag; fintH). Oearlr not the air that w11 alresdy eomngled
there "ere elsewhere "'o 'erocal si.ffi. from 1n the "'lter. If heated iur wu the cause, cold air
"h1ch Aags ""re occas1on31J> flown It seemed must ha1·e entered 1n mansfcmng the romblers
probable th:it the pole was not there for flag fron1 the uds co the plate. l test to sec if chi!>
It) 111g. uppo 1oon 1s true by t11long SC\'CnLI more rwn·
"l then tried co im3gine all possible pur- biers out. ome r shake so :is ro make sure of
IXISC~ of such 11 pole, and to consider for" h1cb entrapping cold 11r in them. Some I ~ out
of th~ 11 " ib best swted· (•) P 1bly 11 "'ti an holding mouth do"'ll"'ll'd tn order to prevent
om:tn1cnt. Bue as aJJ the fem boac. and C\'en the cold 11r from entermtr Bubbla appear on the
tuicboois earned li.l.c polC". ttu~ hypothesis "-as outside of e\'ery one of the li1rmcr and on none
re1ecteJ (JI P~1btr 1t " the temunal of • of the latter. l mast be nght 10 my mfermcc.
"1relm cclegnph But the me consuknnoru Air from the oumdr musi ha1e been uptnded
1nadc this irnprobeblc. Besid('). the more mam- by the heat of the tumbler, which explain~ the
raJ pJAct for such I ccnruna} \\'1>Wd be die rugh- 1ppcannce of lhe bubbles oo the oumdc.
N Ill" of the boat, on rop of the pilot bou>e. "Bw 1111) do the) tlxn go lll).1de: t'olJ
(r) It) purpoisr rrugfu be ro pomt out die di.rec- CUftO ICU.Tbt mmhlcr cooled md mo ~ 11r
oon 111 •hich ~boar as m<•'~tt· inside IL 'ICnsian ..,_ ~ anJ hence
"In lllfPOlt oi dlil candnunn. I dnc:o\"- babbles appeared t~ To ~ sure of thh I
~~ 1 cup of ICc on dw rcinhlrr ehilc
...11 .....,..i>!tUrlll ~I • '• • 1 ~111 111111
\. 1"1111 Oil\ -.. • •11.i
the- hubh ' •~ •ull 1unnini.: •
vUl' '""" l h<'I 'ht' f \ 1'1111 • ..,, , ,ur tAl., 11 u1 ''""''' "''1111111111,,,
Xlll tt1 et •
1 11
t
1,,.111••'"• ..•1< ""1 '''"fl'"'"" I h,I 11h1r,, •ti
l'b.., • du"' .. , , h.t1(' l>«n 1 111\"' thin\.lltlt 1, l\I tl\11\khl< • •lllj;llHI\ 111 II th,
~l~"tN • • to l\'"n • •C'n , lt\\11\ th 1111.ll I h(' ti, 11,.11 ,,u1tht1<lll' 1 •t1 1h11 1h ' " ' I\~
1 1 l\Hl
ruilim.. ntt.r. '" '""C' 1'\>1111,h.-at•"'' ,... ' ' j)(! tiIt ('h- <I• tnllt' \\ tll 11•11 ""' h~, l\\-hl nnr ..~I II
ttlle<..'tl1111 I'll.- ti 1, tu, r,Jt\". the l 1111l 1.•t thinl · th t" ,h•lJll•'(' h e' l\\ C-(11 lt1th ... lllTI lllhl ! ~ ~th
111~ Jon(' h1 <' 1..1'\l\Ot- Junn!l' th<" .U1 : bll\lllt''' •
h 1 '~~ 11 11,,dt I ht' p111hln11 "t1'r J, '
,,r
m "h1,-I\ llt"1th<"r thC' J .irA, n..•r th... 11 ,.,.,. dr.al l,,ttt<'t ' ' "
; ,, II} ,,.,,nvlftfl , rrr"m• ""'' b tl /I,.,. '"'•'frJ
tng " 1th tht"in. ~Lt one- c.>Ut:-.i<le chc.' hnut' 11f
e1 Cl)'\1a1 e\~'<'ntn<~. rhe l:i,.t fumL'tht'S•l lil' <' 111
~tte'«• ti'f t'ffll• tf'f 01,/ ,1#,I tbr .~" , 11 "''"~' t:r//
"h1ch ~1tht'r pro blrn1 nor n~e ,,f ,,111111011 ~,..,,, rot r tt-t• i::-ith r,11/! ''' ""
In th<' ,...._,1111l 1'il\C', the d1fl1111h) 1 , 11111
"oulJ ha1e bf.en h.J.:eh to lX'CUr c.''\TI"pt rn onl'
en1..Y•I 1 ~ the:' 1 n~'l.l111p.iu lnlt1\' nl 11 'lll(!\C'tc1I 01111
"ith some pn<>r sett'nntic cra1n1n!l'· The ~tl'l1nd
case !Orms 1 Nrura1 tran-ioon: us n1Jrtn~I< ht ll~"'l""'"nh) ll1'-'\'lllnl heh ct 111111 1hc lll•k I• 1
\\'ell 11;thtn the boun..1.- of evm'da1. un.~~:1al 11£).i"-'lt". \l lth C'\'M\111' c1thc1 IJ1.1' Sup11<"c 11c
ized expcnenl't'; but the probien~. 1n,f:t'~J of S1inbt1lt1t" t he (!Q:\ht1c~ t h;ll \111(1(\'' I jl.1,iqio/t II)
bemg direct!) tnl'oheJ m the person'!; b1c 1nr ., , tht" lc.-rt<:N 11. I\<'°: rhc\,C th.ti 11ppcl\C t h1' \lll(!lt\
anses md1rttth out of h~ .icnnf:I, and Bl'l'Ol'\I· nun b\ the.' lc:rttrs f'. f• 1. l'hc1 c "· ot 1..'l:l111'c,
ingly appeals ro • some11 h11r theortnc 11nJ nu1h1n~ 1n1•on,1~rc11t 111 the 411:1huc~ 1hc111
impartial interest. \\'e shall deal, in a IJctrch.ap· 11.:h t'~: h111 1n pnlhn!{ the 11u11tl l1I tl1 ttctc11111.11d
ter, 11; th the evoluoon of abstract thinking out tlll'Ull~l"Utlll'I 1.'-lnclw-11ln~ the~ 1.'0 11t1k 1 hcUlC
of that which is relativt'ly praroC11I and direct~ the pn1hlc111. I lert th!.'.' ohjccl i~ the disl'\1vc1> uf
here 11·e are concerned onlv \\i th the ronu11on
•
son1t" ohk'1-'t (f)), of" hl..:.h •.1, Ii, 1\ 1111\l (I, q, r, m11y
eJementS foWld in au the types. ull ht" np1)n1pr11\lc tf".lt\,'-Jll~l 11s, 111 11u1· r'u·M
Upon c..unlinaoon, each instance re1•e,1ls. \'11'<'· it is 111 1ch $1c'\I\ er " 1..'11111 c 111 111·d n 11 whid1
more or less clear!» fi,-e logically disunc1~lt'J'-•: '' 11! ~·0111h1nc c\1'tt11~ 1..'\)IH.ht11111' Jntl n rcniotcr
(i) a felt difficulty~ (11) iis locnnon and delin1non; re,1111 1n ll ,.n~lt" "hole'. !'he 1111.'thod of \olu
(iii) suggestion of pos.tjble olurion: (ii') 1le1 d · 11111' '' "'''' the ,;unc; '"'~" c 1 of 1111c1 1ncdi0te
opment by rea onmg of the beann~ of the Mt).... Q11Jh11c, (thc f'\)Slt1t1n n( thl.' prlol hou,c, of the
gesoon; ('t~ funher ob en"llnon and t'\lltMOlt<nt f'lllt", thl.' O\'l'\I 111' 11n tll\IC\ lll the hoJt \ <lire
leading ro 11S acceptance or re1ecrion; that 1~. the non) '~ 111l\t1l1tl.'tl b\ ,I, ~· /, o, '"hKh hind
conclusion of behef or disbelief. hl~\"thrr 111hcr.1''I.' 1n1..'\11njl.111ht,• 11111h.
1. The first and second steps frequc:'ntl)
''' thr th11'\I \'ll,c.-, \\II olhc1'Vc1 1r.1i11ed l•i
fuse into one. The difficulry 1na)' he ft'lr 11 hh thl.' 1dr11 11f ou1ur<1l h1\\11 '" 1111ltiu 111ilie~ ti11d'
sufficient definiteness as to ser the rnintl n11111l' o ~t11n111hln" 11tl.t Ill l'\\'CJ)t 11111111 in th~ hchn1
specularing upon its probnhle solution, or 110 11ir 111 thr h11hhlr~. l'hc Jl" ihtc- 111 1, to reduce
undefined uneasiness and shock nlO)' l'OO)C' tiri.t,
thr llJlll~1-rn1 llll11111;1llc:' 10 111,1,111rc' of " ell·
leading only later to definite antntpt (0 fintl 11nt
C''t•hh1thr1l l11\1' I lr1 th r 111rcl11)(I 111 ,uluuon
" ·hat 1 the matter. \ \ 'hetht'r the r11 o ~t"I'~ at'\"
h •l•il to 'rrL '''' 11'1 1111 11141'\ I\ rnl\ "h1d1 ~•II
disnnct or blended, there is the fllc1nr t'l11pha
iunnr,t, h\ t-r~1lit1 1111\.~ 11 ,., the ' cc1n1ll!(lY
sized in our onginal acrount of refll'Cnun c·1.
the perpleol) or problem. In the fil"\t 111 th"'
r\1l\lc1t,l1n•11 111<1\ 111cn1, 111 the h11hhlc' 111th
three cases cited, the difficult) re,1Jt, 111 1he1 1h111 ..111l1111111, ln'"'" tu h1llo" lt\1111 pt•llc.'l
conflict ber-..·een ronJ1t1on it hanil .u11I 1 '"llflll• ,, hi llC! ''lift ~h\"
l
111
de ired and mrended • •lr•h "' ""''· I h'1 hr\I ""' '1Cl •
1t1d the ~ans fOr I 1111111 Ill 1hlt11llh~, •nJ
II '"~' •fl Ill llrhJIC 1~e
charwtttr of the JifficuJt) ma
II\SUllCe. 1ele:.0 1
pe to~r. In l ..»\ a'"11f •ttnltn•
11"•" Ra111"1lc, •n umit11cn1 , an '1'1'"'"''" lof wtrc
leo1 1clcp11'11), 1he '" p bul1t.l<:s, the law of
""'.,. I" or Iii. ,... I
unu,,uaJ .-"Pen"·· 1he 1l1fhu1h~,"
h<)lle\Cr, 15 • 'IM""on ol boJ11::1 1ltruu11h hu1 1nJ ol 1hrir
.L ,_ e1~ tu P~I •l'><'lf 11 hn1 a' 1 <•1111r1<U1Jn 1h1uuj!h u1l1I (• ) '11 otlrdl " 11\e
, ...oc~. I\ emooonal ~m:rhan....
~... ~ 1 more or
,_, . •c~ hnn of 1nf~rr11cc, ti 11wolve1 gumF: 1to111
~ ''l!l'JC l~l1n" of the wi ....,...._, f.
~ -t""'"'t;U' () "'<>ltlC• "'hu t\ prnen1 111 M•1n.ih1nK 1l11C111 I l rucc:,
dun~ queer, Stnlngc, funn~. or d~onctmng 11 tj n1on: <>r ICM 'llf'.. ul~u•~. ad rn1111utli
ln UCh tn,ances, the~ all Dtcc!."Sary obscrva
'>mce inference ((<"" he)oncl •hlll " 1l<1•1•1ly
oolb dclibcniteh• calcuJ:ned to b nng to I1g11t
L
prc~ent, it 1nvolve1a11!11p, 1111n1p, 1ht p111pnt1y
JU.~ "hat IS the trouble, or to mal;c dear the of wh1<:h cannot be 1h;oh11tl)' w111•n1c1l 1n
specific chara~l'r of the problem. In large adv•nce, no niactcr what pr111.;.11111on• lit' ..~~"
measure, the exi~"tence or non-existence of this Its control is tnd1rect, on the one hand. 1n~11h: ·
step makes the difference berween rcflecuon 1ng che formaoon of habtt( of mind ll<h1c h are
proper, or safeguarded critiOl/ inference1 2nd at once enrcrpnsing and cauuou~, and "" che
unoontr0Ued thinking. \\'here suffietent p21ns other hand, ln'-'Olvmg the selecuon and amnRC
tO locate the difficulty a.re nor alcen, suggcs- ment of the parocul2r facu upon pcrccpucin of
nons for ltS resolution must be more or less which suggestion issue<>. (b) The ~U~•trJ
random._Imagine 2 doccor called in t0 prescnbe concl11S100 so far as 1t is not accepted but onl)
for 2 panent. The patient rells him some things tenatively cntcratned consotute~ an idea '>)'11-
that~ wrong; ~experienced~. at a glance, onyms for this are :ruppoI1t1on, ronjtdUrr, pm
12.kes m other signs of a certain disease. But if hypothesis, and (in elabonce cases) tbrqry \1ncc
he permitS the suggestion of this special disease suspended belief, or the p<l•rponcnient of a
t0 take possession prematurely of his mind, to final conclusion pending further l!\idencc,
become an accepted conclusion, his scientific depends panly upon the presence ()f n \1'111 con-
thinking is by that much cut short. A large part jectures as to the best course to pursue or the
of his teehnique, as a skilled practitioner, is to probable explanation to favor, ru/11t•a11on of a
pre'r'ent the acceptance of the first suggestions varltty of a/urnarive rr1ggrrrio111 1s an in1porunt
that arise; even, indeed, to postpone the occur- f.ictor in good thinking.
rence of any vel}' definite suggestion till the 4. The process of developing the bear-
trouble-the nature of the problem-has been ings-or, as they are more tcchn1cally termed,
thoroughly explored. In the case of a physician the implicaritm1-0f any idea with respect to an}
this proceeding is known as diagnosis, but a problem, is cenned nason1ng. As an idea 1s
similar inspection is required in evCI}' novel inferred from given facrs, so reasoning sets ouc
and complicated siruation co prevent rushing to from an idea. The 1dta or elewted rood ·~de\ l'l-
a condusion. The essence of critical think.ing is opcd into the idea of difficulty of loCllung m-
suspended judgment; and the essence of this rion, length of time occupied on che 1ourne)',
suspense is inquil}' to determine the narure of distance of station at the other end fron1 place
the problem before proceeding co anemp~ at to be reached. In the second case, the 1n1plku-
itS solution. This, more than any other thing, rion of a flagpole is seen to be a vcniC11l po'inon;
tran forms mere inference into rested infer- of a wireless appar.irus, locauon on a high Jlllrt
ence suggested conclusions inro proof. of the ship and, moreo\er, absence fro1n t\ el)
' 3. The tlurd faaor is suggestion. The casual rugboat; while the idea of 1ndcl ro thrtc-
oon in which the boat ITlO\C~, ll<htn dC\elope<l,
siroanon tn wluch the perplexny occurs calls up
something not present to the senses' the pres- 15 found to rover 211 the det11l' of che Cl''·
ent loaoon the thought of sub~-ay or ele\;ated Rc:asoning has the ume clTtt:t upon a ~'G·
gestcd soluuon a' more 1nomatr and t\len'1' c
U'ltn; the s~ck before the C)'eS• the idea of a
11 l,.r1'\1111on hat UP<•" t.he Onglnal problem.
Al.l·cpunce 1Jf the •ufCgesuon 1n 1i.. 6rsc form 15
pre.,,c:ntcd by looking inw it more thoroug:hly.
c;;1111ecnJres 1hat •i:cm plausible at lint sight
~rl' ofien fiiurul unlit or even absurd when their
full cun~quc:ncc:s arc craced out. Evt>n wbw
rc:11wn1ng ou t the be2nngs of a suppos1uoo
docJ nt)1 lead to rc1ecuon, it dt>vclops the ide2
1n10 a fonn 1n wh1'h 11 1s more apposnt> co the
prnhlem. ()nly when, for example, the con1ec-
rurc.: that a pole wa~ an index-pole had been
1hough1 out into it\ bearings could its pan:icu-
lar npplicabiJ1cy w the caJe Ill Mnd be judged.
Sugge~11on~ at fir51 seemingly remote and wild
arc frequently so innsformed by bcmg ebibo-
f'illcd into whar foll1>ws from them a to become
apr and frunful. The development of an idea
rh rough . rca~onlng helps ot lcas1 10 ~uppl) the
1111crvcn1ng or fnu:nncd1atc tcnm that luu.
1ogc1hcr 1nro a c:on~1~tcnt "hole apperc:ndy di~
crepanc enre1ne .
S The concludinl( and conclutnc: •1q> 1s
or
"1n1c Jond V.f>"l1'1rflllll . . . . . .,,... or •c:n-
1Jc:i111on, of the c:on1~-rul'll idea. Rav.onlng
~ho" th11r if t11e idea be adopted, 1:1:ru1n c.~
't''lucnc:CJ> folio". ~o far the cond1won u hypo-
thettc.'tl or C'Y1ntJ1uonal. ff llC look and lind
prc,c:n1 111 the rontl1nom tkmsndcd b) die
thec11'). and 1f "e find the chal'lk.i<rauc mi
c1llc:J for b> n~-al ahemao''Q 10 be Ut'Jdng, the
it:ndenl") 10 bchr~c. tu acctpt, t\ almost 1rrc-
"'uhlc ~0111cun1c\ clirtet ~"..uon fur-
111,hc' l'\>mibcinnon, &> in chc Cl.K' o the pole
1•n tht' htJo111. ln other case~ a< 1n that of the
huhhl~. c penmcnt u ~qUJrcd; th.It •
J1r101&S ,,., tkh~ilrrlr """'fftl ta ..m a• iO.
fTI/ •tn Mtfllt ':f 1111 iJN flT hpotbaif r. ltt if tJ.
rrnltJ tht•rr;.,,Jh ~ lJ iU m
«rM!h
nr. It 1t fi.iund dut the c•p-nmcntJI Riil'1?ts
agfte wuh dw tba._~I. or • dcducxd.
~IL' anJ II rh(ft t' m bclie'Y-c thl:•h
the l'\lnd1tk)fl.) in q yield mCh
83
CONCL USION
In discussing Pr:i•mi ·. tb.i

lnstru . ° atism,
menm1ism. 1L exan1ined D
s chapter focused on Dewey's Experimentalism or
• f . h . .
person with her . . eweys ccmcept o expenence as t e mternction of the
ph . • d I or h'.s env1ron1nent. It pointed out that Praginalis1n rejectS 1neta-
na::.•cs ~h rg, aces It with the ana lysis of human relationships to society and to
desc r~ d be niple~e Act of Thought, approximating the scientific method, was
1 ~ e
dearrung.
J
Pra~atists as the besr way to think and the besr design for teaching and
~cation is used in Pragma tism as the means by which the young are inrro-
0
h .::Cd ro their cultural heritage. This introduction involves both transmission of the
entage and the possibilities for changing it.
l. l lo"'. docs Prngmatism differ from the more tr.1ditional philosophies of Idealism,
Realism, and 'rhomi5m?
2. l_low does Dewey define "e.rperience") What are the social and educational implica-
oons of this definition?
3. ldenofy and explain the slllges in Oev;cys Complete Act of Thought.
4. Pragmar1StS arc often accused of "ctlucal rclarivism" by Idealises, Realists, and
Thomists. \Vhar is "ethical rclath1sm"? Do you think \':llue education should be
based on ethical rdarwism)
5. V.'hnr does it mcan to say that truths arc w1rranred assertions or tentative hypotheses?
INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJEC l'S

I. Read and J'C\.1~ a book by John Dev;~
2. Design a l~n based on the Complete Act ofThoughL
3. Design a lesson l:n.sed on "malong and doing."
4. Design an c.•ercise that 1mplemcn1J Dewey~ ideas about teaching history and
gcognaphy. . • .
s. c
Orgian17c Q debate on the propos1oon: haracter educ:iuon 1n school! should be
ba.~ on the Pragmatisr oricnllloon to \"I1ucs.
INfE.Rl\'ET RESOURCES
r t\r the Collec:tl•Vb 1 nJ Re:stltllCCS of the DCTCY On1er at Southern llhoo11l:o.iversity1n
CarbonJ1le. llhnoo.. ronsult
www.siu.edu/-de•'q-ctrl
p ot essa•e Edaca008 at the l:ru.-a11cy of \ 'ennoot can be
lne John ~"' Pro.ea 00 ' ~'
!Ound at
....._..L· 'dcwc:f
u't' m. C'UW'
•• • • I ""
84 l'\R l l Pl lU OSOPHtl·~ 01' I Dlf( >\110'1
' I I1c 1• ragm•usm Arch,. e, ()~l•hnma '>t•te Lnl\ cr.1ty, J0 hJ\ R· Shook, Direu or
ww-. ·Pl"llgtna tism.org/arcl1l•cll11dc... hun
SUGGES'llONS .F OR FURTHER REAOCNG

I ),,,.-q·. John J c_,,,,. l-il1tb. ~"' 11.,..,n · \ ;,le t,n.-..,niry
Vrci>p•;,?!.'!.trr _,.
f'.JM<11t1<11t
°"""">• John. Dnrr.mi,.., 1nJ F.Ju.~N•ll . 111 /11,,.Ju.-11011 to tbt _,, · "1 ~... \;,.l
\11t,n.1Uan, 1916:
l)c"<). John Tbt early H'orl-.t: /882 1898. ed . Jo Ann l.loydscon, S vol• Carbondale tnJ
Fdwarthville, LL: Southern lllinoi~ llnhcrsity Press. 1969- 197 2·
De"C)', John. How Hlc• Tbmlr. i'vlineoln, NY: Dover Publications, l997. ,
l)cwci•. John . Tht Lor,,,- U'l>r.ts: 11125- 1953. ed . Jo Ann Boydston, 17 vot.. Corhondalc and
EdwnrdsviJlc, ll.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1981- l990. . . U111' v i ,
Dewer, )ohn . lecruruo11 Ethia, 1900-1901. Carbondale, lL: Southern rllino•s ers ty I l'C!ls, 19</t,
Dcw~'Y· John. The /\1iddlt H'<>r.ts: /Sl)9-/ 924. ed. Jo Alln Boydston, 15 vols. Carbondale and
EdwardS\>iUe, IL: Southern Illinois Uni•·ersity Press, 197~1 9~ 3 ·
Dewey, John . 1'11t Public and Its Prohltms. Athens, 011: Ohio Uruvcl'Sl'?' .Press~ 1994
, ·
Diggins, ~ohn P. The Promise of Pragmatimt: ,\1odtrniml ind tbt Crisis of K11tr'JJ/tdgt and AutbonlJ
Chicago: Uni\"CJ'Sity of Chicago Press, 1994. Co ell ·
Feirer, Andrew. Tht CbiGigo Prapurtirrs nd Amtrililn Progrusi11ism. lthae11, NY: m Unl\crsny
Press. 1993. Chi U ·
Fcstcnsreio, ,.,,lanhew. Pragmtrttsm ind Pol1trr1tl Tluory: From IXa:ry to ~ny. cago: N\'Cmty of
Chicago Press, 1997. . . ,
I laskins, Casey, and Seiple, David I. Dtwl] &tonfigurtd. Albany, r-.rv: State Um•'Crs•ty of New York
Press, 1999.
I lickman, Larry A. Jobn Dmry~ Pragmatic Ttchnokgy. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,
1990.
1loy, lerry. The Political Phiksophy of John Dmry: 1owards a Conrrructivt Rentwnl. Wcstpon, CT:
Praeger, 1998.
Kesten baum, Victor. Tht GrtUt and Stwrity of rht /~al: John Dtwry and the 'Trnnsce'lldt'llt. Chicago:
Uoiversiry of Chicago Press, 2002.
Man:in,Jay. Tht Education ofJobn Dnt:ty: A Biography. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
i\ll enand, Louis. Tbt.'tlf.mpbytilill Club. New York Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001.
Paringer, William A. John Dn::ty and tht P11r11dox ofUbtral Refomi. Alban)', NY: State University of
New York Press, 1990.
Pumam, I lilary. Pragmatism: An ()pm ()uunon Cambridge, .\1A: Blackwell, 1995.
Rran, Alan. John Dtv:ry ""' tbt Hrgh 1idt ofA111m<11n UbmtliS111. New York: \V. \V. Norton, \995.
Tanner, Laurel N. DeiDry's uboratflfJ St/ml, lawns for Today. New York: Teachers College Press,
1997.
Taylor, ~harles. Varittitsof Rtligirm Today: William ]11mu Rroisiud. Cambridge, MA: Hamrd Univer-
su:y Press, 2002.
\Vclchman,Jennifer. De-wry~ Etbic11/ Thought. l~aca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
\Vcstbrook, Robert B. John Dewty and Amtnran DtmOO'llC]. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press
1991. • '
\Vhitc, M~to?. A Philosophy of Cultvrt: Tbt Srope of I loli.sti< Pragmatism. Princeton NJ: Princeton
Uni\'ersity Press, 2000. '
NOTES
I. Lows.\icnand, Tht.\ltUphysiaJCIWC'\ewY~FUTU StrausandG iOOl) ·
2. Ibid., pp. 222-223. ' ltOUX, 'pp XI-Ill.
J. For a recent biograpbr. see Jay i\larun, Tlit ~ tf "1...1..- • • • •
Columbia University Press. 2002). J_,. Dr.:ry. A B"'f"•pby C"e• )ork:
CILU>TfRffi'F PR.\C.\t\Tl · \\
85
.. J~hn. ~'C)'. "The. Labont1:lry chool," Ur1111t1llty &tort/, I, 32 {Noven1ber 6, 1896), pp.
.. 1742 ... l•or ~n1entti:ics about the Unh-crtity of Chicago Laboratory School, see john Dewey,
7lt S.:"-1 "'4 Start)' ~Chiall'o: University of Chicago Press, 1923)1John Dewey and Evcl>'" Dewey,
&lwls•f I•0tT'lr.:' • 1C\\ York: F- P. Dunon, 1915); Katherine C. i\layhew and Anna C. Edwards, Tbt
Dr:."f) S.J:wl . 'e\\ York: \ppleron-Ccntury-Crofts, 1936); Arthur G. Wirth, John Dl!'W~ as EdUtlltor:
Hu Drs(f.Jf for liirk m Ed11a.1ti011 (189"-1904) (New York: John \.VUey & Sons, 1966); Herbert i\1
Khebard, TIH Stnggle for tbt Amrricun Curriculum, 1893-1958 (Boston and London: Rutledge &
Kegan Paul, 1986).
S. ~cnand,pp.322-323.
6. Oc11.'C)''s rejection of n1ctaphysics as the base of philosophy is foun_d in John Dewey, Tbt Oiun
'*'
1-
Cnunuy: A Stvdy eftbt Rtlatian of Knowltdgt and Action (New York; Mlnton, Balch, 1929).
. f Th h " · John DewPV Tbt
.
Middlt
7. John Dew-c}\ "The Analys1S of the Complete Act o oug t, m .,, .
Htri:r, 1899-1924, I~hmu 6: I 910-191 t, Edited by Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale and Edwardsville,
IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1978), pp. 234-241. . _
8. John De11.'C)', Dml«T•CJ •nd Education (New York: Macrrutlan, 1916), PP· 26· 22
9. Ibid.
••• ••
In J.-1\n\n): r"'~nt1.1h,1n. \It' b\'~n \\1th It\ fl.'l.'t, ~l\~ I.'\'' ~a lJ " \"
,)t'nl t"J fn>1n n-"t'\l,tt'nt- J.nJ -t'\l,tt'n,'e. ~ \ \ 'e th .. n ,.,,n,.,_' ..
~nt'rul t'\PI t',$1011 t>efort' l11'1.'U'-'1ng 1t a~ a ph1ki-,oph~ vi ~!11, ~ "
th.It ,,,1n,,.th1ni: or ,,11ne per-on has l'l>Jne k)rth, en rge,I l'T ,,>1
Wit'-'
o,·ul.tr onlt' anJ p!Jl't' Tu l'\l\t 1n :i.n' tl' b\' a..·cua\. rt'al , urrent, !,'("°' iW~~i,\
101 l'lltt'J, it 111, ,, n1r.1n' tv ht' prt'•t'nt 111 a p<lrtK'uhr \ltU.ttl\>n ll,\ t.:rill' •
phi l)f E,,i,tt'nn.1h,111, to t'\l't 111e-an' th.it a rc:r, vn \' .i.. tw~ ' ",~n.t 11.\
Iii lilt: ar ii ~' t'n nn1t' 1n .i p.trttl·ular plJl't'.
Thl" 11ord "e' 1'tt'nt" rt'fl'l" to .in .ll'tual, rt'.tl tk:u~ th n h
ri1n..-. \ n t'\l, tt'llt (lt'l'l-llll j, a h11ng 1ndi\ ,,1ua1 \I hv .... fl.'.ll~ r .,. . t w. ,, " n"'"""'·
p;irncular nn1t'. F1.)r the." ph1ll•,uph~ l>f f,1,tt'nn.1\"11\. it n\\,';).1\., t ~ 1l
a.nd 11cn1(lll) prt:sent 111tht' 11orh.l and'' t'ngagt."ll 1n th1nkt'1!(, tt'~l.'•.'tV
in~ and beh.i»1ng 1n 11n 1i1ccual ''~nvn. 1be ('<t'''n t'H~ll~, 0 nt"
often lll'\.'On1pan1e<l 111th a ~t'll't' uf profound an\t<'t) vr ,h ,..,1,I \h.u ''",
1idunl untlen;ro1Hls that sht' or ht' is t(>tal~ re~p1.1n!'1bl,• ~11' U\, , , ,.,,,,
•E,,1, tence" n1eans th.it 1111 e\l,tt'nt h11' b<1ng vr '' pn.•,,•nt m r a ,
. , 11 ph1lo!-oph). th1~ n1earu. th.it a (>C'C\11n .- fa1.lu.ill\ 1.>t ,·{Uall\ "''
Sl>ene, is l'on~cious of bei1~~ t~ert-, and has a ~~ns~ l'f it:, 1x..a\~ tw,i~
ch<nce rhat 1110' e her or h1n1 f\1n111rd tv 'elt-dctin1tt,11>
E'Ci~renuah'n' ~rent'rall) rt'fef\ t11 a hun1tnl\t ,.r 1,._,tatl4.ll\ \\' ~ lo.'
Joi;o• rhot c(inrend~ that hun1.tn t'\l\tcncc •~ 'V \\>111pk·' auJ ,1,1,,.,•ww
1tefine<l and un<len.tl>l.lll a' 11n 1i1 pnvn ni<t.&1\l\, '"· u ~.1 .,, , , , ~®~ ......
87
C'lnf\ln..-.lh dt"c<tn~ tn 'trttti' ~ .
fllttaph~ .I<:. QI' , ·ennl\t: '-'np;n~1enn~ or ~h~' hlnil 1err11 R~ther than rel) ang on
cnocal ru.noos m a llC'NOn I r"n1, 't°Cnnihsn1 :.«I... to probe ~nJ exan11ne che
dc-~muntntr t."hwces. This tn. • c and ron"<lt'r ho" J'C'Ople male deo,," c ind ,clf-
l'SSCO~ Th<" (lCrSon cm h e-an. thit the- 1nrl1ndual'\. <'tht~ncc Pl"C'Cedes her or nis
and self-!"'1lhunoo that :rl~c:~own l'.'s:en.:: h} th(' proccs., nf >elf-detcm1inarinn
e pro1et'I of he1nir hun1:m. Ph1l0>0ph1call~. Ens-
tennahsm rC"krs ro i
or !us O\\ll d~,·. 0 : ' 0
Tu · ba
7 ~n,-oh~ in. ind ront~mcd with, the shaping ofhc.r
es ~ •nng, w1th l't'SIX'CI to the rc,,-i- of the world
1
WU<::IU:.t . Ollteth ~luunJ for Our tim-u.'..;ion nff:.\1>tentiahsn1 as II phil;l,Ophy of

"~m~~:'.'. ~ IS <Ip~, ll needs ID be Considered 1n remis of the ocher ph1loso-
PhJCS -•«<•<"Um
th th I ~.trherduntcrs,, . "'--~ I , '- .
c..J;J~ucutU l>ffi lll'OSt' !h II pron1und rc.1runn 3g:11ns1
e:se ~d ~ pht 0$0plu~ espeCl•lt) tho.~ rC">·ung on ~ nieraph) ·icnl hase.
. .,,---: ~s:m, RC3.hsm, 11nd Tho1nL-mi-di usse<l in (:h~prers 2. 3, and 4, respec-
:i e. e ne hum.tn CXbtcnt'.1! .is being pan of, 11nd mL.1ng place in, n world or un"·er-
~ t~ For theI ldcali.t. en,tence is detincd S"lnn1'1h· or 1nre.llCctUalh·· for the
Re:llist d • ,, . •'
h • It LS mt'nm . an ph) ail; tor dte. _Thon1ist, 1t t$ ~pirinrnl 11nd bodily. At'Cording
ro t ese philosophies, the pt'.™ln 1 detincd b) her or his essence, a meuipltysically
b;ised_ concept of human tUtutt They also bchevl' chat the purp<he ofhun1an e\lstence
LS de tined pnor tO the 1ndJ,,dual ow11 c..~<.ttnce, and 1s de.n''l'd fron1 a uni\ ers.11 sys-
tem. For Idealists, the pul"Jl<bC ofhfe is ro bio\1 and t0 be reunited ''~th the (',.ood; for
Realists, it LS to ln·c 1cronhog ro reason. fur Thomms. 1t 1s ro enjoy chc Beaofic \'ision
of God m Hc;n't"Il.
\\lule Pragma0>ts--discu..\>ed in Otapttr '-rc1cet uch anreccde.nt., or a prion,
de.fin1aon of hunun natu~ and purpose, tht') emph1~1u a process-orienred defini-
oon of the mdi\1dual 1n mtel"k"U<lll ,.,th !he cn,,ronmenc For c.."amplc, john Dewe»
",th lus emphasis on the~ 01 the :.oennilc mWtod, 1<.h,scd ~pie m be <;aennfic,
£hanng, and dcmocno
E..nsten!Uhsn1 an be mterpttrcd as 1 ph1losoph1c:il re:icnon agaitu.c the n1etn·
ph) cal detennuu>m of Idealism. Rt'tltsm, and Thonu.sm, m "h1ch the person 1
defined prior to me1r indn,Jtu.1 Cll>"tentt, and mo •g:unSt Pn~insm reliance on
group-detemuned co~nsus or the mtptno\111 of soenn.tic processt'S. Re1ccdng .pnor
defin 1nons and predett'muned purpo!>Ci and mechodolo!flcal exclusi,1ty, Exb1enoal1>t:.
~e that the unporu.ncc of Clli'tcncc-bein~ alrre m the \mrld-hcs m the person~
freedom to cnatc her or hLS own detirunon through cho1C%. The pursuit of ph1lo>0~hy
ro le':lm about an 1nrellcct11al)) ren1 of thought; 1t 1> ramcr 10 eng:ige 1n dunking
~~~: chc mo<t unpom.nt qUtSDon.' oflu'c \ \ 'ho am 1: Ho.. di~ 1 become "hat I ~1n:
\\"hat can I choose ro t>e: \ \ liar m) ~for ~in~ here· Does m)' life m:ike a
d1frettnCt':
ti P~ll'l 1 11111.<M1f'111F'iof rnl<:Ano-.i
hum1n\ as facing unrelenuol( and prul11und c:hu1cc:·nulung 1n an abo.urd wurld L 1 ~, 111

1n • ume of rc:h!rlllUi do1rrnati,m, K1erk.eJlllard argued that one's religiou\ con\'ll'tlun,
are purely a penonal choice and that I.he hwruan quest fnr God come:' lhn1ugh ~rcb
1ng and suffenng. I It w•• sug1<esung that 11 religious life and the will to belicYc, were
not ba.~ on c:onfonn1cy tu religious dogmas, but racher on a per"'>nal rclab""
between God and the ind1vidual.l
Jn the rwenoeth century, E.nstcntial1sm flowered in France and Germany, espc
c:1a1Jy 1n the ahennath of World War 11. The leading French Existenwlist wa~ Jean
Paul Sartre (1905-1980), whose philosophical, literary, and dramatic works poma1ed
people struggling to define themselves in profoundly desperate ~1ruations. 1 Argu111lt
that existence precedes essence, Sartre assened that human beings enter the world
with no fixed or predetennined definition or purpose. The act of creating one's essence
is an act of self-definition, accomplished by making signHicant choices about how to
live life. For hun, the human being is condemned to be free and to bear the respon~1-
bility of making free choices.
While Sartre was an atheist, Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), another French Ex1\-
tmcialist, like Kierlc.cgurd took a religious orientation. Marcel believed that authenuc
spuituality came &om the individual's free acceptance of faith and belief. The act of
faith that created belief was iaelf a choice. Another leading religious Existentialist 11a~
Manin Bober (1878-1965), an Israeli philosopher, who used themes fromJewi h my)-
ticism and Existentialism to develop his philosophy. His book., I and Thou, held that
God and the human being are engaged in a direct and profound dialogue, a spiritual
conversation, which can lead the person to self-definition.
Martin Heidegger (1899-1976), a German Existenci.alisc, founded Existentialist
Phenomenology, which emphasized the need to understand bting, especially the ways
in which humans act in, and relate to, the world. For Heidegger, the search for truth
comes from the individual's own incuitive self-aw.areness as she or he explores the sub-
jective world of experience. This search takes place against the backdrop of the
person's profound feeling of angst, a Gennan word that means having a profound feel·
ing of anxiety, anguish, or dread. Angst arises from the human being's awareness that
we are tollllly responsible for our choices bot will die and evencually disappear from
the world.
Existentialism has also been mftuenced by PbtntmrtfU>logy, a philosophical
method developed by Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), a German philosopher who
argued that our consciousness and experience resultS from our intuition, perception,
llld IWlrer>ea of something. Phenomenon refers to something, an object or event,
that we perceive or experience directly. This contraStS with the Realist metaphysical
polition that asserts that our knowledge of an object mUSt correspond t0 the inoin>ic
e•iv.:e of the obJcct. Phenomenology, then, is a method of invesogating all human
•t eriences, without regard to meuphysic:al issue5 concerning the reality of the ob1tc1
ill the universe. The influence of Phenomenology on Existennalism is that our con-
ICic-iea of our own existmce lies in how we perceive and become consciou~ly a~ are
el aar Ptuation. Since our IW'ln!DCSS ofour sitoation depends on our percepctons, th!.\
lla•c r n or is the basis fOr our c:hoica and decisions how we define
• zha Phenomenology mnOffl the basing of our decisions on oonfonniry w
•1? physical or unnienal sandards from the process of self-definioon. Pbenomcnol-
89
has abo mBuenced Posrmodem
e>g) Lt
~ m Chapters . 14, and 19 1:s~1. benoon_Pedago!(Y, and Cnucal Theory,
P~ . wfuc:b contends that h . 15 ci.peoally ev1d~11n Paulo fre1re's L1be~uon
In the Cnaed S r. un1~n bc1n!!'> arc unfinished proiecu.
_c......_ \\. ones, L.UStenuahsm enjo}·ed 11s !ti h I
""o orld \\'ar II "·hen mrellecrual d g est popu anty 11nmcd1ately
corponite society le gained a 6 II . s reacre against the confonn1ty of th e emerging
choloon· in "-bi~ the . di "d ol owing a1nong those who espoused Exi~1ent1al1~1 Psy·
.,, , tn \, ua wns to thro • ff th · · I d .
unposed by others and choose t , . " o . e soc1a an economic expectations
anrc explored the ssibili o be an ~nner~directed, self·defi~e~, n~thentic person.
works. Rollo !\1a\· '~"t ry ~fan Existenaal1st Psychoanalysis 111 his philosophical
a
al"ism to . • • ldso.r Frankl, Gordon Allport, and Carl Rogers applied ExiHen-
chology So
vanous 6e
hil ' mcl ud •ng
·
P:.1•ch otherapy, learnmg
.
theory, and hu1nanist psy-
Soder ·. me P ~sophers of education, such as Van Cleve Morris, Harold
. qwst, George_Kneller, and Donald ' 'andenburg, explored Existentialist peda-
gogy ~ an alternaave ro the depersonaliZ:ltion, standardization, and conformity of
msacuaons of mass education.•
\>\'HY STUDY EXIST£ll.'TIALISJ\il?
The reasons for studying E.-cisrentialis1n arise from the central human paradox of being
a uruque person, bur one who lives in an indifferent world, and is conscious that the
future ~ ~ring death and disappearance. Such a profound, but see1ningly disturbing
realizaaon 1s earned by the person every day in her or his consciousness. \!Vithin the
E.-ristentialist paradox, however, lies the very profound understandin g that whatever
one does with their life is ultimately their own choice and responsibility.
HisroricalJy, sociologically, and ~-ychologically, Existentialism represenrs not
only a reaction against cbe crnditional n1e1::1physical systems and against the modern
rotahCll'ian political ~'Stems, but also against the sophisticated consumerism, consensus-
drh·en confonnicy, and technological standardization of 1nodem mass society. It pro-
, 1des an alternative war of think.ing about life, choice. and the human condition.
The rears of adolescence and routh, the time of junior high, high school,
and college is the time when young people begin to understand that making choices
15 what life is about. The young person who is ready to begin the proces~ of self-
definnion asks such questions as: \ \Ibo am I? What do I want to be? Where do l
belong? It is often a time of unconscious drift but also of serious decision making.
Existentialism is a philosophy that corresponds very well to the stonn and stress of the
elf-definition process of adolescence a~d y?uth. Using Existen~a lism to exam ine how
people fuce the challenge of self-definioon 1s a worthy undertaking.
1''TIAUS;\1 AS A plfilOSOPHY
CATION
l\1cttphysics
. · · d finiaons of the human person as pan of a universal S} te1n, Exis-
Re1~ng a P~ ~ ring so man}' po sibilities that it ainnot be fined neatly into pre-
cei:ioallStS see h ~~ formulas.! Although ExistentialistS accept that ~·e live 10 a
e.nsnng metap }'SI
90 P\&l I PlllLO OPIUl~orHJL C: \l10'
1 h) ,,ettl "orld as <i111ply being there, lndift

ph) ,,caJ ennronment, the) <ee \'e p r e""ence i3 a given, a brute f.iet of life ~1 Ir.
us and our purposes. At our lurt ·~~~ch c and to create our purpose. To exi,;, It II
then our ~pons1bthl) ru dehn~ ci' fi>r choosing how we will live. \\'c are~ 1
Ptt
'°" rneans ro face the re'~Vh"" 'J~~e~ence does it ma.ke?" md the challenging "-e.
the d1,rurbtng quesuon, \ at "
ruent •1 "aot ro n1ake a difference.
' M k ? for the Existentialist, an 1nd1vidua1·~ ~
\.Vhat Difference Does It a e rid existed before the individual cam ~
tn.11..es no difference to the world: The,wo he ·1ndividual has disappeared. An
·u · e to funcoon arter t
!flrl
""l>~
the
scene an d w1 cononu · . ·I h d no choice about being bor11
tfa list sees the world io the follow111g way. 3 d . th Into !hi.
world· I si111 J aa1 in it. I believe that the world aro~n m~ eXlsi;s- e natural !>ht.
nomenon ' (trees, · Is) and other people,
Py 8owers, anuna . \v1th their sociald and
th cultural....._
. ..,,
· · ·
an d 10st1tut1ons- are so al here and
· part of 1ny eXlstence. I
. can stu y e SC1ences ·•-·
"1"l
explain nature and sociecy but in the long run, in the most unpo.rtanc way, my existcnct
really makes no difference to the world. Like other human ?emgs, I kno':" that I 11o; n
die sometime. My co-workers and family members may IDJSS me for a ame but iny
existence, for them, will eventually pass into the sbadO\\'S of remem~rance and evenm.
ally be forgotteo and disappear. So my existence really makes no difference to an}'llllc
or anything other than myself.
I Want to Mllke a Difference. Though Existentialists realize that they exist in 2ll
indifferen t world and consciously face the inevitable and eventual fact of their dis;ip-
pearance, they also believe that they are responsible for making the choice of who they
are and what they will be. To exist, co be, 1neans to be involved in 1nak:ing choices that
range fron1 the mundane, to the ridiculous, to the profound. Thus, we live in the pan-
dox-I make no difference but I can 1nake a difference. 6 The ulti1nate recognition of
this paradox is that responsibility falls on you alone.
The Responsibility of Making Choices and Defining Self. Living in a paradoxial
situation, an individual faces choice. A significant starting point is choosing to aoccpt
the reality of the paradox. Tu be this responsible t0r one's own definition is awesome
and potentially 011envbelming. There ue llllllY 1'0ices, some that claim to be expens,
that tell us that we ue not really reapm11'ble b defining our selves Biologists tell us
~ti~ is. the genes we inherited from oar 1ftCe1t01s 1hat define us. Soaologists tell us
1~enaty 1s based on oar membenbip In, and idmdtJwitb, 1 socioeconomic class. Con·
u der how powerful the cone~ of belnr
In the middle class and having middle-class
values are to ~ Amerlcan1. Oar emplofe:n tell us we are productive functionaries
in the eraal world. Marketing upettl look It us u potential eust0mers for
91
\lhate\t:r U1C) are \Cll1nic. P11l1t1l.1l lt·.uk1'< 1l'll 11' "C .art clthn1·ol ~' ut11t th of~ llJrtrl
ular l~>lll1ll). 111c l"t of dch111111111' 11111lo,c1I on"' hy other' l(l>C' ••n ~nd on \\1· ,.111
II) lo C\L'ar>t; the F\l\lential pJratlo\, or 1>crh.1p' Jll\l tlnft Jlunv. Jntl Jlltpt one or all
o f thc\e deh11111on' 1111po,cd hy other\ .ind hctoinc p;rn of a "'ll.1.11, c<•1r1111111l, J111I
pohllL'ill \}'\IC1n. For the Fxl\tcnuull\t, thl\ '' the ea'y way 11111 uf ,elf 1lcf1n111•in It "
really not self-definition ;11 all, hut 111crcly un 11cccpt:1ncc of how other\ h:iv1 1lcfinctl 111
or 11~cd u~. 1-lowever, the kind of fol,c cCll1\CIOU)nC\\ that c.:0111c\ lro111 a<Ltp11ng "h•H
Others tell us to believe, do, or ht1y doc~ not \o lve L11c unrc\olvahlc puratlox of cx11
rcnce, n1can i11g, and disappearance.
In any kind of si niation, the pcr~on has the uIti 111a te c.:hoi cc of c1 thcr atcep11 ng or
rejecting it. To rebel against authority c:1n lead to ~erious con,cqucncc\. For vnnc, like
Gandhi and lvlandela, it can lead 10 in1prisonrnent. To reject conforrnny can rnakc II\
a.n outsider, a stranger. To speak out against a popular idea or mood can lea<l t111\ola
oon or to shunning. Self-definition can be dangerous 10 con1fortable conformity,
going with the crowd, and fitting in.
Epistemology
Existentialists discern two kinds of knowing. First, there is the knowledge of the natu-
ral and physical world, which is dependent on our perception and awareness of phe-
nornenon. Mathematics and the sciences inform us about the world in which we live. It
is a world that we inhabit but did not create. For example, the laws of physics, chem-
istry, and biology are there whether we choose to accept them or not. The law of grav-
ity is not one that we either choose to accept or reject. How the heart beats and the
blood circulates through the human body is a f.ict of physiology. These are the basic
factS of life; they help us make some decisions, but not the most import211t ones, those
that deal with self ition and the creation of our selves.
The secon more important kind of knowing is personal and subjective. It is
knowledge a es as persons living in a world of choice-what we shall be,
who we shoul ds with, what activities we should enjoy, what books we want t0
read and so the knowledge that helps us make decisions in our own quest for
self-detiniti heart of this kind of knowing is our choice about what it is we
want to kn we will use that knowledge.
In choice-making, we might contrast the Pragmatitt approach of
choosin the scientific method (discussed in Chapter S) and Existentialist
ch our own personal subjectivity. Pragmatists, like Dewey, assen
that method as a process in order to project and estimate the
generate plans that lead to achieving our Ideal COIUe-
method is public; that is, it ii open ID obeervable
tial;c would II)' that while - Im)' chOClle ID Ule lbe
' nally lcimnific It all blll ii ndl• I penoaal
-••-tn:,...........
.,..,,........, .
Cll' lnmltion, far
. . . . . . . . . . . ? • •
92
A' lolog)' d that value~ are un.-ersal and urnc~

11 ustS conten Ex
\\'hole 1,1~1"°'' Rc'lo'''• •n d uin to ~rlicular cultures at given umcs, istcnui].
and J>r~ll' 11a 11 ,t> see them a• 1claui c P nd subjeclive choices. Of all of the subd1.,.
1
•~l:I bc-lieie that idlue' ansc fron 1 1>eoonatln greatesi 11 nention to axiology, which for
•
, 1o11 , ol J)htlo'O)Jh). E.m1cn11 ,.11'151' ·-'vc
11· J
le
u·,1,, values. They accentuate tne L
1mpor.
them i~ the 11cr'\nnal net of choo~i " ·11 ., nnt crcn " · ·
L'c"I nnd 1noral d1len11nas an d d ecisrons
' " on 1
ti c c t111 " " d
mncc of C\ .1111i1111111 nnd r·c II ccun,, , tlunrion is personal an cannot be ha~
1
thtn people focc, "ith tl1e full rcnliz:ium: 'r~~~i~k that existS outside of us. They place
on ethknl 111easurc111e111:1 on n rnoru l l 0 . rure drama and films that portray
. , . lly tht art 11cerd • ' . .
emph1i-1s on aestheocs. c.pecrn. decisions in life. Those important decisions
human hem~ 1naking ~e most. ""!'~rc~~t mal:e the choices that bring about self.
are the ones that require the mdil'ldWI to Th · ary ethical oblig:ition for indi-
J eti n1uon, th e creaoon Of O • ne' own essence. e pnm
. th · wn V11lues 1s . that they accept
'1Juals 1n milking their own ~ccisions and creanng ~boat the srand for, and for the
that the) arc totllll)' re.pons1blc for who they are and Y
cu1hcquences of their actions.
Logic
As with the other areas of Existenti~ l ist philosophizing, logic, too, is subject to choice.
\Ve a1n choose to be logical or Illogical- it is up to us. We can choose to be deductive,
drawing our conclusions from major premises, or we can be inducti ve, generalizing
our conclusions from specific insmnces. LobriC is especially useful when we deal with
1nothemotics und science-those relativdy value-free areas that explain our physical
and noturnl universe. ln th e self-exploratory subjecrs of an, music, literature, dance,
film., and c~eative writing, fo~ example, self-.expres~ion rather than logic is the primary
cons1deranon. Self-~lorauon and analys1S, a kind of Existentia list philosophizing
•.nd psychotherapy, 11 af man itnpol ""Cl tba lop: a we seek to answer the ques·
nom: \Vho am n Wbu do I Wlllt ID 1111 Wlilt do I l'llue? The self-examination of
one's own p1)Cbe ill more ~ipb>wl Mid Jiii cla.Jlosical than logical.
E»SJ ENTWJSM'S EDt1C.\110M\L

IMPUCA110NS
Tbe ParpoM al......

Cl lAP'n· R SIX EX!ffi ' "IW IS\I
93
rerion of succes~. A ~-ucce ful educ3uon, 1n soc1oecononuc temn, 11on" du11 IC'll•I' 10 a
ucces ful life ",th a )Ob that pro\'uJtS the incon1e that enablei a pcr,on t•1 1u111irc rt1n .
Sunier goods, a large house with a ~" 1n11n1ng J)()Of, the latcu mridel car •ir SlJV, lumry
\'acauons, and men1bersh1p 1n a presnglous country club. This lund 11( 11.1<.l~ 11J,,,..
people co se~d their chjfdren to the "right kind" of 5Chool1 and collc:gtt tha1 will ~r·
n:in thetr children to continue the cycle of economic sucCClis. Au.tird1ng t11 1h11 ln r~
non of success, econo1nic goals are imposed on the young who arc wnd1u•intd .,1
accept a socioeconomic, class-referenced criterion for school succc~s.
. . An important part of this cycle of success is that one lea rn~ w play roles, rw.g
n1z1ng th e cues an d situations in which to act out th e strategies that will lead t11 getung
a "go~d job," making the right contacts, and marryi ng in to a well-connected farn1ly.
Leaming to play the roles that lead to success is an important part of conre1np<1rary
sch~l ing. Existentialists find lea rning to play the roles of success in school phony,
leadmg to a nonautheotic, other-defined life. When engaged in role playing, the 1nd1-
vidual is acting according to a script defined by others, rather than bemg rrue to her or
his own authentic choices. This leads ro covering up the rrue self with roles and
images.
School Organization
Jusr as Existentialism opposes the definition of the person based on metaphysics, it also
rejects the consensus-creating conformity of the modem corpora te- and consurner-
driven society. It opposes any organization of the school that restricts the genuine
interaction of students with each other as individuals or that categori zes them, Ir
opposes the standardization of education, the rigidity of scheduling, and the tyranny of
testing that restricts the interpersonal relationship between teacher and student, and
among srudents. The important quality to these relationships is that they are between
individuals who value each other u free selves, and as equals.Hone inwvidual sees the
other as belonging to IOlllC kind of ncill, ethnic, dau, or functional category, they are
no longer equal This cm result in •Olbem us,• in which• Sllldent's primary identifica-
lion is that oi being •gifted,• "handiaipped,•a "jock,• or a •nerd," nther than being
seen as a penon. Tiie nriolll cliqw that abo11n.:I in high sc:bools, for example, whi le
· · smdenu with a kind of groap-bMecl leCllrity md membership, also rewa rd
fonni'ty and pmish uniquene11. Membership in a clique or gang that excludes oth -
stereutypcs that short-cut pollibilitiet of ftluing differences define other sru-
by categorical definitiom.
ll'l"k:ulum aad Imtruc:doa

. . . ofc:aa""'•n,L---1' H wo•·rDTI fio1 w•11l"'iwualions.
•. ..,.Loo.L.e d:iElil_.., far pa md ..til•1md•,.._• ' ·•wt ID pro-
. . ... . , . ~.,...... TllalDOl+Mh.•• •r11 Ii a all' JrCU I in..
••••·•-•paill .. dm11? ;•h.r.el--l•e'rtl sS•••
94 .... ,....
eflrwwllfr JI
I
.:r..,..,,. ,,...,'
.. . . ,. . 7 ' I ...... _ . . • ......
TU frczd11 fll
..
P\.R t I l'tll 0:
acqmnn , prhtJan~. and ma·~ th('-<' ha,, ,~iJ ' t:of t:' •l<'l\t!alt•t'
th" \!J1,J
sl:ill learning 11 'r1~ in ,}uldhooJ. • u~ I'"°' "1 1 " l-' •tt"ntw tnu111'1lt llt
IW'IJ'CnCS). ot the tt•pt"'-"1>1 hn ,,t ~-nil '
:\lthou~ the eldl'Cl'IUII"\ -.h'")! \"t"t" ~x"l·ur ' 1'1(M" "' th 1 "'"1'\UI 11"'Ctlalt
("hen a~= ron'll'k)\L---illM to re:'I""-~ ••f ..eh anJ ''tl:.cr ' 1uJ :111' '~11ld ~ ~
.~Teachers shvulJ t1) ro <tttte • !oam\llg C(l\1"\lln~t 10 " hKh l'"I'''• '"' fttt 1t1
express themsch-cs \'ti creaon- wnnng, art. .mJ dna1u.i, ~nJ •re ('ll"''"IUP'I tu"''~'
and "8~ the CJ'CllOOns and e.xpresstOnS of tfi~r ('«~
..\fter skill acqwsiaon, the nen step in cu1Tt<'Ulun11·~ruJy-1~100,i:: •ub~ that
mform us about the physical, narural, sooal. i11J pobo<"lli u.'\>rld m '' h1cll "t h\e, ~
mruniJ tnd ph~ ·ca1 scien~olc>ro\ chetnt<t:T). ph~ · · <lflJ nl.tthc.iu..n~
truly "'gi\-ens... The l:nowledge tnnSlUltted m these subia_-c; shoulJ ~ •~"\."\1J'\11e and
w·ell-organized and the instruction should be done b} roanpl"~t ~•d:tt~- lnstrul."tlon
in t:hese ·grrens" takes place throey;bout the upper gni~e1.. It oononut · un m10 hi~tr
education. HowC\·er, these subjects are largely \-:i.lue-trtt. Tber ml\>m1 US; the} j)!'(>.
,;de useful infonnation; they can be applied. Ho\\~v-cr, the}· notoo om: ·ming ~1·
bilities for ,--aJue formation wd self-defuUtion.
For ExistentialistS, the moSt imporunt ~of rurrirultUn a~ the valu~l11Jen
subjectS--history, lirerarure, an, dralll3, film. dmcc. 01usic. 1.:re.1ti'-e " nnng-th.it
hold strong possibilities for personal reflection lllld expression. Hist01')· is up~tt:.h"1
not as a chronology or as the politics of the past, but rather :is the e.ngu~.-emmt of tndi~
viduaJs at moments of crisis, ultimately leading ro self-reLlinnon. Hi ·tor}· L'llll be a
narrative aboutJohn Brown's choice robe zealous in tbecause ofabolirion: the~•uryuf
:\iartin Lother King's decision to go furn'Ud in the cinl rights movement Jespite the
threat of death; Mahatma Gandhi's and Kelson ~ Lmdehs decision tO accept in1pnson·
ment as a consequence of leading tbe struggle for inde~ndence in Inilia nnd ~ outh
Africa. It is about the decision of fire 6gbrers IUld police offirers ro fuce Jeath "bile
rescuing ot:hers at the '\\'orld Trade Center in ~e"' \ o:rk City on Seprentber 11, 2001.
This kind of history in•olv-es getting inside incJi,iduals, both famous and ordinarr, lllld
reflecting on the choices that they made at a decisive moment in their lires. In ro
doing, the smdents take, or approprure, from hisrory \\-hat ther w·ant in ortler t1>
eramine their own autobiographies. ·
Value-Laden Subjects and Self-Reflection

Literature, toO, provides excellent opponuniries for value reflection and self-exaro.Uution
For example, The Di11ry ofA1rm Pnmi is found on reading lists for middle and high
schools throughout ?1~ co~oy. It is an autobiographical account of a Je"ish rrl's
adolescence spent h_iding m sealed attic rooms during the Xazi occupaoon ol the
~~eclands. Her diary, kept from the beginning of her &miJV''s concealment unol
theu capture by the ~~s, is the srory of continuing and daih· ~oiccs-a corning of
age ~ugh sclf-defininon-in a trulv absurd and rerrming ~-orld ruled b; e..ttrenit
hu
~re::~ and hatred ~ot only does the diary depict cho1Ct:S but 1t also' Jescn'-"
c ICCS made by the Dutch employ~ of .\nne' father" ho ~dr brought t]l~m
95
lhe food that susraincd lhctn I I 1
c.. . •
th e 1a1n1 1)' 111 ro the Nat.", J l 11e.
ru11
II c 101ce 1nude b) lhc unlno"n "'""""n
,~ ~
"ho h•-cd
'"' ''
u in . , ' is. ~ a SO te ' the stul) o f lhe tern hie lO~u~ "hen one
gro P; this case the I aus, ubieru another to the n1os1 brutal kind of "othennir"
redudctnAng Euro•pe~ Je,i s to "others" to be hun1 ed, persecuted, t50btcd, and e1ttenn;
nare . ne c11ed ma ~ncen tn1tion ca1np.
Art, dru1na, 111us1c, dance, and c.reati\'e writing provide opponun1ue. for rudencs
to express themselves while exploring their 0\1'1"1 ~lues. For eumple, ac.ong 10 a pl•)
can allo\v a srude.nt ~o appropriate a script and play the role. 1n such a" ay as to brmg ro
the. surface. of consc.iousness t:heir innern1ost feelings.
T e aching
Teaching in the two areas of curriculum- t:he give.as and the wlue-laden sub1eas-
takes two forn1s. In the givens, the 1nathe.matica l and scientific are.as which tend to be
value-free, teaching is directed toward undersrnnding and using the subject marrer.
These areas tend tO have an interior logic that fonns the basis for o rgnn1ting lessons.
~ven .when dealing with vnlue-free subjectS, teaching should be done as much as pos-
sible tn an I-Thou relationshi p that does not depersonalize the student or rum the
teacher into an educational functionary. An I-Thou relationship is one that begins and
remains as an interaction between individuals who ,11.lue each other as perso ns for their
own identity as a free existent. It means valuing the person for \11har h e or she is and
stand s for. An I-T hou relationship is a delicate one thtlt is jeop:irdiz.ed or even
destroyed when o ne individual in the relationship decides to treat the other perso n as
something other than a free and authentic self. If one person in the relationship seeks
to use the other person for selfish motives, then it is disroned. £,zen in these \"\llue-frce
subject areas, opportunities present themselves for value explorntions thttt deal ""th
the humane use of science and technology in a world that is becoming increasin gly
corporate, mechanized, and violent.
The value-laden ans and humanities, which p rovide the richest occasions for
value exploration, create en:ellent oppommities for Ezisteotialist reaching. Here,
tlelehers can pose the leading questions about the meaning of life and death that stin1-
ulate srudents to probe their OWD psyches. They CID Uo encourage srudents tO pose
their leeding questions to lead U> self...aamh'fltioo. In contrast to the ocranc
llilC:mllld iJl tbe chlpter on IdrsHsm, there ii, tor the Ezistenti11list, no right or
llM!ll' that can come &om thiJ self-reflection. In fact, the ans\\·er 1night not
· a moment ofimportant choice in the ....,tem's tuture.
..... •tme•• tlbatl11mingil• rsr1•• •tbystudt'llts in their0\\1l

7
smleci"IDll• indiftdii•k. 'The learner. lib all iudiv~ek, is an unfinished pm1-

she oi'be choo1• to clo ID, CID doml1 tflll ID the ICtion of creanng
own 111•mn tb self.d18aldoit diet ..... panu11l m•om1 to life.
*' z! ; c *' * f?? 1& II di& b •Alilk s'tnm individuals ~s
. . 1Pr1•+ cla111r11,.11ll~ef± 11 • ~-oonit
96 l"U:T I l'HJLO- OPI Ill.' Of' ID\ 'TIO-'
'«!pk ho ~ TI'llll!lJ thflll•tl\C'• J ne JOaJ I l<I rlnc le9~1'\' <:Qi.
~ • .... ~ ..~ ':,~,, 1... •~tor nlJl•O" the l hllKU that let1.J to th r °"'ll "-''
'f..'10U:' ' ' UJ.R u•C'\ I.rt' "-'1--~ "" " ~-
rm Dt'l!lll
.\sse ~m<'nt
.\n, ~ <.'U11':nd' ,nncnng arrenuon ond ~tu11ulaung heated dcb;itc 1 a :nt of
•m.knc.' acaJcm; acruC\-CUlflll anJ progrcs~. ·me trend, remforced by ~Ute anJ fed.
enl ~1-emn1cnt-mand2ccd policies, 1 ~ 10 rel) on sou1dardized, usually ob1ecu"'e te-a,
nonneJ ro naooml popubDon . 11u I.ind of D'~essment is regnrded as obJtett"''
bea~ n is unpcrsonal and l> de:.1gned ro rank srudentS. \~en parcnc.~ a le, "llw•
ID\ son or wuclucr dom1r:~ dle an5" er oomes sin1ply by finding the 1ndrvidual' place.
~1 m a nnbnl! of srudflltS m the Joc:tl disuict. state, or nation. This land of Stan-
mrd1ud =ng fucs in the fuce of what Existentialists reg-.ird as true assessment.
~
Exisrcniultsts prefer rouse 11utbet1ti< asw:rmmt, in " ·hich srudencs ma1nt1m pon-
fo!Jos or ioumals that alto"' them to set their O"'ll goaJs and determine their o.11
acluC\-emcnr of these goals. Their own papers, dra"ings, essays, and other items help
them tnd: their o"n educational journey.
•••••
VAN CLEVE MORRIS, "THE CURRICULUM OF A FREE
.EXISTENT" AND "Ai"J EXISTENTIALIST PEDAGOGY"
In dlis lelecoon, M~ ctiscnaes bow Eristenti•lism as an educationa I philosophy dif-

i:rs &om more uadi"':>.,.1 ~es, esperi•lly Realism. This readi ng has been
ldected beca~ Morris ~w • 1911 clz1r llalel!iient of bow Existentialism an
· aseda gwde
be used · 'sco carriculum IDd lmtn«tion and to teaching and Ieammg.
"bil" • L.- · Ht
n:ana~ ucaoon ~'•Im -- cnad• lelf-awueness and self-definition and
dim dW:usses the_cm11C111mn
_, , arw thlt haft polelltW L..- -
wr ......tmg
•
an 1• ntens1ty
•
or
awaw FIS. As you n::m11he1e zc:tim, JllD8-wilh
qw.X.: -1
10---'-'--th
......_.. e foll owing
· 1rocusing ·
•• lmn1to Morris, bow do we write aar on Kript regarding knowledge and

(I \l'ltR'1\ t\htl' 11111'11 Y7
T i ff l 'RRlC'l rt l ' \l ()f. \
lhn thC' -. r1pt ,. hl.111k \\1 """t"" 11111 •11''Tl
f Rf f .F-XI~ rF.:\'T '' 1ipl Ill \jlt 1tLl1I(( 111tlH 11•1 llllWI llttrt 1111 1 WC
11u h 0111, ud Ith ~ 111111 1111 lnderd, 1he whol t p!Jy,
. But let u~ .lttt'ntl h' t hr '' n.!t<n 1\ ,11,,111,/f 1111 ut 111,.. ·~~ti hh
tt'~anl th<'~<" h.1\1"' ot l..11111\lrd~, hh lr.1t1tl\I{ 1'1111ot1hr 1'1.111111111 w1 111~r111 and Ill hUl,
ll'""'"· .hb ~tl"\'t\'h1ni: 1111t 1n 1hl''C" ~ninitl' 1 \l,. p.11 t nl our ,\lt.1111111 oil Ith,, It cp1.it11t•1lr1g-
hl\>C'l' 11t ~ruth . l'h1~ is \\ ht>rt' Ex1'll'l\t it1l l•du. k11I; 1 h111 1,, nl lho lint'\ we 'lltdk arc
Mll11l'
csn<'n ~"ln.. l"'lpo,1111111~ ot n 1;ol(nhlvc 'ttll I We utter J"ft•
1)( ~lm'tltu/1$1 i1mru.lr ta::·o1ri/ kn11r!'lf'll~t ''hie tnulh nho11t the world But they trc :iJI
rJ.-Mh "1Jf'm· '"" ""'"";•.(!. ~r '"°'~ .fl,,,J«t.t :Pbi,·b 11nerc1I h111n 1ho 1111111dpo1nt of the 11<111r who
llTt l'f't"'-1"111 Mpt.llt S'f'Nt'IHS ~J tl•1•11ght or ftv111rs uf sees thr111 "' tf\ll' only In ll!(hl of the role he "
1th•t••r: II Iflltrs tb.n sr+r.I swljMs 11rr onh rool.i 11)1nic to dc\.i:lop hy pronounung thtnl If,
jrlhf rrllli:6!1"" ofSY1/.jmn·1ry. chereforc, ~orne 1>f the dmloguc ·~ sc11:nufic, it 1\
This \'le\\• of th~ curriculun1 is 11 ~t'CCHll· hccuu~u 1ho~e who ~pcok the'e line~ are "playmg
izt'd 1cJ'SJon of the F.x1srennnlist~ entire epistc· the role" of 1nnn ''creating u1e part," Qj they
~· It is an episren1ology d1a1nt'.tri1.'llll) ~'!I) 1n the the11ter--u' if they intended man')
opposed to the so-cnlled "S!k'Croror Theory" of 111e:in1ng in rhe world to he "the vehicle of sc1-
knowledge matle popular by the Renll~ts. Tr is c.ndfic cognition."
the 1iew of kno11 ledge not from the srnndpoin1 But there ore other lines, other ad libs,
of the spectator but fron1 the standpoint of the other soliloquies, other aside that can be spo-
11m1r, onsrage anti ncti1't'ly in1plic.i1ted in the ken. Those who speak then1 have a different
"role" of man. iden of how the "1>on" of tnon should be played.
Look at knowledge, if you 11ill, in the There is no preterhuman playwright who has
most craditional \I'll)' of the Spectator Theori~t, certified one ~ct of lines or one "interpretation"
1iz., as encyclopedic in chnmcrer. Knowledg11 of the role as rnore authentic than any other.
may be thought of as an organized unin:rse of Each of us creates his own interpretation of
cogn1n1 e propositions such as might be found the part.
in the Brirannica. Every libmry is A kind of Working from this allegory, we may
"walk-in~ encyclopedia, a storage vnulr of infor- say thnt the library of any university or the cur-
mation. But note, he who wulks in is the center riculwn of any school, insofur as it represenrs
of the action; he must decide 11·hich proposi- the enont knowledge of the world, represents
tions, among the 111orld~ billions of proposi- the "scripts" that have thus far been written the
tions. are meaningful and significant and lines spoken by others in their interpretati~n of
therefore worth believing. He is the octor, the the "role" of n1an. They are there for the talcing,
•cnve agent. He chooses his knowledge. but each learner rnust do the taking. They are
An allegoric-.il aside n'llY clarify this last. It possible lines to be spoken if the lea mer wishe
is as if man bad been cast in a role for 11 hich no co employ them in realizing his own subjectiv-
pan had been 11Tinen. \\'e ha\.'e 01111.kened to ity. The curriculum is not there ro be mastered
OUr ~stence to disco1v a script in Oltr hands. (ns the cnditionalist would ay), nor is it there m
,1 t Pl• \lh 1"1
-
l'IW I I 1'1111 I"' wnll 'I
-
99
111m,~ the pt't"~nt. h n1cl't"I~ ht"lps us, us he ns S.1111ucl Bcclett, ll'nne" cl' \ \11h11n"• All hur
nu¢n put it. ro tia.in'StlilttJ the- I'"' e11t. B111 of ~biter, Jc.'•ll'I Pt111I .S11nre. 1\r ·\l bcrt <'." n"" 111.1y
11lut \\<lrth "<'UIJ 1nel'\" nnJen.'mnJ1ntr be 1f 11 be fu\ttlll the n1Jltnl(' ot 11n "a\Htlcn1ng" l'.lJ'<'.n
J1J not .it IOl!ot su~ "h~t '"'~ po&-1ble 111 the e111.-e t\1r hint.
"J~' of ~.x·1:1I :1ctio11? Sud1 aloot~ 111~111.1te<l ..'
"\111Jerst.1n<l1ng" wuulJ he 11 s1)lt.'11Jid 111\1111
but it roul<l h~rdly pel'l.u.1Je llnvb<.xh tu 1'1ht;;
:1t the stud) of hisro~ . It "oulJ be· " ru'e of t\N E..XJS1'E.N'rCALl r PFDAGOGY
l'l\'Sent-!!>111" 1n its lllOl.t 11c1t)llS funn, h11\'ln!{
no crioc-.il Junension tont-cming11 h11t wns right It 11111st he deor hv n<lW 1h11r E~1~1 entinlisn1 is
n.nJ ~' h11t 11~s wrong nbout 1,)llt\'IJ:l!l<ll'lll")' d'1· not 11 philosophy it; the l'Cl111·c11tionul sense. Ir is
hunon. H1st·ory cun be unJersroo<l onh l\)r- 1101 11 hod) of thoul(hr nhunr the 1111111re of1vorl<l
11-anl, not bacl.."\1"1l!'d. "lt 1s the future ~1 h1ch and tn~n. \!$ n1c.<-,11gt i~ for silnpkr 11nd 111 the
JcciJes "hether the p;ist 1s lning or dl'llJ." For sa111e tune n1ore profound. '~t.. ~istenuBhsn1
the past to 111 e, it 111ust in one 1111v or ""other \\ishes tnerdy 10 esmhli~h tho srord ng pluce for
O\\Jkcn possibilities fur 1hings tO 1.'0lllt' , the 1he philosophio.11 enterprise il~cll', rhe pltico
region out 11he'1d 11 he re h11111un projects nre front 1d1ich 1111 u1oul(ht 11hout the 111enning of
11'0rkt0 out. hfe lllU'l M'I OUt. rhi'! pince is the hunmn st/f.
The snid) of lil\'rnt11re is equall~ rell'n1nt ub1entinl c0UC11UOl1 OSSUll'ICS the rCS[)()n-
fur the 1111 :1kl'ning of suiu e¢c choice nmkintr on sib1ht) of 11wnkeninl{ each individuol 111 chc full
the p.irt of 1he learner. And by "strnlC){ic" l intc11~i I) of his 011 n sellhnod.
1nean choice 111aking of n 1n111-'1)it11do 11 hlch An instructlonnl 1ncthod which prcten<ls
bcnn; on the shape ond du·l'ction of 1u1 entire pursuit or such 0 go.11 tnust obviuu:.ly possess
hun111n life. Sh11kespeare's H1Cmln, 11 perennml so1nc "orL:ing L.no11 ledge of the " 'elf." Just
figure, con1cs n11n1edintely tu 1nind. Ir 1~ ~ 11orL. 11hat1 ir? ~mini). 1hc "self" i'! 1101 nn object
in which the ogonies of personal detininon in the world 11; th 11 ~r~lic essence or whnu)ess.
nrnke n persistent whisptr to the studen11•\\'hat Nor is the •self" tnerely 11 11ci·b11l construct oo
would yo11 have done?" \\'herever ethical ques· stand for an oa:urren"-e or event in 1111 c1npiticul
cions are nii~ed tor '' hidl ronftlllent pnc:e- IOCiolol)r. The word •1elf" n1ust be understoo<l
dents ln present-do)· experience an noc u 1 phmomenon-litenlly, fro111 the (~reek,
n1'1lilobl~1hcre one will find the ldndt ofliair- •that which reftlla iaelf"-bcst represented . , .
11111re cop11ble of 11rousinR the oistendll 1wan1- by the word-..,,_.,, •ne 1cchn icnl E.xisten·
ness of the leurncr. da1iat •definition• (if there is o defi nition) of
A litentturl' of even ~rv power, in my -...r: thtrefilre, mlpt be •the phenon1enon of
1udginen1, is twentieth-century drlml. W. hive the awareness of 111bjectiviiy"- tho1 b, the
grown weary of Hollywood happy endlnll'I •....._of beint an unanalyuhlc, undi:fin
n1odem pl1ywript1 hew helped Ill redill.'o'191' 1bl1 point of origin for 111 subsequtnt nwnrc·
the •mpc HNI of llfe. • 'lh(ltdy ii not marely nm. It ii this pri1111 •warm• of self wh ich
the blacandy .-hippy endinf, or the melodn- beoom11 pcw1ble, but not 1u101111ac, on the
adc, but that ltnlgle tlD mab _..of hWMR on Ion of the E•amial Momant. And n I)
...... ud ID find p1raiaJ IWftinJ In ID tbll ,....._ which the l.wiMlliHialiM t111cher
IDdJ inddfer9nt world. In dUs kind al woald ... tlO ine.naify.
. . . . . . . . . . inviolTlmmt cu be ~ lh1 mils chap., hava lhown, there
...................
i. • aatlzrl ,.....1 1nwolre· .. W..
ap die,.,......_. or IWUW
1 • ol"aalf"
wWah ....
100
", hci'Clll ,,...t pnxwJjj, lllftMi!gh
I " fouc:suontng t 1 t an rgnonn1 -.;irtp
tt tht P\"lhJgt n thc.rRan
•' '"1 xrJCN :-.. icnt • 1:
JJClllil ,_....,~ rm11rd Yoiuch h
l,
the l[)CJIOP-"' 1 th -1
mi-Olllli"' l.gc!lt. Nf1UIU1 ed £,-en qucsuon erc11 ll'C CDJ!Ofc::i!
--~OW:ltl ble ' l!tt d rttt 1 ~and 1nrcn1 \\'ha t appa
'1 arc ~.ruM:I bo1o I ~ °' ... ,. Lind ol •p"ktl1..hic n:mc:tnbC!l!!t'
''Ul ,acr IO '"" •
ThC' t h cmpcrao'~ 1, to arranl!l' the lcim-
on the part ol the pupil Socnaf tts r.:i,~
Pl~to ui 1,,nnulJte ht' oonon <• l01n,.,.~
mg ru:n•m sud! 1 "''I'
1 , ro bru:r hon1e
-~no..·e or ra"l.>llco..1100 uf a
the- IJ'Uth f the:oc thn:e propo- oon- to e\cl" rcn1m1~.
mdn'ldual Lno"n •et of1Jc:J' In re.ilit\, howt'\c:r 1111:111

the ·rcmernbenag" \\a• alre:1J\ bu1lr 111 tbr
,micrure of the que,a<•O' b) \"ITTUC of
p!JnneJ •l'\juence of quene'.
It " '>OIIIC'thtng ot a p1ci...inr -urpn-c to rind in The latter ID!ttlllL"t:' of 4uc,uonin1? !"Pft-
the c:du~ nonal theol') ot anoqw~ a par.1d11,'111 'enteJ Socrare:.' ocher me1h11Jologio..'1l 111odr
t "llrl; trun1, na1neh, the classic hgure of )eel for truth whrch he d1J "' Jlre<iJ) pox-"">.
'- He' :I' ll!ll~hcr. L"nforrunatd), ho"e'er, He an1bled about Atheo' J,l,.111~ 4uc--ooru,
the: par.1J1!!1n " u1nh1i,l'\lou,, i.ome of them extremely e1nh.1rr.1"rni. 10 tilt
For one thing. ~ocr:ites' miuncoon alleged \lise men of the dn} and to the Jl<uplc m
"Kno\\ tJi1 ,df" heal'\ a \uper6cial and n1islea<l- power. (As we all know, hr, 1nce,.,.1nt 4ut,a1 ,
mg rc:,c:n1hla111:C' to the EJ.i,tentialist 1n1unccion rna<le hin1 appear to hi~ tnfurrated fl'llo" cm-
for ea.:h pcr'o<>n to he<.'Ome aware of his own rens ns a nuisance and rroublen1.1ker and lhn
orubiec.:rl\ It\ S1.1<:rarc,, :ind the Greek:. general!}. 6nall} sentenced him ro the cup of heml1..:l
\ic'I< c:d the 'c-lf a' '>Orne ~Orr of essenoal content The bulk of Plato's dialogue' .,ho,1 hrn1 m th..-t
m the hu1n;in 'rru1.-rure; 1fan 1ndn,dual could be lands of interchanges. In Tbt Rerucht and Th
summoned ro ""11011 thyself." supposedly the Thrnrtttus, for ex:unple, Socrate~ 1' i::enwndr
self" 3) an enut\ that could be lmO\\"tl. There is )Cela.ng after thar \\'hich he doe,, nor un<ler-wid
ooclung • 1n EmtenaaJ1,rn co coincide \11th th1~ and does 1101 lcno\\'; he cs the ep1t0n1e ol the
undersmnd1ng. Indeed, the ~as a transcend-
mg phenomc:non fa.\h1oned out of free chorces sulrer llfter trflth. The iron\', ho\1 e\ er, ts tlu111e
is supreme!) unL:no""Il and unL:now:ible. One
do not picture Socrates i~ the e episode' ,i,, a
can become :l\lare of the self as a phenomenon, teacher. He seems to us rnore like the enquirer
bur nor know it. or what we would now call the re,earch~r. He L>
Another ambigwt) lies in the f.act that probing for new truth, and \\'e do nor cu~ronur?
Socrates' fa1nous 1nterrogaave method took ily associate this acti,;ry \\ith che direct aet of
rwo form-'. On some occ:isions Socrates posed teaching. But here is p~ecisely \\here ocratr>
questions whose answers he already knew; on foreshadows the Existentialist's educational the-
other occa-'1ons, he posed questions whose ~ry. We must renew and reacti\·:ue this a~1..1 7
answer.. he did ""' know but w:is earnestly seek- Don of the teacher with the inquirer. \\"e m~t
ing. The former instances are represented in revive the Socr:itic par:idigm, not 1n the moJc 01
th~e episodes 1n Plato~ dialogues where we Tbt •Wnio but in the mode of Tbe Rrp11cli• ..\nJ 1
m~t often meet him in the teacher's role. The do not mean that the Existenanh" reJl'her 1'
cl•?ir illustration 1 ~ to be found in Tht Mnio always 5ea.rching for new truth in the 1nJnnert>I
• the "serious" l'CSearch scholar. R.1rher, he 1'
( ll\1'111(\l\ I \l\ll ,11\1 1\\l I II I
,~arching lnr llt:r,1111.11 111uh Pr1,on.1l 111uh 1, 1h111k, 1'11.llllllj! rill 'i1111.1111 p.11111hii11111f ·"""'
u h1 ,1~ ' 11n1• to the 1 nd1~1t1u.1 l ":.1rd11111(' hn 11 111!( tht• p11p1I I ll 11111\111 ('tJlll''~l1tl1 "'"' h ""
h1111,cl l; .111tl, for th,1t 1n,1ttl''• 11"111'1 ,I\' "l"' 111 ll'lldH'I U1111llll 11111i1 IJlllll I Ill' II .u hr1 d1"''11111
the tc,Khcr 111\fl. · l..111111 Ill ,111\ ,1111 e' \\ h,11 he I' J h 11 , ,111 ht• k 1111\\ \ I
fhu,, 1f 1\c Jdopt thl '.'locn1t 1\ p;11 .1dil('111, th:ll 11 "1111111111.1111 1111 1'11 p11p1l 111 frrl hi\•"' 11
the teacher "111 l'11ncenn;Ht' 011 11\l.111!( 1ho\l' C\lll'I it•nc~ 1h111111fh 1h1• 111cd111111 111 h" p.11111
quc,11011' to 11 h1d1 he doe' 11nt kno11 thc ;111\11 c1 h11"h e11 lJnlllj{ kn1k 111e111111111111111 II lw11hr
ln the n10\t htenil .ind profound of wuy,, hc 11111 s111dc11t c1c.11r' I\ J,.,, 11npn11.1n1 1h.111 1h.11
lcnm olon)I' with his student\, he i/111•1 ere.Il l' '011w1J1111µ wl111'h he \ .111 'l 1 11'
The undef\t,1nding of tcad11n11 J\ the a'l. hi\ Oii 11 jlllhlll' ,lrl l\l ll \l,llCllH' IH llhtllll h1'
ini: of qucsuon\ to which no one l.110"' the e~Jll'l lt'llCC.
11nswer will no du11h1scc111 outragcou~ly hiz:1rrc. !11 1r '111d1•n1' 11 ho 11111) he• Ill .11 C,l\C' 111 l hr
It cert:1111lv •
run., l'ounter to all co111 c11tion.1I 111.11111;11 .11i\, dw tl'•idll'1 111.11 t'111plo) r\pe•1 i
concepnon\ of teaching nnd leam111!(. \ lo1e CllC.:C\ Ill lht• llll'l,lr\. ·"'' ot 'ho1t \(Or\. 11111111~·
O\'er, n places the lcachcr under hc.wy ohhµ;1 :111d pocuc c\ p1l'"11111. Spo11111111•11i 1' the p1 111l'1
tions of 1n1aginntion and in"ght. lt i' nnt ea') 10 pal l'aution; 11111111111{ i' q1111e \II p1 l'P•"ll'I Oii\ II'
a'k such que:.non,, anyone who h:I\ utten1ptcd to "·""!(TI'' ;1 '111de111 thl' t.1,k of 11111111!( .1111111µ
the "Socrutic 1ne1hod" know~ thm 11 1 ~ one uf 111ul poc111 "to he J1.111dcd 111 10111011011" lhn,
the n1ost difficult of teaching prncc1hire~. B111 whcrCl'l'I po1•tk 01 pro'c i11 d1n:11 i1111' 1l'l't'l11
difficulty 111u~t he 1ne:l\urcd 3!(11111\l pcld, thC111\Chc~. thl' tC'1l'hl'I 'hu11l1I 111111tc1h.11d~
namely, the po~Mhle aw;1ken1ng of the stl1llc11t ~e11e 1111 'uch 11ppnrtu11111c' .111d 11111l·k1·11 1hc '' 11
to his aw:1renes, of choice, frecdo1n, und dc111\ d c~i rc 10 c~prc" l11111~cll 111 h1,11w11 1111).
res1>0n~ib1lity in h1~ own sclf11ood. ln thl\ l'o11nl'lllnn, l ,1111 rl•1111111kd of till' l111al
~.11n111Jl1Ull R11hcn I ru't OIKl' !(·" e 111 11nc of
hi, cln,,c~. At the do'c ol the 1·0111\c, tht' ,111
SOME EXAMPLES
dent\ gntliered untifiill) with their hluc hook'•
ball pou1L\ po1'cd for three h11111-.. of qu1•,111111
The Arts an'"cn11g. 1\ lr Fro't 1•11tcrcd thl· 11Knn ;II the
\,\'e saw in the previou ~ cha pter Llrnt the nrt' ap1K1intcll hour :tncl 11 rote 1he c1111n: 1· ~11 111 i11:1
represent one portion of conl'enuon.il c11rnc11h1 t1un 011 the hl~l·kho.1rll in l'"1 1111rd" "\\'111c
that would possibly be \tl\ccptible to Eristen :.<nncth1ng." ·rhcn ht• lelt.
tialist n·eaunent. \Ve have :11 la•a ont~own For s11111l'nt' not foc1 lc with pl'ncil 11 11d
the "copying" ph~e anti the "rcpresenta Jl~per, the teacher can turn 10 the dn111rnt11: •ll't'
tional" phu~e of nrt 1nstrucuon. \\'e ha1·e gradu· Dn1111a, it o;cc111' to n1c, I\ perh.tp' t.hc ntcl\t
ated to a 11e,ve r 111cthodolol{ical position whkh powerful of 1111 the :111' in evoking e:1.1>1 i•111 rnl
places rhe teacher in the role of •c,·oker'' dnd awArene,s. In dr11111:ttic interprc1111ion thc p11p1I
"awakener" of the child\ ;1rnsuc expression. c-~n Iner.illy as~u1ne the rnlc of CXl\ten11.1I .ll'tor.
Noticenhly absent fro111 art cl:1ssroo111s is the mQk1ng dear to hnnsdf- in the 111:1 of n111k1n!(
insistence upon following the canons of so111e so111ething cle11r to his audience- what he l Ul1-
alleged a rustic standard. ln 11~ place" rhe 1ns1s- s1dcl'\ the mosr 11nport11n1 of his 011 n ,uh1c,·111 c
tence by the teacher that the srudent stand on feelin~. fiow one 1nte11>rcts a role inc' 1t.1hh
his own and by hi1nself in portraying the world rcflcct'll how one 1icws his nwn lite ;1ntl "'
1n water c:olor, In 011, 1n soap or do)', as ht secs it mcaninir 1n the world.
and 11ot as his teacher or his classrnates or the ,Br way ol an 1n1hl't\.'t c•11111ple ol 'lll'h
!IO-Cllled "01astef\" see it. The teacher 1s, l teaching, I have so111e11111es s1>el11latcd 1111 the
102 P'\K I I l'l lll llStll'l 111 ,S (Jll &JJL'CA 1IUN
opp~pn111cness of on ass1gn1ncnt like the ~ol·

beyond and independent of the learner. To look
at the burnamuts 1n th!! way, the Existenbahst
10~•11111: The srudem in the clcvcnth-gr:ide En·
gl1sh dnb~ is asked 10 imogine himself o kind of educator might ~ny, is 10 1nutilate them and to
benign Frankenstein (the college student might destroy their most prom inent contribution to
unngine hunself o \VotSOnmn Behavtonst psy· human learning, namely, the awakening of sen-
chological lab technicinn with n newborn baby sibilities, the intensi6carion of feeling, in the
nssigi~cd exclusive!)• to him). 1"he assignment is individual.
to wntc a description of the ideal human being Th read che ta les of Chaucer's pilgri1ns, 10
thar might be created, the tndivtdual with the hear the lines of T. S. Eliot's "The HoUow
6n~sr set of attitudes, personal icy traits, life 115pi· Men • to srudy the essays of Ralph Waldo
raaons, nnd personul vo lues. When the paper Emc:.Son is not to be studying English. It is,
WllS rumec:J in, the reacher would read it over rather, to be placing one's capacities for feeling
and jot or the bott01n of it a sequel assignment: at the disposal of an author who seeks to arouse
"Now prepare a second pn per in which you feeling to a new, more intense level of aware-
con1pare und contrast the individual you hnve ness. Th study literature is to lay bare the nerve
created with yourself at this moment." This endings of one~ emotions and to invite stimula-
paper, in rum, would be submitted, the teacher tion from the author's work, 1nuch as the play-
would go over it, and the srudent would then be goer, upon entering the theater, deliberately
instructed to prepare and tum in a final, cuhni· opens his perceptive appararus to receive sym-
nating ossign1nen t, namely, an explanation wby bolic experiences from the stage which will
there WllS a discrepancy becween the ideal and arouse new and hitherto unfelt emotions in his
the acrual individual since there is no excuse subjective consciousness. Consider any major
for not appropriating the attitudes, aspirations, theme of humanistic writing-death, love, suf-
values, etc., of the ideaJ individual as con- fering, guilt, freedom-and let the student in
ceived. The point of the assignment would be to the classroom be put in touch with increasingly
arouse disquiet in the student by showing him strong doses of what the important figures in
that he benrs responsibility for falling short of our literary past have had ro say about them. or
his ideal goal. these, certai nly the most powerful is the theme
of death. Are we ready to induet high school
Literatu re and the HwnanJties youngsters into a subjective consideration of
this most profound of human encounters? Are
... the Existentialist educator would seek to ~e prepared as teachers to have the1n really get
intensify the n irn1111tiw aspect of all subject mside this most existential of aU human prob-
matter. T his is where personal judgment, in the lems? The Existentialist teacher would insist on
n1anner of the Socratic pupil, can be exercised. it. And he would introduce it to the youngster
The humanities obviously offer some of the with materials ranging fro1n Jack London's "To
most pregnant possibilities for lllCb emphuia. Build I F'll'e" IO Caryl Chessman's Ct/I 2455,
T he conventional reaching of literature Dutb Rn. Let the student get inside the heart
and the humanities 111W11e1 that literary docu- of the man freezing to death , of the man before
menis, like natural phenomelll in me
"Ciencm, the firing lq1lld or sitting in the electric chair or
lie outside the nudent\ immedia11e life. They cbe . . chamber. Let him ponder the problem
learned in the HJDe way
...........
or m1dwn1da,
......
of capital punishment. Let birn ponder the
!"'•0 ingofhil own life by deliberately ponder·
IDf die amb lbat on some furore day it will be
abrupa, nnceled from the Wlivene with no
Cl L\P 11!.R SI'\ F\"TS 11''..'-'"11 \I IS.\1 103
mce remaining, as abruptly as tiny finnl{ squad nu~n or other ~ocfol in uo111on~ C'l:Ccpt hy
ntight cancel it. choosin!( then1 fron1 lhc hu,clc" plntfo1·n1 of hl~
own n1\;1ru11e~s of 1vlrnt is going on in con1c111
ffjstory pon1ry Iii(.\. I fe finds 111c1111illl( ill history only in
tenns of prcsenc dl\.'IJlllShlllL'C.
The nom1ati\'e ele1nent subsides as "e le1l\ e There is no 111orc 11pproprface way to
the ans nnd hun1anities and enrer other subject exe1nplif) lh1s rondition chnn to ))egr witn~' to
matters \Vhich only pnrtinlly lend themseh·e ro A1neriei111 history in;elf. \ Vh111 does the United
E.~stenrinlist fonns of reaching. History is n Sn1tes (~011sti111rion say? \,Vhot it snys is plnin
cnse in point because it cnn be rought in 11mn)r enough; lhc Archives Bnildi11!f in Woshingto11,
different \vays: as the chronological sequence of D.C., srill hns the oril{inni. But 1vh11t docs it
cause and effect through time, as the e1ner- 111ra11? This question cun1101 be .1nswered except
gence and evolution of civiliz.'ltions through by hving n1en. And che Supre1ne Court of d11s
the ages, as a series of heroic figures who hnve nation docs not hesit:ntc to i11lerpret it for us,
both shaped and been shnped by their Li1nes, or the living. The comploinl is correct thot in
as an analysis of the \11nys in which h11n1un soci- i11tttprtti11g the Conslirurion lhis Court is nctll-
eties have solved their proble1ns. These r think :tlly ltgislnting. And thunk.~ for thot! For if lhe
su1nmarize the conventional "uses of the past," Constitution were ploceJ out of reach of living
in .\lueller's phrase. The Existentialist reacher n1en, if they 1vcre barred fro1n ~':lying wh:11 il
of history ,,·ould, howe\•er, find them nil lncL:- menns in L'Onteinpornry afl1irs, it would lose oil
ing. For one does not find the norn1alive ele- signifiL'llnce as on historicAI docu1nent. Precisely
ment in the study of history by vie\ving the past been use it ls endowed with 111enning by tbc livi11,r.r
as sornething to be 11.rfd. T he past is nor used; it it re1noin~ n living clocu1nent. Its 1neanings nre
is created. Thar is co say, what makes the pllst nuthored in lhe here and now.
nom1ative, e.~ressive of the good-bad diinen- So it is ,,;th all of hi,lory. Past events nmy
sion of life, is not to be found in the past icself be said to exist in a brute, <locu1nenrory,
but in hO\V we today view the past. It is our "archive" sense. But what they 111tan is ahvays
apprehension of what there is in history to for WI ro say. The study of history is nlways on
value or reject \vhich introduces the normative affair of the living present. Indeed, it is un :1ffi1ir
element into it. In this sense we rrr11u the value of the future, of man's efforcs lO rranscen<l his
content of our heritage by viewing th1t ber- preaent 1itu1tion in choosing his 1vay forward co
iti1ge, and srudying it, and teaching it to othen new 1nd hitheno unerperienced spheres of
in a particular light. . . 1waren•. Are we to 11y it is otherwise-that
I realize that this concepnon of history, contemporary m1n i1 bludgeoned int0 cert::iin
while enjoying some credence in historio- views about his own past merely because lhnt
graphic circles, has only tenuo~ ~cceptan.ce In past ii past rand out of reach? Whut 1nore insane
American common sense. But tt is essennal to rand preposterous position could be roken? If we
an Existentialist philosophy of historical educa- mean to be the muten of our fiite, then cer-
tion and is therefore worth some comment. tainly we mUSt be the captains of our pa~t. For a
Kierkegaard used to say that rou CIJIJl.Ot man to be "a>mpelled" by history, he n1u~t
learn from history until you ha~e a h~, ran ~a freely ~ to be compelled. He does not hnvc
of your own against which to JUdp his- to follow precedent. In the last analysis, he is the
is no better 1 guide to behavior author o( hil own pnndent1. Only with thh
11po1ruy IOciety. For llllD cannot undenandins can we reprd the furun u free
md erhiral prineipl• from ocher ad ..U, 1t our dilpci11I.
l 04 1' \IU ' I 1'1111 0~01'11 ll'S OF l'LlL'CAI ION
\ \ 'hn1 "e ha\'e s-.u<l conceminl( :1 collective To 1nake history one's own and to make
vie\\ of h1stol) C:lll now be peNonaliz.ed in one's own hi)tory is to become involved m the
KicrkcgiiarJ\! 1enns. Our own privme sense of interpreUJtion of the past. It is to beco1ne per-
histOI), in tJ1c snrne fashion, cn·ii..rinnte$ in our sonally iniplicared in the thrust and charge of
pri11ne co11scio11$ne.<;s concerning the 1ncuning eventS. 'It is to become en1otionally a participant
of the ~nsr fc>~ ourselves. It is the epistc111ologi- in the hlllnan enterprise. If we fought a Civil
cal nouon ot 11pp1'0pri11tio11. .• brought literally War, let each snrdent feel the full voltage of that
to bear on 11 comn1onplace subject rnauer of catastrophe; lee him feel the exultation and
every school. H istorical subject n1a1rer is to be heartbreak which thac greatest of all national
appropriated, i.e., "made one's 01vn," in the act blunders burned into the American conscious-
of being learned. It ntust be opted for, adopted, ness. Let him fed that war, as well as merely
and as~in1ilated inro a private life before it can con1prehend it as a 100-years-larer bystanding
be considered knowledge in any scholastic sense. spectator.
CONCLUSION
In this chapcer we examined Existentialism as a philosophy that emphasizes the con-
sideration of the crucial nature of the self as a freely existing person, responsible for
defining her- or himself by making crucial decisions about life's purpose and meaning.
We e1nphasized thut the purpose of education cannot be fixed by statements of
ancecedent goals and expectations separate from the students' own struggle to create
their essence. T hrough an epistemology of appropriation, th e student determines the
meaning of what he or she studies. The arts, literarure, the humanities, and history
represent curricular areas that are most congenial for studying and reflecting on the
1neaning of life and how the choices we 1nake shapes who and wbac we are.
l. I low does Exl1tenti11lsm differ from the more traditional idealist, Realist, and
'J'homist phil010phies?
2. What does it mean to recognize, reflect on, and accept personal responsibility for
choice and .elf-definition?
3. What does it mean to have an •mremity of1warenes1"?
4. Do you think Emtentialism baa much appeal for contemporary teachers and stu-
dents? Explain your amwer.
S. Consider the •ltrip mall," found in cities throughout try, from the perspec-
tive ofEmtentlallam. What kind of choice. does It
6. Diltinpilh between an Important and a trivial are the tw0 kinds of
choices often confmed?
INQUIKY AND RFS&UCll nQJECTS

l . Idencifyud ...i...1..,,..i..
uals in aituatiolll wlwn m., lll1llt
C l IAJ>'T'ER SIX E.X:t~·rF ~l'L\I IS.\l
105
2. If
In your . hc.~peric nces, have you 101111u
d clinical ' .1 •
11ny c~nn1plcs of r~1~1entlahoi !t'ach1n11,
Lnso, esc~t ?Ct em; if not, why do you thin k rhnt thcv 11rc .ili.,~111?
1
· cl your chnicul experiences, hnvc you found nnv sit11a~ions in 11 hich uinch1·rs ur • t11
3
cnrs n~rn ot.hcr sniclcnts into "others" o r 1•Liicc1s? t<:.~nmi nc· 1hu c<tnl (l~t nr h.11·~·
ground in wh ich this occurs.
4. r;c~are n charncrcr sketch of an Exisrcn1!11lis11cnchcr.
5. esign n lesson plnn based on E.~istcntia lis1 pcd:1gogy.
INfERNET RESOURCES
For a discussion of F.xistcntialism, consult
www.tamer.conllcsw/exist/existentinlls1n.httnl
"f hc 1najor thc111cs of Existcnrinlisn1 urc discussed n1
WW\v.con ect.net/ron/exist.honl

llarrctt, Vlillinm. lfT11t1011J1/ 1\Jt1n: A Study 111 f~\'l.strntlt1h<t l'bilOJOpby. Ne" York: Anchor !looks, I9'l0.
Billingt0n, Ray. East of l~1·iitt1111nll.srn: Tbr 'fi10 oftht Hrn. London ·<inti Bo<wn: l11111i 11 I I) rnnn, I990.
Chamberlain, Jone, and Rec, Jonathon. Tiu Kitrktf{ltllrii R1u1/rr. Oxford, UK: llludrndl Publl•h<r.,
2001.
Coben-Solal, Annie. Sartrf A Lift, trans. Anna Cancogni. New York: Pan1 heon ll~lOk<, I 9K7.
Dobson, J\ndrew.Jran-l'nul Sllrtn: A Tbt'Ory ofll1rtory. Ne"' York: CombriclJIC Uni\ cr-lty l'rc<s, 199,,
Greene, Manne. 'ltatbrr 111 Srrangrr: F.dU<ntlonal l'b1/4111plty for tbt .\/odtrn A.~r. lldmon1, CA:
\ \'adsworth Pubhshmg Co., 1979.
11211, Amy L2ura. Kitrlttg••rJ 11nJ tbt Trrt1tbrry of/AJ.~ ~cw York; Camhndj!C Un""'"' I)' Prc;•, 1002
1 lannar, Alastair. Kltrlttg11t1rJ "lew York: C1mbndgc l,;m,crc11y Press, 2001.
I lendley, Sre•'C. ,q_,, 111111 R1"6tn!UM: A S.rtrrn t.n.,ma•- Albanr Stare Un"e"'I) of "le" York
Press, 1991.
Kau fman, \Va ltcr. l~rlst,,,tWlmlfr- Donwr.dy to S.nn. New York: :-Jew Ameri1'111 I lhrnry, 1971.
Kneller, George. F..rlnntt/Jl/11111111111 Eillatloll. New York:john Wiiey at Sona, 19$11.
McCulloch, Gregory. Ulht1 ,.,.,.,,.,: A11 AulydtM I•'"""'*- It &rrly s.rtnn 1'htmts. London 1111d
New York; Roudedp , 1994.
J\1orris, Van Cleve. F.mt."""- 111 8 +-s•: WMr /r M- . New Yoft: I luper & Rt'"• 1966.
Pattison, George. Ki~~-''* N*"-.C-, Crllb tfClllntn. ~cw York: Cam-
Same: Jean-P.ul. &Mf

K
bridge Uoi.-cnity Pu , 2002.
•
- ·
""',.....,.m:
Pcccrs I lelene. T1lt P..xinnUlM New Yoft: PWllll' LaaJ, 1991.
,..,.,.,.""""1
A &., • 0.Mflo. New York: \ \ 'uhrngton
Square P1 111, 1992. N YorL. ..__..
Snrtre, Jcan·P1ul. P.mMl""'--'H - &iua.r. • a: Phil--.i-lc:al Lihnl)-. I1JS7.
NOTES
106 P\J<l 1 l'lllLOSOl'lllf Ol'fOUCA rlON
l \nruc Cohen-Sola!, Sttrtn A /,1ft, t1'11ns. Anna Cancogni (New York: Pantheon Book~, l'J87).
4 \'an Clc.-e .\1orru, &mmtulum '" f:JUL11UOt1: lflb111 /1 1Wt11n1 (New York: I larpcr & ~nw, I9li6)
and I larold O. Soderquist, Tiu Ptt1t1tt 1111J &11«1111on (Columbtu, OH: Ch.arlcs E. Merrill, 1964).
S. George~- KncUer, E.nstm1111/um mJ &J11111tlon (New York: John Wiley & Sons, l'Jf>6), p. 19.
• 6._ The concept of the cxistcnnal paradox and many of 1he ideas abou1 an Exincntiali;i pedasu8Y
'" this chapter arc dcn.-ed &om Van Cleve Morris, Exi11011Ul/lsm in Etiwation (New Yorlc: I larpcr &
Row, 1966). pp. J I-SJ, 69-78, 110-116.
7. Ibid., pp. 120-122.
••• •• Cl IAl>' ['J(ll S l ~Vl~ N
PIIILosoPHICAL ANALYSIS
( ;cnemlh·. Ph1l11sn11hi ~I \ , I ..· .

I . . •. · 1.: t f n.1 ) s1~, nr l.1111!Clt111fl.' An1tl)"i1', 11 ph lln~ophy dt•vd11pt•d 111
l\\:t\\enttl.'thl·emun• r· ·ttt" 1·1 1· I ·
• • ' I.'~ I c' p 11 ll'llJl ltC;t 1111d ntht•r IS'UC,, d11t il1'l11ff tit(• li111g-1111~···
u~cJ to ex11rc:;,'
. •
thl.'m It I I J · I • 11 · '
· HI ts I 1111 p1111 cn1~. c'pcc111ll1• 1ho'" rcl11tl11f( t11 t•d111·11th111. 111•t•
•
111\lst lo"'1
~ c:1ll,•
.
rcsol''"tl
· ~ I'•)' tis·k'Ill).( lflll!\111111'
· I I • · I • I
II )11111 t ll' ll\C 11f WOl'l ' Ill ~pl.'t: ftl' l'.llll lC.' \l\.
DFFI N ING Pl ITI..OSOPI llCAL ANALYSIS
S11we we h1l\ I.' nlrc;tJ) 1kllncJ rhlt~rnrbv. \\ e 110\1 l1111k .11 Ihe \\ 11111,, l.111,11;11.1p.r 111111
11n.1/)'r1s. Lmguugt" the ''1.'rlul .ind 1ir111cn co111111u1111-.111nn 'Y'tc11111,cd h1· the pl·nplr
m :1 p.1run1l:1r !froup. loc:1lny. tlt~1nt:r, nr l't11tnll) . It 1m:ludc, the 'Pccd1, d11:11u11, w11
ttl\, nnJ gr:11111n:1r, nml :tl'o rcli:r~ to the tc111111111l111() u'cd 111 1111 :11:.1d1•111k 111·c11 of' ' Pr
cinli1:11ion, 'uch ti\ cd1tl' •1t inn, P')'·hnloi.'}'• l11w. 11wd1l'tnc. nml 'n h11 th.
An11{1•s1s mc;lll\ to 't:pnr.11c or 1lt1 1JI.' 'tnnc1h111ir 1111n i1' 1:u11,l1111c111 p:11t'111· l'I<'
men!:'\ m linJ m11 11 hut it 1·onrnin,, nml then 111 C:\.11111111: the mJ1111h111I p.111' d1"dy, m11I
'nuJr the ~tructure '" .1 ''hole. It 111:1) :11"1 mdu"e C\.111111111111 the dc1.111, of c;1d1 of the
p:in~ 1md how rhe p.1rr. relate w e.1ch other
Building on thc\C tlcfinnmn~. Lingubtic AnRI) ·is " then the l'h1l1"11phk11I
method used 111 C\l;1hl"h tnc•llltn)I 111 lnnguugc. ln1t1.1ll> th1' 1111:th11tl wn' npphctl 111
ph1lusophicnl ,1,11cmencs, and \\1IS later ap11hed ltl 'llct.-iuhr.etl Rllll ordinnry 1li,c11111~c .
Linguistic Anni)'''~ te't for the meaning conveyed h)• languyicc hy hrc.nkmi.t down 111
reducing lurgcr tmd more l..'<>mplex and compound ~llltcmcnt~ Into thei r '111nlll!r, '1111
pier parrs. In order to estahhsh meanmlf, they often define or ~definl' the wm d~ u,1·11
in thl' original ~1111emcnt until they am,·e at • dear undcrstandin!( of 11•h<11 i< hc:11111
c•presscd. The proc~' of an•l)'sis, breakm1t do\\11 and cxplaintn!( the p.trh of th1·
t1tcmcnt conrinu~ until the mttment's mcamnl{ 15 cstabh!hcd. In the ".1'c ur \11111r
:tincmen~. meaning caMot be cst1blishcd.
The Words We U1c
Phil b 'oo Analysis is a phil010phy that Heb to uamine and clarify our UK of l1n
pap°":; ~blishin(f the meanin(f of what we •Y and write. Analyacal Ph1lo!IOJ1htn
107
P.\.R I I Pl ULO..Cll'lf If ~ !JI I Ol C \ 110'
t08
inn 111 h11 111atlr by phil1•"11'11 ''' " 11' anal>"" •.tf dit
belot\C tlut the 1n.:11<1r lt1ni.nbut U ,,1 thr. ~i><·t iht (1K.i 1t nn l1rogu1ir, J•111i."'"""'"
cJ h) Linl(ll~j(C t'l'llUUI
l'OOCC:flb ron\e~ 11 II J L1nut11\lll ,\1i.lys1c. •
tl"ll .~ah··•~ 1\ al\ C11 t ,.. f•tn ..,~ or hea r the J1l1 r a~. I kll'tw ,., ,
· nl c; in•tr..i1111n•, we 11 • / l
, In our o" ~n~I') ' Ti ~ •\Vh~t ilo >'"u rnt:Jn?" Jn typ11.a t ctr11~ µrgrm, !Jflt
)11u re ..a~ 1111(. l he.ir > l,1 h ., 11 .~ hke .. When we h.icn 111 war llllrt;;tal(" on ratfu,
oltcn he~r. tht c.:omp~r.itnc w~n '\ut:h hra\c~ O\ "fru:nc.lly fire," "u1llllttt:il 1b1 g• •
or 1elc•1.ion, we are likely 10,, ear P, 1., naJ di'l<.1lJ,Jon• and rt:', •l1ng1 a1 'uchtra
or
an J • co~ l1uon . the.wilhng . · Inhour prort'' '
.. iualtry I h
cc.lucauon,~ •e1 Ill-""!! t e ..-h1,le
'
we hear ~uch nice-sounding p rn1c,~ as. l h I "and "criu<.:al th lnluni.: "
'I·' ". th tic assess1nen1 "nn "e11ecuvc .c oo • ,
ch' u, au en h ' II ? What do they rncan f11r tht ~11c:~lr.u 111111 ft,r
\Vhat do these p rnses rea y 1nenn •
the listener? Let's consider some of these rnuch used phra~~s. .L k L_
,_ b • · g" and •J hear you" mean uoat you u11n you ''e '111 tnc
"l u1ow ~ a~ you re salyin h • the •nl'2kcr and under.12nd wha t •• lir.1ng j3td
qrne commurucaoon wave engt a. •r- . k "Wh dt
They mean that you understand, and likely agree with, the ~pea er. ~~ ' )'!llJ
mean?" conve>"S that, even though you are 1li1ng the same language, y<1U d•1n l u11d;_r.
stand what the speaker is try111g to communicate.
The popular teenage phrase, • 11 ·~ like," can mean many things. It 1.:2n merely t.e a
vocal pause, like an "ah" or an "um." Or it can be an analogy, when rwo ohJC;(.U, lltua·
tions, or persons are being compared and found s1m11ar, at least for the: •ne:ilcer. ( )ey .
sionally, the hearer will disagree and say that it's "not lilc.e" that at all. .
The tenns "friendly fire" and "collateral damage" convey meaning~ that are pt•>-
foundly more serious than the terminology suggests. The meaning of"friendly" when
used to repon a battle is deadly, not f'riendly. Friendly fire mean~ that ca~ual ues have
resulted from being fired upon by one's own forces. "CoUateral damage" mtllns that a
missile or bomb has gone off its trajectory and has struck an unintended 1.2rge1. It may
be a school or a hospital rather than a m1li1.2ry installation that has been hit. A "coah·
tion of the willing" describes other counmes that agree with our political polio~. par-
ticularly in respect to war.
In ~ of these ~pies, we need tO ~ other language, and more crplanauon
and analysis to determin~ what is really be'?g said and reveal the ~kcr\ meaning.
?'1r ~ for the meaning ~f ~nns used 1n education such a$ "quality educaaon,•
educaa.ng the whole child, authentic assessment," "effective '>Choo I " "cnrical
thinking," and "no child left behind" will continue later in the chapter. '
SITUATING PHIWSOPIUCAL ANALYSIS

PhiloJophical Analysis, or Language Anal . .
reaca.on against speculative . ysi~, arose~ the early twcnneth cenwry a~ a
Thomism (diseussed in Chapr:rrica~ philosophies such as ldeali m, Realism. and
by reducing the emotive and sub ' .'an 4). lts dnve to clarify language and thinking
tentialism, dillCUSSed in Chapter ~e e1ements abo put it in \harp contrast to EJii.-
G. E. Moore (1873-t 9S8). Be
0900-1976). three British~ R1111el1 (1872-1970). and (,11l>trt Ryle
tpeeulaa" lllelaphysiaity based philosophiled ~e charge. agatnst ldeah'm "nd rither
es. epresennng a bridge from Reall m w
'11\l'I ""l\i'\. l'llll1l\<ll'lll< I
\ '"'''"'" I ()9
\111h ' ' ' · \ lo1•1l' 1.inph 1, 1111 , I 1

I · t 1
11 1 111111111111 'c 11,t '11.:\\ h.11 • •htcLts rcalh cx1.,1 hut th'
l\ I\\
• ' I
11 .1 lllt't.lp 1\ ''l "" h I 11 . I I 111 I. 111 . •
• · · ' 1.t1nr '' " 1 Ill' phd11, 11ph). lnstc.id, he n1rnc:d h1'
' 111 I Ill lt\11 I\ I 1 1lt' 1 .llll.!1111•1•
I h 11 \\ •
. tl . I I I . :- . l "'l' t11 l' \pr1.''' 11111 l•lfllcp11111111t rt~1lni,. Ru ... .,ell ' :in
l lit lll 1.l I' 11 (l'11ph1•1 Ill 1I I11 I I • •
· g1<. 1.111, ''"I "cd
10 11111\1 phil11,11ph \ ,J\\;tV fri 11n rncr 1-
Jl I1\ ,11, .llh I Ill I11.;1·11 1''1''" II I . , <
· · 11.1.1) 1·p1,tc.:111011g-\ , 011-.111ntll11 J11µ1t fl c,111111h• 11 11 ntli,zc
\\ I1.11 I11' Ilt' I11.'\ l'd \\ ,, I ht• I .. I .I ., ..
· ll).:tl.l '>lrUt'lllre ol ;inguagc.:. R} ll' '""~hr 111 dc,cl1111 a 11h1lc 1 -
'''I' Illt'.l l 1111.·t I1od · \11 ·11\. 1l l•..l 1Pl11In!'lopI'1), l I1:ll cl:1 ril1. t:d and :inaly1cd tht: 1nean1n11., c n-
11
' I'\ l'I 11 l\ l,111 !--'11;\ j!l.'. C"
( )11 1h1.• F11r111H.'"111 • · I

· conuncnt, interest 111 anbru;1g-c ana ly'>1'> as a mode r1f phil<1-
I
'''I' 111.1l
, , ) 1h1nl-.1n"" ,, ..,11·1 1·• · I I
::- · · "l:t 1) l I1e \ "1enna c ire Ie, a group of ph.ilosopher., \\'h'' 111et
111 I ~l ,;111d l9~{).; \ 1 ·n . ('I·
1
• c.: n.i. a11111ng t hat p111•1osoph'r '>houlc.l moc.lel •itself after '>c1cncc
•
1,hl· ( 1rcl~ " •·1:.· host1I · .." t o t I1c, o Il Ic1,. n1ore rrac.l1t1onal
.. • . . such a~ Idealt ~m and'
philosoph1es,
l, l ..l h' 111 · th.it ''·ere grounded on n1etaphvsics. A leac.ltr in the Circle \\'as .\loritz
\lhhl'k \IXX~-19~6), \\ho c.Je,·eloped Logic~/ En1ph·icis1J1, an effort to appl; the sc1tn-
t iht' tnethol.I to phi lo:.ophica l issues. Schl ick's '''ork, an intense critical analysis of the
Lingll•tge used b) philosophl.!rs, sought to detect thei r faul ty defin itions and misuse of
te 1:11 1s: Luth\'i);{ \\lttgenstei n (1889-J 95 1) was an i1nportant 1nember of the Circle:: who
l~lt hi:- n:tti \ e 1\ ustria to leach at Ca n1bridge U ni versity in the United Kingdom. 1
\ \ ittgenst_ein's Trnct11t11.1· Lo,cr,ito-philosophicus ( 1922) \Vas a significa nt book that stimu-
L1te<l the heh.I of language :inalysis called Logict1i Positivis111. \\'ittgenstein used the lan-
~"'ll•l~e in " hich scientific propositions are stated to analyze ordinary discourse. He
l'Oncluded that 111eaningful statc1nents are either logically true, as in the case of mathe-
111;1tics, or can he ,·er1fied e1npirically- testec.l scientifically-in experience. 2
Po ·iti\'is111 hac.l been dcvc lopec.l earlier by Auguste Co1nte (1798-1 85 7), a French
S<>Cial reforn1er \Vho argued that the truth of kno,vledge clairns must be validated b)
testing then1 <1ccorc.ling to rhe scientific method. The Logical Positivists asserted that
onlv staren1ents that cou ld be verified empirically were candidates for mea11ing; those
th:t; could nor be so verified, '"'hile they might have meaning for their speaker, \\'ere
1neaningless to others. Logical analysis was a means of reducing staten1enrs to the
point ,,•here they could b~ ~este<l ernpirically. Th.e test of empiri.cal verificati?n meant
that 1necaphysical and religious statei:nents were incapable ~f be1n~ proved either true
or fi.ilse since they rested on what their adherents called the 1rreduc1ble.
Some phil~sophers of education. in th~ Un_ired States, ~anada, and Au~tralia
c.igerly accepted Philosophical Analysis, which Vlrtually dorrun~ted the fi~ld 1n .the
1960s and 1970s. They found the Analytical approach ro ~e especially useful 1n _clanfy-
ing the often jargon-laden and ambiguous language used 1n the. field of Educaoon that
borrowed he•1,;Jy fro rn the social sciences of anthropology, soc1ology, and psychol~b'Y·
, ah~ to unload the often popuJar homiletic preachments about "educaang
They aJ:so sou.., d · Ed ·
the whole chil:i" and "learning by doing" that abounde 1n ucaoon texts.
Ho'\' Anal}'-sis Works .

. d
the concept that some of our language statements are lmme-
Analysis as done base on f the'r 1·nner Jocric or have the possibility of being mac.le
~-~I ' gful because 0 I o· ' · d d
-~Y mea~~ b . red in empirical terms that can be venfied an teste .
=:u~~:~~~~~nof ~~~language are emotional, poetic, or subjective, and are
l 10 l'\lfl I Plllllh<ll'lllf"'' I Ill< \11<1'
'
\\'HY STUDY PI-IlLOSOPHICAL A.."fALYSIS ?
Philosophic:1I Analysis represents a major shift in ho\\ ph1l0>ophcr.. llo tht'1r ""rk It
\\11S n signifiL-nnt h1srorical shift b1 thinking nnd wriong abom philo;oph~. JnJ lllU\cJ
rhe emphasis from metaphrs1cal debate w the analysis of philos11phical anti orJm,1r\
language.
Philosophical An.1Jy.,1s is a u~eful cool jn helping w do:t'OJe, uruoad, 11nd decipher
the language useJ both in our ordinary di~course as mdl\;duab, c1nuns. and i:un-
sumers of informat:ion, and our professional dist'Our~e 3> educator.. \\'e are t't.m,r;mtl~
bombarded by infom1at1on from radio, television, 111:wspaper>. the lntemet, tvl-
leagues, politicians, and expercs (some of whom are our 11rofessors). Today, much of
the information we receive, especially advemsing, •> ddh ered m ">ow1d hite.,,•
"infomercials,~ "factoids," anJ "courtesy call;," via the telephone, \\'orld \\'ide \\'eb,
and television. \.\liar is the real meaning of these snippets of information? Do they
really conrain valid knowledge? In our ordinary life, we need to bt able to unload,
unpack, anJ critically asseo;s the claims made by commenmtors, preachers, politicians,
~el f-help !,'Ul1lS, drug companies, and advertisers.
In our profes~ionaJ life as teachers, we consrantly encounter old bromides such
as "educate the whole child" and "I teach children, not subjects," and new catch
phrases ~uch as "effective -;chools," "zero colerance,• "relevant education," "engaged
lcarmng," chat promise to soh·e the nation's educati.onal problems quickly and effi-
ciently. Many of these educational promises are con,.eyed in language that is pronus-
mg but also vngue nnd ambiguous. ~'!tile noble and high-sounding, they are often a
l<lnd of preachment or a political statement of somebody's good intentions or ideolog-
ical preferences. Philolophical Analysis offers a way to detemline if these educational
srarementS are really ~ingful and can he used to guide us as professional educ:uor1.
PHILOSOPHICAL ANADSIS AS A PHILOSOPHY

OF EDUCATION
Meraphysic:e t ... .....
Anal)'Lical p~ not concerned with mctaph)'sics, which they regard as

purely ~~lad. 1Udf!I ' ing the prospect of being \·crified emp1ncally. The Jdeahst
statement, r • 8 " n • I or mental" and the Existcnualist s1:1a:menr, "exi•tence
Cl I.APTER SFVH.N
PHJLosop1 DC.-\L A.'IALYSIS
11 1
precedes essence " r 0
th ' " r example c
oi:,:ta:ostaten1enrs expressing' fa~~n~~~:u~ested empirically. Analysts would regard
metaphys7csw:,;~uleaJd p~efer reality to be. ~~n~ ~r ~ersonal cn1otivc statements
. . \\•1th the mean· a )'Sls, then, we rum away fi
sc1ennfic and professional Ianguage. ing of our concepu' as ernr~·sed
..,. ~ ·m or d1nary
rom
or
Ep istemology
As indic:'ted, with Philosophical Anal . . ..
and clarify language. It is not to mak ys1s,. the purpose of ph1losoph1Z1ng is tO establish
about the nature of reality N 'th e claims, as done by the speculative philosophies
ries of knowledge that are.s ~ e~ are Philosophical Analysts concerned about theo~
language, which can be di/e; ~nve. !hey are c~ncemed about the meaning of our
thetic, and emotive. ennated into three kinds of statements: analytial, syn-
Analytical Stat ements An .

definition b . f· ana1yoca 1State1nent is crue by its O\VD internal logical
-· d'. Yhvtrtue 0 the terms it contains. In an Analytic sentence, the predicate is
COn ...1ne 1n t esubi'ect Th th . . ana-
• b .· us, e sentence,"All men are male human beings" 1s
1~ca 1 ecause the subiect "men" contains the meaning of the predicate "male human
b . '." '\Nie can s1mp
e1ngs · IY reverse the sentence to "AJJ male human beings ' are men,"
"':hich IS ~so analyti~. ~y of our mathcmadcal propositions are analytical. Con-
sider the 1mpomnc anthmeocal proposioon, 1 + I • 2, which is foundational co Jmowl-
edg~ of math~matics. Nore that the meaning of the predicate is contained in the
sub1ecc, and vice versa. ln these SU1te1neni:s, the concepts are logically 111eaningfuJ.
However, they do nor cell us anything we did not already know when we stated the
subiect. \ Ve already know that 2 1s the same as l+l and are merely affirming our
knowledge commionent when we so state it.
At this point, you might say, "So what? \Vhy waste my time with so1nething that
i so obvious that I have known it since I learned to talk?" Let's explore the topic of
!\n:ilync scatements to identifr some in ranees of how freqoendywc use ltlse analytical
statements 1n a \'ague and confused woy in our language. For example, consider the
Idealist smce1nent, "Human history is the srory of the unfolding of rhe Absolute Idea."
A.lchough this tlltcrncnt appean ro be analytical, is it really such? It is not logically
analyncaL \ Vhat does the "unfolding of the Absolute Idea• really mean? The predicate
cannot be \-enficd and if re\·crsed wu:h the subject 1t is not really the 5ame. \.\That we
are reaJJv soning here is our emotional preference-I wish hwnan history were the
unfuldin·ir of an absolute sptrirual realiry-<>r our f.uth commiunent that human his-
ton 1 the unfolding of the :\bsolutt ldea.
Another cnmplc b the tatcmcnt, "Knowledge is po\\er.• Although we can fur-
ther define the tennS ~know ledge~ and "power," they are not the same. They represent
a btlicf commitment. 111thcr than a logically meaningful sumncot.
Let's take another cnmple of a scncmce that masquerades as anaJyoc. "Portfolio
use is authenoc assessment m the classroom." Is ~portfobo use• the same as •aothenoc
L'!SeSSmcntr The answer is no. The subj«t. •portfolio use," is not the same a>
"•ut~noc as.~enL • ln fact, the ad1ecn\'C, "aurhennc" 1 an emooonal word, a
puhncal 111oni, that ~trs our commiane:nt t0 use portfolios.
J J2 l'\111 I 1'1111 l ' " >1'1 ill" II hill I II Ill'\
\Tithcn <' St•\U' 1t 1t~n 1,, \ ,1111hc111 111c1111111 J ' ' 11u·n111Ill ... tmh1hc pr.1h1~1 1•
nut 1ndudt·il 1t1 till' , 11 h1r 1 1 ~ml th"''"' h1· ••111111111 111\ 1111111 .I h1 111"""'"'1hlt! pulih,
I(\(," d'"' I '""'"'Liil "" tnl' 1111111•l11l 1h\lfllll ...,nihrtll" IClllClll~ ~11ch . , " \l .rt1n
\l.t\11111, 1ieii.:h, 1i;o l'<1111nb" """ h1,,·nh1·d1111111t11i.mll 1•) \Htfh1111( \1~111111111 1n
~·~·urJtt' ,, .ii<' llr the ,l.lll'llll'lll . •· 1 lw "'"'"ll'P' R1111 " 1 170 11111<'.~ l1111g l~'alll l11n
~ 1m111cJutd1 "·nti,'tl h1 tilt 1,111111~ th< 11 lll(th 111 tht ""' h 11111 II§ Mnircc: In IL•
he.l<h\,llt'r' 111 \1 11111.::.ut.1 w "' t1•rn11111i- m tlw ( 11111 of \k\lle>
rht're art' 111her Lmd' of'' nthell• \llllelll\'llt,, lum nu th II ire no1 ln1111c1I tdy
H'nti.1ble hut nt-cJ m Ix r~tl\'t'~l to 11·1111' t11.111<111r1·111l1•r1h1·111 'u < "'""" r the IAlc
111c111. "Post->t~c·ondal) rJuc.111011" 11'1tenden·1l1•xp1•111·nct'' 1h.11 "nnr 0111\ 111Jn1k ti)
J1fferent for \\Olllen hut ma1 .11,o Ix ,1n1c"tun:J to\111rJ rna, . . ulme r.uhcr thJn lcn11n1nr
mrellecm;1l onem:inoti. and le;1rr11ng ,ryle~." \ \ 'e titn 11111nctla.1td) lwl:(ln HI unpJc ~the
rerminolo!t)' J.nd reduce it to -.mplc:r 11~m1' \Ul'h a' "Collcgl' .rnJ uni\ er.II} c:Juomcm
'' different for \\Omen and ma1 he more fo, orahl~ o~Jn11eil for the: "·"' in « h1ch
ml!n, mther than women, lt~:irn '." However, we ~til l don't knt1\1 1f tlw 'rntc111cnt 1' true
unril it 1s tested empiril'alh. \ \'e would need to Jetinc the 1em" "pt"' 'ccontl.tn cdu-
caoon," "gendered e.'peri~nce," "mn111fe~tl~ lhffercnt ," "for women," ",tnKt:\lrt:d tor
mascultne'' ·'ft:minine inrellecmal orit!t1111tion~." and "leurn1ng •t)'lc:i.." Once thc'c
renns are made 'erifiahle, we can re,1 them or can i.::1rher d.wi and 111fonn.1uon from
other researchers ro test them.1
Or consider President George \\: Bush's ch11llenge thar "no child Ix left
behind," used to promote his admi111,t:mrion's edue:trional lcgt,hmon. fhe phr:l\e
appears to be simple, clear, and <lrantnlic. T he "no child'' subject is emptric:1ll> ~df
e\·ident, bur'' hat does "be left behind" mean? It is :1 c.":lndid;tte for me.mm!{. 1f u c.-:m be
venfied. It needs ro be reduced into measuru ble terms. " 'e get nn idea Zif 11 hat "left
behind" means as we srudy the EJuc:uion L:m of200 I which requi res stme' ro admin-
ister the N arional Asse,smenr of Educational Progress test C\'Cl) l\\ O years to srudems
in the fourth through eighth grades, to serve us an indicator of srudent uchievemem in
a particular srare and irs school districtS. Test results would then be u.~ed lh cnrenJ co
allocate federal funding for districts in need of academic improvement. \\'e cun ~ee
that "left beh.ind" really means "as determined by standardized test results."
Emotive Statements. \Vhi le communication <.'8n consist of analrtical and S\'llthenc

statements, our language is also full of emotive statementll b\· which we con' e1 our
feeliD91 of hope, joy, sorrow, pain, love, hate, likes, and dislik~. These feelings l.;.n be
eapl@lld by statements such as "I love i\.1ary," "Chrisanas is a time fur JO\'," ~All \\C
I Jj'lil!fear is fear itself." \Vhile these are important feelings in the ran~ of human
e and expression, the meaning is CJcclusively ours and cannot be shared in the
wit:b others. Other people mar also claim m expe~nl'C thest fttlmg'I. hut
no "".'Y of knowing if they are like our sentiments. Philosophical AnalyMs do
the 1mpornmce of these statements m the persons who make them, nor Jo
IDilllll.z.e the role of an, reltgion, drama, mwm:, and poetry m our h\'fi as means
expression, rccreatton, and enjoyment. However, they ad,;se us m kno\\
oflanicuage we are using anJ to be able to distinguish meanmpil and '"'nti·
ts from those that are not. They warn us that when emotive stt~mrnn
( ll \P II ~ \f \ I ' 111111 l hl lf'l llt \I \"\I\ SIS 1I t
nu,qner.tdl" .1' t'11lpt1 1l 1lh , , 11hulil Ill Ill 1111 llU th~ ) I II h 1111 11 11J11111 rlcl 11! 1111 11111
t:\ l'O U.IO~t'rtlll\ u
\.~o lol()·
Tht' \ n.1h t it' ph i hi,11plw .... '''t•k 111 '"' l.1111-111•11'' ,111 ,1ly111'1 111 1 It 1rl1 11 111t Lhr I n
~l'\1.1µt• that Je.11, " nh Ii\\ 1 I111111 d,111 "hh h cl1·.d .. ,, 11 11 v11 l111.. 1111 y 111 t! I'', t:illy , '"
cerncd "1th t:h1rd 1n K'IL'l1ltll \l't ll1ll q1 111r141111 ldlt•d 11·1111., d1.111 •1nl11 1• la11~ w11h v lu t
F.h.'f'> .1 r~· t ht)SC C \ ()l'l',~l·d in 1wu nw1111111l{f11 l kllld'I of 111.1111111111 .111.1ly111 I iantl l,)ll
theuc. \ iilut!sort' L'Ot\\C)l'd h) c111<1\l\C 'lillCllll'tll' 1lt.1111tp11 1i pt« fc..tt llt.t' \Vtulr tJ1
.\ nalyttc ph1lo.:;opher, 11pp1 cCt:Hc chc 1111po1 i.1nLt' 111 \i,1h11·., .11111 11111 \i,tl11c liclt,.f\ and
.icnon:;, the) tlo n~t cun,1dc1 n 1hc11 tunu111n ·" phtl11, uph1 '"• 10 ,11Jvi,1• r11h1 r 11r h~ ·'!I
ech1cal :lnd nlornl h~ue-. . (~ . F. 1\ loorc, for C\:t111plc, 1th1tl·d 111t1;1phy..1cal ph1l1, .11phY,11
3nen1pts to ba e '-alue.; on "hnt Wt1' cloin1cd 10 he 11n1vc1 ,,ll .ind c1c1 n.JI rc:.l 11"'"'
ben\ een hwnans nn<l the uni' crsc. \ llh1es, he cla1111cd, were t-111ouonal :ind ~1gnifi1 d
che person approvu I or disapproval of ~01nc act ion .
Logic
Anal}'Sts tend to believe that it is possible co fi nd :i logk:il 'illiJCture to langu:ige :ulll
that this logic can be used as a tool to clarify :Hnhigt1ou., , 1:11cn1cnL., and to malcc tht rn
meaningful. Son1e analysts order this logical srrucrurc into .,yinbob, or try to exprcc,., 1t
mathematicaJJy. Analytical statements, which are logically true, arc tautologH.:al in that
the terms are true and reversible. The va lidicy of synthetic 'ita1c1ncnlS can be te'itc:<l hy
using empirical methods that are inductive. E1notive s1aten1ent'i expre!ti.ing pcr<,onal
preferences, however, are not subject to logical testing. When so viewed, the task of
philosophy is to formulate the logica l rules underlying "' "b'uagc usage.
PlllLOSOPIDCAL ANALYSIS'S EDUCATIONAL

IMPLICATIONS
aJysis does not attempt to fonnulate the purposes of education or to
Philosophical · n of the school. It does seek to devise new modes of curriculum
prescribe 0
sing analysis, it seeks to clarify the language used in education.
and ·
everal reasons why the language used by educators is often ambigu-
their origins, educational institutions were often spo~sor~d and sup-
ps and denominations. A typicalthfonn of teaching in churches
ous grou·1 which exhorts people to follow e ocmnesd . and teachi ngs of
.al h omi y,
·1 ·c language takes the fonn of analogies,· para bles, and e&nor- -L
h om1 en d to ethical and moral · ·

prescnpoons an d protCnpaons.
· ·
to vaIues, an d as if they were factual an alyoca
· ) or synthenc ·
tements are Presente ____.... fo 1·
e :;ge
bl' schools in the United States no longer are uacu r re 1-
of exhortation remains a pan of education.
11\Rl I f'llll \ 1,, 1('1111 ' , ,, 11 I I \I II\'
114
I I It ,
1 1 -.p<>n"1hd1t) ind lun1.:-
1s11l1'' polllll. I \,
l i111t 1 ,,.!\ 111 '"'" '-'ncr1.:an
l u111 111 \ llH''' '"th 11 1 I1 I \\ 1111111 c ll Il ,, II"l 11 rt:l
ti'" I \ ' '
'
nl ih, ,, lh•i1l 1h,1111 ' ' e'' ' ' ' ''
11, 1,,1i,1111111t1t11111'
\1 11111 , 1 C\, r\
•
lot 11 d1,tr11.:t' ... 1.11c-
.. I "
h 11 1
I\ 1 , , 1 ,,11hr1dp111111u .. \\ h.111111 1.;c 1 g<10t t.:1t1zen,
\ ,, II • 1111dtllll1'll'h1p ,, ILlll 1 I • .
II"''
\ ''"'"''•'P"'''' ,,,, J-1.
I) ., I
l llll' Ill pl'I Ill 11111
11111111111tll'
I" •
tllU.il OllllC~lllllellll
f 1
t"'''' '' '· '' ,1111·11 ,11\lbt).:I"'"'
' .
o1 '
lt'l
,· \\ t lll'lt tt·111' .1h<llll the pur Jiil c " c1 U·
I on part11.:11.1r
I
11, 1h111I.. 11tt111 11\ .1 I'''\ll '" 1' ' l'Hlll' ,Ill\
- ' I
·d , 11, .,
11 ' ,1rl' h,1,tt
'1111\H It lllll P' \l 1l'lol,IOlli\1l 11 ' I
, uuin, 1th'h1d111~ ,,11111• ,•111.11 • r I I I S lllll' rt•Hctt 11 <.on.,cn;a1111c tll£ent J
·
1.i,,1h1\;.t1.1I .1~c;.•n1 1·'"" 1H1''. lot'·
, , 11' "'" • h,· 1H l l'"· •'
. , ., ll\lO' other-. 111,1y re nect a
• I • I • 1
• •lilt1 po 1"'''
11 11111
·
,, p11p(,•1u.111n!'. t lt' ''''"1 · c:'
1no11ur · h . 1 )olit1ctl .ind' ccon<11n1c ur1 1er.
r.hhl.1l .1~t·nd.1 ,,,r d1.1111.1t1l.1lh l'h.1n~1n~ t ,. 'ut1.1 'I I . '·1>' fron1 the -.1>c1al '<..icnces
. I . Jlh111n held btHT<'''' 1c.1''
l'1h1,,tth'n .1, ·'" 1nct•r, 1' l 1
'
· 1 •nr frc>nl c,cx:ial .,l11<lie'> t<> "octal
II h I I 1l. iloi!\ Tn their l1t!' c1up11 t:
''l't'l't,1 ' l'"' 1.' tl t ~" .1n1 ' '1l c-. · •
1
h ft •n contain., con,1<lcrable
1
' t'tt'nt°'t'' . the~c.> tield, l'rt'.ltl.'d :.l'tt•nt1hc cern11no o~i: l ,111 o cb npackec.l 1n order for
pri)ft•,,1,,n.11 1.1r!!llll. l'ht''l' h1~h I) :.pec1a · r1zelI ter111s· ncet to e ti
1hc.-n1 t11 bt'1.'01nt• n1,'.1n1ng-f\ll. . · h consic.ler the follo\\-
ro 11ln:.tt'"11te rht• nnnh sis of cdnc<ltionnl nssert ions, \Ve ~ g t . 1 c.1 11 1
in1r l1n<ls of st.1ten1enr-: .1hout: • (l) p11 J -1osop 1 · · I •,intI ·ttc

1u.:n I •o log1cal . policy re d.ate to .!:.er-.
tin~c- !-!\).lls .1nJ oh1ectn es; (2) t he purpose o f sc · hOtlls· · • (~) cu rr1culu1n an 1nstrucoon.
JnJ (4) re.1cher t:llk 111 the cl:1ssroon1.
Philosophicl .u1d Ideological Policy Statements

In the nmeteenth cenn1rv, official go"emn1ent policy '""s directed to assimilate Tative
Antenci.ns into tl1e <lo1nir~unt culrure. Consider the follo,ving staten1ent as an expression of
this pohC} ;ibour the edut'Urion of acive Americans: "The kind of educa~o.n_ they. ~re in
need of i ·one t.huc 'viii habituate them ro the custon1s ancJ advantages of a c1Vllizecl life, ...
and ar the same tin1e cauo;e the111 to look "rith feel ings of repugnance on their native smte."4
Thi · policy St:Jren1enr nc firsr glance appears ro be synthetic, but upon analysis it is an eino-
0,·e one. It is an idoological exhortation ro undertake a policy designed to impose the dom-
mant ,,·hite cuJrure, \\·hich the speaker has detem1ined is "civilized," upon the NatiYe
.-\ meric-.m , ro encournge them to abandon their own culmre.
An edirorial, "Casting out bad teachers" in the Chicago Trib1lne, argued that school
pnncipals should take a leadership initiative in ren1oving incompetent teachers and nor
allo\\· them 1IO hide behind tenure laws. The editorialist contended that it is easy ro
know•'•* good and bad teachers are. Indeed, srudents are able to separate compe-
tent,.."'°5y" teachers. The editorial stated: "The system of how we protect 111edi·
· g has gotten so calcified and thick it's no longer possible to see through
e~it~rialisc is u~ing a metaphor to say that the system's density blocks a
to its inner workings. Th?ugh using metaphorical language, the editorial-
a chan~e 1n the regulaoons governing tenure and teacher remediation.
•
of Schools
t seek to ~rescribe the purpose and role of schools. Rather, they seek to
of analysis to what others have to say about the purpose of schoc>ls.
' \ l I \It • •s111 1lh \I \ \1 \ 1 I 15
l\I 1ll\1 \1\\\1\ lh1 I ht•til,' l1•l1 Ill 11 II 11111. h I I Ill llh t 11111 I ~ Pl 11 1111 l 1111111 11
1 \\ I\ ~\111111\ 11\,I \\ 111111111 ~I 111 h1111I\ h11\\1\11 1 11111' 1 dtt 1111111 lh Ill pt\ ltp
" "1
'' ',, 11\\ 1\ll1t.11h111111111,111ll11\ ""l' l'll\ , 111.t h 1111111111111111111 11111 ~1, ho\\ llll
ll 1 1 h ''"' ' ' ' 11• 11pl1 Ill l'"'lll\1 1ll\\l ll\\'lll\11111l11\ 111lt•' "n (( )111 11111\HI" Ill i\11 .. "''"fl
'I h llh Ill 1' l\1I\ Ill ll•t l\1 h11 \II 11141111\ \\ \lllll\l\lllllt111lt~lll Ill \Ill lllllt1lll11111, \i111 t ,lllll t
"' "" h \ ,11,.. \I lh'll lt' lll "'·" 111111\11\1'\ ,, 11111• "" \I"""''·)
\hh1111ii:h tl11 \I \1(1111111
t 111 h\ \i\ li, \\11\1\1'111 .11111 'l1hl1'1\ \11 1'lllJlllll;d \1•111\111111111 , II llll\CI L\,11111111\lllll
' " ' ' ' ' 1h11 lh1 1h11• dl\1' 1,1\\ ,1111l \\ i1111 lln• ,1.hn11l 1111111ul111111111clll1t 1hc11
1111111 11' \
•' 11 11 1111 111.-111h 1 11111h111111111 1111,111 "•''•'1,ll l\•1 111' 11•1111111 h11d11•111n11h'1'· \lllh .1-. "111111 c
1
lti111 lip'•'''""" I l\\ l\'11111' ,1111llnqu1,d1\111 th .111111'.lll\ 111111 e th.in tt ''''' It 11\l.ll\\
1h '' l'' 1h1i, II I'''''"''"''' 1n1•111' 1h 11\' n1hH,1' 11111h11.11h11111l1,111 hut do not 1rnplc111t:n1 11
11 '"",~11 111H., •ll\\l 111,11th\H'111111111111,111~ 11111h1111h111.1li,111111tn the c11111lulu111 1 he
' 1'' 11f 11111'1 1' ''""'l~h 111111\' t;l\l\\' ul\d ,, ,1 , ,1h•l' l,1dl•11 tc1111 cncnu1.11-11n!( qu11.k
''"''II I h1' pl11 ,1,, ''!'•'''"' '' 11111l 1111.•111111111t11l 1olc," "' '" nt•cd' fu1ther rcc.lut.lH>n to
',,1111111.• 11h.11 ,\111,1111\\1' ' .1p11" 1n 1.•0 11d 1111.•1111111~!u l 111lt'.
( ' 1111 ,,.

' ,, I ''''' ' ''''t l11 -.t111,•tlc11\
,h 1hn ~ .. 1,1,l1,1d\ I I" .. c ·,,//, ,/ ,'.",/•, •11/ f 111>•/•11f1 /r11 the• / '11t11rr "'"'ti \\'ell- rccc1vcd 'itlld)
1h u l''''l''''1'1l 1n111.11n1~, 1111 1 • 1111111111~' ·houl' 1111 .1 ,1.· hnol h) -.,cbool b:i,1s. ltegarc.l1nl{
, l 1''"1,1111 "''' ' "' 111111, ( ;,111dl11d .11h ''cd, "H\ h111lt11t-t 1111Hc effi cient \\'tlY'i to handle
l\111\11\(' ' ,111.l ll\ 11•11111111~ l1l 111,111.l)o!C the clU\'ltllllll \\ llh J 111111in1u1n of ti111e lost lO
,,1 1,1l 1t1.'lt\I\\ .111.l 1.1111111111111~ '1udcn1,· hchtn1111. tc:11.·hc1~ l\111 increase the a111ount of
11\1\<' 'I''''" 7
1111 11..•:11111111-t ,111.I, p• 1.•,11111:1hl). c11h.1111.·c lll' hic\c111cnt." 1-lcrc, we hnvc an
<''•lntpl ,11 11,, 11tlH•t11· ''·"l' llll' lll \h1n 1111i11ics 1hnt 111111 c llllH!spe nton Jirect instruction
,, ltk,•h ''' ' ,11h 111 l11i'thl 1 't11d<•11t 111.·hic' c111c11t. "'' l'll '' ith such '' seetllin gly obvious
1
, 1.11r111e•111. \\c' 1.111 "''' ;111.1h''' t11 clt111t\ 11' 111c.111i111i1. Key qucst1on11 tu be askc<l :ire:
\\ h1tt ;lit' "111111 ,• ,·1 11,·11•111 " ·' ' '") " \\ hJt 111c "rou1111c, "? ll o\V can \Ve 1nea'iUl'C :inJ
11111111111rr 11111t• h1,1 11 111 '1111101 :ttll\ II) ;tnd ro11troll1ng students' hehavior"? ~lo'it
11 11p11111111h, h1 1\\ \1111 \\c' \ Ci d\ and dctc11111nl' th111 1111 111crea-;e in ti1nc spent on
111'''"' 1111n ,,,11t •11d1t1 lu~hc1 'ltude11t Jch1cvc1ncnt ?
llo\\ 1n~ q111111u111n frn11111 tcl\l'hcr 111u11cd ' lhni: "Those nre 1hc <luy'l 1hat
11111 pi i'l'd hc•r1111'c 1
111 of sudden there\'' flow. \ 'ou an<l tbc children arc
\ll\\,lld thr r1111111111n '''1011 . \\'c 'rc 111st all on the sa111e 1nin<l ,ct, al l
l'h tc·\ '""' ;1"Cl1\C1111.:olh1hor,111on . \ nd that\ the
.., nc11tC'>l feeling
at kintl 11 1 11 tc 1, "'-e ,1111\C\ cd h\ thc'e c11tcnt'C!1? !though the} Jppca1 to he

hC\ 1
, 11 1.,111,
11 111t1\c \\ hat 1s the 111t"11111ng of "flow," "1.:nn1n111n '''ion,''
e
l ,. ' .I h I
cn1p111t·~ll\
I '
" "
inc 1111111 I 'C I ' "
' "'" the'c tc1111., he •
\Crttieu 'iO
•
t 111 t 1C} <:Oll\C}'
, l i "tl 1ht•\• 111ctl.'h• 111ucft•1c111111I st.11e111ent of what lon1 like'?
h I 11t I\ I 'I ? ' • "
pAJ('I I Pl HI C))l)J>l 111 '>Ill I IJU (;,\I 11 lN
116
ORGE F. KJ'w"ELLl~ Rt " ' ff JJ ~ 'J'ASK

GE , O ,,
OF c LARIFJCA n
I 11 this \cleLnun, K nc JI tr 01 )L
u .,!IC'l why.,,, 11 1111..h ,,f( du· Lu1K"· I!~ 11 , d 111 t:d111 U•11J I,
ar11b1guou., •IllJ .,uggc,,1., "hat we 1n1ght dc1l/11 l.111 y II .
I. \l\'hydoes Kneller helitve that 1r 1!1 necc!t'1:11 y1.11 :1n:1l y1"" tl11• l:11t~11tl{'' ''I r.11111 11
cional d1scour!>er
• \,Vhy are che incanings of word-. generally 11!i1•d 1n 1·d11( a11r,n 1,fl1· 11 rlr11l11y, 11, 1 ,
2
J . KnelJer provide:!> a di!>CU!>Slon of the analy111'i 11l~d1u ~~r11 1, :aW
1
d1u111111r111 " ( .1 ,., 11 y
che meaning of che currendy s1gnrficant u:rrn, bt:Jnu.ar' 'i. 11~L lir r. l.11111"" 11
and "·hat do they mean?
THE TASK OF CIARIFICATION Tr follow~ that, if we; 1,irc u1 1u1tfi-1 •.1~1111 rhi-
problcm'i, poJ1<.:1e::s, ant.I et1llU;J 1Ul 1,f rd111.11 r1.n,
The aim of analysis is to clarify our thinking we muo,r first exa1n1ne tartfully 1h1· l~11u111Kt- 111
about education by examining the logical fea- educational d1'1Ct1ur'te, 'The 1nf11rr11al ;fnaly .1
tures of the expressions and the arguments in does noc pr<JptJSt mat Wt purify rh111 Jan1•11:1gi- 1
which this thinking is expressed. According to let alone replau: rr. His 'iC>le 'inp11l~1 111n '" cl1.11
the anaJytic philosopher, these fearurc:~ often we learn U> U'IC language prr,pt:rly, whlf h r111;:in ..
pass unnoticed because they are not exhibited in respecting rhe 1nflJrmal logic. cJ( Wt1rd11 1111tl
the grammaticaJ form of what is said. This lack expres<;ion'i. Tti bring rhi'l logic ttJ l1u-h1, w1.: 11111ti1
of awareness sows weakness and confusion in investigare Lhe different p<11t'i1lilt nllt:i't , ,( w11rd11
educational thought. Some educators pursue and expr~1i10n'i1 in tducat:i<Jn ~11d 1d1i1·wh1·11·,
the apparent l · their words and, in so since the rnean1ng <Jf a word <1r plu il,,,., 111ul
doing, lose the logic of their ideas. hence the inferences we can draw w1Ll1 " " h1·lp1
Others keep the their ideas but drive it varies acccJrding hJ oonren. When we.• knt1W 1h1·
into words that esent it. Some commu- true possibilities ,,f langwige, we 1ih:11l IJ1·j.(1n '''
er intended; others fail communicate effectivtly. Effccuvc c<1111tr111n1t;1
they did intend. Faulty tion may n(lt guarantee mutual agret·1111·n1 1 li111
tes educationaJ dis- it does guarantee rnurual under1ttand1ng.
from genuine issues Some of educaticm '11 funclam c:n1 :1l 1d1·:1~
g from the misuse or which themselves are foci of tducat1'1nal d1~1.;i111·
. Being unaware of sion and pre1upp<1Si tic1ns c,( rna ny 1, ti 11· r
expressions they use, educational ideas are dominant C(Jnttpt " ,,{
the very language with great generality in a number of realn111 ,,, drs
•
te.
course, IUCh u ph1l<Jl(lphy, ptychc,lc,iO', and
..,1..p":L.np.ir of~. NewYorlc john Wiley& Sona, 1%6, pp. 21Ji 210
Sona. Inc. Thia mar.ma! is med by pa1ni•1on ofJohn Wiley A &in•, fn
l I7
ec'ncnil ltfe 'In~ u1clucl 'kn°" 1ng,' 'tJunkut , • proper r 1 t <Jm re we at re2 l}i dis2g1·ec:J
'UI1der"uand1ng,' un d'e.xpI1111111 • \ \'h n •i.int' Ix.rut 1t 1 rs •proper" nd hence b! values.
10 mg rhern, die cc.Ju 1or n1u t 1.: th net of Pay ulogi !:nd to the concept of
tn-11) 'I' "1dc ('JlUUgh (IJ lake Ill 1he1r lllJUI) d1f- adJUStJnent differ ntl~ C J B '1a bn
erent u'c' and ncu1rJli1c 1he1r great 0111 t11l,'1Uty. u111 ul '' the: u:rm 2 11 1' med t'Y I..aurcooe E.
In che pru<:c,._ he CJn rel} ,,., the anal}'SCS Sh:iffer and f'..<1'4 r JJ " <iben,Jr rn thetr 1nu£>-
alread) 1nade ol thc,e concep hy pr1Jfe_ss 1,,113 1 duc1,,ry u:xt11<,.., f h JJ.1 h l"?:f ef 1ltlJU m<nl
111.ilyoc ph1lo'>Ophc~. Phi lo<>ophtr!I of c:duca- (l l<1ughu1n i\11ff r J<;·r,, 'fhe 2othon •2tc
uon are indebted, for example, ro ( 7 ill>tn R,.I s that "hfe 1 a nes of ~uenccs m wtucb
miilie' of mental-conduct concepb 1n Tht (rin- needs are arr1used and then ~n fied " tfuit
rrp! of,\ 11Tul. Other concepts are gennane to '"ad1u unent means me redncnon or uos&aion
cJuaioon 1tSelf, such as ·~ubject matter,' 'mas- CJf dn\;es," and th2 "behavi<,rs are 2dJ11snve
ren.' 'readiness,' 'mental d1SC1pline,' 'marunty,' becatUe they rtduce ttnstons.n
and 'character training.' These may be ~r As used 1n c1rd1nary lanl?'Wge, the oonccpt
ro~·er Ill scope tban the former, but as a rule of adJU!itmtnt d1ffercntiares acuoru by which a
the} have not been analyzed by profess1onal person enters tnto proper rtl.ations wu:h h1S
philosophers. ~oreover, they are not only top- environment from acoons by which he retreal3
ics of theoretical debate but also the fiercely or somtho"" changes it. The psychological con-
defended justifications of many practical school cept makes no such distincrion: it stat.ti tha:
policies; this fact alone adds to the difficulty of adjustment 1s ..tension reduction." In this sense
analyzing them. aU beha..1or amounts to ad1usunent since all
There is a dual reason for the ambiguity beha"ior is said to be a response tO a samulus or
of educational discourse, namely that the study drive. According to this usage, sa) .\ucmillin.
of education draws heavily on ideas in general co adjust 1s simply to behave. Such a defiruoon ts
currency as weU as on the ideas emerging from a valueless, he sa~-s, because it excludes the possi-
range of related disciplines. As a resuJt, not a bility of nonadjusonenc. \\nen used by educa-
few educational expressions carry a number of tors who do not distinguish this definition from
meanings corresponding to the different spheres the customary sense of adjusonent, it creates
in which these expressions are used, and, in con- confusion both in educational theorv• and clas -
sequence, are highly equivocal. Take, ~r ~ room practice.
~one of these difficulties indicates that thi:
ample, the concept of 'adjusonent,' w~ch IS
used, among other pJaces, in general life, in ~ concept of adJUStment is educationally vacuous
but rather, a problem exists that can be clarified
chology, and in education. Two uses may. be"~
(though not necessarily solved) by means of
tinguished here: (1) the common use, as~ X IS
philosophic analysis. The anal}-sis, says .\1acm1l-
adjusting to Y"; and (2) its use, in certam. psy-
lan, will have three pbases: (1) a ngorous inv~o
chological theories of adjustment. In ord~ary
gation of the various possible mearungs of the
life we use 'adjust' to mean, among other things, concept of adjusunent; (2) a defi.ruoon of one or
"bring into proper relations." Thus, when we more precise meanings applicable to the term a
say, "John is · to the school," we m~ it is used in education; (3) an exanunaoon of the
that he the necessary problems m
implications of these ~~ for ..-anous edu-
lf into proper relations
cational theories now usmg this concept.
en we disagree about what
118
' ()"\(' I l 'SJ();\'

• I l'h 1ltl'lll)hll' ti Ill 1 llll'lll'lll.: \11.1h ,,, ,I, ll .1ppl1t·' Ill thl·
11 th1.; t.•h iptt>r " e t.'\,11n111t~ . c I
I
ihtfl • • J . \\ 1., l l1..• Ill\\ ith tht• llll'.11\llll'r 111 1.111~11,ll-(l' h) ll lll,I \ l'l 11'~ ,II\,\
1...,0 ph' of e u1. .1t inn
I , . •111 •• 111 .; \ \ 'c lnr 11sl·d on 1111.· l.1lll.(ll•1µ1.· ll't'd 111 t•1h1l.1
h·ti1.'. ~' nrhet1r •.1nl1 1.•1notl\ c.: s 111 · 1.: ... • • • •
· in en· 111ti 11.-:1te
' .... • <)f. '• )nfnsinn nnd ohscur1t\ . Phtl11:-.nph1l .d \11.d ) ''' '' .1 11,11111 tool
111 .11~.1~ 1.:, • • I I
ih.it c.ln he u ·e<l tn :in:il~ ze ordin:iry lan!-1'\ltlµc.: us \Vt'll us l:1nµ1111 µc 11-.t.·1 in !-p t'l'lil 11\·d
.1re.1:: surh :ts prokssi1)11.1I edut::H ion .
DI Cl.'S ION Q UESTIONS

1. \ \ n:it .ire the use · of Lingi1istic Anal) ·is in cduc.1tionnl situ.1tio.ns?
2. Define and pro\•idc ex:llllj1les of un:ilyt.ic-.11. srnchetil', lll1d c:1nn11vc Slt~!Cll\C ll(Si· .•
3. \\'hr is so n1uch of the language related to cducntinn.d µ-oats suh1cct r o t tllc.:r1ng
interpretations? .
4. Analyze the n1eaning of the fol\o,ving: "nuthcntic nssess1111~nt, " "cx1,;cll 1.: n<:c.! in cduc:i-
tion,;, "let no child be left behind.'' "cduc:icing- rhe "'hole chi ld," nnd "education that
mak es a wnercncc.
J: CC "
5. In your clinical e''Pcriencc, do you tlnd instances in "hich \\'Cll.-n1ct1n~ng people ere.!;
ate misunderstandings" ith the language the} use to co1nn1un1t":1tc '' 1ch each other.

1. Examine a chapter of :1 book used in teacher education. Select severn l key stntcn1c.! nts
and analyze then1. Try to establish their 1neaning.
2. As a class exercise, have n1c1nbers of the class '' rite their O\vn <l1.:finitions of tcnf.:hing.
Provide copies of these definitions to the class and dctcrn1inc "'hrtt thev 1nc;1n.
3. KnellertlifSerts that Some \\'Ords generally used in education have Uiffcr~nt US(.!S. C:on-
duct daatOllowing exercise in your class in philosophy of education. I ln\'C the 111c111-
bers ~ class write out their definitions of words such ns "knO\\ ing, learning,
thinkil.lf!8llderstanding, and explaining." l 'hcn dctcm1inc if the dcfinilionc; ogrce or
disa~ to develop some common definitions of these tcrn1s that arc 1ncaning-
ful to up.
4. Re co1nmercials from radio or television progra1ns. Dc.! tcrn1inc if the
d are analytical, synthetic, or cn1otivc.
the Philosophy of Language, access

. ·ety/Philosophy/Philosophy_of_I .11nguage/Pragmatics/
Language is examined at
/6u.hun
119
Sl.'G<;fo:S"l10NS FOR fo R'l' l tl~k IU'.At) lNc;

u•lln, l)~•ld, rd Pbl'4Jophtui/ 11 ,,.1 , A
I111111 1" /JrfntJt "1 I rR"'f''' u._. Kluwer Aoclmiic Pllbbohcn,
lluraglo, A1ctr. l'br 1.0fftt oj f.'ollrr 1I"
C'harhon, \Vllliam. 'l'l:it l lll1t/•tlc~ t,nnort. Nr:w York: Cambridge l>m"'"'lf f>ra., 2002
IWI. ~ m I/on. An lnrrod11t1~11 '" Plot/t;fophy Gtmbrid~ \ "'II 1Clnodl,
Cohen, I.. Jonmthan. '/'be /)111 /ouu .rR
• U ru\ • cri.uy
· ll rcss, I 9H6. ,,_, O; t11sort: An Ann"'dJ'J or
~ A110/•tilll/
~ Pbt"'1tl'P"- • · - Y--•·
•J• !\1- ' "-'-·,
Uat; .,.... . , . . ,
pa vu, \Va) nc A. ,\ ftanlng. P.xprrsrl,,,,, 11nd THught. New York: Cambndge Un..01ny Pren, 2002
)unlm~~4~1c:hacl A. ~;.
Origins of Annly1ia1/ PbilasopbJ. '\~-w
York: Cambridge 1..ituvcnity Prm,
Ebbs, G11ry. Rllk l•'olku;ing and &a/ism. Cambridge .\1A: 1larvanl Uoh"Cmty Pren, IW
F:tlrnonds, ~vid, 1and Eid in ow, John. Wi1tgtnsttln's Pokrr: Tbt SUlr] of11 'fm-]\.f11TJ1u Argwnnn &r.:-
0
•1Wo Crcnt l hilosophtrs. New York: H;irpcr-Collins Publishers, 2001.

Gr•yl~g, A. C . .Wittgtnnrm: A Vtry Shon lntroduaitm. Oxford, UK: Oxford Unmrsity P~ 1996.
1lutc:hinJOn, Bntn. G. ltl!Klrt'r l!thlra/ '11u~: Raimt~e •nd Rtmtalim"" Xew York: Cambrid~
e.
University Press, 2001.
Kaminsky, Ja1nes S. A Nt'W Ilinory ofEtiUC1Jtitm11I Philastiph). Westport, CT: Green..-ood Press, 1993.
KJagge,Jarnes C., ed. Wi11gm.1um: Bl4gr11phy1t11d Philo#ph). ;>;ew York: Cambridge Unn-usiiy Press,
2001.
Ostrow, Matthew 0. Wittgmsttin't 1rurtnrus: A DinkmtJJ/ lntrrprttatitm. ~cw York: Cambridge l.:111-
vcrsity Press, 2001.
Parikh, Prashant. The Useoflanguagt. Chicago: UnlvcrsiiyofChicagoPress, 2001.
Perloff, Marjorie. Wittgmsteln 1 Ladder: Portie Language nnd tht Strnngmm of tht Ord11u1ry. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1996.
So1mcs, Scott. Philosophical Analysis in tht Ttrmdtth Cmrury: T1Jt Agt ef 1\1tmting. Princewn, :-.J:
Princecon Universliy Press, 2003.
Soames, Scott. Phiklsophital Aru1/ym In the Tu:mritth Cmrury: Tbt D=n ef Aml/ynl. Princeron, :-.']:
Princecon University Press, 2003.
So enson Roy A P1ewW-Problmu: flf1W Analydca/ Phi/4sopb) Gro Dtmt. New Yorlc: Roud~ge. 1993.
~ttgens~in, Lu.dwig. Clllrureand Valw. Chicago: UniversiiyofChlcago Press, 1980.
NOTEs
b' h of Wittgenstein, see James C. Klagge, ~ .• Wtttgmsum: 814f!?'pby 111111 Ph~
ai••.'(NFor:,0 r~1t:fn:ridge Univershy Press, 2001). For a very lively and enten.:uomg ':>ook on dis-
r-J c:w ,__ rwo leading philosophers, \Via:gennein and Karl Popper, see David Edmonds
agJeemenis ""tween S ..r Tt • . A /kn:ms -n:. Cdu1 PhU--
andjohn Eidinow, Wlngm.rttin'sPohr._ T1Jt t~v; 11 m-i>1'""" rpmmr • •
.,,,_ (N y,0 le H1 rper-CoUins Publrsbers, 200 I). .
,,.,.., ~ ~ · of Wittgenstein~ phllosopby is pr°"ided in A. C. Grayling, Wittgmstrllr: A
2. Ac ar scuss1on TC! UK: Oxford University Press. I 996).
Kry Sbwr ln'"""1ctimi (Oxfo ' article "Prime Numbers" in T1Jt Chf'Mltk fl{ flig«r BJw.IJOlt,
3. The quotations are fro~ d~ 1 report, "Jlow Much Do SNdcntsLeam in College,•
(Deccnil>er 21, 2001), p. A7 w Fl
wbc.e primary author w:-5 ~e
4::"ail ::-:::an
Savage Be Civilittd~· Atlllllll' .i fMlhly {XO\'tlnbcr
4. Gcorp Wt.Ison, .H ow 'ti W Adams &illutWrifor~:AlllD'it'Rtf IN/Urt11111drbt 8-dmf
1882). p. 604, u quoted °!.,Dl;: _....:..,..
SJj dl!qtrint«, /87$-/74 8 \....., _._..,
KS:
l'nwersity PreR o(l<ansas, 1995), p. 21
J20 P..\.RT I Pl-OL OPHl.ES OF £DL.C.'\TIO'
5. "Cisrinlf ouc brad t\.-achcN,.. l 'b1ullf0 I nbunt, Cl llon I (I Je1 1r1hcr 2J. 200 I), p I H
6. Lero) (~ B.truth .inJ \ 1 l~cc \ l1nn1ol(, \ lultl1 ultur11/ fJ11411rli1n of f.hlltlrrn 11nd Ad,,/,""'''
..ttdhmt I lcttthts. \ L\. \ lh n 1nJ IJJt.,1n, I992), p ''"
-. John I (~lad, f 1'14,., lll/ktl ,\,J¥t0/ /+otrtttl fur tbt I uturt ('lcw Y11rk ~ c ( 1raw l l1ll ~"'Ir
0
Co., 10 4), p. 101

. ,\ Ian F' Koerner. "1~:ichers' l1uagt.-.;: Rcflccuon' o(' J bc1ntelvt.'t," 1n Wilham J I. <;. hul,.-rt •nii
\ \ illiam C. ''CNi ~ -. 7t11~tr Llrr: Lun11ng From Our (Jt.n 1:-<~rlmte ('1ew Y1,rk l,11ngman, l'l'iZJ
~ 4Q •
•••••
In Chapter \ve \\ill discuss Po tmodemism, an influential contemporary phJ!o.,,,phy

that _chaJ le nge_ the more traditional philosophies, especially tho!ie based on mcca-
~hystcs. "\"\ e \~1111 ?efine_ Postmodern ism, siruate it as a philosophical movement, idt:n-
7
ofy and examine its rnaJor premises, and draws out its implications for eclucaoon.
DEFINING POSTMODERl"l!SM
To define postmodernism, \Ve need to examine the \VOrds, post and 1nodern1m1. The
word post has several meanings, each of \Vhich can be applied co this philosophy. fu a
prefix, post means coming after, later, or follo,ving in time. So the obvious meaning in
this context is after or follov1ing the modern period of history. Post used as a noun
refers to a timber that is used to support a structure; posts also can refer to the timbers
or poles that mark a boundary. As we shall see later in the chapter, Posttnodemists are
inclined to reject the existing theoreticaJ poSts that are used to support philosophical
strucrures; they also want to pull dO\\'ll the fences or boundaries that they believe sepa-
rate fields of thought or subjects from each other.
To understand the Postmodernist use of modern, we need to go beyond its com-
mon usage as up to date, current, or contemporary and think about it in terms of peri-
odization of history. Io itself, periodization-determining when an historicaJ epoch or
period began and ended-is always difficult since historicaJ change does not ot-cur
with abrupt startS and stops but often occurs gradually and unevenly. Further, histori-
cal periods are often identified in hindsight many years after they have occurred. Po,r-
modernists however, label the contemporary period in history as the postmodern era.
In ~re•history, the modern period's onset is usually cited as beginning \\tth
enaissance around 1500 A. O. and then continuing on\\·ard. Among
'ally in literature and philosophy, the modem period's defin ing
•ginated during the Ei~hte~th-~entur}· Enlighte~men.t, the "~e of
continued \\ith soenofic discovery, exploraaon, industnahsm,
orld Wars, the nuclear era, and the Cold '\'ar. ln the Postmodernist
the Enlightenment established the following contours of modernity:
121
·----~
ll I \f fllJ"
l'I lfl I l'Jl 11'1111 'i I JI 'I
J'\lll I
122
IllJW 'I I I llJllVI l"t' 11.11111c., .111d ,.,,, l1Jn< 111111
1c1y
• I 111111.111 11,1,0 11 ' 11 1
I 11,tll\ll
111 111 1111 1111111111
.ii"'"' '
11v11 y a11d
• I I
v< 11f11:.111111,1'\ 1e;· d ,,,
• I ht•" 11•1111/H 1111 din d, Y !{ ti 1111 . 111 ., 1 11f111d 111y,1111 11111h.
. 11111d1• I 1IC"'"' • 1 1 1111111 f rc.1 I 1ty ;ind
ht• l Ill' ' 111 (.;'>l I" ' l·iw., 1•11. 11 yH·lrl
• I '
1a11111iiil 1 xpl.111;111 1 111\ ,,
" 111 d"tll\t.I 11.11111.1 1 •
• 1
• tlClll~ t. • l •l11H''> f1111111p11!Vlll1{hll1tl .t1l l1fc .1111 .,<1t11 ·1y.
JlfO\lllC p1t.\t11pl1\-t }(Ill( C
, · II 1,c p0 ,1111odc1ni'it pcr'ipc<..11vt , the l•,11ligh1e11111cnt 1d<..1>lr1gy,

1
1•01 thO'>C o owing '
11
I1C(~ir1e l h<.. clt11r11nant
"l'bcrrv cc1uality and friitc1 n11y, " 1n 1act, r
thoutth pro<.' l:111111ng ' .,, • ' I l l
I" r . •w C"J)italist ruling cla.,.,, an exp cuta11vc c ac,<, .,y.,tc1n, anc a r~< 1!it
r,1uon:i 1c io1 a nc .. • 1 J 1 h
. 1 ·h,, <,cicntrfic innovation., ..pawned hy the l·,nlig 11cn1nent cc t<1 t t
l 1
11npcr:l1.,n1. " J' d
nineteenth-century industrial revolution in which \Ciencc, app 1c t<> cng1nec:r1ng, wa<1
u..ed to invcnc new technique., of exploiting natural rc'iourccr., an<l . rnac;o,~pr"duc1ng
goods. Posuno<lernist'i believe we are now in th<: p<J'>t-induo,trial era, tn w~1ch the f~c
tory assembly mode:, of production have been replaced hy a new era-~he information
age of high technology and 'lerviccc;. For them, the modem era ended in the latter half
of the twentieth century. . .
Posonodemism can be illustrated by contrasting it with the opposing 1deolc>gy of
modernization. C. E. Black's comparative study of modemizati<>n pr<Jvidt:s an t:xample
of the modernist thinking that PosonodemistS resolutely oppor.,e. Prt:dicting that the
future would be determined by ongoing modernization, Black defined mCJdernization
"as the process by which historically evolved institutions are adapted to the rapidly
changing functions that reflect the unprecedented increase in man's knowledge, per-
mitting control over his environment, that accompanied the scientific rev<>lution."1
According to Black, modernization , which originated in Western Europe and the
United States in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, was being exp<lrted and
implemented in societies throughout the world, causing a global transfC>rmation
affecting all bnman relationships. Black predicted that the process of modernization
wouJd cransfo.Gp traditional, less technologically developed societies into modem
ones. For P~mistS, Black's defirution and prediction of the global extension of
modemiz' cies representS what is wrong in modernization theory. It implies
that one · experience, t?e ~odern , ~ destined to override and submerge all
an org~1~~on, especially those categorized as primitive, back-
ward, or . Funher, it divtdes people into two groups: those who are modem
and those ot (an~ ar~, thus, mar~a~zed). Modernization, including its con-
obaJ1zanoo by mulnnaoonaJ corporations, unleashes still more
ginaJization in the world, and leads to modern societies dist:m-
ed to be less modem.2
rnistS, the Enlightenment version of reason was not a universal die-
.ts ~laimed, ?ut was merely one rationale, constructed by the ns1ng
fy its rebellion aga~t and ovenhrow of the privilege and power of
d absolute monai:chies. In tum, the middle classes used the canons.
ded ~n ~e legitimacy of reason to rationalize their 0~11 ascen-
~n~n of oth~r groups such as the industrial \\·ork1ng cla...s,
~dim Chapter 13 .) Black's a'ncept of modem1z.a-
-...1£1JJg g obal pr~, provided a theoretical raoonale
123
•••
pl) -r \t()OER..'-'lS:\l Rl~J1 ' (' l 'S:
t\)r che ·uperiorin

• • • •
of niodt! t·n1zer'i
· · O\ er t hose Judged
· les<i 1noc.lcrn . \1odcrn11a1111n c11uld
~used to JU ttt) a ne'' f<)rtn of economic and cultural 1111penaltsm, taking the henefi
ot tnodem1~· to the less fonunatt!, traditional , and back\\'ard people of the world.
Canons as Rationales
In Posrmodernist terms, \Ve discussed the Enlighten1nent endorsement of reason a-; a
class-co~sn:icted, time-bound rationale, rather than a universal and timeless pr1nc1plt: .
.:\1~dern1z~u?n ~eory, too, can be seen as a rationale, constructed by the beneficianes
of tndusmalizauon and globalization, rather than as an irresistible historical force.
Posrmodernists refer to historically constructed rationales, such as reason and mod-
e~i~tion, as canons. The claims to authority expressed in a canon have an interesting
ongm and the story of their development explains how canons are used to rationalize
the possession of power by some and not others.
In ancient Greece, a can()TI (kanon) was a measuring rod, a kind of yardstick.
~1easurements, based on the kanon, '>Vere held to be accurate in establishing the
dimensions of something, especially landed property. By the Fourth Century, canon
had taken on a broader and elevated meaning as a rule or a law. During the Middle
Ages, canonical designated an authentic, religious, or scriptural text, officially
approved by the Church. For example, the governing legal code of the Ro1nan
Catholic Church is referred to as canon law. Over time, a more general use of canon
developed and can be used to refer to the great texts-the definitive and cla sic
works-that have authority in a cuJture, a political and social order, an academic <li ci-
pline, or a profession. For example, the books taug~t in the "great book_s" curriculum
espoused by the Perennialists, are regarded as havmg a greater authonty than other
lesser books. (See Chapter 17 for ~ discus~ion of Perennial~sm.) In th~ :ormer o'~er
Union Marxist-Leninism was the ideological canon of undisputed pol1ocal authority.
(For Marxism, see Chapter 13 .). F~r Isl~c fund.amentalists, the Koran is the suprerne
religious ten or canon ; for Chr1soans, It IS the Bible. . . . .
Questioning the authority of canons, Posonoder~1sts challenge their valtd1ty _and
·ted tenns as constructions made by a.given !p"oup or class ~ta parucu-
d not endowed with an endunng, un1versal authority. As n1ere
' an scan be analyzed, or deconstructed. In deconstructing a canon
, canon d . . .
emists ask a series of questions: \,~at ev~nts an s1~ao;>n~~vebr1se
0
gives 3 canon a privileged status 1n a cd mre or s~ciety. . o en -
. d acceptance of a canon? \Vhy o canons m a paruet11ar cu1-
stence an . . d 1 ;>
1
exclude underrepresented and margtna Ize peep e.
P\RI I l'lfll l}'>Cll'Jlll !l.CIPI Ill I \ll•J~
124
111 (
I 1 1 1\1111\\ 111d CJI lllllllC IJ1 C.fi1l,.0 U d 10 t.abl Ul i«Jfllr
p0 ,111111dl , t 111'l' " •
, 11 \ ,11 v111• 1h 111het11tc11a
"
111rana I):t n Ind appr2
11 11
nu1nn1cnhcr ' \lt1 1 "'' ·1' l 1111 thl 11111 1,. lhl111s1111li 8111111ri11 cx1emo I
' p1r1tW1 t, nat ra
1
1111.! I l 1111111 ,, lllll' l ILi Ill I I 1
• • •
1 1 11 "" 111 11 , 1 '''" L n p11vil cg1•1 Htll 11ir na1111c unu 1n a c; r
II I .1 ·'• · ~ ·•
l!i 11!.I flllu r:u>CU U> ;,uuJtJr
i1rUlll\'-r'.1 lllllll.I ' l' ,. -L .
> 1... n"'' l'Cllltl1tdl' 1hal t..1111111s .11c cs ta 1
ind \()lilt\ I c>,111101 ~ 1 I J I d
'
I(\ tn (h(I,(,,' \\ Il() Ii ( ilJ '>CILl 'll l'tC11101111t, pol111t .1I, ,1111 tc lll.tll<lna J>'iwer, an ar
I
h; ll'~ric11n11t' .ind ,u.,t<lln ch.u po11 er.

\ \ liile the di\cU,!>IOn of canon'> 111ay '>Ct:1n 11vt rl}' thc11re11tal, It 1 Irr pt>ru
e~r.ibh~hing polu.:y and prat.uc:c, and educ.:at1t1n. If we think 1lf the
curriculuin ai. n contested arc:l, wc can 'ICC how the cun.,tn1cucJn and dcu,nstru.c:..11cm <n
<.'oinons oper:ites. There have been 1nany arguincnt'> for and against a <.1Jltural i.;r,rc rn
educition, especially in secondary and higher edu<.:auon. Many_C<>re requ1remcnu
refleet the crac.litional canon!> of \,Vestem culture. Po~tmodem1C1ts challenge these
canons as representing male-dominated, European-centered Wt!>tem culrure, ~1tK..il
rokes on an added capitalist dimension in the United States. They C<Jntt:nd that these
canons have no extrinsic value over any other work. It is time, they argue, that the
works of underrepresented groups-African, Asian, Hispanic, and ~aove Amencans;
feminists; those in the "Third World;" and gays and lesbians-be included in the cur-
riculum, even at the core, if a core stiU remains.
Othering, Subordinating, or Marginalizing

As we proceed with our discussion of Modernism and Posnnodem1sm, we introduce
the concepts of "othering," subordinating, or marginalizing. "Otherness" or othenng,
in this context, means setting up a dichotomy between the modem and the less than
modem. Those who are modern like us are "with it," up to dare, or current; others.
such as those in less technologicaJly developed countries or in urban slums are tradi-
tional or primitive. Terms such as "other," "primitive,'' "less technologically devel-
oped," and ~-Western ,'' often found in the literatures (canons) of economics.
political .Alild education, upon analysis reveal a stereotypic view of society in
which tives to these terms are regarded as higher and better and those
includ tegories as subordinate and at the margins of institutions and SOCl-
ecy. ncepts are conveyed in what purports to be scientifically obJecuve
litera licy is racist, classist, and sexist language constructed by the domi-
y by its spokespersons. 3
SI'l'UA'.l'ING
e system of philosophy like IdeaJism or Realism, Posunod-

rientation or perspective. As an orientation, it includes indi\,duals
~e sociology, anthropology, literarure, an, architecrure, and edu-
htlosoph_y. Sharing the Posnnodemist perspective are some "·ho
as fem1rust theory and multiculturalism. \Vhat unites these differ-
. e~is ~o ?1odemism and what it represenrs. As an antitht: j,
tn its break "'ith the past and its dissection or d1:con-
·cy and objective cenaintv.
'
Cll\l'll•Rl·1<:111 l't),l\Hllll lt'l'\I 125
J\nrcce<lc 11ts o f Post111odcrnisnt

FricJrich . Nictl~chc (184·1 1900), on iconot:ln'iuc (;c1111an philo.,opher, attat.ked
tnet>Jph)~StC;\lly bnsed philosophies.~ l lc dis111isscd 1hc long-st:tnuin!( philosoph1cal
ussu.1npt1on thnt 11~ct~1physics \V;JS di-;intcrcstcd ~pcculalion into n univcr..al -.tntcrure of
re:lltl). Rather, . 1etz..;~he reduced n1cu1physics I() n hu1nnn invention, a con.,rn1cuon,
that \V<lS ~l subst1u1tc lor discurJcd nncicnt rcligiou., 111yd1' ~1nd the c,upernan1raltsm
that provided a .s~nse of ccrti1n<lc about on nnchnnging- world beyond earthly experi-
ence. Metaphys1c1ans-Idealists, l~calists, nnd ~rho1nists-invcnu;d, or constructed an
unch~~nging ot.her-,vorld that is ahv:t)'S good, true, :inti bc;1u1if111. (These philosophies
ar~ d1scus~ed ui Chupters 2, 3, nnd 4.) Their cos1nic invention provided a kind of
philosophical tranquilizer for anxious people ,vho could not nccept the reality of a
world that was inco1nplete, changing, and aJ,vnys in the fern1cnt of becoming. Certain
outstanding individuals, Nietzsche cl:iin1ecl-"the supcr111en"-acceptecl that they
\vere living in an incon1plete world and were responsible for 111nking their own rules. 5
For Nietzsche, philosophy could not and diu not explain an ultin1ate reality. Rather,
philosophical staten1ents were metaphors, perspectives, and rationales constructed by
certain articulate individuals nt a particular cin1e in history. These philosophical State-
mentS should be ana lyzed for their genealogy-for the historical, psychological, eco-
nomic, sociological, and educational siru:itions in \vhich they were made.6
Martin Heidegger (1899-1976), a Gennan philosopher, was a leader in develop-
ing Existentialist Phenomenology. (Existentialist Phenomenology is exa1nined in
Chapter 6.) Whi le Nietzsche conjured up a super1nnn who created his own rules for
life, Heidegger developed an Existentialist theory of the authentic person, \vho was
self-defined and lived with the ever-present feelings of dread, disappearance, and the
awareness of death as a consciously known inevitability. According to Existentialist
Phenomenology, what is tn1e for us is not found in son1e universal category such as
Plato's Fonn of the Good. Rather, we n1ake our own trnths based on our intuitions,
perceptions, and reflections ~at ans: i~ our ~xperience. Free fron1 n1eta~hysic:~l
antecedents , we are not placed 1n an .existing reahty but constrnct our O\Vn realtcy as 1t
comes from our intuitions and experiences.
'da (193(}- ), an Algerian-born French p~ilosopher, i~ often id~ntified as n

to the contemporary Postmodernist perspecnve, especially to the
tstrncruralism. One of Derrida's imp<>rtant contributions to
development of the method .of ?econstrncti?n. Examining
origins in ancient Greece, Demda finds that philosophers such
srotle and their later disciples e~barked on a search for the general
th believed were inherent 1n, and ordered and governed, the
to :nd kstotle are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3.) Their belief in the
l'\~l I 1'1111 tl,(\1'1111 '\Ill) Jll i \I lllr'-
126
('\l,ll IHI' pl thl' I llll>ll iil pl Jlll ljllt 1 Pl /11\;fll Ill l oltl I , \\ Iii 111 I .I 1111 du II 11111Ijll1 I llloiq
uf ht"' rt .tlll) l1111t 1111111·d

I Jlll'I phd1"''l1"' '' 111111111111 d Ill .. , 1111 Ii 1111 11111111 ,ti p111111pl1 iii I 11111111111 \
1t)ht•Jtlllllllht•Jllll\l'l'l' ll'l'll 1l\\ 1l' l11•l11\1dtl1t1tl11 li1111i.111l11111p , l11 \111o1t1tl1\dil
101111111, Pll''l'''''" ,, lt' l'Plllll~ 111111d 111111 11111111 II ,,, ..... .i,11 Ill 111111 tl11 /11p,1, il11 I 111111111
pr Jill 1plr' ,111<( .111 .ll l \II dtllj.! II I 1111•111

IC1 dl'10ll\ll llt I '·'.~·~'· It ,, 111'1 l''''" \ Ill 1111111\ /I' II 11111:111'1 Ill tl11 1111 II Ill (,,,I~
phdo,nphti.tl rr.idn111n n11d 11 .. r111111111ud 11•pl1I) 1111h1• l11 , 11111111 \\1•I•111 pl11l11•11pli\
\\11,11 1, ,1,,111 11t·d 111ht•1h1• p11111.·ipll· nl littit1111tl1t)' 111th1• 1111111 "'', 1H11111l111p 111I>,1
nd.i, 1, not .1n oh1t·1.·111t.• it:•tht) 111111 .11ht·1 h1111pl11l11,11ph1•1,11 p1e .,,·111 11 111 thr11 \\Ill
•ng" or rt'\l'· .\ tt'\t, ,,, 11,ccl h) I >1•111d,1 1111d 1111· l 111,111u 1d1·1111 .. 1.. , 11111 111, l.111 '" 11111
necc,;,.1r1l\, •l 11orl in p11111 . \\'htlt• tht• phJ111,11pli11·1 tl 11•111!., 1111· 111,11q111·d, 1111111 11 \lj
n1a} he •l ll orn I din 1oh"l1 t', n t nov t t' o 1 .1 pI11)'t o 1 \ ti 111 t • In 1 111 11 I l 1d1111 ,II 11•111 1 ,c•n 1.1111 111 I tt
euuca11onal tt'rlll'i, 11 tC\t con ht• 11 l'lll rir1tl1tlll µ1Jtdl', 11 1'11lc•11 Ill II h1111I, l111 l11cl111g I
1
text hook.
De-.pite continued n1111ck.; on 1ne(.1phy,1t'' h) th~· i>1 11 ~111.111'1 ' 1111tl II) tl11' 1'11,1
moderni!>t~, Derridn lin<ls th111 111t·tnph)si1·n l intt•1p1·t·111t11111:-.. the· ,1.,.,11111p11n11 th.11
rational pnnc:iples or loµ,i, t'cn111in deep ly t·niht·ddt•d in \\lt·,11·1n11ilt111•1·. l11d1·1•d, 1111•1111
i ng in \ \ 'escern cult11 rt'.; is lo,'.(o cct11 ril', ecn tcrc:d ill n11 ti 111'1t'11 re 11111 n 1lt•d h) t ht'''' 111111· 1
ited metaphysica I prt nci pie..
Decon-.rn1ctic>n 1s 11 n1crhod of µcttini; 111.;idt· thl' 11·-.1, 111 t•\pltirt• d tll 1·11·111 ,h.111"'
of meaning in }l<l<litiun 10 thost: d1:sig-nn1cd as .in oflici11lly s11llt'l1tH11•d 1'.1111111, C:l'tlllll.{
inside the text n1cn ns to: ( l) i<lcn1ify the loµ.11 rt·J\ 11 it· p1 inc1 plt•, thn1 It c111h11d11"'li (!)
trace the origin and <lcveltlpn1cn1 of the n1cnni11µs l't>lllt'}t'd, \\'1111 'Pcl'i.tl ~t·11,11 1 11t) 111
justification by appcnling ro the lop,i; (~) de1t•11111n1.· ho11• tht· kll111vl1.·d~1· clt11111 .. 1 111c.ll1
ings, and interpretncions in the 1cx1 nfTccr our ulcn.;, hclit·f:-, nnd 1111 1.·1 pi 1.•1.111111\,, I h1·
aim of deconstruction is not si1npl)1 10 Cflf{llµ' t.' in l11nµ1111µl1 nn.dysis h111 10 1111dl't'"lt111d
how texa,ratber than reflecting 1ne1aphysical princi ple;;, :1r1.• hist1 11 il.'t1lly ;111tl r11 lt111.lll\
spec· 'ons that involve pt>littc;1I JlO\\'l' r rclntion,h ip,, l~t.·t·;11l 1h111 111 ( 'h.1p1t•1
7 on Analysis, the concern is to cs1ahhsh the.· 1111.•11n1n~ tif 11 \llllt'lllt.'llt l•\lJ
Pos the issue is n<>t only cst:tblish ing' 1nc11ni11~ 1 hut t.'xu1ni11i11µ \Vh1:n, h11\\,
and ent was n1ac.lc. Unlike the 1\nnlysts' insist1.•111:c on using· l11~ir;1l 111
establish the 111enning c)f htngt11tµt.•, thl' Pc1-:11 111 1d1.·1 ni't' .11 t'
es and en1phases. They nrc cc>nt.·t.·rncd '' 11 h p.11111.·1il.11111111o:
t different J(r<lUl)S give It) lan~"\1111-.(l'.
ed that philosophers nt•t.ic.J to hrc11k fret• f'rnrn tht.• 1111.· 111ph) '1t'.d
erlying universal rntic)nttlity nnd ccusc 11ttc1npt11t~ r,1t.·on,11111.·t rolo'
Rather, they shc>uld cnthnrk <>11 •l riH<>rt>H' .1n.1ly'''• 11 dt•rnn't 1\tt111111,
ed to legitimize the the<>rctic.-al ft)undat111ns ftu s11t.·1,1l, l.·11h111 .il, pc1lit
d educari<>na I instit11tions. ·I'hese su Pll< >sl"d ft 111nd111111n, ,11 t.' r1111
es--<>ral and written narrntives- thnt purp111 t tt) t'xpl.11n 11·11111\ ,111d
e to existin~ instituri<>ns and .,it\lltti<1ns. \\'hat \\t.' 11u1'1 dc•.11"1th ''
authc>rs, the <>n!{inllt<>rs, anJ usc:rs 11f the tl1!1\ ''"''''''tr.\\
erpretations reflect a 1>ani1.:ul11r pcrl>t>n 's r,xpt·r1t•nrc, "t'
als and grt>ups use lnn~tUt(C, ansan)( fr111n 1hc1r t' \f\<·1 1
and t'1 legitin1ize and justit\• •
their l11ntr11l 11t 11uit1111111111"i
Clll\I' I l'R f l(,J l I' Pt)!> I \l<lllf f~'l'>\I 12 7
For Po.. t1nodt'rn1'c'• tht• phtl1h1111h1, ,ii 1,,, ,, 111d111111.111111 1d1 1 d.11111 111••1•• 1
tion and c11h11rc 1n 01dt'1 11111n,11\1•1 1h1• 1.1111111,tli l1111lcl1 11o 1111cl1 d y 111~ 1a,11 1111'1 l•lilt,
presu ppo!>1t1on~. and 111t••tn111g.. I h1 't' 1011on,tl1 .,, Hitt 111111 111 ti 111 iii 1111 1•1111111111111111
of culture, nre c -.pres~l'd 1111h,• l,1nh'lu1µ1• ol u 11 ·~ 1 11 11.i ''""111 111 1111 ,11111111111 , •II.,,,., 1ol
status ofn c:1non. r\ 11d1Sl'<1 ur~t·, ph ilosophil'al, 111 .,111111 ul , u11 tl •• 111111111 , '"I'"•' 11•• ol 111
re,xt'I. .\text, lt~c ll', is not l'l nht) hut \Vh111 ltll 11111hn1 111a y tl1111I 111 11111 111d d11 tl1I•
1
Deconstrucrion in,Ol\'eS idenufy1ng and ex ill.11 11111 g 1h1 u111h111 'h 1111 111111µ, 1 111 \I •1 ,., .. ,,I
reahC), a-; \\Cll as '' hat che rc;1dcr bring.. co tht• tt'Ji l 111t1·1111.,111111p111111•' I l11 bdr.1 •111
truction ofnn author's intention!> invohe'> "nnp.i1l.1ng" rhP .111111111',. .i 11111111111111 111il
meanings as they nre expressed hy v1ord choict•i,, t-xa111plc'>, 11111 .1 pl 1111 ,, .11111 111111 111
other "vords, phi losophy involves an ana lysis 01 1 11 11 ~11111-{~ ll'> ll 1!1 ll~t·d 111 11 l,11111111;l1q1 1 11
is a socia lly charged study in gra1n111nr.H
For Derritla, the effort s to deconstruct l:tng11ng1• in volvi- 1111111ll y111K u111l ,111 ol 11
ing the differences in ho\v people unc.ler'ltand nnd 11 -.t' l:1ng11.1g1 111 d1 L1111~1111• 1
require us co find the differences in meanings and rel:1non ..hq1.. 111 du v.11111u!I 111 11
engaged in discourse. The langunge usec.l io exp1t>.,., .,1,1t en11111., 111 u11y kind 1., 11111
srmcted by shades of meaning, e1nphasis, nccen1111111on, nntl 111111nt1• 1 d11•111tl y 1111 .ll1 11 1
inter preting these staten1en ts is to use still other word'> thflt t>nolili· 11!1 111' 1111111:111 11 1111
contrast the Statement hei ng deconc;rructtd wi rh 01her '>to 1e111i-111 "· 1•.st11 Iill11h1 fl g 1111 ,111
ing requires interpretation- using other \vord., that 1cll u'> wh111 11 Iii .111d l'o 11111 '1 A1 111 1•
same time that the act of interprering is taking plnc:e, there ,., .1 11t•1d 111J1-l11 1111.d
results in establishjng a centrnl 1ncan1ng due to the to1nplex1ty, ll111d11y, .111d drit1 111
language how it is used at different time., in d1lfcrcnt pl:icc'>. 10
Foucault
Michel Foucault (1926-1984), :i French '>OC1al philo-.ophtr i1nd h1s1011:111 1 1x1·1t • rl ,1
major shaping influence on Po.,11nodern1'>ln a-. \Veil :i ... gcntral 'it.h11l.11 ..l11p ..1111111 l111i
tory, society, culrure, politics, economic.,, and cd11ca11on. I-l e :ll l{llt''i th.11 1111111111., 111
"truth" origi nate in historica l contexts and 1.rcatc relanon.,h1 p., of pow1·1 111 t.1ilt 1111 ,,
institutions, andlOciaJ systen1s. 'TI>exan11ne Fouca ult\ co1nplrx nnd 11ft1;11 <1jH1'j111 pl11
losophy, we lJ9
with three of his n1ajor working p1·en1i'iC'>: ( I ) 1h1· 1 ~· l n tH;111il11p ,,,
"truth" and pow:a11 (2) "regi111es of truth," and (3) the u.,e of di.,tout'ie.
Like Dedf.8t Foucault rejects the po.,.,ibiluy of un1ver1i:1 l u 111h 1 d1'it.t1v11.tl1l1 l1y
metaphysical • T ruth does not conic fro111 rhe 1n'i1gh1l ul yl1111p'i1· 111111 1h1
universe abou hysicians speculate. Ju ..nc.:e doei, 11111 1111111· f111111 1111 .ill
knowing jud 's philosopher- kin gs; nor, i., ir found 111 1ht 1111p:u 11a I d1 ' 1
sions made rt Mill's disinterested 1.·itizen1o. (Plato\ phtlt1'i11pl111 k111v, l 'i
2 anc.l M ill's disintt!rested ciuzen 1n ( .hapttr 11 .)
P osnnodem philosopher'i, Foucault rtJtc.:t ~ the I .nligh1cn1111111 '
on, " ·hich claims that rational ind1v1duals 1 11s111g t h~ 1.o1t11 1 111~
rruth as an objective body of lcnCJwledgc:. I It! at.,,, J1 ~ 111111t!i iii
·se that this kind of objt!crive lcn"wlc:dgc '" open 111 oil .111d 111111 11
ly benefit all people. 11 . .
· and behavioral sc1encc:s char <1r1g1nnteJ 1n thi:: li 11ltl(ht1 n
ptodem perio<l--5tx: l<Jlogy, tt:11no1111c 1 r11hr11J)( 1lt 1gy,
P\Rl I 1'1111 <l.,<ll'llll'-l>I I Dl ( \IHl'
118
I11l'Ctl\ c, cnlJ)tric·ll ·1nd -.ticnnfic \\TI~' of de.,cribing and
t».;., co he o • • • I <l .~ .
ps\ ch11 Ioi:,') pro t
.
r·.
I 1111 111 hehll' ior. •11.111 11
, ,j.., llrofc.,.,cJh
. '
obiccuve or ncurra escr1pnon,
c,,1n11n111g 11 • . 1 iirc.,crii1 uon~ or 1:--ruidcl1ne!> th:ir tell how "normal,"
I 1' •111tsht\ Cte\ 1
1 COj)Cl . h 'fh .
se1c1:1 sl' {
1
::. • • ·' • • • incn \Vonien children ~hould be ave. e ">Oc1al sci-
. II' .;ound ,.roou l'lt izcns- ' ' I cl f l I th
soc 1 ~1 ·' • •r · 1co t"l>CS .1110 roles b:isec.J on n Stant ar o t 1e nor1na ; ese
1 11 cl h I
ti• 11.:·es c ·1rt'):,rt
1nlt.' pt.•op e " · '
• . • I.~ >fheha' ior. Just as there are approve 1101111~. l ere are a so pat-
le·HJ ro no1111 ... ilr i u t: ... < • fd . . d 'cl I . th
· ( . b h .. ,rjor DeiJenc.Jinir on their degree o eVlancy, 1n 1v1 ua Ii tn ese
rcrns o lC\1,1nt 1 c " • c- . b . . . 1· d . I
. t~in be reinediaced or reec.Jucaced, and 1f need e msoruoona 1ze in asy urns
L~lt~!-rt)~eS : rfhe prOCeSS of enlJ)iricatly based Standard setting, characteristic Of the
anu pnsons. . . cl ·
"'rn ero is ~1 ,vay in \vhicb one group categorizes, 1nan1pulates, an exercises power
1
n o .. d ' . l . b . .fi 11
0
,cr others. The Enlightenn1ent orientation, especial ly as 1t c aims to e sc1ent1 ca y
objective, n1erely represencs the discourse used by a regime of truth. . .
Foucault exa1nines ho'v claims of possessing the "truth" creates relationships of
ro"•er in pecific contexcs. Using the term "truth" as a title co ownership of knowled~e
that certain individuals and groups claim to possess, he does not argue that some uni-
versal truth exists that is superior to the version a particular group claims to knoi,v. Nei-
ther does he assert that son1e individuals and groups have more truth, or a clearer vision
of truth, than others. Rather, all per ons and groups have some version of truth that
gives them power in their relationships with others. At certain historic periods and
places, ho,ve\'er, the truth-po,ver formula favors, or empowers, some groups over oth-
ers. These truth-po,ver relationships produce "regimes of truth," the ideologies, insti-
rutions, and practices by v1hich people control, regulate, govern, an d even define, each
other. Foucault's exegesis examines social, political, economic, and educational policies
and practices-the exercises of power-based on assumptions that those who bold and
use power have a right to do so because they kno'v or pos ess some truth, unkno'\\rn to
others. D iscourses, developing "in the contextS of specific historically constituted
power relations," use the claim to possess truth to shape attitudes and behaviors of
people living in that context. The language used in these discourses is cho en in order
to legitimate the exercise of power enjoyed by those who control a regime of rruth.12
We can illustrate the relationship of truth and power by looking briefly at the
kind of disco._ used in the standards movement in education. The discourse states as
truth that: (~dren have a right to an education that is excellent and no child
should be left an excellent education is one in which students achieve aca-
demically; ( ievement can be measured fairly and objectively through
the use of s . ts; (4) ~ese tests will identify the students \vho are achie.,,1ng
a~d those ~g left behind; (5) the tests will identify the schools that have a
h~gh re.c ord dem.Jc success as well as those whose students fail; (5) schools with
high failure can be remediated; (6) if the remediation is unsuccessfuJ students in
these transfer to schools \\ith higher test resnJts. '
~t's mo~e of analysis, we can determine the truth-power relation-
m the discourse about standardized tests as measures of academic
an~ysis begins with political c~aims, based on a democratic ideology
excelle!1t educanon. The general claim qwcl<l}• shifts.
dar~ed tests provide objective evidence about the
tennmed by successful ma.sren• of certain academic
•
l I l \ PTER EJ<. IIT P{l:\J \1(1J)f R~ ts \ I 1.?9
,J.ill-. .ind ' 11 hicl·t, "- 0" tht' L:n11" I dge l 101111 he 111 tu relate to po\\ Cr rel uonsh1p
\ \ 'ho 1' "ind.11 1111 thl l\: ..ll llg? \\•ho 1s 11 1~ 111 • up th te 1 \\'ho 1 1ntcrpreun the
tC' l rl 'ult' I lo\\ "111 hl 1c.,11h, hl 11,c d \\ h 11 11 c th role of poht1 an, p!lrents.
ll.ll'ht 1'· .1nJ 'tl11l1.·n1, 111 the p1111.c' ' ol ' l lt111 g , 1111d111(I nd um• t t; tu \'"Crl tf
tht"\ h '' l h 1. n llll' l ~
l·\Hll'.\uh 1. \,HtHnc' the tn1th po\\ er rcl.111un,h1p 1n j>eC11tc cont rabh h1n
'' h.1t ht.' 1.:.111 ... •I "g-cne~ilo~ ''of ho\\ the technique' of po'' er 11r1g1nate and re used
't.irc1ncnc-. ol legiu111ac} and control. Fou1.·nult 1' nut rgu1ng tor a utopia 1n hJ h
!Xl\\ er rel.1t1on~h1p are Jb,ent. Rather, hc ., ,ay1ng ch.it borh pa ... t nnd contempor.n;
:-oc1ene~ exhibit truth- po'' er rel.1t1on,hip' chat tie' clop detin1tion' oi rr2ht nd
"rong: n~rmalc) and <le,,,1ncy. an<l that co rc:cognize tlu~ reJl1ry benc:r prepares us t0
deal '' tth tt. He ad,, ·es that the relaoonsh1p ben,·een truth anti pc1\\er '' al" }'present
tn oc1al conte:\n., lnclu<l1ng educational one . In particular, 1-'oucauJt ''am ... u, to he
":lf) of tho e ' 'ho claim to kno'' uni,·ersal truth, cla1n1 to be alcru1snc in ic... ar.>phc:a-
tion, :ind justtf) their acttons based on un1versal moral and eth1ta1 pnnctp.o Instead
of one truth that is uni,·ersally manifested, there are many cla1n1 to cruth found 1n :ill
ocieties and in all situations. The e n1uJtiple discourses represent muJople regime' oi
truth. Discourse can justify one group's clain1 to truth but also can be u, eJ by another
group to resist it. 13 The relationship of truth to po" er is ·hpperr an<l 'h1fting. ,,,th
some group's claims ascendant and the other's suppre sed or inarticuJaced. The inter-
play of discourses, each representing a truth claimed by a parncular group. c-an be
examined. Applying analysis to discourse allO\\'S us to locate the relaoon,h1p of kno'' l-
edge and power in a given society at a given time. Perhaps those "ho are curren cl~
marginalized can use their insighrs to resist and liberate themseh·es from oc1al conrrol
by dominant groups. Analysis of the truth-po,\•er relationship might be m.ed ro iden-
tify examples that are negative and pernicious and others that carry po 1bu1oe· of lib-
eration. It may also help us avoid the dogmatism of those \\•ho claim to mo'' 1t all.
me of the leading contemporary philo ophicnl orientations. Ir 1,

in academic fields such as literary criticism and educt1t1onal foun -
cation, it is related to Liberation Pedagogy, discussed in Ch~1pcc-r 14.
eory, discussed in Chapter 19. Beyon.d ~ese fields, Posm1~)Jem1s111 ha"
the general vocabulary. Postmoder~1st 1nfl~e~ces can be- tounJ 1.n 1't11.:h
ents as Poststrucruralism and Post1ndustr1ahsn1. The sntd)' ot P(l~c
quaints us with an influential .philoso~hical . persu~sion and he-Ip, 10
terpreting one of the currently tnfluenttal pos1t1ons 10 edu1.-.1non.
OSOPHY
enniine how Postn1o<len1is1n can be considered in relationship

in philosophy: rnetaphrsics, episte1nology. axiology. and logic.
85
I' 1(11 Pllll<>S<>Plllf'C>l lDL< \IHI'
130
~\1 eta physics

• I rn in\ 11 htlo.,oph1c::1I tc\t., of rhc pa<it, such a., Plato' Republic.
Po,u110Jer111 ..1' rt:glll ( • . I • . r·1. I t .
. \ .1 ,·l."r11•1 1·rb1c., :ind \qtuna., .~1111111111 'Jro10l{Tfle to >c metanarraavt
\r1,tOl It!' It 'IJll/iltt ' '' ' • • • , • . •'
'"llc>~e.,i>cr~un., for lnvorecl g1 oup~, rnthcr thnn universal metaph\.
t h C e\pO,tll<lll' I )I '
i-
. . ·
nlit• and values.
C':1 I t\P IJnJ l II )I,' ()f rc• ·; .
(For cl1scuss1ons
•
of these wor~. see Chapters 2
1. JnJ -l.) 1·hc} re1ect rhe gran<l philosophical syste~s purporte~ to explain reality as
an arc:hitecrure of the universe, an<l the metaphysical assumpoon that an ulumate
~rroun<l of being, a transcendent cosn1ic reality, exists beyond and above the physical
~' orl<l. for Postmodernists, traditional philosophicaJ systems, resting on metaphy 1cal
foundations, are not explanations of uJtimate reality. They are rather the disco~es-
the \vntten texts-produced by the intellecruals of a given period of history that
rationalized and explained the knowledge that gave power to some, but denied it to
others. Metaphysics, they contend, i1nposed constraints from 'vhich, "ith its demise.
we are well liberated. 14
Posrmodernism was not the first philosophy to reject 1netaphysics. Earlier in the
twentieth cenrury, the Pragmatists-William James, Charles Peirce, and John De"·ey-
had abandoned metaphysics as empirically unverifiable "non-sense:• Dethroning
metaphysics, the Pragmatists gave their trust to the scientific method as a true use of
intelligence that could either empirically verify or disprove claims to truth. Rather
than objective and universal "truth," the Pragmatists argued that our "truths" \Yere
reaUy probabilities or warranted assertions. The scientific method, a product of the
modem world, was proclaimed to be a public, dispassionate, and verifiable '''a)· of solv-
ing problems. (For a discussion of Pragmatism, see Chapter 5.) Postmodernists. unlike
Pragmatists, reject claims that the scientific method is reaJly objective and ideologi-
cally unbia.t. It is "scientific" and "objective" only for those who hare the commit-
ment to UM . . t.erminology. Scientific knowledge is merely \vhat is acceptable to a
particular~ or circle who share a commitment to that idea. •s
Espedd.f · , contend Postmodemists, is the claim that cientific objec-
tivity can Ile 1D areas other than naruraJ and physical science. Some e..x']Jerts in
fields s , sociology, political science, and education clain1 that the,·
areas of inquiry with scientific objectivity and arrive at di intere red
• Postrnodernists believe that such claims are feigned or fu l e...\JI
• and the texts that convey them represent po,ver relaoon lup .
ty are used to deflect critical anaJysis.
traditionaJ philosophies' epistemologicaJ claims that

correspond to reality. Rather than looking ou~1de of
. ror truth, they advise us to look ""ithin the..hwnan pa!'>t
. 1ms ~~ truth have originated, been constructed and
ad soc1a~, pohttcal, and. e?ucational consequences. \\'har people
on meaning only when tt 1s expressed in conceprual and ,,"lltbolic
ge. Concepts do not correspond to ob'JectS exisong . . 1n : ome
•
l 11 \1'111< I It . I I l l'(l\ I \ll llll lf\l\\I 131
'11p1·11111tu111l 111 111 1·111ph) '" 111 11.•11ht) , till'\ ,11 c h11111.1n ton,truc11on\ b:i.,ed on experi-
t'lll'l' l\.llO\\ k•1!µ1• l'h111111,, 11tt' l1111,1111l·t1011'111'1.'cl to cicpl.11111111d conlrol hu1nan life and
111,t1111111u1,, ( h11111' 111 kntn\ lcdicc. the cu11,1111c11on\ 1hn1 explain and control , are
t''P' t'''l'd i-) 111hol1l'llll) in -:n1111ds, -:ig-n'I, l{l',llll'C'I , 'vor·d, and l:inguage. '6 These
h111~1.1µc c-.prt:s~cd ;11Hl lung11:1~c hou11 d clui1n'> ot 1n1th can he approached, dis<.ected,
dt.•1.:11d1·d. 1>1' dt•co11s11·uc11•d hy "unpncking" 'vhat is n<>scrted to be true. Working
d11'0H~h lnnµungc n:vcu ls th:H \\ h11t purports 10 he kno\vledge is a h11man-1nade con-
1
:.11 lll't10n . 1~111\!o{llll~c C\ IH'cssio11 nnd use is n 1nenns ol' control ling knowledge and of
!(1\'111j.:' c.:oncrol to those '''ho purport to underst:tnd ;1nd interpret it. Historically, cer-
1.~1n tC\CS or ~ne1anarr111ives-religious \\IOrks, great book'I, the classics-have been
I-fl\ en !I prOll1lllCllCC :llld Status as speaking or universal truths to a \VOrJdwide, tranS-
gcncrnrion:tl nudic.>ncc.
Challenging the nniversal clain1s of these n1e1an:irratives, Posonodernists con-
tend 1.h~1t ~hey, too, nre the constructions of once-po,verful historicaJ elites, no'v used
to lcg1111n1ze and e111po,ver ne,v elites by investi ng the1n ,vi th the signs and symbols of
the ol<l order. Further, th ey believe that there are 1nany ways to describe hwnan expe-
rience, each of which hns its own validity, rnther than just th ose that claim to speak in
universal tern1s. \tVith their e111phasis on a 1nultiplicity or dialogues and voices, Post-
1110<.J emisrs encourage 1n11l ticuln1ralistn in education.
Deconstructing or decoding a text is a relentless effort to discern meaning and
relationships. Indeed, every kno,vledge claim or statement can be deconstructed by
looking at the va rious contexts in which it is used, and ho'v it is used. \tVhat did the text
mean at the tin1e of its origination or construction? \Vhat groups established and used
the n1eaning of the text nt its origination? \!Vhat hns the text co1ne to mean over the
course of history? What does the text n1ean at the present time for different groups?
In terrns of fo nna l euucation, these questions focus on how curriculun1 is con-
structed. What texts represent official knowledge in the ctu·riculum? H ow are these
texts interpreted in order to establish and mainrain the power relationships between
different groupa~ \Vh ich cexrs (i.e., which experiences) are included and \Vhich are
excluded? Postmodernisrs see the curriculutn as a locus of struggle, a cultural \var,
between groupsetruggling to establish knowledge claims and to assert po\ver.
Axiology
n of metaphysical systems and the analytical tools they use
of dominant and suppressed groups reveal much about their
aesthetics. Poso:nodemists reject the Idealist, Realist, an d Thornist
that there are universal and eternal values that prescr ibe and pro-
ral actions. Such claims proclaim that they possess absolute knowl-
universally and eternally good or bad or right and \\Tong need to be
Poso:nodemists, such claims to authoriry represent the strategy
to control subordinate ones. By tracing the genealogy of moral
ible to identify who made the claim that something was either
\\'llS made. By historical analysis, it is possible to dis-
the claim, especially on ceruin groups. ln the modern
·'
1i 2 '
resist those who define beauty un<l urti tic appreci-

tennS. .F or example, they que tion the designation
d1SStcs; such works, for them, are hi t0riCT1l con-
utiful depends on a particular group experience.
u:n~ to control the museums and art galleries ''here
are ezh1b1ted and the orchestra halls where n1usicnl concertS
~expressions of an and music are judged to luck the st•in-
m these 6elds. The museum or an e."<hibit is often a sirun-
~ who control an artistic field and those "'ho ,,,ish
ed to the established canons. In contrast Posn11ou-
to . •
express an and mUSlc and that these various
to be seen and beard.
ethical and •esthetic pluralism has impomnt
for the.curriculum. Rather than using universal
•what is :::i II\~ looking to the ezpens who cater
.,. educ:aq. •teaa en should look to the experienl-es
<.I 1.\JYfl· R EIGI rT POST\IODER.'-"IS\l 133
Logic
In terms of logic, Posttno<ler111sls advise that we taken careful and critical look ar whar
is srote<l ro be logical or illogical. They <lo not quarrel with the basic deductive or
inducth e S)'sterns of logic but rather advise that we need to consider the position,
authoriry, ru1<l po,ver of those \vho commend so111e actions as logical but condemn och-
ers as illob'1cal or irrational. They are especiaJJy wary of those who use deductive logic
to gene~-alize rules of behavior from aJJeged first principles and apply them to specific
categones of people. This kind of manipulation of logic can be used to JUStify and
maintain the status quo that favors some individuals and groups over others. The claim
that some proposals are iUogical can be used to silence clissenters \vho do not accept
what is asserted to be an irrefutable first principle. For example, the general premise
that "a woman, by her nature, is to be a wife and mother" leads to a conclusion that it is
illogical for a right-thinking woman to choose to be something otber than a wife and
mother. Upon analysis, this premise is an example of what is reaJJy patriarchal prefer-
ences and male dominance over women. It is a remnant from earlier periods of history
when women's roles were rigidly prescribed. What is stated as a logical premise based
on the nature of women is reaUy a convention, a period piece, that marginalized
women. Postmodernjsts would argue that while a woman may choose to be a wife and
a mother, she is free to choose some other career. It is crucial to look behind tbe logic
claims to determine who is making them and why they are making them.
POSTMODERNISM'S EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
In the following section, we examine Postmodernism's implications for education,
schooling, curricuh1m, and instruction.
Postfoundatio
In discussing Pos ism, we pointed out that it is a point of vie"'• a persuasion, or
• •
an onentanon, ra an a school of systematic philosophy. In much the same way,
Postfoundationali d on Posnnodernism, presents an orientation or a way of
interpreting the education and analyzing educational institutions. Postfoun-
dationalism is hig us of foundation building-the way in which '"e establish
grounds for our b beliefs and practices. For example, in teacher educa-
tion programs, it · refer to the foundations of education-to the his-
tory, philo ucation, and to educationaJ psychology-as those
disciplin ·pies upon which sound practices rest. The leading
modeo ·sis statistical, using statistics about methodological effec-
riven ement to arrive at findings that are then generalized to
expl . tional phenomenon and guide practice. Foundationalism
and interpretation, for Postfoundationalists, represent the
I ; ..J \ '
I \
JU• I l \
\ I l l .ll l I t I '
' l '
t l 1 11th I J f
\I '
l
i,1n~ 1uu1 da11oll' Jcr '' r1J1
'
I 'I , , , die f 11 unill u•Jll I d1
p I
, "'iu•11 •1 • I ,,f
t• llll•>U Ill a JtlTcrc::nt ' · '' I , •
' ,, in thl ,e d1,l'1ph11c., the I ctl ''
, 1 ,Jal t.he 10\.JI. 1a ., 00 {J(J
'
', , ,ruden , ,, ho ttcI d the \t.. •Ki
\J encoura .!c ,tudcnt' to rcficct <J
.P '
, \\
,
,, ould e:-..111 unc local netv. or s ar
.. n, . . , "' . . -
111·' l \ l '" .• tili' e ,, ii ' , e 111 the <.:on11nu•n ...• fth ,, t ,....,. ',
(~ np1,; 0 t p 0 ,rtl un ' 1 onah,111\ reJcc·1on <1 c lCJ r ' J
1, .it 00, .ind .ippltL.lC1• 111, rl '" the ' <.:holarJ:. d1S<:1phne ~d,,.fl ,,r;. P ' '
'lX 0 l)L,I"\
-
or cJucauon JLl. ' t thc1n (} f ial I10;! tu create
. ~
G • ..,
• Uf; ':f!: / .;!• J
'"
I I l "flC t: At f;/J •; y,
•
• ..
1-\J\t' the potennahty u t tr:i11-. 1crr1n ~ irorn one <>eat <1 " •
.. nr l., l'Urtend. ~ruliic, t '<X.-al , 1tuaaon" nt1:U ' 'J uenerate hrc.;ad,;r u
d •
c: • •
ro,.,t-.i'D- L01.a. LhO« .~ ..nd conu11un1nt' ··' 111 ha·. c sin 1 a· c.<J!10 c,
pri 0 c"1'. The:.e -1n1• _r·•1e, L'an be brou:sht ~0'!1:th1:r L'l c:r~er :xp c: ~ , .
t'i .. .,, to tof1n a thcon that enco1npa ....,t:') ana ~an!>Cf.:nd d\•; f.K.'2
1
• • n i:
-
llll..".l ~n\c~oe:anon ,,·ht:n t-arr1cd for.,11rd t<J 1:ncornpass lar~tr U:rn· , '=.,
-
111c<J !!~nt:rahzaoon .
-Po~rmodem1 m l!> h1ghl} -:.u1,,p1c1ou1,, of mtr.anarra ... t:~ 1n t d ta";',~ e.n-t.
the ~o-c~lled great ""·orks of ..\r1stoclt. Plato, Aqwnas. Rc;u-,stau. Pt· '"1 r,zz an •• •
,,ho purport co speak 1n a un1ver al voice for educa~onal g<>als and P-'";J'J~~ l. -
len~!o the~e metanamln' es a1,, rt:flecong Eurocenmc and pamarchal co~· - _. '
-
eJu1..'.ioonal theory.
chools
..\) educao onal inuimoons, pubhc schools 1n the L- n1ted States are pan <)f a S<JCta
p<>hn~-al. and economic syste•n, which in turn, has JUSnfied the u.se <Jf the text of offi-
cial knowledge. Thae anons of public educanon proclaim the pubhc scho<'JI to bt me
~that ed•ntes die children of all the people, pro,ides equality of opp<'Jrrun1r:,
encounps soti9' and economic mobility, and 1s necessary for continuing and perperu-
•••• a 4llmocnbc SOCtety. Postmoclem1stS. ho\\·ever, contend th4lc publ.!c ">Choo! , Ii.kc:
adlel'........., are ll!>ed to reproduce a s0C1a1 order thac i pamarchaJ 1n that the}
'----wmnen: Eurocenuic 1n that "·hat 1s said to be lno\\·lcd2:e t:, a cont.true-
..._ m flDfM of European anct::St:r)'; and capitalist 1n that pnva~t prop<:~· and
.. e are eru.hrined in the free market 1<loolog} G1\·en these offietal
_......, . . ~ of a "hite, Europ<:an male is appro\·ed, remfor<."f:d, and
education. Other groups-pt:ople of color, "omen,
k - . le. are excluded from the official narrao\'e'). Ther are
af'metchool and ocien. ,
l J l \l'l R F IC 11 I I'()' I \It) > k' ,1
J'.,, , livd~ 1 lll , lll llll '111111 11 Li it 11, It • I Il 1' I'

( 11 Ill I I. I I \\
i:n1 1. uhtH't ' · l 'Jl • 11lh 11 \ 1111lli 111 1111111 ii l Ill , 111 n I 1 0111~~ 1
ll•'ll' h1, .1.111, hn1c 111.I" 1 1l .. ,1c1 1l \ l.\111(I111•111 I JI
t)I l..n11\\ lldL.1'. '''hJt 11111 lllct,, l<llll'lll•J11l111g II• Jill I 1ph\'I
hlt'nl\hl\,lil\ 111 tht lllltl1lllt1111 1]
\ 1
11 •
I I
Ii 'lll''lllll
r
{I
t ti IC
l..no\\ltd\!1.:, flll'I ~.) l'nr P 11,111111dtr111't' \n'itt•ti.:li1n l
1' 1 t 'h,1p11.:1
1h.1uch l'l<'llll•dt.• 11 • 1' nut 111 P IlJttll\c re p rl'tnt n1u1111I n 1111rc hut Int<: d
~"''' \l.1' 'l1..il .1nd ' th11l 1'ttl t>llll'' 1;1111,tlUltld kn11"lcd~c I c•r c\cr~l 1h11
t 11 ' \ ri , totcli3 n t.ltL)!onz.111on tlllltr1hutLd 111 1h1 l11ntr11I cit l11rinal educ ts•
d,1 n11 nan t pol1t1l ,ll .1n,tntr,1Lrt'' .1nu rll11~1ou' elir1. ' . l)unun.1111111, tia,cd on \rl';tntel
inct.Iph~ , ,c, , 1 ~ 'til l lnuntl 111 ReaJi,1n. ·1 hon11, 1n..ind Pe1cnn1.J11,m. (I l1r these per
' Pc.>l'll\ e,, :-ee ChJpter., ~. 4, .i nd I~ .)
P~i.,rn1oc..lc>rrll'I' reJeCt t.he con)trucnon of kno\\ ledl("c th.11 de\ eloped \11th the
h~rrh ot the> n1odern age in the Eighteenth-Cenn1ry £ nlightenn1cnc In 1hc1r ,c:,1rc.;h to
J 1sco,er Lhe nan.1ral la\\<, that go, eme<l the unl\·er-;e an<l ~oc1t:t\. the t:tl!htcenrh-
cenruf) philosophes rurned to empiricis1n, as in th e c:ise of John Lo~l-e, rJthcr rh.1n co
meraphy ic as did the earlier Aristotelian Rea lisn. anti Tho1ni-.t , . Ho\\ e\ cr. rnoJcrr
c~enc.e and social science, roo, represent a consrructiun of kno'' ledge h) nt:\\ ehtc'>-
soennstS, economistS, and political scientisrs. These ne\\' el ire~ of the Enlightenn1cnt
and post-Enlightenment periods proclaimed the scientific n1etho<l to he an unh1J.,c::J.
fair, and neutral mode of acqu iring k.nov1ledge. Modern ver!.ions of .,c1ence in the
social studies, psychology, and education clai1n scientific objectivity. Po-.rn1u<lern1-.c-.
argue that scientific churns to objectivity are either delusional or contrived. Cl aun ... to
knowledge, they aUege, are never neutraJ, but represent the establishment of a rela-
tionship of power between those \vho claim to know the truth and those upon v.-hun1
the truth is imposed. For Postmodernists, the modernist construction of kna\\'le<lge.
along with the language used to convey it, represents the strategy of motlerni t elile.,
to take and keep power.
Both the premodern Aristotelian metaphysical categories and the modern ci-
ences and social sciences remrun encased and encoded into subject matter discipline~.
The controlling eJjres have constructed canons or texts that contain definitions, cases,
and illustrations that demarcate a subject's boundaries or borders. As with anr bonnJ-
ary, these canons give a sense o~ o~e~ship to the experts w~o conu·ol ~en1 1 and to the
interests they serve. In acadeJTIJc mstJtuttons, the experts m each subJect n1arter ha,·e
constructed theoretical fortifications that act as impenetrable boundaries that protect
their power and their turf,l9
Based 00 an ideolea5' lt8mming from the EnJightenment, the controlling elites,
once colo~ btN fMhioned a neocolo.nia ~ist version of ~e curriculu111 .that is
Eurocencric;ptlliltchal, and classist. By sub1ecnng the canons ot the vested subJects to
rigorous ~ysis, they can be seen as the h.istoricnlly constructed rationales
that · sexist, anti classist biases of the tlorninant groups. Once they are
er than as a description of universal truths, these canons can be
the purposes of those \Vho origina lly created and used then1 can
13 6 P \.RI I Plill ll-.1 ir•lll:' lJf l Dl C \ l ll >'
be e\allllnt•d l~unhl r, thl C";111011' 011d thl' It''' 1ha1 c1111\C) 1hc1n t.&11 l1e u111nablt:.:d 1
tht> reprl'-cnl lllllll ot 1 p 11 !Jl ul 11 l Ju,, 111 gr•ntp '>'-'l ll111g P''"'er ratl~cr than • § hai.111~.,
b1<1.tJ llltf Ulll\l'r".ll (e~llllll ll \ \\ llh ~lllh nliilt ii l.;1111W)1 clvc.; dt I 11
ll d, ll bcu111
p.:i,,, ''th' n.•pl11..<• thl, n1111' n11h tlH• 1cp1co;1..1111t1•111~ 111111a1g11 1 '~I g•••llJl\ w1 'l\ti
\1\t\.C' h I\<; lk!ltl l \l l dld
p,1,c ,.,1Jt- 111'c' r\.ft:t lll 111,11111.:tt11n ,,, .1 "1t•p•c!ic111.1111J11," a t..uhur;.il tx1111 1,,11
,, \1, , ...u,., l>ll \ .. rc:pre,c:nt uiun" rc!cN to the "pri11.:co;.,c'i" th.11 111d1v11l11<1lit :.nd gr•, 1rl\
-u, cu 111tt"tl'ret .1.nJ !-"' t: nu~an1ng'' to 1he11 c.xpcr1cn<.c, th11111gh l:ini11ag~. tt 1 1r1
t''lJ~:-. 11111,tl. JnJ otht:r cultur.tl con'>tnu. tions .i•J '1 ca1.:h111~ t'"l'''!;t.dly the cr•• n 11 1
s•1Jn. of rhe 1)ttlC1Jl cumculun1, tn\'ul"e' 111aking rcprc..c111a1111n!> t 1> ~t11clcnt\ thr1, gh
:.m;tu;e ttl pro\'1de ruJen~ " 1th <lt:'l<.r1puon'> of rcalicy. I lowevcr, 1he1,ffit..1.11 c.:nrricu
lm11-che appro' eJ repre!)encar.ion":r-15 on!) ont: vt:r'>1on of real 1l y, 11s11a lly th:it 1,f ~
soc1e~ ', do1ninant and conrrol11ng group. Po~trnodcrn1'>C'> urge. tcac;htr~ cc, b~(..t,mc
consoous of ho,,· po'' erfuJ they are 1n represenong reality to !!ntdcn1s an_d 11, c:nt1c~lly
assess the represenrations ther make in their teaching. Tht: offi~1al c:urr1culu111 i:1t1
neglects or gi,·e an officially sanctioned "spin" to ho" the expt:ntn<.e of rnarg1n:ili1..1d
groups. espeoally ..\frican, Hispanic, and :\ative Ainerican!); W(>mt:n; and gay-, an<l Ir,..
bians is represented. Rather th2n transmit officially approved knowledge, the prr,U:,\
of represenrarion needs to be used critically and reflectively to pre\ienl a wider range 1,f
human eA-perience.: 1
.-\. Posrmodern curriculum should not be organized into discrete !ltlbJtC:t matrtr
disciplines, separated by impermeable boundaries and guarded by experu. Ar1.,1ng in
its local context, it should offer a fluid and flexible means of examining t'iSUe'> CJf ptr-
sonal and group identity, and social, political, and economic problems. It should
encourage dialogues that question existing assumptions, particularly tho<it contained
in the officially approved curriculum. Recognizing that all societies and thei r 1n.,tiru-
tions are made up of forces contending for power and control, the curriculwn sb(Juld
make srudents a\vare that they live in an ideologically charged environmtnt thar
requires them to become social critics and critical actors. The curriculum, Iii«: tht
school, should be transformed into an agency that empowers individuals, especially
those who have been marginalized by the existing power strucrure.
CRITICS OF POSTMODERNISM
Although Po~rmo~ernism occup~es an in~uential position in conteinporary philoso-

phy of educaoon, 1t has many cnncs. IdealISts, Realists, and Thomis~ find it5 rejecoon
of metaphysi~ to be another~ a series of attacks that seek to replace universal truth
and values v.:ith cultur~l and situational relativism. Posonodem ism, thty cc)ntend, ~
a p~rly artJcuJa~d, highly repetitive, and wearisome attack against academic and
ethical standards rn educanon. I ts attack on metaphysics causes claims to knowledge
and val';le to be reduced ~o the most immediate of si tuations and it weakens effortS to
gen.eralize human e~nence to a higher plane. Further, they argue that Posnnod-
errusm masks a nostalgia for the remnants of Marxism. Discredited by the collapse of
137 I
Marxist-Len.inisn1, residues of M· . . .
Postn1odern1sts. a1 xist iueolog-y h;ivl! found a rcli1gc :inion !( ~11111c
I.n addition to the proponents . .
see philosophy as dealing \"t. tl1 ti of n1et~1phys1ca l ly hascd phi lo!-iophie~. thu:.c \Vho
p ostn10d ern1·s1n as an ideol ,,. . 1eti: c.:01111110 na Ibes
· ·in I111111an n:nure and expcriencl! '>ce
emph as1z1ng· · differences · ogy 1at seeks to po 11·t1·c1·z.e education and '>choolinir hy
f:a1.1lire to recognize th in race, c1ass . ' and gender.. T l1ey contend that ·11 reprc...cnr- 1., ;i
e conm1onalaes 0 1. · . h
These critics argue th· . . . • UnJversa 1s, 111 un1;111 nature and behavior.
society, across bound a~ Jt isfc~·ucial to affirm the co.m1non patterns in human life ;ind
dom and human · hanes o urne . . an d Pace, l · .
111 order to generalize about hun1an free-
we can make ~igd ts. 0 therwise, all that remains are situations that are so ~recific
oppression dono. JU .gment of.theiu. Although Postinodernists have raised issues of
uational fr' rrun~uon, ~d disempowerment, they operate from a particularistic sit-
. . th lamewor that rejects generalizations that explain human nature and behav-
ior m e arger world.
• • •
JACQUES DERRIDA, POSTMODERN PHILOSOPHY
In Who's Afraid of Philosophy?, Derrida expresses his views on certain Postlnodernist
themes such as institutional memory, legitimization, and deco11struction. D espite the
difficulties in interpreting Derrida and other PostJnodernist pl1ilosophers, their work
11as had an important impact on contemporary education, especially the foundation s of
education and curriculum theory. The selection from Derrida is included so that rea<l-
ers can become acquainted wiili a significant voice in contemporary pl1ilosophy. As
you read the selection, you may wish to consider me following focusing questions:
1. According to Derrida, how do institutions and schools include and exclude
n1 emories. Consider memory to be a view of the past. What does it rnean to have
a selective memory? How does inclusion and exclusio11 affect the identity of cer-
tain groups? Which groups tend to be included and which are excluded fro1T1 the
curriculum?
2. "What does it mean to be legitimate? Hboliw;.e ~e subjects fobund din iliebcurricu?

lum legitimate? D o you think that esta ·s 111g egitirnacy is iase · or o jective
es Derrida define deconstruction? Have you encountered the use of
3. H ow d0 . d . ;>
deconstruction of textS in your e ucaoon.
-d flVb · Afraid of Pbilasopby? Rights to Philosophy 1, pp. 5, 9, 11 , 53-54. Copyright C

0
From Jacques Derr1 a, ts f th Leland Stanford, Jr. University. With the permission of StaJtford Uni-
2002 by the Board of Trustees 0 e
versity Press, \V\.VW.sup.org.
....
'1 ll ''''' ' ' I 'l l )\ I \ 11 ' '
't II\ ' ' ' '.I \ lh\ ,\\' h 1pp1•n 1, ' If•
lt1;.t11 •,1t1r111, \\htth 1., '" ll'll11I .ind \\h1ch. "1th
' ' •\\}:I 1, 'I 1hl1111 I\' \t'I \ 'f'·l\'1' 11 ,,., nhl'n 1';11 l'I(''' 1 l'lt•11·ncl' 111 111-tht, I.I\\', lel!~tln
1
1lf
\
, , ,,. '1. '1,,1 '''''''"''''''' "'' "l\!l\\lh.11 (p11,1tnt• 111 1101). d11111111atl'' the ~11c1nl o;cicncc\
''' ' '' ' •''' ' I h, I ll .llll1"· 111 \'\ 1'1 1111111' 1111t.1hh "IH•11 tltt'\ t·o1a.e1n t 11lturc, cduc;111on ,
,, \ ' ' 11,~ \11'p1 ' ' ' I '"' ,,•\, ·, ·11\ I\\ I\\\ 1lll\1ht ,111d I l''C:ll't'lt, 111 h111 t ti\\ .t lllll\Cl11Cl1\ dl'>llnc-
'• \ ,. , fu'I ,1j II th,• hl\ll\hf1• 1\I ;\II 11\Stl\\I tion ft 111\1 ).'1111.. (t' \ l'll 11 ii', pc1l111ClltC IS hound
·•' , \\I\ \ h' p.11.hl11\ ""'' l'l'<.'\\hl' I<.', to hl• <.''i'>e1111all\• li1111ted). \\C \\cn1ld ha\ c to
h,
1\\,' \ \1 ' ' 1' \II II I\ r 1, llt1' 1' 11'-'\.'I Ill ;Ill <.'SS<.'\\ 111:1 l..t• a tbc•11111flc ro111.·cpt oft he opcrf!t n•r concept
, \ I\' , \\ h,\I11\'\tl\\ltllll\ 1\1\1'\t
\\ ,, 1 .lfl ;Ill of lcgiti 111:1uon. de instru111cnt:ilizt! It a" 1nuch
,, ,,,, ,,, ,"n\\11111,1,,h,lltt,1,.11,/1".\lhlsclec as p11ssihlc (tl i-; nc,•e1· possible purelr and ab-
1 ,,•h 1u1,·1npt' 111d1•111n111 hc1nµ tl1r~l'\lltl'll . \'he sol11telr) in order to interrogate philo<;oph1cally
, ,, ,1111, .u1IH,,. ,, thcn 111;11\,.cd h, \\h;u 11 it., i.rcn~~lol.{). scope, anJ conditions of validity.
"' · i'' ,,,11,111... '1''''' · 1H doe' 11nt tnll•r:tte. It \\'c "ill s1.•c the l1111its of' then1atization re-
t' ~' 1h(' "''''1 t1•d ,h,1pe 111 that "h1rh i.; in1pri11tetl ill those or ohjectilication.
1, , , 11 ,I lt I ' t' 11-. •It lit' d1.•hne;11cJ h, the , et\ 111 suh1nit un operative concept to philo-
thin~ 1h.11 tht\'.lt<.'I\\ II Ill tlHll I\ h.'l..ls 10 hl' ;, soph1cul tltc1n11tiz:11ion is not only, in this case,
th1, .\I ln 11rd\•1 111 .lc"lttf) tfstlf: to he" h:1t it i.;, to -;uh1nit scientific efficacy to epistemological
hi ,\,•li \\lll lt,(•lf ;1111\ I ('\'11~111<.' lt,<.'ll 111 ll'i O\\ 11 or plulosophical rcnecti<ln. Ir is not to fold
n.un. 11 111n'1 t':o.\ht\1,<' the \t'I\• outhllL'" of' 11-; kno\vlc<lgc hack into speculation. In the hest of
.hh 1•1 .11 '· 11 1 1'.llt pnt 1\ th11,, It 111u't "e:ir 11 ... C:t'IC'>, precisely the one that 1nust he sought out,
.11h ,., ,\I,\ l<.'.lllllt''• <'\<'\\ h1.'.11 I\' nanH.' "'•Ill<.'!( th1' :1111oun1' to reviving, enlarging, or radicaliz-
.HI\~ 1n.11 l.. \11d tht• 1.'\1..·lndcd ll1111g. \\ hoo;c tn1i1' ing scientific conceptuality, n1ethods, and prac-
·"'' 1lc.·c.•pl\ c.·n~1.1\c.'d 111 thl• hollo"' of the tice' 1hen1'lclves. 1~he concepts of legiti111ation
,\I ht\(', 11µh 1 Oil th1.• lll'>lllllltOll:ll
1111Jllllltt•d or ohiccufic:.ttion, for exa1nple, are fruitful and
'"1'1"" t 111 ,111f.t<'l'. 1.';111 l'lld up 111t111 n hcL·o111inµ cff<.·i.:t h'e, not:t bl y in the work of Pierre Bour-
1hc.· ... uh11'\'ltl1.• th.11 ht'.11\ the llll' ll\01) or the thcu, hcc:tu'le they can also, in a given siruation,
111,ttt11t1<\ll;1l h11d\ . l'h1s ' ' u11t• 101 thl' lo11nd1nµ correspond to a sociologically deternlined fig-
, 11111.·nc<' tif '\t.ltl'' ;\lid 11.1tinn.; .111d the people' it ure of' the social sciences in their relation to aU
II<'\ 1'\ f ,11 l.; II\ '\IJlJlll''' Ill d<.''>I 1'0) . \11d 1f t1'i 11l'\ <.'I kind, of tn'ltances, in particular to the history
1.1\..l'" pl.ll'l' t\\11.,'l' 1111J ftll :tll, hut lllll'il ll l'l'CSS:ll' d y of tll.;conrsc and philosophical instin1tions,
1.\11\llll\lt' 111' lt'f'l'<lt lt\l'Jf ;l(l'1lldlltµ' tO dl\<.'l''le '"hcthcr it he a question of the legality (or legit-
p1111.'1•,:.c.•:- .111d rh\ 1hn1,, But 1h1.; 1<1 ;11 . .o tt uc, 011 i111al'y) of the la,v or the objectivity of the object.
,II\ .1pp.11 c.•ntl\ 111;11 <.' 111odc.•"lt 'il':ilc, of ac:1dc111i c • • •
111,11ttllHlll,, ph1h1,oph) 111 p.llttlul.tr. Dec<>nstruction, which produces i~elf first

• • of nil as the decon'ltruction of these opp<>sirions,
l ~l.. 111µ- '"''"' h1r111o; .111d a<l1nitt111g- of' thcrefC>re inunediately concerns, just as much
111.ln) dc.·,.:r1.'t'' lt' \ Cl11.;1011, 1n1 ... un<lcr,t.1nd1nµ, and JUSt as radically, the insarutional scrucrures
1n.1r~111.1li1:1t ic.HI , 111h1h111011. 1n-;11fflcicnt de.,,cl- founded on such opp<>sitions. Deconstruction 1s on
11p111t.•nt), th1' 11onlc~t1111.1t1on 111 1t,ell c.:;11J, for institutional practice for u.•htch the concept of the
rc.•ltnc.•d .11111h• '\l''• ont.'' d1at tire .it <>nee prel11111- 1nst1tutton rannins " prob/mi. But since, for the
n.11, .111d 111tt•1 n1111ahlc.' . lh bl' nhle 10 cla11n al'o rea on I an1 in the process of pointing out, it i
tn he.· ph1lc.1,oph1l'.tl, 'lllh .111.1n.lly'''111ust not he not a "cntique" either, 1t destroys no more than
llll'rch upc.·1'1\ll\ c.'. ln pr1nc.:1plc 1t 1111111c include 1n it d1'iCredits critique or institutions; its transfor-
''" 'l'·lll' 1h1.• tr1..'.1t111ent of ll' O\\' ll cnncepn1a l rnative gesture is other, its responsibility is other
11'''r"111c.·11t... hc~tnn111~ \\llh the concept of
and consists in following as consistently as pos-
Il C)
s1blt• " h.n I h .1, t' .11111, t' .111d t' i'l'\\ lt t•11· r 11ll1·d ,1
du· \ t' I) d 1t11 111111111 1111 1111 !1 111 1111nn.Ju 11111 ,i( , 11 11
g-1.1phtt'' ot lt t•1,1hil1t\ . l'lt.H 1~ '' h, du• -.111111•
1111p1·1,111 \l ', 1l lld d tc 1,11 11•11111 ,11 11, tl11 1C 11111 , tl11
l't'Spnn.;1h1.ht) 111 11•, .11 1111\'t' plttl 1;..o plt) l•he
11'\ lh111 '1 li1111 \ \\I .111 t , til 111~( 1111 (111 1.1111 1 1, wh 11 11
srruµ)!lt•s h1r tht.• rt•cog111t1P11 of til l ' 1 iµ-111 111 pli1
I\ l 1'1'1 tll1 11g 11\t lj l t! I I \ 11111 ) 1 · ~11 • 1 d.. tl11 pl11l11
lnsoph, , th1.· t''-lt'ttSLt111 nf ph1h1suph11·;1l tt•:11:'1111g 1,oph 1vn l ii ., ' 111 Ii , \Vt' \viii t .di 11 , 111 1 1,1 1 v 1 1, 11 ~ n ,1
,1nd rt'S(\\rl·h) ,111.I tht' 11111s1 v1µ-tl.111t pt :11·ti 1·1• ol Sllll .. , llt: ll li 1,•. 1 " f, iglic•1" Ill II
11
11 JI IH Jll 11l1 ti llld "
dt'l.'t\l\Sttllt.' t tP n . l(11.·11n s idt.•1 this n cont n 1d1l'lH>n ,
111.111 phtlns nph 1t.•:tl (1 11 111d1•t' d 111111 ,tl , ptilillc .11,
J~ ;,'t'I rain pe11pl1.• dn. is 10 1111dc rs111nd its l11t ll· t.•d11~·nl , 111 , jurid.il·:il) r t·., p1111 ..t1 1il11 y, 11111 , 11 11ply
.1hont d1'1.' ons11n1.·tin 11 as uhnut phtlos1111hr . 11 0 lort.•1µ11 10 11 , It 1-; t' Vt' ll 1'1/}l.tlJJ,l'i l 11 1 pl11lo...11pliic .11
,111\(l\lnts to 1.'tinsidl'rinµ· tht'tll tt:rtns fr1rt·iµ n 01· rc:spo11sihtli1y, \Vl11r h d11c., 1101 111t·a11 1h111t111vl1ly
opptised r1> 011t' :inothc·r. ·\~ f11r tht• r1·s1h111s ihili 1r 111sl·riht•tl in philosophy, for 11 i., ;ll'> o 1· n ~a ~t·cl 11y
ro \\' hirh l :un rc•fc:.•rring here, it is no lt111gt:.r i11 j111H::lillllS th:l t CO llHll:llld 111 ()ll C:t' lll () I C 11 11 p c1a
pi1rel) phil<)sophil'nl , in f.1rr, nor 1:an it ht: lk·ter tivc:ly nnd 1non.! gently, 1non.: d1'it.rtc1ly and
n1ineJ b~ phi losoph ira l conccpts of rcsponsi hi l- 111orc 11nt:o111pro1n isingl y: an1011 g- other 1h111gi,,
it) (the freed() tn of the subject, cnnscitJ11sness, 1h:11 one "think" the philosophic;1I d t!t c 111111 1:i
rhe I, the individual, intention, volunt nrv deci- tions or rcspnnsi hi Iity, I he i1nper:11 ivl.!, or Ihe
sion, etc.), \\'hich nre srill ro11ditio11s and rh;1s /i111i- n1H.:ondition:1I, \vhit.:h is :i lso l<1 !'i~ y. thcir i.;ot.io
tntions of responsibility. son1eti111es li111i1ntions in inst iu11-io11::1 I dctcr111 i nations.)
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we ex:11nined Postn1odcrnis1n, a lead ing conte1nporary philosophical

persuasion. vVe en1ph asized the Post1nodernist rejection of rnetaphysics and the
Enlighcenn1ent concept of reason. We pointed out tha t knowledge clain1s arc not
statements of objective truth bt1t are social constructions of dornin~1nt grollps or their
spokespersons. Posttnodernis111 opposes giving credence to 1netanarratives and avows
that they are historica lly situated soci,11 constrnctions developed by <lon1inant groups
to Jegitimize their positions and privi leges. Schools have functioned as agencies of
indoctrination in the social constructions of clon1inant gro11ps. Whi le don1inant
groups control the representations made in schools, other groups are 1narginalized.
Instead of being agents of dominant groups, teachers need to exa1nine the representa-
tions they make and encourage a pll1rality of voices, especially those of traditionally
silenced individ11als. Rather than being docile transn1itters of officia lly approved
regimes of truth, teachers should function as agents of critica l change.
1. Con1pare and contrast the concepts of "modern" and "postmodern." Are you a 1nod-
ern or a posonodern person?
2. Exarnjne the state1nent "Some societies arc advanced and others are primitive" from
a modernist and posnnodernist perspective.
3. Why is Postu1odernism such a significant influence on literary and educational
thinking?
14t> l'\"l l 1'11111•''' l ll '•' I HI I 'I
...
'
'"'''' l•,IH\\ 1h1111111h 11i.l1 "·•· "' 11111<
11 ..\\ \\ ••111.11.•11 ,, 111.. 111.1 .... 11111111111. 111\t
I"" "'"Iii>
Ill
111 I 1111 I 1111 I \\111
It
l '\Qt I I{' \ '\ l 't tt I ' l \ti l l l l' l~ t \I l ' I -.;

l l 'Ill~ ,l,•11111,11111lhll\ 1 I\111111\l I '\ ll,d111't ill I 111111" Ill ti 11 lh I ol111 ti" ,, I 11
,,11\,•~1· 111 11111\ 1•1,111
~. 1\..1111111_. t h'\\l1,111l Ill 1,1111,\111 \ 11 1 tth1 I tit, '' ..... 111 I ,,, 1111 lu' I \ I I ,,,
\\\II
~<'l\\.'1.11lll11'ljll"l.llhll\1ill1d, lllt'I 111lhl,\llh•1l11111 I

\ , \tlJl\~1· .11l1•lt1t\' 11111h1 "'I'" l 1111t.11l11111 ,l\,11d,l l1, 111 ,,I''"'"'" l" ••pli 111 ti
h1,.1I <\1111111\111111 111·\\ th, ""ti.I
.... \ , .I ,1.,,, ,,,,,,,.,, .111.1h '"'11·1.il .. 111i. I" .. ..... Ill 1111 "1. I"""''""'
11, 111.!1 '""
tht·,1,,l,t.ll\\1'11!11>111111,11111 1111 '••111111 Klt1 111•.lt1>11.l111t1I 11111111 11111'l11l11 11li
t<".11 \ n.1h'1' l11·ln11• 11111111·~111
l'vr ~'\C~rprs JtHl h1hlt11~1.1phH•, 1111 I >1·11nl.1,1111h11l1I11•111.l,1 \ l11li111 ,11

''"'"'" hrdn1.u 1nn.edu/ d t'r1lil11.h1an
l\1r Ji~cuss111ns 111 I '1111c.111h, 1·n11,1il1 \I 11 h1·l I·••tH .111h I~ • "' 1111' , ....11
''"' 1•.q u t . ed u .11u/et! u/ 1·pol/fu111·1111It/.I1t111
SUGGESTIONS FOR f 'UR'l 'l ll ~ lt l{l•:.l \ l ) I Nt:

\ rono11'1c:z, Stanley, u11d ( :i1P111, 1111111) \ /',11rt1111.lr111 / ,/11,,lf/1111 /',o/1(1,1, 1 '11/111,,, ,111.I -. ... 1.1/ r '''''''"'
.\linnc:lpolis: Ll111\l'' '"' 11l 1\li11111'"11.1 l'tt·,,, l'l'J I
n.111, S., ed. l "our.111/t 1111tl l·'rl111.if11111 I 11111lt111 R1111d1·olK•', 1•1•11
Best, Src,cn, and Kclhll'1, l >11111(h" l'111t11111,/011 /11n111 N111 \,.1~ t . .. 111 •• ,.1, 111•1 1
Cnhoonc, L.1\l·rcnt·c F /i11111 \/,,,/,.11111111 t11 /'111t11111.l111111111 111 1111/111/,,11.1 11,1,uol, \ 11, 111 1, l.\11 II l'ulo
h~hcr:., 1IJCJ6.
l)errida,j.1cquc' ()j (1'11111111111t1rlo1.11,11 ll.1h11111tt t' 111111" I lool'l,11i. \ '""'''II\ 1'1 1 .,,, 1•1 r.
()oil, \\'illian1 F.,Jr. l l'111t \/111/r111 l'fl•{'r.t11 •1''"I11111.11/11111 'Ir'' \, ul, 1, 1.. 111 , , 1,,11 1 1(, 1'1•"•
(~olu1nl.>1t1 l ' n11l'l'll) , l1J1>I
Faulconcr,Jan1c~ ••111tl \\ '1,11h111I, ,\L1 rl, 1·do, l/1/1111p1111/1114 //r'1.lr·!lo;11 N111 \nol, l 1 11111111.I ~, l '1111•, 111
Prc~s, 2000.
Fouca u IL, 1\11 it·h cl. I ~,,. /r, lw11/11p,y "/ A.1111 11•/rr(~ r 0111./ rl1r I >11, '"" •r ,,, I ·"''l
"''·~·· N 1 11 \, 11 1. I' 1111 I" , "1
Books, 11)7 2.
Fnut·:iult, t\llir hcl. />1111•1•1/A.111111 1/rd.~<'. l h111 ~h111·d Iii ( :111111 ( :111d1111 , I 1·11 \l,11 •., l1ooll , l11lt11 \l1 pl111111 1111• 1
K!ltc Sopher Nc11 \'nrl • 1'11111 h1·1111, 1111{(1
( :iroux, 1 lcnry f\ / 11n111111tlr11111111, l'r1111111.111, ,1111/ < ·1111111,1/ I '11//11, 1 /.', ./1,1,i•111o; //1•1111./.11", \II 11111 '<1 II•
Lln1ver'll)' l'n:'' ol Nl·11 \"1 l, 1•1•) I
I loc\cllcr, l)a1 1d.J ,Jr /1ir l'111t1111ulr111 111111 1111 0 11,.111 /li11 11'ilot ,11 i,/ t 11 / 11111 1111 1o, IV'" N, 11 \,, 1 ~
· ll\ayn~ Puhl"hl·1,, I 1J1J(,
1
Jcnlks, C:h.1dc\ /hr 11111 \/11.11111 Nr111/11 I 1111ol1111 \, ,1.1 1111 1 I il111o 111 , l'''J •
K1nrhcloc,Jnc I. /1111'111d11( '1111111/ /'11l111.. ,,f /r,11/to Jl•111A 111 0\ \ltf'l''"'i'''· 1•,.,,..1,,,f,,, \\, 1 111 ,1 1, 1 I
llcrg111 & ( •.1n l")". I 11111
I yotard,jl'nn-1 ro111·11" //tr l'111t111111/i•111 l '1111d1111111 I N1/•11rt 1•H A.111111•/,,/H' llt111•l11c.ol l1 ~, 1 1 11111•11
1
n1n111011 11111l ll11,111 1\ lu'" '"" 1\ll11111·11p111i~. 1\ltu11i•-111 11 \ 111 11 1 l•lt) l'H••, l'JM I
I 11\J•lf l<l lr.IJ I 1•11 f~ll)fJfk'I \I
141
I ,1 11 1.1rol, le 111 l r "" •" /, ir,/ tit /'u 1111~J1111

v•
J I I I 11 'Y l<r I " ''•~C) and ~1ark l{oho::ru Athnu
l l111lrl 1 11d~. ~I I l11111n11111c•, 11r1l
1
I( 111111.,\• 1 1111 , 1 ti //.,I u11 11tl1 Nr,1,/n '<c rtr ~ I' 111 }11 , •
1
J
1< 11 '' \I "I( II< I I/,,. l'1J1t \I ,/,, 11 onJ 1/ r I,, l11J11 11111/ I f 1111 ti 1111/r 1 < m! nd , < !,,.ule
.
I 111111\1t1 l •1i'~ 1'1111
'
l(o\"11111, l' .11111111 \1 /'011 \l11d•1111111111,/ tfrt ~'"'''' \(1n1u /,, /fl/•J f111•1o1d and lnr111 /r,11 l'rirn;cn1111
1 1111~1 1•111 I 111\ Cl\ll} 1'1 1;5\ l'J'J2
1
"" h 1' lit Hu Ii 11 d, l d \ 1r1 1hr i l'u 11111}ru/1 m I ay1 r111 \tt/7.J<ht J f'rr/ud, t'> f'h1b1 ''fi 1 1 I uture ~~
'111 k. ( .11111111118~ l 111~l:f\1ty l'r"~'• 21)00.
'>l.111 1 11, I' 111 ir k f.un1r11/u111/Jn.t"1/1n1rnt1n 1/lt Po1f7111Jd'rn / ,ru ~t·v" Yr1rk <1drland Yul1lt hsng, l</1S
I. C. I· Black, 1he f)yru1nua ofi\Jf,Hkmizatum: A ~tudy 1n l'vrnparauve ll1Jwry New Yr,rlc: I f3rper
:ind Ro,v, 1966), p. 7.
2. l·or criuqucs of glol>ali1.ation, see Joseph£. Stiglitz, (,,/oballuitifJ'fl and I~ D1r<l1Tltn1~ Ne>.1. York:
V\'. \ \ ' '\1'orton Co., 2002) and Amy Chua, W<tr/d rm Fire: //rru; Exparr1ng /·rte \,Jarket Democracy Brttdr
l•:1b11ic I lntred and Gl<1b11/ lnrtability (New York: Doubleday, 2003).
3· Eu ward I(. Berggren, "Deconstruction and ~othjngness: Some Cross-Cul rural Le<;son!> on
·1enching Con1parative World Civilization," in Rebecca A. Marrusewicz and \\'iUiam YL Reynolds
l12ridt/Out: f;0111e-mporrtry C'ritical Perspectives in EducazillTl (New York: St.•\llartin's Pres~. l 994), pp.
24-25.
4. Friedrich Nien~sche, 'Fhe Will to Power, trans. Walter Kaufmann G'\ew York: Vintage, 1967).
5. For Nietzsche as a predecessor of Posnnodernism, see Richard Schacht, ed., ,\liezz.scht's Pon-
rnornlisn1: Ess#ys on Nietzsche's Prelude w Philosophy's Future (New York: Cambridge University Pre<;c;,
2000).
6. ()avid E. Cooper, World Philosophies: An Historical Introduction (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge,
MA: Blackwell, 1996), p. 467.
7. George R. Knight, l.ssues and Alternatives in Educational Phil-Osophy (Berrien Springs, Ml:
Andre,vs University Press, 1998), p. 86.
8. Jacques Derrida, Of Gra1n11Iatology (Baltin1ore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).
9. Cooper, p. 473.
IO. l'Ioward A. Ozmon and Samuel M. Craver, Phil-Osophical Foundati<ms of Education (Columbus,
OJ l: Merrill/Prentice llaU, 1999) p. 356.
11. Knight, pp. 86-87.
12. Jennifer M. Gore, "Enticing Challenges: An Introduction to Foucault and Educational Dis-
courses," in Rebecca A. Martusewicz and William M. Reynolds, Inside/Out: Cuntemp<rrary Critical f'er-
spectives in. Educttti01Z (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), p. 110.
13. Gore,p. 114.
14. Cooper, p. 476.
15. Tbid.
16. Rebecca A. Martuse,vicz and William M. Reynolds, Inside/Out: Corztempor11ry Critical Perspec-
tives in Educfltion (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 11-13.
t 7. c:oopcr, p. 466.
18. Angeline Martel and Linda Peterat, "Margins of Exclusion, Margins of Transformation: The
Place of Women in Education," in Rebecca A. Martusewicz and William M. Reynolds, Inside/Out:
Conte11ipor11ry Critical Perspectives in Education (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994) , p. 152.
L9. Martusewicz and l~eynolds, pp. 3-4.
20. Elizabeth Ellsworth, "Representation, Self-Representation, and the Meanings of Difference:
Questions for Educators," in Rebecca A. Martuse1vicz and William M. Reynolds, 111.ridUOut: Crmtn11-
porary C1·/tica/ Pe1·Jpectives in Education (Ne\v York St. Martin's Press, 1994), p. 100.
21. lbid., pp. 100-101.
I TI·
1111h, p11111hn t 1 h.1p111•., \\t t , ,111 111 11•d philu,oph\ nl l'dlll.1111>11 tht 1t·l.11 1un, h1p tn
111111111 11" 1111111, 111 pl11\11,1111h\ 1111 cdul,l1Hll1 ;ll goa l, , \l hoolin~, l11rr1l Ulu111 , ll',llh1ng,
in.I 11 J1111111L 1 hi,1 h .1pll' I d1·h11 t'' 1dl•nlc>I:{) . c11 11, 1dc1' '' ' ' 1111 il;1111 1e' .1nd d1ltcrc11t.l'' 10
pl'1l11,11ph\ , 11 l1•1111ht'' ,, .., 1·11111p1111 l'llt ,, nnd 1nvl''it1g.11 e' 1111pliL·a11on' for ed11c: .111on .
ltlt't•lc1fil' '' 111<: hL•lr<•I (idea) .111d value ' }'stein of a group, e'pccially in relation tn polt
111 ' · ' "'•<I\ . Cl 111111111" '' • .111d l'd11l'at1on . 1\ p;roup can be c1tiz.en'i of a c<>untry; 1ne111ht.•r,
111 .11 .11 1.il . c1h1111 , 01 l.111µ1111µc group; 111c1nhcrs ol'a politicnl party; o r, in 'ion1e ca'iC'>, a
l1" dc,,11111.il '''' 'l'I)'. 101· l' \:1111plc, l'1111sidcr what it 111cnns lo he an Aincrican in tcnn'
1
11 t 1 11 1111111 111 ~ loup1d c 11111 y. 1\f1t•r the terrorist atlncks on th e World Ti·ade ( :enter 1n
NL''' \1 11 k C'1t) .ind th e l't.•11taK011 in \tVa'ihing-ton , D.C~. 011 Septc1nber 11 , 200 1, tclc' '
, 11111 ,1d, 1•1t1,c111t.·n1 ' ,110,v<·d people of dif'fercnl ral'es and ethnic groups Sa } ing. "I <llll
,111 \II ll' I rl .111 " l'hl' .id' t o11vt.'} cd the n1es,agc l ha l A1nericans 1 though of di ffcrcnt
1,1, ,. , ,111d cd1111 l 111c,, ' ha 1L' ' 11111t•th1ng in co111111on- thci r 'icnsc o f being, thci r itlcnnt\ ,
,I \ ,Ill \lll CI 1(.,111
\ \ htlc 1-\111t' l ll an' \\IC l't' hc111g- rnlli ctl nnd united, their adversaries, personif1cJ h~
< ),,1111,1 H111l ,.1dcn, 11~t·d 11 v11leotnpc telecast over an Arabic- h1nbrt1age station , co .1ppc•1l
111 1h1•11 V<'' ' 'on of l'! h1111 10 cnt.·1n1n1ge fol lowers Lo co111111i1 inure terrorist ntt .1ck~ .1 ..
111111 11111 pll:id, or holy w:1r. ' J'hese two very difTerc111 idcologicnl 1ness11gcs, carried 111 .1
d1 .1111.1111 1111d vivid \Vay hy television , have h<ttl their countcrpn rts in the past. F;11no1Pi
1.dl) '"K ' Pt' 1' 1 he-. 111 A1 11e1ir:1n hi'ltury such n'i l, incol11 's 11 llousc Divided," \\'il~on \
"M.1k111H thl• vV111 lcl ~ate for De111ocracy," Roosevelt 's " Da}' 'l' hat \\'i ll Ln·c 111
l 11f.1111y," ,111d M 1111111 I .11thl·r l\.111K\ " I I l< 1vc n l)rcan1" nppe:tlcd to A1nl·r11:an l'Ol'l'
h1•l111 .. ,11111 v.tl11c' 111 j(Cl1Cr:i1c1111d 111ohilizc n people.
Ah l11111 1<h 11111 l'X:1111plt•., of 1dcolog1cal rne~'inge' arc dr:111u1tic ones, i<lcoloi.,') ,,1, 0
111111111111'1 It .,lj d1 1111111Ut 01lly 11'1WL'll , 1110.,1hc idea' :ind helicf.-1 thnt give groups a sense of
lic·l1111g111J<, or 1dt:11111 y, ll11ld .. tllc111 t11g-cthcr, and provides their agendas for action.
I 11 \I' I I I~ :-\I:'\ t
143
l)isti11~ u io;li i11g l (h.·c>h >~} frcn•t l>fiilc >sc >t>hy

\1 111 't µli 111\'1', id1•11log·1l'' il11tl plidc"op'1 1c·, i11iµh1 'ee1n to l1l llllll '
hot h dl·.tl "Ith Hll':I'\, Ih<.·~ hot h C\ pl.1111 'vhy the \Vllrld '' :t'i 11 I' 111•,\; 111 1hie 'a111e. l he)
11
• 1111 t 111 1 • • • ... , l<>t1;1rcpre,lrtp·
'~ • P '' 1 Pll\C 111 th.11 they purport to tcll 11., ho\v we 'tho11ld <1r \houltl ntil ll\c'
iii,\ ht1dt, ,111' 'lronµ 1111pl1l'•ll111n' for cduc:tt111n and '>Choolin~. Indcc<l , 01 nc i<lei 1lo~
~ 1 't' 11·tc·1 to their thoug-ht ')'ll'111s .is \.Vorld VIC\.V' or philo-.ophie<, '
. . l)·c''P1ll' th~sc si111il:11 itic:..? ~here ;1 re Stg'llili ca nt difference'> hctwecn phdo,oph\
11 1 1
• • d d.lulog-y. I he 111orL' trnd1uonal phi losophies, such :is Tdeali.,n1 , Reati.,111, ;in;t
I IHlllllSlll, \\'crc hascd on n 1nctnphysic:tl foundation- I.he univerc;al and eternal 1nnh
.ind ,·alue~ tl~at transcend place and tin1e and are applicable to all people, everw here.
l'<.'µ;trdl1.·s~ of t.{l'oup identity. Ideologies, in contrast, are usually based on spec;fic con-
~h11ons ~,I pl:1c.:c, tin1c, and group n1embership. Pragmatism, especially De\\'er's Exper-
1n1cn~nli:..111, argued that experience, although shaped by context, was a histor1call~
ong-01ng and \.vorldwidc process, as was the application of the scientific method, rhe
~nl!thod of' intell igence. (l'or a discussion of Pragn1atism, see Chapter 5.) In contrast,
ideologists, ~irising in specific settings, look to nation, race, ethnic and language group,
policic.:al party, and class to create group solidarity.
Sl' l~U.KfING IDEOLOGY

Ideology as a fo r111 of group identity has probably existed since hun1ans banclecl
together in kinship groups, clans, and tribes. Over the course of history, group identity
and solidarity beca1ne 1nore co1nplex. Me1nbership as a subject of an empire in China,
Japan, and Egypt generated a large racia lly based political bond in ancient times. In
classic;il (~reece, culn1re, lanbruage, religion, and citizenship came to a focus in the polis
or city state. I-Ion1er's epic poe1ns, the Iliad and Odyssey, used n1yth and history to cre-
ate the sense of what it 111eant to be Greek, in contrast to the non-Greek-speaking bar-
barians. ()reek chi ldren and adolescents were introduced to the dramatic events in
their histo1y through the H o1neric epics and, through ideology, began to identify \vith
their cultural heritage and tradition. For the ancientJews, who regarded themselves as
• • ••
DfFFl~ RENCES BETWEEN IDEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY
l . traditional philosophies are 1nctaphysical- above and removed from particular contexts of time
anJ place; ideologies arc contcxtu:il, :iri~ing in P.arti:~tar times and pla~es. . .
2. Philosophies clain1 universal or world,v1cle applicabil1cy, regardless of ome and place; ideologies
an; basc<l in given hbtorical, politica l, and economic situations. . . .
3. Philosophic!'. c:lai1n that they arc relevant. to a~J pe~plc, cve~Y'vhe~e, at an~ ome; 1deol?~es
cinpha~i 7.c ,pccific 111 cn1licr::.hip based on 1denoty \\'Ith a naoon, tnbe, ethnic group, pohocal
parry, or <;OCIOeconcnnic class.
l If I' \ I' I 11 II 11 I " I II .11 '• \ I1 I I11 I \ I 11 I
1
l 11111 ', "( f111, 111 1 1111111 . tl 1t 1111 d1 11111 I d111111I \\II II "" I"' If fl Kl .. tli,11 ll<.! llt•d I
, , 11•.1 111 11 l1 r11111' .111d 1 rl11111 l"""I' 1.lr 1111111 1111 111 1,,, 1111 < 1111 .. 11,111" ,,, rl11 · \11rlcllc
\ gc ,, tl11 ( 111111 h I It .Ill d d11 '4 11 .. 1 111111 lll JI lllr 111tl11 d Wltll ,1 llfll Vf I C.:.iJ C ~l111\t11111111 11
l l1l\l l \I I , Ill 1,ll h 1d rl11 '•I I \,111'1111 •,, f( 11111p 1d1 llllfll ,1111111 ,111d 1111 llllllV f ,llJ H f111111 ,ffl
011111.tl µ111 p1ilt111 1d 1'11111\ ' " ' " II' olll f 111p11c 1111 f111111IH111 1( .1 llH Jtt!H I 11f ,1b11dy11f rt·li
~ 111\l' fir 111 °\l 'I 'o
11 11 ,1, 11111 11111il ilu· h11<· t•1gl111•f'11th n11d 11i111ll't11tl1 11•1111111 cs tl r;it 1d1·ol1 1j(rr·~
d1 \1•l11p1•d 111 1h1·11 1111111· 11111dl't 11 11111t1''''· 111 la11 11gl11t·1·11tlt Cl'fllltry f•rant1, ''"n"
I 11liµllt1·111t11•11t tlH·1111 ' 1', tl11' ldc•11l11gc11·'· w111• 1•11g.1J.(t'd 111 t.,l't: V111g to 1111rltr'itand h1 1v.
1111111,111 l11·111g, f1111111·d 1111·11 ult ,,, l l11·y llllH l11d1·d 1li:11 1dt'a., ;11f1'>t f rorn the h111nan
111111g,' 11111·1,1\ 111111 111 111vcilv11111•11t \V1tl1 1h<·11 t 111111•Jeti, wh t n ~tnd where they hvcrl.
ldl'.1,, 11\11,, \\1·11· '"''" ,,, cl1 Vl'l11p111g 111 'P<:trf1L t on1cx10, rathe1 tli:1n ao, rr1etaphy.,1c:al
""" l'f'·' 1,
1\., 11 11•,1111 111 tl11· '1g11rl1t'a11t '"11nl th:11ll{<''I L'H1t.,ed by the A1ner1can and f rcnth
l~r v11h11 11111 ,, tl11• Nnp11lt·11111t W;1111, th e ri'!c of 11utio11:tl10,111 1 :ind the begin ning of
111d11,11111lr,111, 11cw a11d powl'111111'111·111'1 of poli11<.:nl, '>oc.:l:il, 1,.11ltural, ancJ econornic 1c.J en
tifl l':llfllfl :i1'11,1· 11nd 1·1·l1p ...1·d 11lcl1·1· ftllfff 't oridt·ntity. J,1hcr:tlio,111 becan1e the ic.Jeol<Jgyof
1h1· 11,111µ 11111ldl1· l'h1''I'' :incl '>c1vcd n't ~1 rcvoll1t111nary ideology that proclaimed ind1-
v11 l11.d '1µ111 ... :l14';llfl'I tl11· Vl'\tccl Ill 1,lllLl:lll'· (!·or :i dt'i(..lJ'>O,ion of I...iberalism, <;ee c;hap-
11'1 11 .) C '.11110.,l'l v:111,111 d1 vcl11pcd ;io., an nntrlrbcral rc;11..1ion 1hat urged the rec,rora tron of
l11111111111111·111' 10 11:1d111011al 1110.,1111111011., o.,11th no, 1hc f:1111rly, church, and kmg. (C:onser-
v;111,111 10., dt'l "''cd 111 C:hap11·1 12.) Variou., fonno, of )oc;ialic,rn, ranging from utopian
to Mnr "''l, 'iOlll(ht to 11110,c the r1111.,c1nu.,nec,r, of the working clac,'ie'i and rally them
aµn1110,1 l'np11:d1"1 cx plo11;ition. (Sec c:haptcr l 3 for a dro,cuo,,ion of Marxism.)
l(:tf'I M:11x, who dt·velopcd a theory of o,cicnufic '><Jciali"11n, known as dialectical
111:11 1·1 lttl l.,111, lf'>cd 1hc tcf'11t idco/11µ,y, to denigrate riv~1l ">y11Lerno, of thought as rnisleading,
E1l'>c con'lriou-.11e~o, . M:ir x l'1JIHlc111n ed the nalionali'>tn of official state ideologies and
thl· 'il'llfflll'fili;tl lihcr:t l :i11d c·o11.,l·rv:111vc 1ueologie'> a-. the delusional false conscious-
flc'i., Lf'c:itcd hy r 11li11g clao,o,c'I 111 rnio,lcad and confu">c the working classes. FaJse con-
i,l 1o11 o,ne.,, wao, a way of hloc.:k111g the devclopn1cnl of true con!.ciousness about the
1c:il111c., of '>CJt:i11cc.:01111111ir d11111ination and exploitauon.
' I he var 1011' 1dcolog1co, L'tlt ry with them very powerful educational implicauon).
' I hn 111gh 11 re~•,,., of i111111If1al ed11c.:a t ion, 'luch a~ .,peeches, pa mph let~, and books, the
l1·ad1·1·., :ind 'pokc"tper1i1111t., of' 1hi.! varionc, idcologie'> sought to justify their position.,
and pcr.,11:ule the unc.:011111iitt1:d tCJ join with them in ciLher creating a new social order
01 i11 re.,101 ing th e glories of' a pa.,l age. In tcrrns of for1nal education, the various 1cle-
olo).(ic' each h ~1d thei r riwn ver'iion of' the purpoc,c of education, the roles of schools
and u·alhcr,, the con.,, n11..1ion oft he curriculum, and how children shouJd be social-
11cd, pol1111::illy ;1nd cc1ino111il':illy, rnt<> the world.
WI IY S' J U l)Y 11) 1•,()l ,()(;Y?
ldt11l111{y t'i 1;0 pc1 vac,ivc 111 11111 lives, in our group 1clentification and membership, and
111 o,h11p1n14 0111 hchav101, 1li:1t fl J'i virtually irnJX>S!lible t<> av<>id it. Ideologies range from
1111· vt•ry Kcncnrl rind 1nl fu,1vc (hc1ng an American), to the still geoeraJ but more
Cl JAIYJFR '\11\'F LIJFC>I ()(,)
\\.I) FIJl C \If()'
145
restricted (being 31 \f ·
.
(h e111g . , ru:an i\1nerican or \Ile~ ..
a me111ber of" a teacher's . . . . ll:,111 \111encan), lO the Stil) 1nort! l11nitt!d
Teachers). l'hey even opcr·1tc in .Lh1H ~·~llrlallon \Uch as the l\Jncrican Federation of
the "?r~ins," the "jocks," ri1c" ot:sc"tl1ucs or ~u hgroups fc~nnd in high '>chool-. such a-.
ho\\' tt fun ctions \Ve get 'l clea ~ '<l' an.c! !lo on. By studying what an ideologr\ i.., and
as a n1en1ber of a' group. • • 1er 1 ea ot 1d enury, · inem ber.,h1p,
. belonging, and· at:ung
COMPONENTS OF AN IDEOLOGY
AI1 ideology-a group's sh db 1· fs .
pretatio f. . . are e ie and va.lues-1s expressed as: (1) a vie\v and inter-
te fn. 0 ltS past, its h1~tory; (2) an appraisa l of its current condition or siruation 1n
r:ns 0 ltS past; (3) some idea of ho,v tbe group if they do certain things can maintain
or
b unprove
. their
· situation;
· · (4) a policy
· for deliberate
' '
maintenance or change that can
e imp 1emented by action. We shall now illustrate these ideological components in
two ways: how they relate to the general group identity of Americans, and how they
relate to what has been called the "public school ideology."
Viewing the Past

A group's collective memory of its past is important in shaping members' sense of
identity or "we-feeling." We can look at histories of various nation-based groups, such
as the American people, the English, the French, the Russians, and so forth. There are
histories of racial and ethnic groups as well: African Americans, Irish Americans, or
Polish Americans. There are histories of special-interest groups, such as tbe American
Federation of Teachers, the American Medical Association, and the American Legion.
Some of these histories are academic interpretations of past events and their meaning,
in which the llistorian aims for an accurate poro·ayal of what happened in the past; oth-
ers are popular histories that highlight a group's achievements and contributions. An
ideology uses these histories to a.ppropriate certain parts of it to shape group i.dentity,
membership, purpose, and mean1ng. For example, who were the leaders or mrun char-
acters in the group's past, what did ~ey do, ~n~ ho\v mi.g?t \Ve em~ate them? ,
Perhaps even more important m expla1n1ng and givmg me~n1ng to a group s her-
itage is rnyth. A 111yth is a lege?d~ sto~, o~en coocerne.d with acrual persons_ and
eve11 rs but \ovith embellished or imagined s1gn1ficant events 1ncl~ded to make the story
more dramatic and cornpelling. For example, every schoolchild knov,is the story of
••• •
AN IDEOLOGY INCLUDES:
1. An interpretation of a group's past th~~ mar be both historical and mythical.
2 An account of a group's present condioon. , · ·
• · · · t · ning the groups SJtuaoon.
3. A strategy and an agenda for 1.mpro,1ng or main~• cc-related co the group's welfare.
4 . ome 1'dea o f soc1a
. 1change--improvemenc or ma1nrenan
l \ii 1 \\ .1' I II ~ Idi , Il l• I th• , 111 111 1111 111<1 ., 1 \111d 111 11 I 11 11 •tl 11 do I• 111111 II• 1 1,
l ,I \\,,11, '""'"'" ' "'' dl1 1•111 ' \II I'" 11.1. I•• J' l\ 1 11lol1ol 11•1 0 I l• I " " I I I
, , \ II\ th 1,•111,, I•• , 111111 tl1111 1• d1 II I.,.,,, 1110111 11111 111.I 1111 lllll lf' l1d 1!111 II 1li 111
' .I ' I
'
, I Ill th I • '"" d 11 ol\ 111d I ' '> Iii 11 I ., 11111 1dq1 I I l l ' 11111 I 'II '11 1101111
l\ II \flll ,, I\ !Ill I I I
1
111q1111 ' 1 I
\\ ,·.Il l' ,Ill l.111111!.11 111th 11 11· 111\ Jl1 111 \,1111.1 ( l,111 tl11 '1 111111 1tl 111 11111 1111
1111 .11.: 111 .111 !.!Ill gi\ l'' ~.11111'' 1 11· 1 ,11111i1t •d ,,., .1 .. 111111 .111d pill \ 111111 ,1 l1 v• I 11 1ol Ii •pp
11ld il•lli\\I , 11 tth ,\II ht1 1• h1•.t1 d, \\ h11 d1 I'''' d 111 ,I 11 11 11111 111 11 o ' 1111 ,I lo 11•11 jlldl ii 11
l'l !.! lu t 1111 11•1nd1•1• 1 111 h1111 g 1u1 ' 111 i.: 1111d I 11 ii 1• I' 11 1., 1111 I I 11 11" '• 1111.1·, \ 111 I 1• .I 111 1I r1 I 111I
1
1.1:11 , 1.,,, 1111, hut 1' .1!•11 .1,, 11111111111 till· , 111111111 11 1.d1 .. 111 1Ii11 d1 "• ' 111 I '-. ' • 1111°1111
d11r1nl.! tht• l)e1·1•1n h1·1 hul1 d.1\ ' '"'' ''" l Ill'·"'' " 1 1 111 tl11 q111 .11 1111 • " I •, iii• 1' 1 ~ 11111
( ' l.1n,..._" 1, \ t'S. f'\ t'n though h1· d111·, 11111 ,. ,1 , 1 ·'' .1 11".il 1111 , 1111 11 11 "1' 1111 "' '-1. 1111 0" ' ''
t'\ l:o.t I-le ~) 111bnli z1.•, g" 1ng, 1011ng. k1nd111·, ,, .111.I , lt,111111• \ , 11' I""'' 11 lol 1 1, • 11111
loses :o.n1ne of his po111.•1 h111111,1111.1µ1· 1, 111 g1.11111·d 11111111 11 1111.i., .111d 11•1111 11 11 1 ol • . 11 h
)'t'•lr Juring the holitl.t) .;t•a,011. Funh1·1 , 1h1· 1111.1µ1· 111 "i.1111.1 < l.111 .. 11 1, ol , .., .11 id 111 11 11•
tO consciousness lll;lny 11\l' llHll it'S uf p:ISl t :h1 i<,1111.l,1''·
Being an American. \ \' hnt dot's it 111t'•lll 10 ht• ;111 1\1111·111 .111 :' I l1nl' '' .1 ... 11111 \11 11 111 .111
identity forn1e<l ? llo\v shoul d \l't' hch:l\'t' :1' good ,\1111·111 ·:111'' 1 ltc·,c· 11111 c q111 "' " '"'
blend fact ('"hat 11\ an ,\1ncric:1n?) and v:1 l11l' (h111v , 11111dcl .1 g1111d ,\111< 111 .111 lu 11.1\c I
\\nat it n1eans co be an 1nt•ril·a11 1-; lt':lrtlt.'d into1111.ill) Ii) I" 111g 111 tl11 l 11111 ·cl \ 1.111
and forn1a lly by being schooled 1111hi:o. l·o11n 1t ) . I h1n11i.:li1111t tltt· ''""• tl1c·11 .111 111 111
days an<l comn1e1nor:11ive event <; 1h:11 cclehr;1t1• l't·i 1:1111 "'"·11 t' 111 tl1 (' 1\1111·111 .111 p.1.. 1
Me1r1orial Day co re1nen1bcr the f:11lcn 111ilitar> 'l' IVlt't• pt·oph· ol P•'"' ..v:11 ..,, tltc · l·111111li
of July to con1n1en1orarc the o;ig-ning- ol' the l)t t'l:1n1111111 ol l11dc·p1·11clt·111 1·; 1'1 t·,11l1·111 \
0
Day to ho nor .Aineric<l's President -; l'Oll cct ivcly h111 11 1 p:1y :-i pt'l'1til l1t1111:1J',t' tc> ( :1·01 gc·
\i\7ashington, who is seen :is th e F:llhcr or tlH: l'Cllllll1 y, :Ind 1\lir:d1:1111 I ,Il l( 11111 , \lll1t1
saved the Union; Th;1nksgiving» 10 rt1ne111her tht· .. h.1rt·d t11l':il nl th t· f'il g 1j 111 , 1·ttlt· 1,
and Native Ainericans; Martltl I .111hcr l~1 11 g\ h111hda,· lo I l'lll(' lllhl' I tht• ldl' ell tlu·
African-~erican civi l right~ leader. J>c rh:11~-; 111 ltlttll l' .y t·:1r.. , thl· l'Vl'lll' ol "it·p1C·1til1t·1
11 , 2001 \viii be ~e1nen1 herctl. \vtth a tl:l)' o f 11:11 1011.tl 11111111111 11 g. l•'. .ich 11 t 11 11., 1. c, 1.11 ,,
conveys a pow~rful :1t~d puhl 1cly shared n1css:1 µ1:. ' l'hey :11 t• 1i·lt·hi ,11 1.d hy t ht· " liult
counLry and chtlclren 111 school~ ha ve specia l o hsl·1v:111 1·l· ... · 11 11 ., :111 11 , \ , , lhl'lll 111 11111·1
nalize the meaning of' these event s as th ey dr:l\V pir11tl'l";, hi·:il' , t•ll ll''• .i nd , 011 H'lllllt''
acl out an event, snch ~ls 'Th:1nksgiving- ' l'hesc.: t11111hin·ll j 011 ., 11 I It 1· 1111 I 1 1I 1111 I
out making an en<lurin1r i11111 .· 1 · · 1. · , ' " Y·"" " } ' ' 1.
' t'I 1111 on a11 111( IVH 11;1 " 1111·111111 v and tl1 1· rro 11 p\ 11 illt·ct111·
1 1
Nr~n ~ nbranc~. AILhough acade1nil' hi .;tory te ll,"" 1li :11 111111:11 h.11tIt·,11:·1 1111 l'cl h1·1\\1·1·11
1 1
anve An1encano; an d ,vhite ,ett l . . 1I ..
~ fTI 1.. . . . c i<,, le pat 11;1 11 )' Ill) t1111 .ii 1111.tgt· 111 1111· p1 -.111".il1lt·
ea'>t o 1anK..'ig1v1ng rcn1·1111., ·111d ·1lt h1111 I1 l I
th I · . ' ' • !{ .11tl·11nl·11111p1111111,1·cl .11\ .1111111 , 111111·., 1111
e., avery •~sue, 1ll'i 11na1re ·11 tht· I . I11 1A1 I •
, E
th e ( ~rc:it 'manc1pator. t'I • .tnco ' c1111111.1 111 \ \ .1,l1111 .. t1H1 1' , 1·1·11 ,., th 11 ol
,.., · ·
~fhrough the uneven co111h111 ·u11111 < 11 11 1111 111 I
whatitn1e<1nsrohc ·Jn t\ • •• ' ' )· ' '">'h ,.1111d1'.1lt.1,1\11h1·cl .il111111
. . • incnl·an . 1 111' l'o11cc.: 1>1 of 1011 I I
1ng: \iVirh the excei)tic .1
1
N . !-: 11tt 1·11111 > 1·111 11:lt'1·, th1· 1111111'1
>no t1e :11 1vcA111cr1c·1n.., ill 0 I \
countriesorregioni;· ih c . . • •' tH·1 1111•1 11':111 ... 1.1 11 11· 111111111!1111
1
' l'o o111, t.,, re 1lei ling- :1g:1i11 ... 1 B1 '' '' " i 11lt', clt•t l.111·d 'l1t·11 111d1
C:l IAl>l'FR C'\'l'\'E ll)FC)lt)(,\ \ NI> Fl>l l( \ 1 l<>N
'47
Pt;ndence and ~rc:l lt.'d a llC\\ l'l'Jlll hitcan 1411' l'l 1t 1111·111 of 11 111 ,.,1111.111 vc 111 .. 11111111111'>,
\\'tth grear hero1sn1 and lt>1·u111dc the J\1tll'l llan-. ,1·11lc·cl 11 1e h 11111 wtlcl 111111111 y 11111 v111 1•
• ' t'
constnntly \Vt!Sl"'l\'ard until the repnhlic rc:llhc·d 1111111 1h1· A1l.11111t 111 1111· f'.it du
~)ceans; ~he Ci~ril \ \ 7ar prc~crved the Union :111tl cnclc·d ,1av1·1y, A111t·111 ·;111., d1·fc 111h·d
freetlorn 1n various \Vars ol the twentieth and l',.\1cn1y l1rs1 rt· 11111111·~. ' f 111 A111C'111 ·:111
past represents a shinin~ exa1nplc of an exccption:il ptoplc livin"' in ;1 1>111 111 111 11 1 l:111d.
Although we .stu~y Atncrican history as a required ro111-;l· 111 t·lc1111·111 :11 y aJ1d l11gh
school,_ and often ~n college, the con1bin;1tion of history and 111y1h 011ll1n cd :iliov1· ,., ;1
powerful means of creating national group identity. I fistori:ln., 111:1y ;111c111p1 111 p1 ov11l1·
a critical and sometin1es unfh1ttering interprctntion of 0111 pa .. 1. 'J'hcy tell 11., .1h11111
genocide against the Native An1ericans; slavery in1posed on Al rican A1ne11c.·:t11'> , 1 olilic1
barons \Vho recklessly exploited their workers and 1he environ 111c111 for prof! t; and
continuing racial and class exploitation; but the n1ythic.:al- his1orical in1age., rc1na1n and
give us ide11tity and meaning. During ti1nes or crisis, this sense of' 111en11ing, !{rounded
in ideology, gives us nationa l purpose-Re1nc111bl!r the Ala1110 l~c1nc1nhcr 1he M~1i11c,
1
Remember Pearl Harbor, United We Stand.
Assessing or Appraising the Present

In assessing or appraising the present, an Anlerican\ identity can be co1nplic:ited by
membership in other more specific subgroups, often \Vith their own ideologies. t•or
example, Republicans and Den1ocrars, while holding to the general An1crit:in ideol
ogy, will have a somewhat different assessn1ent of the present situation and wh:11 need.,
to be done to improve the econo1ny, health care, foreign policy, Hnd so forth. ' !'his i-i
also likely to be true for members of different religious, racia l, and ethnic groups.
Some African Americans are likely to appraise the current social :ind ccono1nic sit 11:1
tion differently than white, upper-class Atnericans. Mc1nbcrs of the National As-iocia
tion of School Boards are likely to have a different assess1nent of the condition., and
compensation of teachers than members of the An1erican Federation of 1cal·her'>. If
'''e return to our discussion of"I am an Atnerican" and "United We Stand," the lari.<cr
sense of "American-ness" is a more general, inclusive, and overarching 1ne111ber.,hip
than that of the more specific subideologies.
The general appraisal of the Americnn con<lirion in the rwenty- flrst cc11111ry i.;
that the landscape has changed. Many more people live in large 1nctropolita11 arens
(big cities and their suburbs) than on farms and s1na ll cown'i in n1ral areas. ' !'he 1;111all
t0\\.'11's n1ain street and small Family-owned businesses have been replaced by large cor
porate enterprises-symbolized b} the strip n1all and its fa'ir food re'>ta11ran1 .... ' J'hc
large indusrries of the past-iron and steel-have ytcl<led ro high tech and 'crv1ct•
ones. Internet, C~~. C-Span, and electronic data retrieval have! 1nade gctnng- lhl' 1.11
est nev.·s and information a rapid process that takes only a few second\ or 1111n11tt''•
rather than hours or clays. The nuclear family, portrayed 111 the "Dick an<l .Janc.:" rt·ad
ers now coexists with alternative family styles. In the ..chuols, rhe 1nonoc11l111r11l cur
ri~um of the past has given way to cul rural d1vef"!i1ty and mulcic\1lrural1'-n1 rndt·t•d,
the cuJrural and physical landscape of the U nited States has changed. ~ we npp1 ,11,1•
the American cond;oon in the first years of the twenty-first century, we m1ghr \\ t•ll .1,k
1\llll 11 '!1''''" \ ,,,,,,, \lltl
t'
I 111tl 111111 ii 11t du \1111111 "' p111pl c 11..l11•\:1 1h1s
), 1 h·t\ It It 1 I I Ill 'l1
\ h II I , \\i ii I.I 11 11 11 t 'i '"' 1 111d 1hc 1'11111g•1111111 Scii

,,, t " " \\ 111•1 I '
1
Ill" "'11111
11 t I
11 Il l ,, 1111 "' 11111It111111 d 1,llllll ll\c'i 'lg.111 '"IC\ al
I 1111• I II ' 11111 I I" It 1 1
1 1 11 -1 I I t
' t t 1 111 , t"'' 1 11 t d11• \1111111 1111'1111.1111110 1lu 1c \\l'IC the
t
lfl 11\\tttdt llh \I 1\lllo.\ t\l llll
, 1 111 i1 11 , 11 , t" ''l'I' 1111111111 t11 1 111~h111 ....111dp11t11 c11 lt11 1s,\\h1J
1 1I tI I 11
II\ \\It" \Ill It It l1•tl•t
'''' 11111~ 11111 •11 111 111 11'<1i1l1 l1111"" "1 "111 llll " ,.,, H ic~11Jen1,
I II 1 I\\ I I I
lt~t '~S
I " " ' - 'I I I I
\\h1• }'11 ' \ll h Ill• Ill tl111 11:1.. l , I tll 11ti 11 '-111111\' ll1 11111011 , I l1t II ' \\1 ll llllllll \llllfl
1
,, !Ii , \\ "'"ll 11 11111 111 111 111 ..11 1111 1 ' '"" I l11 1111gh11111 ".!''I.ind.
1h1•11 \\ C11 Htnup
, ,, , , ,
11111 11111 111
h , 111 •111111 " \ , 11d !Il l'"" \111 t•11111 II "l'C'llU.:d 1h .11 1hc II.th)
1 11111111 1
" ' ' ' " " ' l\i t llil ' " ' " '''"''I''
1 l11ld1,•11 \\I ' ll' ll' \lllllld111g . ..... h ,1d r.11l1c1 '" ~l:llCl.111111\S,
llllli . \
111
l\ 1, 11\i 1 1111• 111\lll I, 1111 1'1 :111t I11 h111) \\ '1 1•11 llH' ll llllllll I\ \\ .1'1 Ill JlC.111. \\'hat
" 1, ,, ,, ihd " 1, "" I'' '''''''l\\t 11
1 , 111111 )l 11ll'11l11µ1c11I ,11111111\1111c' 111 lhl . \11 1c11a1n
I''\\ h\ . I\ I II Ill I \ lll\1 d \\ 1\\\'\ l \111\ \\ 1\\ I lljlldl\ l hlllllotlll~ .
\ •.••,l,., "'\'' '''•''' ,,f ,,,.•;, ..,

\Ill I '"'' ,,,I' ll\\ 111 "'' l'll' llllH' I 11 , I, ll 'lllOllK Sl'll'C or 1111XICI)' gripped the ~13llon.
1
\)(1
1, 111''''' .11 111\ \,,. , 111 ""' p11.. 1. \\t' l t' ''' t'lll ' 1h.11 11111k ph1l' C 111 otl1e1 countr1e'l- 1n
1
'\111d1l' t11 l1lt1111d111 t,1 ,1t•I 111111111111' l lt11tcd S111\l''I, \ \ 11111 had happe11ec.J? \\'h) did it
11'l'l''11 11 1 ''' \\ 11, d11I '"'lit' 1'''11 ptc h11l(' \111 c 1 it·an' 'll 11111ch that the} ,,·anted to
" '' " ' " ' ' "'· 11111 " '' ' 111lih'.1111d 11111 1..111111\1\ ~ <'11111tt1l'lll.1t111' und experts, the "t<tlk1ng
I\(''"'" 111 1111111!' 111 1t•t1•, 1.. 11111 tH'\\' 11111~111111, , 1r1t•d 111 pt 11v1dc .111~,ver.; , but their lou<l
1111d , 11111\11 '"'>l 11p11111111' did 11111 1111''''C I t hl''ll' po\\' 1.•1 f11I corl' questions uhout the
1111 111 ~ .. \\ h111 h1111111·1H·d " ''' tlH11111l•11l11gicul ,r111hols of "1\1ncr1c<111-ness" pr<>vi ue<l the
111•1'' ""' ''1 ' '"'" 1•1-1 \\' 1111 ' '111bnl 1111d 111l'll1ph111·. !'here \Vere the nc\v heroes, th e fire and
p11lt11' pt11..1111111•I 11f N1' \\' \111 I, <'11r 1111d \ \!11shl111411111 1 U.<:., who t<>ok their place
11l11llt1''d1• ti\(' \l' H' lllll'i 11l 1•1111l1•1 \\' ;II., , 1111d thl' ll' \\'CIC \he OIU sy111bt>ls-the flag and
''{;11d 1111•' \1111•1it 1t" ll1tll l'\ llll'''cd 11 IClll' \\ Cd p11t11011 .. 111.
I h1· 11111, 1,1l p11ln \ 1•111l' ll(l'd "' u dctcr111111cd "\V11r on Terro1·isrn," ut ho1ne and
11t1111.1d lh1• l l " >t"'1•111111t•111 'll'll\ 111111l· d forl'l'' to 1\l ghuni.,tu11 t<> root out and
1h•,1111\ < ),1111111 1111 1 I 11d1•11 n11d dll• ,11 \_lncdu tc1 ror1'1'. Security \Vas tightened tll J1r
I''"'' h\ .•Ill I l':1,1·tl p11''l'lll(t'1 1111d htjl,'~u~c 1n~pcc11011.;. Su'!picit>US foreigners 1n the
"1
l 11111•'1 S11111•'i 111• dl'11111111d h) lcdl·r11l luw c11 t11rcc111c11t officers. A ne\v fcd er;1I
11t11•111 \,lit<'< )lt11•r 111 I l11111l•h111d S11l'l11 i1y, \\1ll'i l!St11hlisltcd. ·1~hc-;c steps cn11 he seen a'i
1tl1·11lt11-(\ li1•111~ h11plr111c111t d i11 •'l''llll111sc to 11 llC\V chnllenµc. Now that \Ve have 11sed a
1
'111111·111p111 111 \ 1lh1'i11 11tl1111 111 'ih t1\\' ho\v 1111 idcolo"y f'11n1·tio11s, \Ve turn 111orc ..,pcctfi-
' ,,11, 111rd111 11111111 h) l1111l.it11-1111 lhl p11hl11.: 'ch11ol 11lt•ol0Kr·
1
111 '" \ 1" 11·d S11111'!i, 11 11 •11' '"" ,,.,,. ~1·n1·1 1tl 11nd 1..'111111110111} hclJ ,et of hclief, ahc>ut the
111 ll(lll"' ,111d '1111\111\llllU llll' l ll\ 111 11111 1Ii ·I I I
" ' ' l 1011 "'~ •"" ''' 1.·ontr1h11t1on' to A111e11t: ·l n
1111 , I1111~111111•11111t111t'lt11t• l1
" l'I I I I Ii I 1'
t
' '''' '1· 111t•1 I, 1111 1t·1111111 11 phllo,oph
fl
"'''I
I
I ,
·
11• 1111 , ,, .1r ,,,,,, ph1/r1111/1by hut'' really on ulcolom J'
• . . "'''
'
"tiY r11j11\' "'' ""1-l '"1'1" i11 1111111 "I I .I> '1" I t\:ll1111t• sc1111c. l be puhlh.: '11.:hool rdcol
lit ""Kit IC 1.·11 ct! the puhh1.: !11.:h1"1l lohh) ,Lhool
< ll\1'111{~1"1
llJl<)!(K,\ \'l>I J ( \ I
I r;
ho.1rd llh'tllht•t,, ' l h1Hd 1111111111 ' 1J1111,1 hi I
11111\, 'Ill h ,, llH· l' Ill lll 'i llll I I I ii I I
I
I l: ll II I ( I I 1111 / ll 1 11
I
lion. t ll \111t lll Ill I c1h111 11111 ul I I I t
B I \\ l ll l I " I I
1l,ll 1 ' \ I h l\\ l \ 1111111 l' 1 Ii c l l l If I Jlr J 111 II I \ (if I h I "1 I
"·" th.1t "' l'\,1111111\•d the 1111111 C'
ti \
lllllllllllf
I ,,,,I '"
'' lll l'hl\ l th\ .1n.1h 'I' nl hll 11111~\ llc1sc1 111cdul11111n i11d
\r1 lr1tc11>rctati<>r1 <>f tile ()rigin., (>f J>ul,l i< \<hfu1l1>

\l'l'Ordtng to the puhlit ' l hool 1dl'11log\, p11lil1<: t hool 1n the L n1 \
J' •1 cni,Jde Jga1n'1 •!!11•11«1111.:c. ln the I~lo., nnd 18 lO, cnlr •hten d me·n
united in the con11non-..,chool cn1,aue ui c.. 1.1blt1,h t 1K s-11p1)(•rtcd b1
'iChO<)IS t hJt '' ould t!uucate all the chtldrt:n of all the pe11ple IJed 1cat l~<i(.lc
1
movet11ent "ere the eloquent and t1ref e,, I Io race ,\I.inn ( I 71Jl.-l ..s ''J of \l:a>sa,h:uu::n;
and the sceac.I} and diligent Hen!) Bam,1rd (I 8l I I'J()(J) of <-'innccucut. h..,.,......
education text calls these leader.,, "educattonal .,1,11c-.111cn" "ho "dcd1cited their a
and ca~acity for leadership to blazing ne\v era ti .. that led to a rn11re extended :and bett
educaoon for American children." 1 According to h1-.1or1c<.; rhar celebrate the a h1e\
~enc:s of ~e ~ommon-school leaders, these statesrncn corn bated rl{nbrance, pctt} pol
incs, special interests, and religious secrarianis1n, and cvcna11lly Ul.C:ceded rn 12} n,
the foundations for today's public schools. As a rc.,ult, puhlic r,ch1x1I are estabh hcd
supported, and controlled by states rather than churc:hc'>; the} are cJern,x:rauc:all} con-
trolled by elected school boards; they successfully a'i'>11ntlace m1llu1n of 11nmrgr2nt
children, bringing them the promise of An1erican ltfe; thty provide cduc::irr11n ii oppor-
tunity for all children, enabling them to rise as high as tht::1r talent'> "111 pcnn1; they
are Staffed by dedicated administrators and teachers who work for the lk:-.c · tcre of
children; and they provide the education that is necessary for ~ood ouu:n hip, eco-
nomic productivity, social participation, and a satisfying life.
The story of the origin of public schools given above contains hoth h1i;tory and
myth. Revisionist historians advise us that many of the leader<. of the c:omn1on-schcx)I
movement were not altru.istic but \Vere, then1selves, often '>Cf\ 1ng 'Pt:t1al 1ntcrt~r., for
example, Mann and Barnard, rhe "educational state1,n1en" lauded 1n celebrauonr.,t ht'>-
toriography, were "promoters of bureaucracy," who the revisionr'>ts belie' c ~er• rxnt
on destroying "democratic localisrn" as an educational altemanve to the larger idea of
state-controlled and -regulated schooling. 2 Revisionist historian., also cell u' th.1t puh-
lic schools were instruments of social control used hy dominant group., to repro<lucc
the socioecono1nic conditions chat put thern in a favored position. Funhcr, they chal-
lenge the rhetoric that public schools se;vecJ .all tht: children of all the people. 1ne
revisionist<, reinind us that before the ranficat1on of the Thirteenth \n1cndrnent, rht.
children of enslaved Africans dicJ not attend puhlic -.chool. 'fhc} rc1111nd u' th:it oppor
runities were lin1ited for children of i1nn1igrant'> and other 1111 nonl} groupc,, and olten
for girls. They al'lo point out that there arc g.rcat 1ncqual1ue\ 1n the educauonal
resources available frorn district to distric1-p11hltc .,chools arc .,t~ll not equal. Desprre
the revisionist effort<, to correct the historica l record'. the. puhlic school ideology "
strong, anu. 1 reson ate', throughout the country· 1'he revt!>1on1st
. d audience t) a )mall one,
rnainJy sruc.lents in a few classes in the hi!.tory of American e ucauon.
\ l \l '
, \' ) l I \ ( l'
(. • 1\( ( ,u1tht1 1111 til t•ul1l il St 1111111~

' •'I'' .lt .. 11\i.: l I l\
\'tl,
\ , , .. , , ,,,,, ,,, ,•11,\\lll II\

"t 11 I\\ ir 11 1 th l.lllll!Jlc:.11.
I\
I
ll
l
1
'I
1 1
lhl I \ll l'C Ill lOll\hllllll II '\II< fll ll I p
'>\'I \ ' ' I '' ' ' • 1pj'I ' '
' I 11\I '" 111011 d llllt1pa1 l'•otl'•, l u111>JI •r '" ilt11r
\ ,, '' ,, ''' ' \ \ \- ' 'II' \
..
1h> Tll 11 •l (t:lllClll'i II
{
CJlllll 111
' ., \, ' ' " \ ~ \ • \ 11ttq\ll ' · ,, \ I f I
l \ ' '
111 t \ ' l '1 llllllllll Ill CC.:lllJO IJ II> <1r·11•r
'l t\l f ,,
t l I
\ ,,
'l "'1,r , l,1 H,, d'll.1ut ,,hat I" \1r1u1 •"1th 1
' •• • •.
t , t ' , u '' " , ~. 11 . .... I
,,h , ., ,11 \ , , ,\ ,, \11'·' '' til, 111 1111,1t11't'.c'pclld) 111 u1e 1x.1a ,p
"'~' 1\ • (\l ' I \l\l , , ..'{\1\ll, , \ \lll ,, I I pr11bJhl~ ht II 11101 t: c.:r lllC.:l')lll Lh n ffi ~
al , , , 1,, , , , u, u ,, 11 l ht' ,1 ' P Jl,.tl ch.It tt1ll1111, ,, t1111lu .. cra1c h''" the puhla ,;
1,f, , ,,~ , , ,, , 1 , ,·um•it , in, tttlll l'f .-\n1cn1Jn publH: cdu1.:at1<1n, rather
, , ~' t • • , '\ , , , , , , ,, nun1n1 r1:. c"e ·1111"-1rtJnce l>f the 111an~ 1T1t1cal \1t!~S
t , ,, " h,, J °''' .ii tii tht' puhl l' ,,·hl'.I{>' 1Jco\1~ " 11J c~ p1call} ans\lot:r
' ' th t'1, .,, ,,,, · ,~ ~tt n' P\1hhl' ,l'. hlx1l' h.1, ~ J h1,cunc~1l rt::1.:<Jrd 11f -.uu:t::<s) rn rh .....
t ~' i'"''
h\ , 1 ll\'.('l.'rtun it) f\,r .Ill ~cuJen~ re!:!'Jrdlt::''> of ract. . l'rt!t::d, ethntt'lt) a
,, · \ "' 1, 1•11 • \' .1 , If nlt ~ llt s1.·ho\>I retcnac.>n anJ co111pleo<>n are 1<1\\ er f,,r ceru
, , 1t · t , ~. 1t 1, 'l\'! the t.1u t llf the school· but of lar!:?'er social and eco1101n1c.; conur-
t1t ,, , n .. t "-, 1'\'nu·t)I of tht' ~~hlXlls. \\bile it rna~ be tao at':lll~ crue lhat 'rude ts
u~ \'~ht "" l!") t · ' · ,u~h .isJ.ip.in 1.1 r l~rman~ . .;core higher m n1achcntaucs dnd sacnce
t .• ~ c"i ... \•t , nl'.lfl "'untt'rp.irn. this tindtng need., much more 1n terprttaaon and
:-ht'U J ntit ~ t.1 en .it f.1l'e 111lut'. :\.111en<.-an public '-thool are co111prehcn-,1' t: 1n•uru-
n1''':: th.tr .1~ l'~n co .ill t'.h1IJren. reg-J.rdle · of soc1oeconom1c tlas'l, acadt::n11c apu-
t1i e. ,,r \'.lrttr ut''nn.ia1.ln. 51.:hools in many other countries ngi<ll} t::j!Teg-.i cc:: srudt:nt.S
. ' ch:it •r ·... \ n \ chc Jl.'"JJen11l.'·'.lll~ tJlenced ''ho complete econdaf) c.:hool and go on
til hi ~t'r t"UU,' .tnon Thus. .ncemaaonal compan,on are in' alid and unfa1r•.\dmrn1
trJn: ~ Jnu tt'~\·hers 1n pubhc :..choob "ork in 1ruaaon \\·here n1uch 1s t~pt:cttd of
cher11 tron1 l'\() 10\.'1.ln!-. p..lren~. ,1nd the public. l·nhke their cowirerpilrt~ in oL~er
1
:-t'unrne.s. chc\ .ire "".llleJ U(Xln co perform man\ nonacade1n1c funcc1on'>. Dt::'!IV te
. .
the.:'~ Jem.ind~. the~ Jrt' con1pecenc and perform che1r re pon!'l1bilitte'> "tll. T ht rc:al
pnm1en1 10 :\n1enL'.ln publt ~ eJuc·J OOO IS IlOt adm1nc,trarive 1neffic1enc" and burtaU·
•
crll.''\. nl r 1!- 1r re!lchcr mcompetenct. The real problem is a socitn that does no c"l\C: a
h· ::-h enough pnonn· to e<luc·.taon i.lild JS a re ·ult under-fund'!I 1~ ')thool'> ~ a re ulc
~wldin~ .tre o~ d.UJp1J.ired. cumculwn i' archaic, and teac.:ht::r'> art undtrp:uJ All
th•~ c-..m be ren1eJ1eJ if che countl') secs the nght pnonties and gt\!t~ n1ore ')upp<)fl 111
the- pubJ1 !-dlOO),
!\l.1inciining and Improving Public Education

•.\..., mennoncd c-~rlit"r in the chapter, ome id~logic'>. suc..:h as reJ<.:non.ary and con-,cr-
\':la\-e one:.'." .mt to mllilw.n the tarns quo. To a large extent, the 1>ublic sch11<JI 1Jt:11l-
o~ ''ants ro mamam che pabhc '1.:hool ~ _tt:m ()ther 1deologit:•>. t5ptc1ally thtJ t 1hat
~re not ~ncly 1!'1 po"~cr. ''llnt to cha.,ge things o chat ther can take po•.\'cr.J 'l)J>I·
Cllh·. i<leo;~~ ot the rad·c-~ pohricaJ left and their e<lut-anonal counrcrpan-. uLh .,,
Lhenaon PeJJ~· and Cnnc:il Theol')· ' examined m Chapt:e~ 14 and 19) ~:i nt l•J
l l l\l'llR ' \ ' \ t
htlll).! .lh1l\\l ,\ '"Lljllll ~ ll ,lll\lllllll,1\11111 111 lht \

lll1.·11ll11!1L , , ' llL h '' 1h 11'l' h' I I I I "l 111 111d t:dt1l.ll111nal .,,,tern < lrhcr
,, , 1111 I IL' I I
p11.•, 1.1 \ 1.' 1h1.• ' ' ' 11.·111 i l '111 1.1\\ 11 • II I
'''II
1'
II l l I'' I I h .
I le L i111gc lat arc ncce 'i:l1' u 1
' l ~l II I ll'l.I ' ' 'II "CL ( Ii I l 11 I' 11 h I
L'lL1~1'1' .tr1.• '' 11l1n~ 111 .1Llt' p1 l1111 I · I 1 I ' '' er J u >IL L oo idc
' 1.' I \ • the '''1 1.•111 \\ I ' . 'll .11\l 111111 l ' t Ill ic l111 111, 1111c11dcd '''rent\\ .11d pre
\\I) ' l l . ~ 1)11. " ill ht ,,11 d .1I H111 1 ho\\ d 1f11·1t• 111 1dc 11l 11H1t!' .1 1111r11a1..h chanu.. rn
' ~t l \It'll! t.' \,l J' ll' I">. r> t1'"
1
.. . 'ht' lll.it1 ' 1 !-!'1 '·il uf .11h <ll'.lll'' nl the puhhr 'L'hool 1dt.•olog1 '' t<1111;i11na1n the p 1h
I11. ' l 1l1'1.' 1' .1 ·~11nst 1hrt."lt t I • · .
:- · · ' o l l e 11 l on u n llClI p101111 nt.•nt. c .1 nd ·C\ l ,tcnt: c as the pnrn f)
c.•1.Iu1.-.it 11.H1.\l 1nstnu1H1n., 1n the l 1111 eJ .St .it. c,. \\ 'I11 1c 111.1n\' o t' t hc~c a( l \ OC3tt: h 3\c: a
' c' tt'1.i interest . ·
1n "·l 1 1.In 1ng. l I\ c ~rca c 111a1ur1t' ol 1h1.·111 ht:lic\.
· t: that puhhc ,ch0<>I are
nc1.'t' s~ .1 l"\ tt)r the ()r • .......
. . c:-...... • .1t1on u 1· t he .-u11er1can
\· · '~ 'itc111 ol· dernocranc go\ t:rn1ncnt and
.ire til e best ht)pe t~)r Sl)Cl;ll :.t~1b1hl) and progress, .ind for econo1n1c pro<luttt\lt).
:.\d\"l)C:ltt:s (>t tht: public school ideology are alt:rc 111 ort,ran1z1ng their rank.. to
cr 1 ~1 c 1 ze. ,,·eake~ , a11<l t:\ enn1ally defeat those \rho propose alrernati-.e!t to puhl ic c:Ju-
cat1 l)l1. They <)ften return to the argu1nent used br the co1n1non-school founders rhat
11()11p11blic schoo ls, especially thos~ that are ch~rch-related and sociot:conom1Lall\·
hase<l. ilre .socially divisi,·e and \veaken the social integration of •..\meric-Jn ~oc1et;. .
Ft)ren1ost m their argun1ent is that public support that provides ta.x-generateJ re' -
enues ro no npublic schools 'viii \veaken the already under-funded publJc ·chool . T he
argument defending separation of church and state is used against tho e '' ho \\1!.h to
gi\·e aid to religious and church-related schools. Vouchers that could be u ed b~ the
parents to pay tuition co nonpublic schools, they contend, 'vould enable ·ome co leave
pt1blic schools. This \.vould leave the poorest and least-prepared students in the public
schools, es~)ecially in inner cities, and create greater socioeconomic and racial segrega-
tion. For advocates of the public school ideology, a less serious threat is presented b~
those, often on the left, \.Vho argue for a radical and s\veeping change in public educa-
tion. They believe that the systel11 itself and the lin1ited staying po,ver of the small rad-
ical groups will blunt any serious changes. .
The advocates of the public school ideology tend to be very open to, and often
high ly enthusiastic about, 111inor incren1e~tal and additive changes tha~ the~~ call
reforms ,11hich may rene\.v or improve certain parts of the syscen1 but lea,·e 1t bas1call~·
as it is. Among these kinds of changes are: adding 1nore days to ?1e school calendar,
having year-round schools, incl11ding preschool in the s~sce1n, ~dd1ng 1nore co1npur.er-
assisted instruction, requiring teachers to take 1nore 1n-serv1ce courses, 11lrer11:1~1ng
. · l ·chool <le....·ena·alization (site-based n1;inagen1enr)
1 and
. recentrnliza-
hetween I1m1tet s . .
· d<l ' p1 onics to the reading progrH1n, ;1<ld1ng •l se1'\'1t:e requ1re1ncnr
nc>n, a 1ng more 1 . . · I cl
f<>r high school graduati<>n, adding conflict resolution units to the curr1cu u111, an
so forTthh. I I · or the ·Hlvocarcs of the puhlic school ideology are to protect the
e rea gc>a s • . · 'l .:. .. J' ·11 · II
. d work for increased public support and f11nd1n~. i v ore iw.1 ing \Vt. .1 O\\
syst~": an ·h . 10 reall)' <lo their job- cducaung the children of all the
adn11n1strators ant1 teac ers
people.
I ).
• I!
l' \l l <) l ~l ' ll~I . l Ill< • \ l lt l" \' \I< >It ~I <>I•
'" · ·· · ~, ' ' " l ltl'\ l , 1 Ill ' \\tlltl ,,
lnth 1, ,1 11• 1111 , 11 1• 11 11 111 11 111', thi l1 .1d111r t111111d1111t I il111 .1111111 l't l1g"') "ntc\th l
" ' " ' ' ' ' '111 1i 1111111 i1 .1111 t,lt.tpl'dh, 11h·11l11~'' llu , t• l1•11111111 . 1111 l11dt:dliL .iusc
111 1111111
.ii 1 11•11 , , 1111 111111 " ' " '' 111 1111 1t 1 11111111.11\ 1d1h .tt11111 , ''pt·11.1lh 1111 C 1111t.111 hcon t
I l\d 1.i. l11 .11,., J11, 111 11 , 1·11•11 1• .h·1 '' ''., t' d111 .11111 ' \\ hCl 1 l.11111 1o ht• H k·11 I" I' t l 1II) 11 nhta ~ed
,
1 1
,1i, 11 u 1• 11•,t,·1 11 1I h1111 "- 1·11h 1•11 1111 1111,111111,11f1h1· 11".iltl\ 111 \\htlh th1) li\l',ur,urref}-
11111111,h .l\!t'lll' \\h1111:111,1l\ll ·' h1dd1·11 11k·ul11µ\ . \, )1111 r1.'.ld th1· 't: IClllllll, ~OU 1112}
•
\\ 1,h h l 11'II'I(11•1 I h1• II 11f1\\\ 111~ fl 11 ll't I\µ ljlll''t 1111 I' '
I . \\ h.lt ,,th1·h.1'1'11t l•' r1·1r1·\.11µ11 1n1·111 th.111dcolll).() ;lh\,l}' 1ntlucn1.:c,cd11L.lt1on:
1)11\11\1 h1•l11•\1.• th.11 ~11H .tri' Hk·11log1c.1ll) 1:01111ni111•d 01 1tleolog1call) neut ral:
.! . l ln\\ tin th 1• d11111in.1111 µrn11 ps i\\H l rh1sscs use schooling- to rctnforc~ rht:ir iJ~ol-
11~' {'.in, 11u µ" c 1.'\.1111plt'.; of :-ul·h rcinforccn1en1 in ctlut::inon:il s1ruaaon~ ~ ou
h.1, c t'\p1.•r11.·nr1•d nr nhscr' t•d?
3. In the ,clcctton. 1:r1.'ir1.• cic1.•:- the s1111e111cn1, "unc1nployn1enr today i'i an en<l-of-
1hc-t'1.'nt11r\• 1n1.•\ itnbilit\"
•
11s repres1•nting :1 r<Hionnle of the do111inant i<leolo~.
C. '..1n , 1n1 idt•nt ii\ si1ni L1r s1:11c111c111 s t hnr express e<luca tiona I vie,vs represenung
•
the dn1111n.1r1c 1deolo1-")? for ex:1111ple, consider son1e of the explanation gt\·en
f°()r :1c:1de1nic 11ntlernchievc111enr in inner-city schools.
EDUCATION AS ;.\ FOR.Al OF Education never \.vns1 is not, ;1nd never can
INTER\7ENTION IN Tl IE WORLD be neutrnl or in<lifferent in regard ro the repro-
cluccion of the tlon1inant ideology or cl1e incerro-
:\.nother kind of kno,,·ledge "hose existence l h"Ul ion of it. It is n funda1nentnl e11·or to stare th::tt
cannot tloubt for a n101nen1 in Ill\'• c:riric:nl education is simply an insOUJ11ent for the repro-
etlucath e pr~ctice is th:tt education, ns n specif- duction of the do1nin<1nt ideology, as it is an error
iLall} hu1nan experience, is a for111 of interven- to consider it no n1ore than an insoi.unenc tt)r
11011 1n the \vorl<l. l n addition ro conrencs either un1nasking that ideology, as if such a rask \\ere
"·ell or badlr tnughr, this type of intervention so1nething that coul<l be accon1plished sirnpli~ri
al ..o 1n1plie., hoth the reproduction of che don)i- cally, fundamentally, \Vithont obstacles :ind diffi-
nnnt ideology and its \1111nnsking. The dialecti- cult struggles. These at tinu.les are serious errors.
cal narure of the et.lucattnn:tl process does not an<l the)' indicnte a defective ,ision of both his-
atlo" 11 to be onl> one ur the other of these tory and consciou.-;ness. C.)n 1he one band, \\ e
thing... h:tvc a 1ncchnnistic cn1nprehcnsion of histol)
ll H l lJ I JC,y \t\IJ 1111 1 t Ic I
I ;~
ch.n rt>duce' l'on'l'l11u,11e,, to a , ,111 pk 11 f1 1 " 111
1nJtrt•r, .ind on Ll1t' othe1, \\l' h,l \ l' •1 ., 11 i,1l c tivi l<c c•1v1111111vilH11 1,,,, ~JyJ,., 4 :.i Yr•
c 'lll~ l 1111Jy 111 ii, 111 , ,,j jµ J I g ,
1 JeJh~1n th.it rr1e' to 111.11.t 1hl· rol1 111 t 1111 , 111111 ., 1,
Jiu 1111111 .tic I aplllAc •1l ,,,, C:I, J ii'. t•1I , i'
llt'l>S he llltO the l:ll't'I of h"lUI ) · 1\, WOllH' ll .ind
1·va l11 .111 11µ, 11111, 1 111 µ, •lt• ,j, ~ , ti .._ ~
111en. " e Jre nuc '11npl) dc1cn111ncd by f.l l I'> .ind
l lll:I~ Ill).( w11h Jl11l 111alo1 ~ •111 .,, Wt ill•
t'\t>l1t~ \r rhc ':ltn~ tune, \\ e .ire .,uhJl'll 10
I
l al be 111g'.'I, c .1 pal1l1 111 11:JJJ'>Y,I• '' y, ., , "'

~eneoc. culru1 .1l. -;oc1.1l, cla.;-., -.eX\1;1(, and hi-.tori
g101111d11 1y 11 11111• v• 1, tl1•1uzl1 ,,., it , ., •A
1.".ll 1.'l.1nJ1~on1nr~ that n1ark u.. profoundly and
thr~ J.!111111 1d 111g c Al~I'> .1:s .1 Ii'• l),f, J 'Y ,,., , .,
rh:HL'OllSOtlltC for ll'i :l Center or ref"t!rent:e.
lle\ll'I t. lai11 1 " all'>j.(JC '~'.)ICJ/) :lti lj I ~1 t A:J' •A
Fron1 the per-.pecuve of the dornin:int COllP1t' Wt' t:llllll1I 'fl idly liy al J f•,f•J •J ., lJ
classes, there i~ no doubt of cour'ie L11at educ;i-
1
111 the lace ol ~11 t h a p11\'iJf>1l11y J l•,, ,. iuy, .. ,

oonJI prJctice ought to cover up the truth and goru.:al rcf11.,al t 1I fa1al1• 111 ~IJI• t Jc!• , •
1111mobilize the classes. Conversely, the!.e , 3111e 111!.t e ad of (.OJ1dt:1111 1111g , 1'111 a' ,,._,,~ii'.' •>t
1ncere~ts a:e capable of being "progrc.,~ive" tric., 10 ab-.011> i1 :J'> if rt l11·l1J1 ii' d t1J "1 i! •
''hen 1t swts them. Progres~ive by half: -, 0 co thinking. I <.::1111101 lie' (.IJHtplr• 11 n 111 ._ ,. ,• ,..
speak. They are able to bring into being techni- .,ysu::rn, ext:111pung 11 froui ' """f>' JJ1~1l11IJ1I1•1
cal ad,·ances that are understood and of1en car- n1ali<.:c, byattnhuung 1ci "l1lu1d f111t1:."1) • •14i•s
ried out in a "neutral" way. Ir would be agt: t:•lll'>t:<l 111 hu111:u1 b1;JJ 1g.,.
exuen1ely naive on our part to believe that the ()f COUl''> I! (and f l't:'> l;itt; JJIY l11•)J1;f ) IS •>tJ
ranchers' lobby would agree that our school'>, em hu<,1ne.,., lt:adt:r-. au.t:pt, 1111111 Il~ 11 :.1 d
both rural and urban, should discu.;s the '>Upport technical 11·a111111g- C<Jll1 ')c·., ! 1>1 d1 •~i
questions of agrarian reform as an econo1nic, worker'>. What they ohv111u-,Jy rtlu'>1: J't lj r J •·du
political, and ethical problern of the greatesc cation that hoth intlude., Lt:<.. hnH.;a l and ~1 c·1111f1 1
i1nportance for the development of Ll1e country. preparation and 'ipeak., of 1ht: W<JJ kcr1t' pr «!Y. nc1
This task falls to progressive-minded educators, 111 Llic world. A hu111an and tthJl al j)l l'' • r c•,
both inside and ourside the schools. It's a Lask <leba.,ed every tin1e 11 i., tran.,f1irr11cd 111111 11u11;
al ·o for nongovernmental organizations and '>had ow.
democratic-minded unions. On the one hand, I cannot be a 1cachcr 1f I do Tl<J1 ptrtt:1.,.c~
\ve might expect modem-n1inded businesc; with with ever !,IT<::ater clarity that r11y p1 a<.11<1;
urban roots to be sympathetic to the cause of demands of n1c a definition ah<>Ul wh1;;rt J 'IU! trd,
agrarian reforin, because its interests in the A break with whar i'> not right et h1cally. 1 111u!i1
expansion of the market seem "progressive" in choo<,e between one thing and an1i1hcr thing J
the face of rural conservatism. On the other cannot be a teacher and be 1n fav1ir of cvcryr1ne
hand, the "progressiveness" of n1odern busi- and everything. I cannot be in fav111 nrcn..ly 1if
ness, \\'elcon1e as it is in contrast ro the retro- people, hu111anity, vab'l.1e phra'><:'i far frc1111 1h1.:
grade truculence of the ranchers, does not have concrete narure of t:duca11vc prat11t.:c. M:i.,.,
to think twice about \vhere its loyalty lie'> \vhen hunger and une1nploy1ncnt, '>Ide hy <,1dc wi1 h
confronted \Vith a clash between human inter- opulence, arc not the result ol cJc..11 ny, a-. <:c11a1n
ests and the interests of the rnarket. react.ionary c1r<.lc'> would have U'> l>clrevc, ll:11111 -
I continue to ponder .\1arx's observation 1ng that people -.uftcr hccau'>c tht:y <:an d1i ncnh
about the necessary radicality that enables 1ne ro ing abour the -.1ruauon . 1 he qucs11011 hc1 c '' nc11
be permanently a\vare of everything that ha!. to "de!>tiny." It ,., in1111oral11y. Jlcrc I wan1 ,,,
do with the defense of human interesrs, which repea1-fort.:efi1lly-1h:1t nothing can JU'11fy 1l1c
are superior to those of particular groups or <lcgracJauon of hun1an bc11t(Ci. N111h1ng. ' f ht· """
cla~es of people. vance of '>C1cn<.:c or lct.hnolofzy tann111 lcg111111;111:
154 J•\1 ~ 111 111111111r ,11 ~1'l ill1 l 1
All 1 1
1Ji.11 wil "' 1kc 1hr tf1(f 1 r•

'\.1.1.,..." .111d t.11111"011lt1 '!ill d1:11 ,111111111111 / w l r1 1 Jt ,. JY
h11fcl\ P''~'' 111.1> 11•• .11111 'I'' 111111 1 1'11 Ir 1111 i, ,,f111.1d• 11p 11f 111y r •1/Jlllllllll' Ill tr, th1, '•run
the t.trth wl11le du· v.1'il 111.11111r1 y .111 li;11d 111 y 11111 1111• 1111111 1.r •II• r11 c i.r1 I Jr
prc~'>cd t\t'll 111 ... ur\11\!1 .11 111 1111111 Jll'illly d11 11 l"' f'·"·'11r111 1li.11 '' 1• ;i h 11111l11y ra1J, r "
llWO 1111\1 I} a' !flt• \\.di of ( 1tlll f II fll'il llJ .uld 111y .11 •'>V·•ll'' , It I .1 JX• I lr 1 •,f I ('1 ft r, ;i
\(il t:e 1111h.1t ol the "pc.1ltll1.1~ t·ri.' wh'' I f,,, tl1• ">l11d1 111 , f1,1 th' kn 1 ,wl 1 f.,, f
1
the w1ctthcd 11l 1hc ca11h "'lie It '11~1H-cl 111111111 1i .. v1· 1' 1a1 '''"'' ' d11 1 1:tly f1 11t1 l1fi ;ind r a
tau! .•\ly \1,i<.;c ,., 111 11111c.: with :1 d1Hc11111 1:111 111y1·1'111 v111l1 1li1· 1i111d1•111 ., I ~1111 J11,rk t11 X'•
guagc, anorhcr kind of 111u.,1<.:. fl '>IH ak., 11f r1 .,,, 111 y1 111d My 11,f,111· 11 (.; 1· 1r1 •!1• 11:.i r1 11 1Tr a
tanlc. 1ntl1gnauon, the.: JU'it :1ngc1 of 1h11\<: wli11 lllljl(JI llllll ll'I t11y fl , lll lill1V f1f I f1/lfl' fll't ~, (t1J r
arc dc1.:c1vcd and betrayed. J1 .,pe:1k.,, 101>, of th11r i.;ntt ,,f what J •.ay, 11r111·, arid di,
nght to rebel aga1n1it the ed1ic:al 1ran..yreli'>H1l1'> J :u1J a 11:;.,1 h1;r wh,, '>l~nd<; up f1,r 1,h;,1 1
of wh1th thty art the long-.,uffer1ng v1<.lllll'>. ril(ht :1g:J1n<i1 wha1 1<; 1nd111;n t, ·.vh1 1 1, 1 f;i~1,r 1 .t
Tht: facali .. tic philo..ophy of neoliheral pol frcc;d<1J1J aga111<it a111h1Jr11:i11an1<i111, .vh 1 1 1, :1 'illJ1
iaC!i of which I have hccn '>pc.:ak1ng 10, a ta<ic 1n p11ru:r ,,f a111Ji,,r11y agarn<it fr1,;1..:d11r n 1, 1~ 1r,
point of how human intc.:rcc;1c; arc ahan<l11necl l1111i1.,, and wlt11 ,., a d<.;f1.;nd1;r of d1;rn'" ta<..y
wh<:ntver they threaten the value'> of the 1narket. aga1n\t the d1c;t'1tr,r.,hip 1,f right <1r lc.:ft f :i,, a
I cannot irnagine, for cxa111plt, a 111odern 1eacher who fav<1r worker.. the right aga1nc,t every fc1nn rif h1g<1try and agatn'it the
ro discu'>S, during a literacy cla<i<i or <luring an e<.ono1r11<. d111111na111Jn <Jf 1nd1v1dualc, and v1c1al
in-service training courc;e 1n the faetory, the c;fa.,.,<:.,. I am a u:ac:her wh<J reJ(:(.t'i the prt .ent
pros and cono, of the dominant 1deolob'Y· l·or c,y'>teni of c:ap11ali.,rn, re<,p<1n.,1bl<: f<1r th(; abt:rra-
example, to d1s<."USS the que'>UCJn "une1nploy· titJn of rn1'>try 1n the m1d'>t ,,f plenry. I arn a
ment today is an end-of-the-cenn1ry inev1tahil- leather full <1f the '> Jnr1 t fJf htipc, 1n c;p1tt: ,,fall
ity." And, in that context, to ao,k: Why 1c, '>lgTI'> t<J the c;c1ntrary. I arn a ttac.her wh<J refuc.ec;
agrarian reform not also an inevitability? And tht: d1<i1llu<i1on1nent that c.:onc,u111e<o and 11n1 11r1~>1
why not make putti ng an end to hunger and h1-t'>. I arn a teacher pr<Jud <Jf the beaury <if rn1
misery inevitable as well? teaching practice, a fragile heauty that rnay d1c,-
Ir's extremely reactionary to say that what apptar if I do not cart for the '>trugglc and
only interests workers is achieving the highec,t knowledge that I <)ught t<J u:ac:h. Jf I d<J n11t
grade of technical efficiency and that they do '>truggle for the rna terial condrt.ic,n<., wnhout
not want to get involved in ideological debates which my ho<ly will <>uffer frr,rn neglect, 1huo,
thar, in any case, lead nowhere. It is in the con- running the ri'>k of he::ccJTning fru'>trated and
text of the work situation that the worker needo, ineffecnvc, then I will nci l<Jnger be the wnne'>'>
to engage in the proces~ of beco1ning a citi1-en, that T ought to be, no Icing-er the tena<.rc>u'>
something that does not happen as a cono,e- fighter who may tire but whfJ nevc.:r f!IVC'> up.
quence of "technical efficiency." It is tht: result Thi!. i., a beauty that need.., tn be rnarvcled at hur
of a politlcaJ struggle to re-creation of a kind of thar can easily <>lip away fr<Jm rne thrc1ugh arr<>
S<>etety that,., both humane and just. gance or di'>da1n toward my 'lrudent.'i.
. Th_us, since I cannot be a teacher without It\ 1mp<Jrtant rhat '>tud<:ntc, ptr<.:tr\'e 1he
cons1denng myself prepared to teach well and
teach tr\ stn1ggle t" be c.1,hert::n t. An<l 1t J'o nec.:-
correctly the contents of my discipline I cannot
t'>'>ary that thi., stroggle fie the c,ul>1ect ,,f d10,t:11o; -
~~':teaching practice to the m;re trans- '"'n •n the cla-,.,roo1n fro111 tune tr, ttmt ·r h1·rc
!M1e <:ontent1. It is my ethical p<,,_ . .
IWe in die cx-•1e of - - L : - th are ~1_t11anonc, rn wh1<.:h 1he teacher\ :.111J111t..le 11r
-.uug ese conten t., pra<.;Oct n1ay appear c<Jntrad1c;111ry 1r1 1he sru
c 11 \I' I I k '\ 'I ll l( (I(\)(, , \ \:llJl1t 1
Jenr,. 11,,, .1pp.11l·n1 t '11n111d1l 1111 11 11 , 111 11\ ' "'

ll l llC' It lllJ\ I lh her "ho 1s lllll~rt 1111
Cllf'\\ht:n {~l' ll,llhl' I '111\pl~ l' \1l\l'l ' •lllll11i1tt\ I 1
' ' hcll11: r she , •r h r l pped the h1111u of
HI l'\'111rlhn.1un~ tht• .11. ti\ llll'' 111 1ht l 1.1,, 11 1 1 " ' " (J\
1111 h1 11 11\ •• , lllll
th.\l 'l' t' lll' {(I !111 'l\t1k•11t' ,\II l '\\t' ' ' 111 jlll\\ \ I, \I
In thi, chJptcr, tdeolo~ " ·'' Jetincd J' tht· hcltl•f., .ind \ ,due' .1bout 11 past con\qcd
to •1 gt'Oltp .h} on oral or'' rttten .,lOI"} ha,ed on .,clcttl\ e l{roup 1ncr11or;. l'he te 1n of
the -,col} gt\ c:-. the ~roup:, 1ne1nher., a ~en-;e of 1dl n t ll} und 1nean1 ng, ind al o ugll ~
h~)\\ the group can either n1a1nra1n or unpro'e 11 .. poli11c::1I, '>o<.:1al, .ind ecc1norn1c crm-
d1t1on. BaseJ on a n1i\ture of history and 111} th, an 1dcolo10 pro..-1Je., t:\ pl anauon .. of
'''h) :111ngi. are <l!> they are, or ,,-h} and ho'' the) should he ch.1ngc<l for Lhc: group'
benefit. Al?ng \vith beliefs, ideologies are prescripti\·t!, tht!} rec.:01nmc:nd '' a) to mo\e
~e group tn a desired direction. 'VhiJe they arise in paruc:ular context.,, .,omt 1Jeolo-
gies de\'elop a \vorld vie\v that seeks a larger justification. Re.,ang on btltc:fs Jnd "cl ue'
embedded in the past, ideologies are action-oriented anJ d1rectetl to"arJ ..hap1ng
social, political, economic, and educational institutions anti processes 1n a"" <I} that"" 111
benefit the group. ' Vhen controlled by a dominant f,TTOup, schools are use<l co n10IJ
srudents' beliefs and values into their rnodel of the preferred citizen and personJli~
type. Dominated or suppressed groups tend to challenge the don11nanc group \\-1th a
rival and counter ideology that they hope will son1eday supplant the donunant group\
position. Often a group-such as a politica l party or the public school lobby-cna~
appeal co ideological justifications as a form of legitin1acy based on a higher and seem-
ingly more general authority.
1. What is an ideology and how does it \VOrk in society anti education?
2. What are the components of an ideology? .. f.
3. Do you agree or disagree \vtth the author's discussion of "Alnerican-ness ? ' P1..un
why you agree or disagree. . , . . " . . . ,
4. Do you agree or disagree \Vtth d~c authors tliscusSton of the public school 1<lcol-
ogy"? Explain \.Vhy you agree or 1sagree.
-
1. Identify a particular group :ind dctern1inc its vie"' of irs past, asscss1nent of its present
l e. . C·
condition, and plans for the. futur l ll detect evidence of ideological i1nposi-
2. Rc'Acc·t on your own cducnttonaI pa:;t.
. . . ,any<d ·xpcricnc:es were use d to shape. an .' ti co-
tion? Jn particular, \vhatschoo ac11v1ucs an c.
logical con11nitn1cnt?
156 P\RI II 11>1 t)f t)< 11-.. ''I> I l)l < \I I<,,
3. In \\ltlr lt~.'ld ,t 11d1l, 111 tl .t Lhln!( ,11 .1 p.11 1 i~111. 11.,1.1 1111 11,<.111 you dctc<.1 ho" children
1 1 1
,1 r~· c.111 ~ht thl' 111' 1h.; .111d '>\ 1nhol., 11f .1 p .1 rt1 t:11 .11 11 1.·o "lo!Y"
IXl'ER.."\'F 1' RESOURCES

r·ur J "tdl! range of articles on ideology, refer to the Keele c;uidc to Political ·1hought and
ldcolo1n
'. at
\\ww.keele.nc.uk/depts/por/ptbase.htJn
For definitions an<l sources on ideology, consult
WW\V~n-efer.com/entry/552374

Apple, Michael W. Ideology and Curriculu111. Ne'v York and London: Rou~edge & Kegan Paul, 19i9.
Apple, ,\1ichael \V. Official Kn<TW/edge: Democratic Education in a Conservative Age. New York and Lon-
don: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 2000.
Bailey, Leon. Critical Theory and the Sociology ofKn<TWledge: A Cornparative Study in the Theory ofldeologJ
Ne\v York: Peter Lang, 1994.
Balaban, Oded. Politics and Ideology: A Philasophical Approach. London: Ave bury, 1995.
Ball, Terence, and Dagger, Richard. Politico/ Ideologies and the Dem-0cratic Ideal. Ne\V York: Harper-
Collins College Publishers, 1995.
Boudon, Raymond. The Analysis of Ideology. Translated by MaJcolm Slater. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1989.
Eagleton, Terry. Ideology: An Introduction. London: Verso, 1991.
Guillaumin, Colette. Racisnt, Sexism, Power, and Ideology. London and Ne\v York: Routledge, 1995.
I Ioover, Kenneth R. Ideology alld Political Lift. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1994.
Karabel,jerome, and HaJsey, A. II., eds. P<TWer 11nd Ideology in Educ11tion. Ne\v York: Oxford Universitv
Press, 1977. ·
Katz, Michael B. Class, Bureaucracy, and Schools: The Illusion of Educational Change in A111eric11. Ne"'
York: Praeger Publishers, 1971.
Mondale, Sarah, and Patton, Sarah B., eds. School: The Story ofA1nerict1n Public Education. Boston: Bea-
con Press, 2001.
Paris, David C. Ideology and Educational Reform: Themes and Theories in Public &Jucation Boulder, CO:
Westview Press, 1995. ·
~pring, Joel. G_onfiict ofInterests: 1'he Politics ofAmerican Education. Ne\v York: Longn1an, 1988.
Staff of F..d1!'°t10~ ~ek. L~ssonsofa Century: A Nation's Schools Come ofAge. Bethesda MD: Educational
Proiects 10 Education, 2000. '
Steven~" Ed;.a~d, 3.~~dWoo_d, George IL ]'ustice, Ideology and Education: An l11trodu1tion to the Social
•oun ui~ns 01 ~ uc11Non. New York: McGra,v-1Jill l ligher Education 1994.
Ward, Ircnc. /,1teracy Ideology and D10 · f. 7· d D· , · ' ·
o fN v k p'
• cw •Or rcss, 1994. ' ogue: <TWar, a ta1og1c Pedagogy. Albany' NY· · State University
1 lt\1'1111 ·1~1 1111111111 \ \1\111111•1 ''"'~
1 ~7
I N~'' '"" 1.1" 11.I• 111il lh1111111 l,

I h•11ul111•11 \11111111 l ", 10,,11, I' 1111
l~11h 11 , l'tt '•' •11J/ 111 tl•r tmr1/, ., '""'I cl11l1r lll1"1••11
\lit h,11 I II I 11 , t "'• llr11rut1111111. 11·•,I \,1.,,,,f,
1N1 II \1 11l 1'1 1111111 I l'11l1lf•l11 I ' IV I), p ·~
ft•, 11111•11•1111/ I d111i1t1,.•1,1f < '1•111.~r '" 11111 " ""
I I 111 I ilh1 ll-•fi111 111 llH l P111p1•lf11~ hh•11l11~l1·~ 1111d illll'l\'~I~ f11 \1111•111 ·Ill l'd111 .111111\, 'l'I' 1111•1
".J'd11~, I 1••l//l1ft1//111t11•111 11•1' li•/1111 111/ l"l!'llt 111 /',/111 .1t11111 (\11•11 \111k I 1111111111111, IV~~)
•
TIO AJ "'ISM, AMl .l(f( :A 1
EXCEJYff<JNAIJISM, AN I>
ETHNONA'J 'J( )NAI ~ISM
In 1±11., ch:iptl!r:, WI.! c::t11111nc Ndu11n.1l1~111, r1111· ,,f thr 11111"11 11111111111 1·111 •t•tl 11dl11 1• 1111 ii ,,f
the 1deolo'!les <:un11ncJ an the 1,,,,ik \.\c l11·g111 J,1' d11' 11!1 .111g ,it"''' 1 11 .111, 11 11·11 111111
to Arrten(."3n E:u:epcronalts1n, Jn 11np11rr.1111 A1111-1" .111 r'rprr. ,Ifill ,,, II.,,,,,]
ilr .111, 11111
connnue on to an ex:in11n.ir11,n 111t1h111,11.1111111:.l1s111,11p11w1·11111' 11 11tr111J 111 ' · ' ' Y y.1 11 11.d
cren<l. Although the t three 1dt1.1lt1g1c"' drc rc:l:11td, w1 ,J,,,JJ :.I 11 11·.t;11111111· _,,,,.,. 111 tl11·11
differi::nci: .
Dl ;'1'.;G ~ IIO~ALI ~1
lf we look :.it a p1Jhtical map ,,f cht w,,rid, ~ c· "' ,, ,.. th.11 there .11 r: n1·1t rl y 1(>(> 1 1111111111· • 111
mdependent an<l .,o~ere1gn nau<>n-scJca:s . \ 1111111111 -1111tr c.111 111· d1·f1111·d .1, 11 p11l11 y, ,,
country, that 1<s 1ndepen<lenL an<l ~1,ver1.:1gn 1n th.1111h.1111t1t 11wr1g11v1·1111111·111,111.1k1·tt 1111
own law-;, an<l contr1JI., the rerr1t1uy w1c.h1n rt., li11rd1.:rN. f111r11111.1111ly, 11 ha-. rl11· 1111w1·1 11f
deternun1n2 who 1... and who 1-; n1,t a c.;1nz,..n 11f the n.n111n-~1.111;. A111f1t1g n.1111111 ,,,,,,. .,
1
are large on..e.,, '>Uch as the Un1rcJ Statr.,, C.anad:i, rhe J{111i1i1:111 l •ed1;1,1111111 , rl11· l'1·11plr 1t
R..:pubhc of Ch1n.:i, an<l In<li.1. ~ext in .1rea ,,f l&1nd 111.1'1'1 l<11111· I ran<,., ~p.1111, ( ,,., 111.111y,
" :ena, \1eXJco, an<l many 1Jcher c 1 1untne~. ·r htrc :1r1- rht· .,1gn1hc a111 111l.11 1d ri. 1111111" 111
L""~ l~rucc::J Kingc.Jon1 and Japan . ' I'ht:re arc rnany 'ilT1;1ll na1111n · u111·~. 111 11 Ii .Iii I .;11v1.1,
E: toru.a,jam:.I1ca, Belize, i\111naccJ, Belgiurn, an<l L11xt·r11l1<111rµ We h:1vt· 11 ,111 11·d 1111ly .1
w of the naoon-.,cates, or cuuncrie , that <.<:Jn he fi111ncl ''" 1h1· pt 1111u .d 1r1.q1 111 tl11 ·
world. AJJ of the e narion-~t:ltt'> have chc full11wing in< tun1111111 ( I ) tl 11·y 111 , • .,, 1v1·11·1v11
m that they hJ\e their own g1>Vtrnrncnts; (2) they arc 1ndcpcnd1·111111 1h.11 tJ11·y .111 11111
officially <."Ontrolle<l an the polio1..-al '>tll'>t hy an11thcr c.:11untry, ( !) 1hcy li.1vc tl11·11 11w11
pohncaJ, legal, nul1tst"}·. and cc..lu<.':ltJ1>nal 1n.,t1tur111n'I. fr 1s 1111p11r1~011 1,, 11· 111·1.111· tl1 ,11
the) ha'e their o"n sch<.>1JI !>)'>tems that, a pan ,,r their td111 1l1t1n:tl 111111 .,11111, 111·c·L 111
soorul.Ue children a_, naoorutl <.'1nzen~. \ \ 'e w 1II rum tr, h11w '-ht,, ,1 .. dt:v1:l1 1p c 1111c1 I!•
through progrJ.nis of national soc1al1zaa11n lata:r 1n rhc chapter
.'\s note<l abo\e, naaon-!>tatt:'I arc:: c1>unrr1t:.S th:tt 11(.CllJ,Y n p:111 1c 11111 gt'•H• .ipltu ti
temtt.iC!. ha.. e their O\\'Tl poho1..'al 1n utun1Jns, and t:rnt>e11ly 1111111 e 11c:n r. 1,f ihc tdrul 11 ~)
allerJ ~at1oruih... tn. \\'e no" rum cu :1 <lcnn1u11n 111 l ur111nal 1 111 , ·1 hi· ~r.y 1,, 1111 clr•r
I 11 \ I' I I 1: I I ' i\ \ lll•i\\fl\\I J\\\IHll ' ' I ~• II 1h i'\\l l\ \ I • 1•1111
., II \11•1 II I I ') •1
~11111 1 111 ' Ill 111 I II I1'111 I ' I ll 11 I111l11H\ I\ 111 1 1111 1 ~ 1•11 thr 1t h I 111 1h 1 I It/ I
'''' '1'11 ,d "' i l11uc H'"11p 11l p1 1 •plt 11l1t11 1 illc I' 'i11i1111
\\ \iii., I \ I 11'1111 ilh' b11111 1d 11ll \ 111 I,: 1111 1111 I I I 11;111ttll 11 l111il 111 1lllh nr 1111 ll
I I I \ l I 1• " I ' II' Ill I Ht 111 I 1 1h ••1. 11111
' \ ' '''I" lh•<'''"' I ""Ill"'' lt11 111 du l 11111 1l "i111 ( ,' I 'I I II II I\11 I
I JI""'' 1\1 Ill '""' 111d 111111 ( ""''" ' 111111111111 !>111 I
I '
' 'i I t 1111 I 1 I ll I h I

I lh \ hI I111\ .. , I p.11111 11111 11 11 11111 ii 111111111 111 I 11
• C' I l I' 1111( 'I' 1111 Ill,, I 111111 al I 111 I
r h~i.·u,, '""' id111,1111 111tl 111,11111111 111,, 1111 1e lt•111l l111111111r111 11 111 '" 111111 11111111
1h. "~.:·'·'~' th.11 1•111h11d1,., 111d l'\ lll l'''''' tht l 11 \ l 111 1111 li 1l loi1l 1(1 11111 11
r · ""~ f1'\ \ll lll\llll11l lt 111.ll 1d1•1 1111 ~ .111dl11) "'' 1111h1111111111 ) h11 lh)th r• pl ,,f
11
th, 1•1111111 \ 1 11tht• 111111111, 11 h11 tl11•1t'\jllt'''''~ 1 h1· !{1111q1\ 111111111 ti J11r1111r p itri, 1
lllt l ll, n.11 11111.11 llll l'l t \I' '' l' l .1111l ht, ll.t ll'11 11 .. .. ,\I ' Ii 1 l111 i.;" \ \llh I fjllf'!lll<1n \ \ 1 I
,t,i ' l l lllt'.lll Il l hl• \ 11\t'l tl\ lll , J.1p.llll'' t.., Ftt'lll h, 111 \11•\11 111, 1111 c~ 1111plr I 11111 r
I),,,, d11 P•'11Plt· .1l·q1111 t..· 1h1, ' t'll't' 111 \\ t..' fl't ling''' I ht 1d1 ,111l l llttl"11 ~1"1' 1111111 n 11 11 11
11
'' n,11 111n.l111, • th.11 ''· ht..•1 ng dt•,1gni11t•d ·'' .1 L 1t1 1t..•11 Ii} 1 11· 111 ~· 1111111 '" 1l1c l •1111111) 111 11 11
n1.ll 1 t•d II\ II·'' .111 lllll\llgt ,\1\1. 1.111011.11 t'lll/t•n,l11p lllilkt·, 1111 "1\ I ' ft t 111 1~" 111111 I ii 11111
tdc<nt1ht'' .1 J't'l"l>n ·'' l'1t11t•n of •l parucular n:111nn '111tl' C>1111 1.d 11111111l!l1q1 1.. tl11l 11
11\c•ntt'd h) ,\ h1rth l't'11 ifi1::11t',:l t1 idl'n tityc:1rd :1 vott•t\l .trd , 111 .1p.1s,p111 1.
1
~11,l .\'fl . 1 (11'111~ N 1'10N-STATE

1
.\: 'D 1 .\"fl0~.\141Sl\t
l\1 undt·r~t.lnd ho'' nntH)n-states and Nacionalis1n nro't..', lll'1·d 1.1kt· 1 l11 1c l h1.. 1111 1
\\t'
t~.11 'lllll\1rn 1nrt1 rhe l:ire eighteenth nn<l early nine1t•cn1h tt•n11111t·, I hl \11 11 111 .111
Rt>\11lur1t1n 111 1"' .. 6 •Hld the French Revolution 1n 1781> \\Crt• 11np1111 1t1H l 11,1I \..,,, 1111
'nn1111.1tin~ :\'.1r1t>nalisn1. An in1porr:int ideological prc1111'c ol rht' \111t•11l .Ill 11·111·1.,
J!-fJtn-.c Br1r1sh C<llt>n1al rule \VllS rheir emerging 'en,t• 1hn1 t ht•\ \\ t'l t ' 1111 l1111g1•1
re,crrleJ Englishtnt!n hur \\'ere n distinct people, po~'e'''"g 1nt1ltt·n.1hl1· 11ght, 111 " lilt't
hberr). ;1nd pursuit <.>f hnppincss," and \Vho had the 1·11-tht ot ,t•ll J.(ll\t111111r111 I 11 ~
,en'e <1f .\ J11eric;1 n :tti<>nnlisn1, joined \Vith repuhltcanis111, "·I' ll't•d 1n tun\ 111t1 1hc
tl>rn1cr colt>n 1srs chat th ey belonged to n ne\\' An1e ricnn nn t ion, .111 1dt•11111 \ t h.11 " ,,,
lar~t·r .1n<l n1c>re encon1pnssing than heing a Ne\\' 't'orkt•r, n \ '1rg1n1,1n, 111 ,1< '.11011111.111
11
l' he French Revolution , \virh irs slognn of "libert y, t'tp1nl1t), nnd l1 .11t•11111\ ,
brt111ght the populnr n1asses into direct C<)ntncr \Vit h 1heir 1111tiunnl g11vt•111111t•111 I 1
.. p.1rle<l rhe idea thnt the French pe<>ple, rnthcr than the Hon1·hon 1n1111,11t h_1 , 11tlc•d
F' 1,1nce. The r"rench Revo lution and the efforts of Nnpolt•on 10 rt•11111kt• F1111111t· 11111111
'' 'tt•111 of I•rench puppet stat es sparked a strong tide of cn1111tt•r N11111111.i11,111 11111111114
the Br 111,h, rhc Rus'ii:i ns, the Spanish, (~cr1nans, nnd 01ht•1 n111i1111.1I g11111p' \11 1·1
'-:.ipoleon\ tin.ii defear at \\fat erloo in 18l 5, rht• idl•n of 1ht' l'1.111nt1 ) 11' 111111111111 , 11111·,
rather ch.in 41 d\ na.;ric tnt>nnrchy, g-re\V inL'rt•nsingl) po" t't ftil . ' h1 u11gh11111 I•11111111·
Thrl>u1.1ht>Ul th~ nineteenth ct!ntury, the ,pirit of Nn 11c11l1ll1,111 1111 t•n'l1h1·d It lc·d 1h1•
r- I · \I... ... 1" f·d1ht• 11v1tl111.•,nnd 11l11 .1 n~·,·.. 1h,11 l«d
~ear Furt>pt.•an po,vcr'i to ct> <>n1ze t 11t:.1, 11 •1 .,., c.:
«>\\'t>rlu\\'.11IandlL • \ 1 , 1111 ,
The idc·1 t>f che n11ti1>11 ~late '"·'" exported to So111h \1Ht•t 1l.1, '"'· ,1111 .
by Eur,1pt»1n ' u11pcr1ahscs.
, \ \ 'hen t he f01111c1, . l' 11r1111t"ltl
· t11lo1ut'' 1:t•1111t•d rh1·11 """
160
I 111 11 ,1111111 .,, Ill' 1111• 11 111 1 1111111 .11 11 1 111 1,11111·
1
indcpl'lldt'lll l'. lht•\ 1111111" l ' I I I III 111111II I II I I"
indept•ndt·t H , ' ' '' t' l l't~ n 1.. 1111 nI 111 '
Ntttt(lt111li~111 .11ttl N.1tit•n ·St.•tl·-.· Str11t·t11rl''I

, ,ltt\lll .;1 ;1tc~ l'll';I CC ,\ \lllll ' l\ll l' Ill lll'tl l l ll llllll ' d t•., 1g 11\' tl lll (11 1 , l' l\t .111d 1111111 11111• thc
n.u inn's stll"' '' ·'I. .ind t11t t• r t· •n-;. l'li1·} h ,1\1' µ u vt.· 1111 111111 •., p11 -.11 1111 1,,
1tt:Hnti' l\lllll'l't
p ru n e 11Hn ister~. p:1rh;1111t•111.;, nnd l'Oll ~l'l'°'i 'l'': lhl·y h11ve 1rr11 , 111 1t'' 1 h .11 1k ' 1111 l 1 1x,11111n
•1 ~n1.· 1es. polil't' and n11h1111) ti1r1.·1..•.; :111n1c,, n ,tVtl''• '"' ln1'l' l'' ' '' pro\t' t 1 1hc11 lilt
z~ns Jntl n 1J1nt"J in their htH'll1..• rs; 1hc ) h:I\ c d 1plo 11t:l ll l 'l'tVl<.'l'' to l~a nd lc 1hc 11 rcl.11111n'i
\\ 1th other nation-st:ltes; the\ h;1\ c l'tlucatHHltl l ')'1c111., 1h:11 rc1n fo r<.:l. the 'c11~t: 111
n:1t1on:1l identity and edtu.::11e } oun~ people as ci111cns nccord1n ).{ to 1nodcl., of pol111c:1I
·oc1ah2ation.
Nation-States and Schools

In the nineteenth century, 1nany nntion-states begun to t:stahlish nation al 'ichool 'Y~
ten1s. Their initial efforts ,vere halting steps to\vard national sch<>ol sysr~n~'· 1n the
United Kingdom, Parliament began to give financial grants to school soc1ettes tn tht
1830 ; France esttlblished national pri1nary schools; and the con1111on , or public,
school 1novement began in the United States. Part of the goal in building n:itional
school systems was ro create key agencies to foster the sense of national identity, or
political socialization, and to instill patriotis1n and citizenship.
In some countries, the national schools either cooperated with or replaced exist-
ing religious schools. By the end of the nineteenth cenn1ry, national schc>ol syste1ns
vrere found throughout the world. (Although the United States does not have a
national school system, its state systems, collectively, serve to create An1erican identity
and citizenship.) In the t\ventieth century, as new nation-states appeared after winning
independence from colonial po,vers, they, too, established son1e version of a national
school system.
In the United States, public schools provide acaden1ic learning to students, buc
also seek to educate good citizens. The philosophies of school districts throughout the
country include promoting citizenship educating good citizens-as one of their
Sttlted goals. Throughout the nineteenth and ea1·ly twentieth centuries, the public
schools' version of educating good citizens emphasized a program of An1ericaniz;1tion,
designed to assimilate i1nmigrant children into a preferred version of what it n1ennt to
be a good American. For example, Ellwood P. Cubberley, a pron1inent educator,
advised public school teachers on how to assimilate imn1igrant children. Cubberley
stated, "~vel'Y:'vhere these people tend to settle in groups or settlementS, and to set up
here their nauonal manners, customs, and observances. Our cask is to break up these
group~ of people as a part of our American race, and co in1plant into their children, so
fur as it can be done, the Anglo-Saxon conception of righteousness, Law and order, and
~opular government, and to a\vaken in the1n a reverence fo r our democratic instint-
?ons and for those things in our national life which we as apeople hold to be of abid·
1ng worth." 1
l ll\ 1' 111~ 11' ' \ I " ' ' \I I\\\, \\II I~ \ \ ' ' 1\I11' 1111' \11 ' \I \'ll I 111,l l ' \I I l l ' \11 , \I 161
( '11hhl·1 lc\ 'llt\'l'd thl' \'lllllt'pt ul hl'111µ \111,•1H-.111 th.11 dn111111.1tt·d puhl1l' ,chool
th111"111~ . l'IH• ldl'.ll ol \111t l l\'1ll1 n111111111tl1t~ \\;I S ,tll t'.ld) t•11111plt•tt•d ,111d not '\Uh)t:l't to
1
:1ltL•1.11u111 It "''s 11111d1•lt'll 1111 thl "·hi11•, Fnµl1sh. Prntt''t •llll 11111·qH't•1111ion of' thL•
1
\1111.•111-.111 p.1.;1 F111 ( '11hh1·ilt tht• 1111111iµn11u' \lt'l't• 11111 10 t·u1111tli11tt• to ;1111.· xp:111,"e
0
\ ,
.111d 111ort• c111t111.1ll) dn1.·1.;l' dl·li11111on nf hl'1ng .111 \1111.•ril';lll h111 \\ L'l'l' 10 11nitatc "h.11
'' .1~ .1lt t'.hh .1 1.·0111plctcd pro1h11.·1.
l'hc p11hlic st:houls u,t•d l•'ng-lish as the: 1:1nµ11:1g-1.· of 1n~tr11l·11011 to tht• '11 tunl
t'\1.·h1st<11111f nth1.•r l:1ng-u.1gcs, .ind 1:111!-(ht :1 sl·k•rt 1 l'l'sion nl' A111c:rit':111 h1s101') .ind liter
:1r111'1.'. l 'ht• st:hools strc.:sscd s1:111d:1rds of h1.·hnvior 1h11t 1vcrl' idt•tHilicd 1vith he1nl-{ n
good \111t•rit•:111; ob1.·di1.•nt·1.· 10 tht• 1:1\\'S nnd t'stnhlished :1u1h11ri1ics; respect for pri\'a\c
prop1.•rt}; .1 '"illin!-TJlc:ss to ro111p1.·tc, hut also 10 respect the rig-h1.; of others; dilig'cncc;
;lnd p11111.·t 11;dit\• .
L(11l.1), ;tftcr :i long- str11g-g'l1.·, 111uhit:ulrur:1lis1n has replaced 1\n1ericaniz:1tio11 111
the puhlir s1.·hool idc.!oloi:.l)" Re~p1.•cting culu1r:1I dh crsity is no\\' heralded as one of the
i1nport:111t hl·hnviors of :1 µ-ood 1\111erican. J :1111c.; Bnnks, :1 lending 111111liculrura l educa-
tor, in co11tr:1st to (~ubbcrley's 111onoculu1r:1l stance, argues for n hrond transi'or1n:11 ion
of t\111erit::lll edut::Hion th:H inl'orpor:ltes :Ind inf11SCS the:: perspectives of tl\:lllY gronps
into the conct>pt of the good \111cric::1n. 1\ccording to B:inks, "1' he key cnrric11lu1n
issues in\ oh cd 1n n1ulticult11r:1I curricuh1111 rcfonn is not the addition of a long list of
ethnic g-roups, heroes, und contributions, hut the infusion of various perspeccivcs,
fr:unes nf references and content fro111 \':lnou.; groups thnt \\ ill extend students' undcr-
1
sn1nding-s oft he non1rc, de1 clop111enr nnd co1nplexit y of U.S. snciet y. "1
Ilo,vcvc1-, the question of ho\V brond or ho\\' narro,v, ho\V inclusive or exclusive
the definition of the •good 1\ 1ner1can should be :111J "hat the role of schools should he
in educating the good ,\1ncr1can rc111~1in., highl) t:ontro\ersial. In \\'riring about the
culn1ral "ars O\'er the dcfin1uon of an \Jncrican, J a1nes Hunter st:ltcs: " ... thc con-
tctnporary cultural \Var is 11lt11nntcl) a strUg'g'lt! 01cr nation;1I identity-011er the 111e1111i11}{
~f·.../111eric11, \\'ho \\IC hove been in the past, \\'ho \VC arc no''" and perhaps 1nosc in1por-
t:1nc, \\'ho \\'C, ns n nation, \viii ~1s pirc to bcco1nc in the ne\v n1illcnni111n. "3
Forming Nationalism's "We-Feeling"

ln th is subscccion, \\'C exatninc hO\\' 1ationahs111 \\'Orks co crc:itc a sen~e of "wc-
feeling," n sense of fr:itcrnnl brot herhoo<l nn<l 'iisterhood bnsed on living in a particul:1r
nncionul political space nnd of being a citizen of thac nation. The bonds of national
tt)gethertlt'SS are found in a co111111on language, con1n1on folk and patriotic origin'>, a
•
co111nlon religion, and t'On1111on cxpre.,sion' of culrure.
'
A Common Language. ..\ con1mon l:inguage i'i important in fonn1ng nnt1onal

group idennty. A con1J11un langu.1ge brings people together '' 1ch share<l unde~srand ·
ings-ide.1.;, beliefS. ant~ ,·nlues-:1.n<l separures thcrn fro1n tho~e \\.ho.' not speaking rhc
same lani-1'\lage, luck this sen-;e of muruahty. Indeed, the anL1ent (1reeks referret.1 ro
non-Greek ,peakers ai. barbarian!>. Again. \\ e n1u'lt 'tare che ob\'t<lU'i but vef) trnpor-
tsnt: the Fnglt~h ' pe;1k Engh,h, (;em1an<; 'peak (;ennan, Japane'e )peak Japane,e,
f6J f' \I~ I II II l I I ll c IC ,II .., \'I> I I> l l \ I IC , ,
1 .,
1{11,,11111' 'Pl '" ""''I Ill, ,11\l
I
'l' I 111
•
\llll Ill •111 , ., 11t•.1k I nglt'h ' the unolfil 1:11 "offiCJal-
t 1
l.1ng11.l).!l '°lp1 tk111g thl· l1111111111n l.1n~•111gl ult:n11h1 s the 'Pl'.11.:cr •' >c nllL.'lng to the
hin~•n,IJ.!l' j.(ICllljl ,tlld ,h,1111\U 11 \\ llh 11dll'I '11111111 'l'l I~ l I S,
\ \ htli· n i 111 n11 uin 1,11 1µ11 ,1µl' 1, ,1 111L .Ill' 111 l ' l I\ d.1v d1,l 11111 ~c .ind l:111111nun11.:. uon,
ll 1' llllllh 1111111• 1h1111 h.H 1n tl'1 t1 1' ol lttlturl' It toll\l')' the n11.1nl:c' ol ho..-. an idea
hL·lit•I. 111 , .ihil 1, 1.•\prt•,,1.•d \ 1,111 µ111 µc c\prt'''l'' .th~ 111c.1n1ng' o f t1111c, lipace hon.
l , ,, 111, tit\. hl'.l \ll\, II ttnd,hip. l<1l11l'llC'"· and l.11111 ly 1n the nauonal contc t' 1n \l.htch
1 1
thl'\ .u ~· ll'·t.·d r hc hi n~l'\lJ~e t:\JH·c,,l', ho'' thing., arc .ind ho'' the) should be B\ rn.
pl~ ·ht•injo( l~H n 1ncu .1 nat1on.1l culture, children'. '1' part of their dt.:,elo1~1n~nt. acqwrc
th.tl rnuntr) 's lan~rttagc. Inslr'\H:llon 111 school' further refi ~e tl1c c~il<l ~. 'k1ll 1n u ing
1ht• h1nguagt•. (L.1nl-ruage poliucs antl education in 111ulurac1a l, n1ulncthn1c. antl mulu-
lin!-,"lJJI n<ttlon ·'itatc'i are di'icuo,!.e<l laler in the chapter.)
• School 'Y' tetn!I throughout the \\·orlcJ de,·ote n1uch t-urriculurn 'pace and
1n . . cructional tune to ceach1ng language. In the prin1af) or elementaf) ..chools. read1n!?
instruction ,.., one of the central activities. A child's academic succe ., depend hca\1~
o n hov,r well she or he masters the language. As the child learns the language. idea'.
beliefs, antl values become more contextualized, made more particular, to the national
setting. Language instruction begins in the first grade 'vhere it 111ay take the fonn of
stories about civic helpers such as fire, police, and postal personnel. or b1ogcaph1cal
stories about presidents, athletes, scientists, and others \vho can sen·e as models. In
learning to read the stories, children acquire not only decoding skills but also inior-
mation and values related to their country. Language instruction continues th.rough
middle and high school where an effort is made to improve comprehension, en1pbasize
proper usage, and have the student become increasingly fluent and sophisticated in
using the language.
Common Folk and Patriotic Origins. A sense of "we-feeling" is cultiYated by the

remembrance of common folk or patriotic origins that are celebrated in anthen1s.
songs, stories, holidays, and other events. In the United States, such con1mon celebrJ-
tory occasions of remembrance are Memorial Day, ThanksgiYing, and Independence
Day. They are marked by parades, the posting of the American flag, and the singing of
the national anthem. In France, Bastille Day, July 14th, the posting of the tricolor tl.ig
and the singing of the MarseiUes invokes the historic metnories. Each nation ha · these
celebratory events, its heroes, its days of commemoration.
In schools, these events, celebrated with songs, stories, and reenacn11ents. t:.ll-.e
on a heig~tened significanc~ for the students, especially for element<tf)· pupils. The~
a:e becom1n~ part of the nauon as they participate in its patriotic rituals. ~luch like the
r1tuals of religion, those of patriotism elicit an auton1atic response. The :\merican tl.ig.
the "red, ~hite, and blue" stirs love of country, the pledge to the flag expresses lorn Icy
to the naoon, "to the republic for which it stands ... one nation indivisible."
A Co~m.on Religion. .~other ingredient in generating ..,,·e-feeling" in n1;in\

counmes is a common religion, often an "official church." In Greece, Russia . Serb1.1.
111\l'll IC II ~ N\ 1 111~\ l 11\1 1 \\ 11 ltH \'\ I 'it I l 'llfl \I l'i\1
Ill lll''<ll"i\1111,\J 11.,\1 16 1
11111v·"' '·· 1111l t<11111111 1o1, '"' < 111111 1d11• c .111 111 111 111 , \ 1i1, ... 11" , ,I ,, 1> 1I 1IJ!lllll\ 1lift ,t 1\0 l:ll.
1
1111 11I I 11111•\l!lll 111 11 11\ , l 111l 111d • l tt I•111d , •1111 1 '•1• 1111, fl 11111.111 ( .11I111 I tl1~111 prov111•, I ;i
l l'll~lplt \1 111td 111li111 ,1' l11111d11111 '" 1... 1' II I1 )111111' '
1 111 I'"' 1111 II I IJ! llill\ .1111 I l 11 I1111.1 11 Ill·k I 11
' 'Ii\ pt , I , il, " 1111i , \l ,11.11 .,1,1, \l gli11111 .. 1,111 , 1111d f r;111 , 11 1\ l1., l.11 111 h11t 1•-, d11•plycittl1t:ddl'd 111
tl 1t· 111111111 111 I l1.1il.111d, l\111ldl11 .. 111 ,, l' 11d11·dd1·d Il l 1111 ( 1111111 1. 111 111:iny t1111n111c.,,
1111111 fl 1·, .111d 11·l11t11111' 111\ 1111111011 ' .11 1· f111Wl'tlul 1111111111.11 ccl11l .llll1nal fqrc1·., ,ind ihc
11 ,11hin~ 11l 11·l1t1 111n, 1·,111·11:illr 111.11111 tl1t· do111111 .1n1 t l111rt h, (.':tn lie f<i1111d 111 1hc ., 1,.,e
op1•11111•d \1'1111111,,
. I la· LJ11 11t'd !'11.11l'\ 1, ,111 1•x1 c1H1011 in 1h111 11do('\1 101 h:1vc a co111111<1n rt:lig1on.
< h111 1 h .111 d '11111• 111 l' 'I.' p111 1ll 1·d hy Iaw. ' I'ht· l'o u11 t 1y " rt: I1µ1o11., Jy pl 11 rnI1., 11 c; the rt a rt:
1'11111·,1.1111,, 1~0111.111 <:.11h ol1t'l 1 ( )11 l 1ndox,Jcw~. Mo,lc1111.,, and n1t:111her<, of othC!r reli-
~1 011 , dt•fltlllllll;lllllll,,
( :on1n1(ul 1;:x1>rcssi<111s of C ulture. Nn t ionn 1is1n is expressed in the a rchi tecrore,

n•I 1111111-., literary work.;, 11111.;ic, poetry, and cJran1a thar rt::flect a national life style.
( ~c 1 t:1i11 1:11lt11r:1I work<; µ:1 i11 n pro111inl!nce that cxprcsses d1e national rnood. In the
United Suncs, 111 (! hook-; of J11111cs Fcnin1oru Cooper, Ralph Wal<lo Emerson, Henry
l):ivid 1~hnn.: ;111 , I lt:nnan Mc lvill<:, Mark ~rwain, l..!:rn est Jie1ning\vay, and F. Scott
11itt.!-{cr:dd <.:x prei;o; the A111eric11n lit<:r:-iry style and idio111. The architecture of Louis
S11llivan nnd l•'rn11k l,loyd Wright e::x press Lht: conct:pts of American design. Certain
buildings, su<.: h os th e Whit<.: llouse, tht: Washington Monu1nent, the Lincoln M emo-
rial , th<.: l•:111pirc Stal<.: Building, and the Sears 1bwcr, evoke the consciousness of being
nn An11.:l'ic:in. ' l'he tcrrori.;1 nttnck on and lhe destruction of the Twin Towers of the
World ' li·ndc ( :enter on Suptc111hu1· l J, 2001 was an attempt to destroy features of the
A1 nuric:111 l:111dsc:1pc 1hal convt:y a sense of the powerful American economy and posi-
tion in thu world .
For ( (cr1n:i11s, the lit t:r:iry 111asterpioces of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and
Fri edrich St:h ill er :ind t hu 1nusit· of l,,lldwig van Beethoven and Richard Wagner evoke
1he s<.:nsc of being- a ( ;cr1nan. W.1gnt:r's 111usic in particular, although containing son1e
oft he world's µ-rc:llcst co111positions, also was sLridently nationalistic.
In J•' nint·c, na1ioni1list Lhc1nes wt:re convey<::d by Alexander Du1nas and Victor
I Iugo, esp<:t:in II y th e l:iu cr's Ii t1i: ra ry rnasterpiece, Les Miser11bles. The epic n1ura Is in the
J,ouvrc nnd the ( ;ha1nber of J)eputies portray glorious events in France's bistory.
' f'hc J•:iffcl ' ll>w<:: r nnd Arc de:: Fllio1nphe i1n1nediately bring France to mind. In Italy,
th e ~iirrinµ opcrns of'(;iuscppc Verdi ~onvey ~sense:: ofltaJian n.ationalisrn. ~rederic
( :hopin'o; stirring Polonaise aroused Polish p:itnoLS to rally for tl1e1r country's freedom.
' l'hc 1u11 ncs nnd thcnit:s n1entioned above provide only a few exan1ples of h~\v
11 :11 ion;i li-i 111 and 11 ation:il culture :ire expressed in works of art. These works of a.re, l1t-
crl1tllrc, llHl'ti c, and nrchltt:cturc be::co111c reft:rt:nce points on tl~e psyc~ic i:naps of those
who shn re 11 1•011 , 111011 nn lion aI c:uIt 11 rc. ln1port:1ntly, th~y consurute a ~1gn 16cant part. of
the srhuol turricu · Iu111 anLI :ire conscious
· ·· ·IY usccl· lo bring. th<:: young
. into .contact
. with
nnd cng-nµ-c 1he111 Ill • l Iicrr
· nallollll
· I Ilt!lllngc.
: • They nre
• .founJ. 111 courses 1n lirerarure, r '
nn1-.i1·, nrt, nnd dr:1111a, thL· iiuhjcct nrcas Lhnc art laden \.~1th values. ~hey ::ire the means
' '
of apprcrn11111g-, ' ' ' 111,,
pt1rt1c1pa1111[{ _ .. r> the naUOn:JI CUJOJl'C.
' 'l11<.i ...uXJll'CSSinrr
J 64 PAffl II 11)1 C)LOC,JI•.., \'I) l~Dll< \ 11< )'
AMERICAN EXCEPTIONAl,ISM
\.\'t: no\\ turn to \1ncric:;1n Except ionalis1n, a spccilic t} pc of na11onali'>nl that ha-. exer-
cised a profound i111pact on 1\.n1cric:an history, culture, and ed11<.;1t1on. \Ve hcJ.'ln b) tak-
ing a closer look at the \.Vor<ls to e.i·cr:pt anti e>.:ceptiollnl, which arc at the root of
exceptionnlis1n. To e>.·c11pt 1neans to exclude or to leave out; it cn1phasizes the exclusion
of those \.\1ho are different. For A111erican Exceptional ism, those who are not An1en-
cans are excluded or left out. The word exception11/ designates an instance or a c:a<,e of
so1nething or son1eone that does not confo.m1 to the general n1le. The \vord e:xcept1ona/,
as we will use it here, is celebratory in that it connotes something or someone that,.,
uncon1n1on, excellent, superior, unique, or extraordinary. In terms of American
Exceptionalism, it 1neans that Americans and their country, the United State!), are
unique and differ from other countries. The American nation, its people, and their
culture are different from the people of other countries; they are exuaordinary.
Situating American Exceptionalism

A young French visitor to the United States, Alexis de Tocqueville, spent 1831 and
1832 traveling around the cow1try. H e was a penetrating observer of American institu-
tions, culture, and manners. Returning to France, he wrote his classic book, Dernocracy
inA111erico, published in 1835. His sage comparisons about the differences between the
American and European temperarnents were prophetic and have stood the test of time.
Noting "the peculiar and accidental situation in \vhich Providence placed the Ameri-
cans," Tocqueville wrote, "Everything about the Americans, from their social condi-
tion to their laws, is extraordinary; but the most extraordinary thi11g of all is the land
that supports them."4 H e observed that underlying the democratic fabric of American
society was a widely shared concept of equality. Americans, he observed, see that
"democratic institutions flourish" in their country but fail elsewhere. American "haYe
an in1mensely high opinion of themselves and are not far from believing that they form
a species apart from the rest of the human race. " 5 Politically, Americans were commit-
ted to the ideal of majority rule but also beLieved in the respect for the minority and
the possibility that a minority might become a majority. Funher, Americans looked for
practical solutions to problems rather than to grand theories. ReLigion, Tocque,ille
predicted, would become more flexible and adaptable in the United States but \vould
nevertheless inform a generalized national ethic. He noted that Americans " 'ere join-
ers, forming numerous clubs, societies, and interest groups.
As the l.;nited States moved wesnvard to occup}· the vast territOl)' l}1ng between
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans during the nineteenth cenrury, American Exceptional-
is~ was expre~sed in ter~ of .the nation's "manifest destiny." According to the doc-
trine of Amencan Excep?onalisr:1, God had fa,·ored Americans above other people-.
Protected by the rnoat~like bamers and isolation afforded br the m·o great ocean .
the~ were giv~n a cononent of vast resources to settle and exploit. In their pr<)tecte<l
habitat, Arnencans created the best of all possible systems-a republican fonn l)f ~o' -
( lf\1'111( 11·1' '\I lll,\l l 't\I , \\II Ille\ I l\I 11 1111 \1lbt.I A 111 111 11 1111 II I
t'lllllll'lll , dt'llllll l,\111 111.,11111111111., ,, 11111 .t I i 111111p1J111111111111y

1 I lll1 l 11111dJlllf
\\';I' 10 IIt' I I11' I•t'•h'1111 lt1il11
' ctl 111 111,, 11 '~ t I1111 "111111
I 111 1 .111 d 111 1011111111" ,, ,,,, llffl •••
I.ind,
,
, 1111d p1•11pl1·'1. 111, .. l l111t l' cl ~1111 1•1; 11· ,., 1I 1111Iiii I i I I 11 l1I Jlll1jllI 11111111 1111 I 6111Jll
I II
Int•, 11111111 111 1111d p11liHl'11I t'\1•111pl.i1 1111 tlu l l'~ I 11 f 1111 wii1frl
.\llll'l ll'illl l-' \l't•p111111.t11 .. 111 "' 1111 1d11d1111l•
rl
•• ,.. I -ill I ,,, I I II Itltf1'•J':'
t
I I l1lf I
,t•k'l ll\l'l'Ollt•t tl\t' lllt' lllill~, l h1 1ltt llllll11 1l1l11 l l111111l '1 ) 11I I !l tllllf1lfl1fj I 1)111111 I
ccli:ht .Ill'' nnd glc 11 il1l'' 1·11lt111.tl, 191111111 ,tl , .111d 1d111 .1111111 d 111111 1111111111, 111d fl,,. ,11,f
c1~1ph11,11t• .l'\Clll' that •ltc ' 1111111•1 dc•lll111;111 ly 11 l"' .,..,1·d 11111111 d1 ,111 1.,,,, 1 ~111,,,11, 11
sc1ousncss 111 tht• colil•t11 111• lllC'llt111 )'• 'i11tl1 ,,., ilu· H' 11111 id• ,1g,1111111 f\I '"" ~ 11 ,, 11, 111 ,
sltlvcry nnd rntlnl scgTt'f,\llt11111111 Ali i1 ,1n A1111•111·1111.., 1 1l.11i!l1 1111ll1111111111! 1 •11l• .1111111111,f
workers nnd other.;; nnd dt•,1111l'l 11111 of 1111· 11.11111 .d 1•11 v1111111111 111
American Exceptionalls111 :t11d J•,d11c"1 i1u1

Wl:en the co1n1non-school lc.::ider11 cren11.:tf p1tl1lu "' l1111Jl1i, il11 y 111111 • 1v• d 1,f iJ,, 111 ,111
soc1ocu lcural , as well ns cd11t·:i1111n;1l 1:igc:nt 11·'1 101 l1u g111g ,1"''""' 111 A1111111 111 11111111 rl
nationalisn1 :ind identity. ' J he puhlit 'ichoof., 1ht111,1·lv1., w1 11 1111 c .., 1 l'' 11 .1.Jl 111b11111
tions crea ted by an except ion al people." l'.vt·n 111 11111 put 1l11 .,, 1111111.., we11 • ,, .Jl1l11!11 d 111
the first half of the nineteenth cent11ry, 1hc.: 1cvcil11111111:11 y .111d 1.11 ly 11.1111111.d 1if111 .11111 1
Noah Webster, -;eL about the 1n ... k of cre:11111g a la11g11:1gi- 111:11 wl11l1· "' tll l .11gl1'1l1, w1,11ld
be distinctly Ainerican. J le wrot e -;pellin g nnd 11·:11l1ng liook., tl1:11 111 lp1 d ''' 'll;111d.11cf
ize the A1nerican l:.Jnguagc. I Ji'l 111011t 1nai,1erf 1tl :1c:h11·v1·1111·111 w.1., w111111g tl11 du 11•11111 '(
that sti ll bears his nan1e. Jjkc Frnnklin,jcf'fcr'lon, :J11d 111hc1 fq1111d111g L11l11·1 ,, W1 l, ,,, 1
defined who t\Jnerican., were hy contn1.,1ing 1h1·111 wtth fo,111op1 :111., A1111111.111., 11·i11•
senred the new world while r~uropcan-. c..lunJ.{ 111 old way' :111cl '""''""" A1111 , ,, .1t1b
practiced the equaliry of the frontier whtlt• l•,111op1·:1n" w1 '' d1 v1d1 d l1y 1111 tl1 11111 ,
rigidly ascribed and scpar:11 cu cla ...,c~. A111c111·:1n., wc1't! 1nd11.,1111111i,1 11111,1v:111v1 , ;111d
experirnenta l while European'! songh r the .,ccurtty of confo1111111g 1111h1· pa1i1 ;111d k1·11,
ing things as they once were. 7
The public schools, originally called co1111non ..,cho1Jl,, ddf111·d f111111 tl11,.1 1,f
Europe. Unlike European 'iChool'i, American p11hl1t .,thou)., w11r a1 t, ,,,i,ii ''' .ill tJ,,
children of all the people. While European .,chool., wtrt <H ga1111A«l ancl at11 1111• d ''"
the basis of socioeconomic clatis, Arnerican p11hl1c .,chool., w1·1e <11111p11·l1111 .. 1v1 111.,11111
tions that enrolled children of all classc.,, While l!.uropc\ "i< h,,,,1., w1·r1; d1·.. 1g111 d 111
perpetuate the starus quo and maintain cla1i1i clii,tin<.tion.,, A1111·1JC an p11l1l11 ti' h1111I\
were designed as agencie!i of upward ~oc.1al and c<..l1non11c. r11t1l11lu y ' I h11.,, liL1 tit•
nation itself, American public 'iChools were <.:elchrattd a., cxc1·1u11111al 1n.,u111t11111'1 !11:11
could be found nowhere else in the world.
Note that the account of public schooling given alJ11v1· ts l1a.,1·d <1n A1111·r111111
Exceptionalism. In this account, the school "Y~tcrn ,., cclclJra1cd and a<:c..la11111 d ' J 111•
kind of interpretation does not include s.01ne of the fa1hngli <1( A1111•rlf ~n p11l1l1< 1·d111 a
tion. It does not deal with slavery, racial .. egrcgauon , fc,rt.:ed a~'t11111l;1t1t111 111 11111111-
grants, and gross inequalities from district to d1s1r1c:t and ~Ujtt: re, ~t:irt· in tht f1111il111g 1,f
public education.
166
, ii 1111111111'\ d1.1I 1rl111 if11 'i ll lll CX !ll t

Il.l\l I ' I 111111 .. 111 I' II !'1'111 1, •
"' l 'II \\l I Il'1ll''l'I I H • I I \1111111 Ill I )(1c.;p11111tlli Ill d
I . ,hrii 111 1 11.1111111 .. 1.111 11 1
I
dlnt1hl lth•ll " " 111t11i itt "''" \\i• 111 ,,.. 111111 111 I !111111111111,1\ali 111 •ll
Ulllljlt' \11tl'rtl 1n l''l"l''111n nl ' - .1111111,1 1111111111111111 i .1111111 tl11 \\iiir I'''' <,,Id
lllllXlmuu l•ll\11..•1111111.••' hHll' lh.111, h.1,111r :'~' • ·~ \ .. ,11i1 ~,;,,," ,1i .11 111c.111 ~ (..
"lirld lhc..tlll'h\1 1.11,h11r1u\\l'd l1111111u.: ti ll 1
1 · iht· (,1 cc~ 111111 , p1•r1 a111 to 1
n1n: iir l't'llpll.' l'hc tl.'r111 rtbn11 • •tl,u l Ic1l\l't 1 111111 l I I
· I k I . 1111 L' I 1n1ru;111e a111 ., 1.111· .1 • 1c,tu1c.t1.,,
1nen1her; 111 .1 r;tct: or n;tt1n11~tltt\ " Ht 'pea t lc '• ' r- r-
~ I h· . I 1 ., 1hc '>t.' l l'ic cit LI 111111 id ·nt1t
culn1re E rhnonat1on.1lt.;1n 1-; .111 1dco Oh'} t <ll <.:Olli l ll c
f . 11 ., l·i r1rc1 11ol111t ;11111111.6
"1th .11nn' e111ent tor 1nJepenJcnt:c or Jt1tono111> 101 · • C"
Distinctions Bet\.veen Nationalism and Ethnonati onalisn1

.-\.t tir 't, ~ationahsrn ancl Ethnonationalisrn r11ay scc111 l<> he very 'i1rt1tlar. [n thl fc\I.
nations" here there is a single ethnic group, such as J apan an<.1 l c:e lantl, Nat1on~1'1..,111
and Ethnonarionalism do indeed converge. In n1any other natic)nS, howcvtr, tht:} 111a~
di\'erge.
Xauonali m, focused on nation-states, has worked to shape l<>ya lties that fi'>t:us
on the nation. For example, racial and ethnic groups such as African Arnerican..,, H10,-
panic Americans, German Americans, and J apanese Anieri ca ns are expected to
embrace the larger national identity of being an An1erican. E thnonation alism focu'ie~
primary identification and loyalty to one's pa rticular racial and ethnic grc)up. vVhile
~ationalism focus es on the nation as a larger and more encompassing entity, Ethno-
nationalism may erode larger commitments and replace them with a 111ore particular
raciaJ or ethnic identification.
Ethnonationalism as an Ideology
Ethnonationalism rests on the belief that an individual is a meinber of ·
that is descended from common ancestors and has a blood relatt· h' a u~thiquethgroupf
th 9Th bl ' · ons 1pw1 o erso
the group.
· ·fi e e 1ef m · a comrnon ancestry does not depend on DNA ver1'fi canon · or
oth e~ sc1ent1. c tests. It is based on myth and history, in some instances a creation torv
at 1s emottona 11y powerful The vario th · ·
· d . · . us en nonaaonal groups have strong tra<li-
tions an narratives, often epics, about the grou '· .· . . .
adversities. The u-ansmission of the , P s or 1gm~, h1story, tr1u111phs, an<l
eration to the younger takes lace th~~uh ~ language and heritage ~r<)l11 the older gen-
ttons, coming-of-age riruals p ~ informal n1ethods-stor1es, niyths, celebra-
-as we 11 as ronnal education in schc)ols.
Educational ImpJ' · . .
· · icanons. As 1nd 1cated ed , · ·
identity and the sense of" fi I' ' ucation is a process that creates group
ethnoculrural milieu of fam':"I e-ki~e h1~g." Info rmal e<.l ucatiun-living in the particular
• J y, ns tp group th .
ruty-socializcs children ·mto that . uJ 'e nic community, church and con1n1u-
part1.c ar ethnic ·· '
grc>up. In mstances where the par-
1 11 \I ' I I ti I I '\ '\ \ I II l '\ \I I ' \I, \ \Ii IH 1 \ ,
I \i I I 111 1 l\ 1 l'i \I , \ N i i i lll N11!\. \l ll 1 I 1'1 \ I
ll\111 .11 1•!111111 •''''"I''' 11 111111111111 I I

111111 1111\\ ,., 1•1 , Ill 111\ldlltl '\
•
I11 ' '-1 Ih h I ' ' II Ill • I I 1111 111111 I I II 111111 I \'I II I 1•1h 1111 !;IJI 1.1 l 11.1-
\\ 11• l IC p .11111111 111 1 I 11111
d11•11 ""'' 11111•11d ,, 11, 1111 , " 11 •• •1 ' 1c 11 11 1p "o,11 h111 cl111.111•, 11 cht!
1
I II I II 1111g 1111 u1 ul 111 0;11 111 l I I I fl
1h1· d11111111 .11111~ 1111111 \ 111lt1 I . I . I " ll tl l .1111 ' I C 1 1111 11 11 1111 1 11 t l l
• 1 111111111111111 , 11,\11 11 11 11111 II I
1 11111 .11111111111111• l l11i1i•tl '"'I II ' '> .1 y, I 11 p1111 t\., 111 '\111 t 11
,, 1 1 ·~ 11•p11 •,1•11111 I 1II • . I I I
tl ,ltll ~ 111ttp~ l't1lt111t• 1111 \llf1111if11\ ' • I <, 11 '11 II \ 1 11111 lll g Ill 1111)111 \ 1 liH rf1111 1i
t' l\1\11111 11l 1fll1 1o1tl1111 •l111 I I .111 f.\11111 p , , 11 11• p1111 ·1·.. -;, if •1111•1·1· .... 1111, l1·11 cl '1 111 tl1t
' ll l ' \II 11111' lll\d I 11111 . g~ i t -i 1111· 111 Ill ' l''l 111111 lli l' do111111a111 l t1 h1i rt
.... • I . .
••111111 11 1 I II l lllll Ill\ ( ' I \II'" ll\ l ' I I II I l
. · 11 11g1i.1 , 11111l111 r: tl 1·d11 t'a11011 11• 0 ct.1 c tl1111111;111onal
l\\lh' ' lll I I\1• l l 11111•1I Sl 1ll1' " ·
It\ 1
\llllll' 1•11111111 H' 'i t ' lh I 1111 I
11
• . I . '
II11 tt 111 ll' .11111lhl·11tl 11 11 11111,. 1 , •
hi ·11 11111 '''"C'
.111• lllll' I \vuvc11 w11h language i'i'>llC\. I ~
I" 1 1
, , I I .111 I ll' I (' Ill )l' \ l' \ ( ' !;" l:111 g 11:IJ.(C!-1 U\Cd in g <>VCI n111t. nl
I I
''"' t'1 11r111111n? \ \ ht•11 1•111 11 1•
•H111111111.1 11>\lll'' '111 l:irc 111 l'd11r:111011 they invol ve: ( I )
I
11,111µ •1 ll' 1:1hn1l' ru1111111 •:.. l •·i 11 µ1111µ1
. • .. I I ' . .
1 1.11 1c1 I Hiil 1lt1· clo11111111111 !(I011p\ olfic1;il l:in guagt:;
( .) 111l l11d1111r th,• 1·1h 111 , . 111 11 I'
r
l't111s111H·11111r
I" "fl"'1• • • • •
11111 1111J11s, 11tl·n11111't• :ind l11'lto1 y 111 tJ1 c curr1culun1· (3)
. I<:·I)1:1. 11·s :1111 I rc111
.' 1·0 1\ ·cs <.: 11111
, ,.. n Sl'lln11l 111il1l·11111·11 · 11• I .c.: g-roup 1ncn1bcr.,h1p'
nnd ttlt•1111tv.
•
. l)l•li.·nd1.·rs 111' 1h1• n:11ic111 s111tc 11,'I the l'l•111r:d f'ocu' of idcn tily ::irgue that u!>ing
~1.'\l'l'llf ll1~1g1111µ-1.•.; n11ht•1 thnn tht· dc1111ln:1111 n:1ti1111:1I one,., divi.,ive and will weaken lhe
nt111on . I hnsl'. \Vito '\t'1.'k 1·1 h11on;11 io11.1l rc<.' O!{niuon, a111ono111y, or independence chal-
lt•nµl' 1h1.· n.1t1on .;11\ll' .11µ1111tl'lll h) 1.·n111cndi11g 1h.11 every l:{roup has the righl to
1.·n:..ur1.· 11.; ot\i.,rt11nµ l''''1l'lll'e.
' J' ftc 'f'idc ()f ( : ()ll(Clll)l()l':lry l~th11011:tti(lltalistn
1\ v1.•ry SI rOn!-f 1rcnd in rl·c.·c111 his1c11·y hns hccn lhc revival of Eth11011ationalis111 a:-. a
rc.•s11l1 of lhc disin1cµr111io11of<;11111t•111ultic1hnir 11a1ion-statcs. Af'lcr the disintegration
uf t hl' Union or Sovil'I So<.:infi.,t l{ep11blics in I 91)0, it \V:t'i replacecl by a nu1nber of
in1k·p1:ndt•n1 n:ition Slllll''• \llt'h :t't l{u'l,ia, Ukraine, 13claru'i, Uzbekistan, Kazakstan ,
nnd 1\ r1111.•n in. ( ;;,crhoslovnkr:i pcnc:cfully divided into l\Vo independent nation-states:
1h1.• ( :11.·ch Rcpuhli<.: nnd Slovnk1:1. !'he di,1ntcl(ra1ion of ' 'lll{O!->lt1vio was 111arked by eth-
nir l'lt::in.;inl( and violc11c1.· ·'' C:rontia, Slovenia, Macedonia, nnd Bosnia overca1ne Ser-
h1nn 11pposi1ion to hl'ro111t• 1nd1.•p1.·ndcn1 nation '1:11c... ' l'hc \V<ll"1 in Boo;nia and Ko'iovo
\\'1.'r1.• 11111rkcd hy ... crious 11111111111 riµht'I violulio11., '!111.·h a., ethnic.: violence and genocide
'"hi1:h, in turn, led 10 NJ\!'() i111crvcn1i11n 1h111 i1u:l11dcd involvt!incnt of U.S. n1ilitary
lt>l'l'CS.
111 1\frica, F1hno11;111oii:1li,111 take" the for111 of trihali ..111 . Jn counLric!i such as
Ni~c.·11:1 1 llurundi, J{\\ anda, the S11d.111 and 01 her.,, the pr1111ary identification i"> to lhe
111hc 1111hcr lh.1n 10 th1.· 11,111011 ,1.11c. In N1gcr1.1, for exainple, the political and ec.lu<.:a-
11on.1I \1LU.1tion ha' hc1.•n l·o111phl;1ted hy thl· .111cinpl' of \ 'oruha.,, 1-lausas, and lho., to
t(IHll hc~t.'tll<>fl} over c.11. h otll~'' · . .
In the Western world, I~ 1h11011.n iona fi.,111 h.1, ,1,,crtc<.l 11..elf in pol 1uca I and edu-
cational conAicts in Can11J1 whcrc the l''rcnlh -,pc;1k1n~ C..)uchcco1' energeucoll} .,eek
to maintain their language and 1.1111111 c :11-(11111.,l i\11~l11.:11a11011i i11 Belgiu111, \Yhere the
Flemish retist Walloons; anJ in Sp11 i 11, \\•hcl'l' 1 he B11 ... q11c' 'eek lo(t'C<Her autonnn1)
P\Rl II ll>J lll {)(,II:-, \'I> I Ill ( \11<1'
168
. •. l)ill' tlllll 1 '\, ,11 1u11,tl1,111, rt·,ung 111 the n.1non--.t,1tc or
The Ethnonnoonll1isn1 •. . . .
: 1 . 1 1111 1i, 111 ll''llll!! 11 1 th t• t•thn 1l ~rc1up. P"'c a conttn1pora 11
count1\ in~ I I 1111011.111. • 1· ( 'I <l h L .
•• ' ,, ·uch 1, ihc L n11cd l\111µdn111, 1ancc, .1111:1, an t c nitt:c.I
\I oriel dtlr111111:1. ' ;1t iun' 'i ' I I · h
. , , . 1U'lll t{l 111 •11111. 1111 1hc1r i11tc1ri1t\ and 'ccunty. •t 1n1L µ1011p-. ave the
Scares 11·1\ t' I 1 t 1 r-
1 • ' ro • r
·ril!hl
· · co ' 111;11111:1111 tll"i...
r ethlltc t:uhurc~ ' lanµuaµc.., , and 1rad1uon' I .. n '""'e
. 1n'>tancc.,
. •
• l 1
.... cllesc l\\ 0 ri1rhr-; have entJ)tcd 111 v10 ent <.. on 1 ont.1t1on and c<>n-
rhe ten,1011' 1C1'' c-. 0 • " • I
.:i , s' l 11e ~uhordinace<l erhnu.: irroup'> such as the Kurtis, \\ho live in raq, Iran. and
1111.: ( •• { I [' • K h d
Turke\. che ('hechens in Russia, and the Albanian'> 1n ~sc>~O . ave rc'>orte to armt:d
confli~t to" in their indepen<lence. Son1e of the Basques in S~a1n anti the Chechens 1n
Russia 11ave use<l terrorise tactics to \\rtn greater autonomy or 1ndependence.
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
As \\'e have discussed, the world is organized into nation-states-ind.epe?dent, sover-

eign countries-each of which uses NationaJis1n to create and ma1nta1n a sense of
national identity. National school systems socialize that nation's children to create
good citizens. How this socialization takes place is important for the future of the
nation-state. It can involve identity with one's O\vn country, but also respect for the
people of other councries. Or, it can take the form of chauvinism, which exalts one's
country over all others. Extrerne Nationalism has led to world \vars and conflicts. Eth-
nonatio11alist conflicts have generated violence against civi]jans, often with a large
number of victims being women and children. Those who propose nonviolent ways to
solve these issues often turn to education, emphasizing programs of conflict resolution
and muliculturalism.
Ethnic identification can be a source of group pride and self-esteem. It can be a
positive celebration of one's ethnic heritage that also respects the racial and ethnic her-
itages of other people. If, however, ethnic identification becomes a strident assertion of
one group's superiority over others it can lead to suspicion, stereotyping, and violence
against members of other groups. Scrident Ethnonationalism can degenerate into ethno·
cencrism, the belief in the inherent superiority of one's !!Toup,
0
seeing members of
other groups as inferior.
In the United States, the United Kingdom, and in other countries, there has
been .an effort to develop and in1pJement multicultural programs into the schools. 10
M~ucultural ~rograms encourage a respect for cultural pluralism and diversity in
which each r~c1aJ a.nd ethnic group is seen as having the right to express its distinctive
culture ~d in which this expression is vie\ved as an enriching contribution to the
larger national culture.
A s~riou~ issu~ in ~ulticulturaJ educational programs is finding the right balance
betweea 1denoficauon \v1th the large · J cuJture and the particular
. b r nattona •
racial or eth -
rue su culture. With rising Et! · ali · ·
. . 1.nonauon sm, Wlth increasing violence of group
agamst group, and w1tb the use of te h. al
d . b . . rror to ac 1eve go s of ethnic autonomy or inde-
pen ence, it ecomes unperaove to find the pnn · c· I f b l
tp e o a ance.
C11\l'll'J( I I ' "1\llCl,\11\\1 \\II IHI
\ l\lll'lltl \11•,\1 \'-.1111 Ill I• \Iii• \11 \I
•
NC> \ll \,\'l•'BS'l' l<' ll, \ l•' l ) l l( . \I l <>N l•<> I,
,\ t\ Jl.' RJ C:.\.NS '
Noah\\ t•h.;tt'r, :1111 hClt ul 1I . I' .

. I It c Ht11111.111· 1l1u111 •1 I
lt':lll l'll tural Nn11011·1l1s111 11 l . Ill' I'll'\ l'I
I • •
. I 1I \ 'I '"
11-. ""'"' , \1 ,1., .111 11111 11 '" " ' \11111
-:hnnld shape their o1v11 l·1n1111·11··c· . I I i,11 1111 ·111 1111-.1 11•1 .111 111d1I" 11d1 "' 1•1"•pli
• • I"' • ,_ .111( I ll'll (]\\II 1·d111 Ill 11 I I
:1 pr11n;tr) sourct' ht'l':tll\t' \\·I • ' i111 •1·..,, ,., 111.11· ~ 1111 l11tl1 ol '
Nationalis1n. i\ trul\ \1 . . l l\lt:l1 "''' ,111 11111111·1111,d c·d111 .1111111.tl '""' ''" r11 lc111 ti
· • llt: I Il ti II t'( 111· 11 It 111
tngadistincri1l'idcn11t\ I . . 1111, 111111111111111 , \\1·11,111l11l11 11ol,111 '' ''
. • o1 ( 1111en-; of 1h1· IH·11• i •·11 ii I \ I I I
n1ay \v1sh to rellcct on 'h . f II , i i tt ' I 1111" u i ir· M' ' ' 111 '" · \ ""
t: ll ti\\ Ill~ flll 11\lllg ljlll''l ltlll\
\1.'hy ~locs ' ''e hstt:t uppost: \t:nd1111•
1. educauon? \
ro )«11111g 1111·1i1,111•. ,!11111,111 1111 ' l11111r11
2' Ho\.v do you think \!\!clis1t1· 1~1 cndd 1·uat·1 10 1111· lc111·1g11
by many colleges nnd universiiic-:?
3. How are Webster's ari.,'l1tnl~llt<; an cx:1111pl .. 111 1\1111·111,1 11 I• \11·p111111,111,111?
... Before I quit chis subject, T beg leave U111 111 .111111ht·1 pn1111 nl 111·11, 11 11111·11.:11
re> n1ake some rernarks on a practice ,,,hil·h ~dlll':ll lOll I\ d11t•ttl)' C1pjlt1\lh' 11111111 j11>l1111.d
appears to be attended with i1nportant c:on.,e- lnlcl't''I' 1llltl 1111).:ht lO ht· d1'l'lllllllt'lhlll1 t·d, ii
quences; I mean that of sending boy., to .Europe not proh 1hi1 ttl .
for an education, or sending to l~uropc for l •:l'l'I)' jll'l ..011 ofl'Otllllltlil llh-.t·1v11111H111tll
teachers. That th is was right befrire the revolu- gr;1111, 1h111 ll Hl\t 111t·11 prrl'~·1 tl11· 111,111111·1, 1111&1
tion 1vill not be disputed; at l e<l~t so fi1r :is Lhc g-ovc.:rn1111·111 111 that l'<1un111· 11•!11·11• tltt·i· 111 1·
national attaclunents were concerned; but the cd11t·:Hcd . Lt·t tc.:11 1\111~11t·n11 .v1111th' 111• ,1·111 '
propriety of it ceased \Vi th our political relation each 10 n diffl·t till l ~ 111opt·an k111i,:d11111, ,11 1d 1111·
ro Grt!at Britain. there lrun1thl' 11).:t' ol t\\t'ht· to t\\c'ltl\, 1'\ 1'.11 h
In the first place, our honor a' an inde- 1vill !{IVt· tht· prt•li:rt·nrt· 10 tht• 1·0111111, 11 l11·11· lt1·
pendent nation is concerned in the e.. tablish- h:i.. l'l''oidl'd . .
n1ent of literary institutions, adequate to all our ' l'hc pl·11111I fro111 111·1·h1· 111 1111·111~ '' 1lt1·
O\\n purposes; without sending our youth n1oi;t i111po1111111 i11 l1f1-. l'hc· 1111p1t'''" "'' 111,1dc·
abroad, or depending on other n:itions for before 1ha1 pc1 1od illt-' c.·11111111c111l) 1·1l,111·d, d11"r
books and instnictors. It is very little to the rep- lh:lt lll'e llHltlt• d111i11g th,11 p1·ti1>d 11/11 1111•1 11•11111111
utation of An1erica to b;1ve it s:iid abroad, that for 1111111) yt·•11·..,, .1ntlp,1'11t·1·11//)1th10' l1h•
after rhe heroic achieven1enri; of the lnre \var, N11lt'l)' IHllC pt'l'llll\ '" 11 h1111d11·d, 11h11
this independent people are obliged to ..end ro p:i'' th•ll pt·11ud 111 I•n~l1111d 111 I i.11111·, 11 ill p11·lc1
Et1rope for 111en and books co teach rhc1r chil- the pcuplt·, 1hc11111,11Hll't,,1lt1·11 l,111,, .111d tl1111
l{<llcmn1cn1 to tltc,.,t· 111 tl11·11 11.111\t' 111111111\
dren ABC.
Frorn "\10:1h \.\'cbsrcr, I br , /111n1111n \ l11!(11i111r, ,\ 1:1), 1711>1, fll' l(J I 7I•
J•J\lfl II 1111111(1( """'111 l•I' \Ill•
J70
lll l l llll ll ll lllllll ll l (1•111111 \ 1\11 I\ Ii
Su h an , 111ncn1i. n1 t' 1111 11111 11111, 1;11tl1 11" I:: I l •I I 111 11
Iii II•
Ill II
II •II II
lilt \\ 11( II \ Ill I 11 "''\II II
II ' I
h:ip11111c..,; 11f alu rn1·11, 11111111 !111 I'" 1111 i 1:11111111 I 11111111 l I \ p ll
llj' 111111 1111\ II l \ t I\\ tdtt•t\I 11 111 11
.,t ut I hell i 1\1 n G11U11 I' \~ 111 1111 I 111 I ttl t., "'I\ il11 II 1• •II ll •tt - 111 \ hio\ II 1111 It\\~ 111
II I\ 1111111'1!\ ill) l..1111\\ 11 lt1111 11111111 111111 I
I ll HI It I II I 1111111 111 1 h 1 11 , 1'' r"" , I\ ti l t.1 111
C
fle'l\1 I I I , I 111
hi I ,1i.1ng1• "' 11 tll •Ill II 1111
;Ill liUflr.r..
I lll!,lt•lillliltl Ill 111 ~ 1111111111 I• 11111111 It 1 li11ti1i 1, 111
~\lOlllStlf I 1;111pr.1111· 111tl1lll).dll lt1 l11i tllll11111t It I (lllll 11111 illt 11 let•lllP 1111 111 I l l\t 111\ 11111
trotn uurs, 11111 \1 lu:n .1 111111 h.1 111·1 11 l111·d 111 t •11:
IPl Ill 11' ~ ill 11 l1111t 1111, 111 Ill I\ il1 r11 11 " 111 ii
count!'\, h" i1t.1Lh1111·n111 ''' ll'i 111111111·1., 111 ii
1111 1111 111tl .1111 111• Ill ,,,, ,,, ,,, I Ii I
the1n I;, gac.111111'.t\lllr, nc1 ...:~' tt ) 111111~ Ii ipp1 \tll•I' •
l11ll11111lt I l l 1111•11 1 111 lh1h•
111 I\ I 11• I " tl tlll•ll
1
ncs;, on lhang1ng hr' rc\1tlc:11Lc, 111· 11111\l tlic 11· '

t·, lllll'li ·~ 1111\ l1r 1111•11lll•lll'd, Ir• 1111•\ I Ilic l111lh
fore hrcJL: Ill'> l11ra11c:1 h,11111~, \\ h1L h l'i tl1111}' 01
til tlu· ~ 1 . 11111 1 111 1111 q•li 111 It' uh 11111ii,1 r I'• I
rn1nful acnticc:, ur the rlt\llJlll.11111· l1rl \\ .. , 11 thr
rnanner,11fh"u11n Lounll) 111cl ht' l1,tl11t'>, 11111>1 lllj.; thr 11tllt1t 111I' 111 It tlul
It lllol\ 111 ~.ll tl tl11I 1111 I l~,11 111111 l'I olllt'
gi1c: hun anccSSJnL unc.t'>lllt:''• 111 hc· 11111'1 1111111
duc.:c:, into .1 L1rt..lc (If h" fru·nd,, tl11· 11i.111111·1' 111 lui lil'fft 11111111 l1rlll'I 111'1'111111111111 'I til 1111p1111 1•
which he w,1, c<l11catt:d 1\ll 1h1·,t• tllll,1·q11r1111·'i 1111.111 111 d11· •,111·111 t"• tl11111 tl11· \1111111 111 I hi\
mar follow :tl the <iamt: 111111:, .111d tlu· lu-.1, 1vl111 h 11i.1y 111· 11111·, ,111d )'1'1 11'11111111 Jll'.111\ "" 111111111.1
i11 1nc:11tahlt:, '' .1 publ1t.. lll)llr). I ht· 11·hn1·1111·111 ti! 'lt'IHllllj.I }'1•1111~ l 1 1tl~ 1111111 tl111t II\\ II I 1•111111\
of manner' in t:\el') <.:ountry '>h<111lcl k1·1·p p.1t1· ' I hrtt· 1111· ~111111· 111 11111ltt·"111•.111·1111·111111Ii111n
eLlctl}' with the 1ncrta\c rJI n .. 1v1:,tl1 h .inti prt IJ1· 'illt1'1rd 111111111 Ii y.11·.11r1 11t h ,11111~1· 111 I 1111•1•1
hap-, the greare~t eviJ .-\mcnL.1 n11w lt·t·I'. '"• .111 rli.111111 \1111·1111, p.11111111.111> 1li11111 ... t1\ \\111 11
improvc:ment c,f t.1'>Ct anti 111annt:r, 1~h1c.li 11' tl1t·\r illl' 111 111• 11 q11111·d, \'1•1111.,: ~1·11tl1111111
wealth cann1,c ""PP''rc. f1llf{hl tu ~p.111· 1111 p.1111" 111 .i111·111l tl11· 111·•.1 I''"
A foreign education I'> the very \!Jllrt 1· ,,f ft•.,.,01 .. It 11i.1>, tl11·1 r l111 1-. 1,,. 11•.1·1111, 111 \t•1111·
this evil-ir g1vts y<>ung gcntlc1111·1111( fon11nc a Ca'it·'I, 101 .. 111clc·ti1" II• I 1!1'>•1 \111· 11111111111 h 1
reli'ih for mannt:r'i ancJ a111u.,c1111·n1., \vhich u1 c l'lillJf!lrtr ,, ('11111"1' hi 11111dit"ll 11111 II t•i 11111 IH'l 1'
n<Jt suatt<l co rhis country, wh1c:h 1 h11wev1·1, 1;a1 y lc.t 1111·1111111-1111·.11I~· 111ldr , 11111 111111111111111·
when intr()cJUcecJ by tht<, cla'>'> of pc11pl1· 1 wtll u 10111-1 1111 11· '-.111 It 111 .. 11111\'l''I 111·1·d 11111 "' 111
alway., become fao,h1onable. tllltlll 1·v1·11 111111•, .11111tl1t·11r1 r"'""
lc11 1111111 \\di
Bue a corrupnon ,,f manner' I'> 11111 the d11111111'lh Ill p111p111111111 111 tl11· lt111111· 1111111111
sole objection co a fore1brn t:duca11on, an a11at..h 111t:nt of litt·1,111111· 111 \1111·111 ,,
mt:nt t<> a fureif<Tl govemmt:nt, or rat ht:r :i \V:lllt I 1 l'I, h1111·1·v1·1 1 11111t It q111·.,1111111·d '' 111 tl111 ,
of anachmt:nt co our uwn, I'> the nan1ral efft:c:t of 111 tht' lll'cllll1t1y ( 11111'1' ,I .. tlltl), 11\Cl\lllf.:1111111 I Ill
a re.,u.lence ahroad, during the pen<1d of yoiuh. enjoy !{1'1·.111·1 ,11lv,1111a!J.r" 111 I• 11111111 111111 111
It is recorded ,,f one of the (,reek <.111e<i, tlu11 111 n A1111·111·u, l•..\11t·11t·11l1· h11 l1111•" 111r 111 1111,1 11
treaty with their conqueror.,, 11 wa'i rcq111rccl t.1011111 1 \Vl11·d11·1· tl1t· d11111-11·1 111 1\ h11 It 11 \'lll1lh
that they 'lhoulcJ give a certain n111nher of 11u1/e 111u.. 1 he t·'<pl1'i!· tl ,111111ni; tl1r """' 111 t11 .... 1p.11 11 111
chtkirtn 3'> h<>\tages for tht fulfilrnt:nL of their obro.111, \vtll 11111 111111 tl11· '•'tic· 111 l,11111 111 11111
enl,ragemt:ntl.. The C:rrcek.s ab.,oh!lt:ly rcfu,ed, A111c111.111111llt·j.;r'i, ( r1 1,1111 111 ..,11111 111111 ltltll'
on the prin<.:iple that tht:.,t: ch1l<lrt:n w1111ld hf rht· H' 1·,11 lt1t·1,11 }' t h111 1111·1 111 \1111111 111111 ·1
1mb1bt: the idt-as and embrace the 111anner' <Jf LI .,,.,t't( I hL• \tl,111111 ,
foreigners, ()r lose their l()ve f11r 1ht:ir 11~n coun B111 ti 11111 11111\ rt .. 1111·., 1-111 tl i.1 1111111'1 .111 11111
try: But they ,,fttrtd the 'a111c nurnht:r of olil
'"good•'" 1li1· I 11i.:l1,l1 111 '-it l•l l It, II l't tltl' 1111~1
men, Wlth<1ut ht:..Jtation. Tht'i .1n1.:<;d111t: 1.. full of
ni:•11o of 11111 11111·1' 111 1111p1111·1• 1111111 11111 '"
l'>Od sen1e. A rnan 'ih<iuld alwny~ fi1n11 h11o t:nd11\V lh1·111111r.11·ly 1 fut t•ltclh\lll1t'lll'l lll11llf' 11iff
Cl ti\P' l'F.R 'l'l~N NA1'JC)NJ\l.IS1\ I, A~ ll" R I C•\N I' • , , >·.
• ·:XCl' l 1 J<)NAL1$J\ 1, AN)) F' J'J li\"C)N \ I J<)N •\ l J~,\I 171
ne''er n1ake :i. Aourishing sen1inary-but to fur-
nish then1 \\'. tth profess?rs .of the first abi lities not there fure to di,couraire travelling but if
poss1)'11 e, Lo render it n1ore"'useful to individuals
' '
anJ 111ost assiduous appltc:ttt~>n~ and \Vi th a co 111_
lete apparatus for esrahhsh1ng theories by and to the co1nn1uniry. My 1neaning is, th at111e11
shouh.1 travel, and not /Joys.
~':perin1ents.' Nan~re has ~een profuse to the But it is tune for the Arnericans to change
:\inericans, 1n g~n1us.' <tn? 1n the advantages of
t11e.ir usual route, and travel thro a country
climate and soil. If this country, therefore which they never think of, or think beneath
should long be indebted to Europe for opporru~ their notice.-! rnean the United States.
nicies of acquiring any branch of science in per- \IVhile these States were a part of the
feccion, it must be by means of a criminal British Empire, our interest, our feelings, were
neglect of its inhabitants. those of English men-our dependence led us
The difference in the nature of the Amer- to respect and in1itate their manners-and to
ican and European governments, is another look up to then1 for our opinions. We little
objection to a foreign education. Men form thought of any national i11terest in America-
modes of reasoning or habits of thinking on and while our commerce and government were
political subjects, in the country where they are in the hands of our parent country, and we had
bred-these modes of reasoning n1ay be no common interest, we little thought of
founded on fact in all countries-but the same improving our acquaintance with each other or
principles will not apply in all governn1ents, of removing prejudices, and reconciling the dis-
because of the infinite variety of national opin- cordant feelings of the inhabitants of the differ-
ions and habits. Before a man can be a good ent Provinces. But independence and union
Legislator, he must be intimately acquainted render it necessary that the citizens of different
'vith the temper of the people to be governed. States should know each others characters
No man can be thus acquainted with a people, and circumstances-that all jealousies should
\vithout residing amongst them and mingling be removed-that mutual respect and confi-
\vith all companies. For \Vant of this acquain- dence should succeed-and a harmony of views
tance, a Turgot and a Price may reason most and interests be cultivated by a friendly inter-
absurdly upon the constitutions of the Ameri- course ....
can states; and \vhen any person has been long Americans, unshackle your minds, and act
accustomed to believe in the propriety or like independent beings. You have been chil-
in1propriety of certain rnaxims or regulations of dren long enough, subject to the control, and
governn1ent, it is very difficult to change his subservient to the interest of a haughty parent.
opinions, or to persuade hi1n to adapt this rea- You have nO\V an interest of your own to aug-
soning to ne ...v and different circumstances. · · ment and defend-you have an en1pire to raise
It is therefore of infinite importance that and support by your exertions-and a national
those \vho direct the councils of a nation, should character to establish and extend by your wis-
be educated in that nation. Not that they should dom and virtues. To effect these great objects, it
restrict their personal acquaintance to their own is necessary to frame a liberal plan of policy, and
to build it on a broad system of education.
CO\mtry, but their first ideas, attachments and
Before this system can be formed and e1n-
habits should be acquired in the country \vhich
braced the Americans must believe and act from
they are to govern and defend. \\1ben a kno,,·l-
the belief, that it is dishonorable to \Vaste life in
edge of their own country is obtained, and an minuckinu the follies of other nations, and
3 ttlchment to its la'''S and. interests deeply fi"'{ed
basking... i;the sunshine of foreign glory.
in. their heans, then young gentlemen may rra~-el
'41th infinite advantage and perfect safety. I wish
P.\RT U IDEOLoGlf.:> -\S D FDL·c \1111'
172
CONCLUSION
This chapter e,.i1nine<l the ideolot-'l. of ~aLiona li"11 u11d the n;lau:d ltkologie~ of Anier
· E.'cepuo11aJi,n1 and Ethnonuuonahs1n. u11on.1l"1n ha~ h.1d f.ir realh1ng eff«ts
~':11sooeiv and chooling. It 1' so penetr.iang 1hnt 11 C\ten<ls ii;.elt 11110 1hc other 1deol.,
tries c:rea;e<l 1n this chapter and the ones discu~ed in Inter chap1~r. i\n1cnl11n r •ttp.
tionalism is the American behef that the Llnited Stares is a unique lOunrry with 1
special mission in the " ·orld. Ethnonntionalisn1 is exnn1ined ns o force 1hat can tau'<
unrest and readjusanents throughout tbe world as >nppressed groups >eek au1onuiny
or independence from larger nation-states.
1. \Vhat kind of cultural identity should public schools pro1notc? .
2. What are the roots of An1crica11 Exceptionalism? Why do nrnny people thmk 1he
United States has a special 1nission in the world?
3. Examine the relationship or issues between 1nulticulruralism and A1ncrican identil).
4. How do rimes of crisis, such as the ''\Var on Terrorism," promote acionalism in
society, policies, and education?
5. \Vhat are the strengths and dangers presented by Nationalism, Ainerican Excepcion-
alism, and Ethnonationalisn1?

1. Reflect on your own educational experiences. I low have these experiences been a
source of nationalist identification?
2. Examine several books that advocate multiculturalis1n in An1erican education. I low
do these books treat Nationalism and Ethnonationalism?
3. Examine several projectS that deal with l-lolocaust education. I low do these projects
deal with Nationalism and Ethnonationalism?
4. Do an analysis of the newspapers and television news programs. Identify the
instances in which Nationalist or Ethnonationalist conflicts are the subject.
5. Review several Ainerican I listory textbooks used in elementary or secondary schools.
How do these books dea l with NationaJisn1 and A1nerican identity?
INTERNET RESOURCES
An excellent guide to sources on Nationalis1n is the Nationalism Project at
www.nationalismproject.org
Nationalism is discussed at the i\\odem l-Iistory Source Boole at
www.fordham.edu/ha/sall/mod/ I 784herder-mankind.htm
1 tl\l'll11 I I ' ' " " ' ' \ I l\\I \\II ~II\' I \1I1'1111'0\l l\\l , \l\lll lll'll'\lltl,\l l\\I 173
,, 1,,,1'11\)N' l ~ H( l •l 1t{ I Ill It IU \l )IN t ;

\ lh I I • \ •• '"' \ 111 ~ I ''" .,,, \ 1llul<I, t 'I'll
''-"~ I""'' \ 11-11, 1""'~'I• h1111
1
\ \I I II I I II I
\II\ ,, "'''' 4\ \ ~''· '"~" ' •II H11, u '"' • •""'""" "'"" 1n.l l'rr•,...
... .
"" 111 ton
II••~ "'1•' II \I1•11 "i.''\ -·,__11~!~~h• 111• \I ·11 11• U.iil·~ ""''''"· I 1/In, /)1111po1 di •11a11lord, (.A 'tu111ford l
~
11
vv~
ni
'''"'" ''-111 1~ l'r~"''.11vw11,~ \1111111'4 /11,"' l1'r~ry11n1l<.'um/>mhon Newbury Purk, CA \•M•· l'J<J I
tli, 1•' • \ll\\·111I ·~l ..11\t, I •h111h1lt1h S1tl1111111, 1 11~11 ~1 \\'i1111uhe, llonuld, cd ~. Nutlona/lrm •nil R•tlonal-
11
11\ I 11111\11 h~I',t11, , 111111 N~11 \111 k1 C11111l11 ld~u l111lvc1·sity 1'1·c~s, l'J\16.
I 1U11h~':N~l,11 l1I l "'"'"""~''II"~ 1..,,.,/,.1n l'vU'rr 1ind 1•:1/1111< Conjllrt New York: I hll and Wing,
I 'h11•, \1111 11 11./ flf ~t11' 1/.,11! I't('u1 tlnit l·i1t 1Hdr• t1 IJfflf11t111ry Brttdi t:rhnl< llatrrd Mnd (;wbal lnstJt-
t-111\ ~~" \111 ~. 011uhlwu). ''"''
I '"'"' ''1• I\ •l~.i l·'t~Kt>ll4tloln°1/o"' l'/Jt <J11t1t jvr l 'nJmt1111dmg Princeton, NJ1 l'nnccton Un1Vcn1ty
1 1 " • I IN-I
n.~111111111. t ~It\, lllhl l'lltll\Ct, .\l~n: I \ #llMdlllflf, fthflu Conjlut, 11nd Dmr!K1'1Uy. Oalomorc: Johns
l l••t\l..111~ l l111''7l"\1 l'n:"• IW4
I a111, 11, 1{11-. II 1', w \~lf~lldlttJlf, /'1/ln/, 11y, 11n1l /Jr11r11y: Crosr i'l11t101111l 11nd Co"'f'i'r1111i:t Ptrrptttwa.
'I~'' llnm"' 1<k, '\I l ~'"'"ttion 1 1u111i~hcrs, IY94.
I ;~Unc1 . l1111c,l ~·,,,v1111rrt~ 11·lth 1'lit1rnnaftJW1, <hford, UK, and Cambridge, i\1J\: Olaclcwcll Publishers,
'11\14
l~ll"l•~ll: .\ lkh"cl. ll/w.l t111d IJrlon.~11111: .7011111rys /1110 tbe Ntw 1\Jntio11n/is111. New York: Farrar, Straus,
'' ''" (;1"1'" · IYY4.
l\\'l 111111111\k\ Uu~"ll · l'bt Al111t l'~1·1boloJIJ' 1ij'lith11011nti111111//m1. Lo11do11: Routledge, 1997.
l\1•ll"~•J~ 11 1c• C:. l'bt l'ollthtoj'Nnr/01111//"'" 1111d /1)b11fr/ty. New York: St. .Vlartin's l?rcss, 1991.
Nl~hl, S1111I~ . IJjtrWlllllj IJ/1Jf11/ry: l'bt S1Hlu/wlitlr'lll Comrtt of /Hu/tieultur11/ t:dut11tlon. New York:
I '"'1!'""11, lWl.
Sn1hh, \1Hh1•ll) I)., cJ. t:1/:Jn1.lry #nil M11lon11'1sm. 'Jew York: E.J. Urill , 1992.
NO l'I~
C l I P'l""ER l~Ll~V l~N
• • •• •
LIBERALISM
In tht> cha tcr, we examine Libernlisrn, one of the 111ost sigru~C11nt ideologrc' rn \ \',~1
cm and ~erican culrurc and society. \Ve will define Liberah£m, eicunune 1111\ 111111.Je
ology, and discuss itS implications for cducaaon.
DEFINlNG LIBERALISM
Tu define Liberalism, we go to its root, che ter111 liberal. A libero.I Is u person who
believes progress is possible and desirnble, and that the hu111an condlllon cu n be
improved by reforming society, the econorny, politics, and education. Opposing repres-
sive political regimes, liberals support representative forms of govcrnrnenl thut protect
and secure personal and civil righcs. They believe individuals should enjoy the gre11lc\t
possible freedom and that this freedom should be guaranteed by constitutional protec-
tions, due process of law, and the prorection of civil liberties. In education, liber11ls arc
not bound by tradition but believe in the free Row of ideas and the teliting of ideas 111
human experience. Liberalism is an ideology that expresses these beliefs obou1 hurnan
freedom, seeks to protect those freedoms with procedures of representative in~ti1u
tions, and promises that it is possible to i1nprove the human condition by rcforin and
education.
WHY ST UDY LIBERALISM?
Since the .late.eighteenth

. century, L'be1 ra1·ism, rn
· ·its various
· •
expression~ ho~ been one
f the maior 1deolo"'es in American d ' ' '
ohas · · · ' ·
had a . o· . an vvestem society, pohn~. and educouon. ll
pa mcularly pronounced 1mpaet on the history of the United K1n11do1n and
th e Unrted 5tates. The Liberal 1·d 1 h be "
toaal health and educan' eo ogy as en used as the rationale for a larger
' • ona1 ro1e and services b .
- - ' that schools ·m addin' th . Y government. Lr be rah Mn ho' also
- •- • on to err academic fun · h I
role. Por example, schools should be used t cnons, ~ ou d have o larger \C1C10I
0 promote racial integration, to solve proh
174
(;11..\l'll'RFW: \'l'' 11111 K\11,\I
lerns such a' tlni•• and "llliht 1 1

• ,.. ' " lll\I 111 1111 I I
con A•ct l't'\olunon, nnd 111 pr111111111' 'I "i11 \Ith •111o ~1111111 •th , • "' •111111111
Consen-nn"n rh one of 1hr 1\1 o ni.111" ' : ,: :~ii :~ :~'1'. 111;': ''"1' I111 I 1r, I 11 .. ' thu11 ~ h • "'l~h
N ti 111 11111•111 1l1r I 11 111 ii s1111 , •
SITUA'fING LIBERALISM
The definition of Lihenih,ni Rl' en llh 11

'\'llo \l·ouldqunrrelwithtt> \\'h '; ' 11 111
> "'""" 11·1> 11Pl 11 ·1h11y: \ 11111111 111 1L
11
due process of ln,1 , The . o \1oh1111 nu1 i111111 ln·t-tl1111111I tl11111Kl11, 11~1l 1111l111 "'''
many Americnns es. ec1 UnS\1·er . .· ~ t Ut r •h t.r,1 Ii.i11 ru1Iii ) I• 111111!·1 " i 1111i. ~11"
" L• ""'
ideology that hn~ iv~~ke~Ily reh'!1?us f1111du1111·n~11la.i., M'l1 l lh1 ,,,11.111 ~· '' """~' ''""
ideolo that b ed. trachnonal \'11h1t'~. C.cin~rrvnr hr~ ''flf111u• I 11111,111•111 ''~ 111
ished ~di . ' y e~co~1raging culn1ral rel111ivls111 nntl pl11r11ll11111, 1111~ w1·11L11111 d i li1'
Neo- i11.-<~--~ons nn va ues. (For a discussion of ( :011\r rvnrl,111 11•lr1 ,,, C'h~Jlh'r J i I
n.aiA'.lSts and Critical Th · I ' •
nes .d
1 • . eonsts arrnc~ J beralisn1 ns pru1n111111K 111 111,r 111 n, 111111,
int s, an ~1~gtca.1 sn1oke screen, that is a Col'er fur 1ipt't:rnl pol111t JI ~nil,., ,
? 1b
l
Ch~e:e~ :~ f, e ~~~onal bureaucrars. (See Chaptt'r 1 fora tl1•t11 ....111n 111 \tJr•l•lll ~111 1
or. nocnl Theory.) '''e can uy to detern1int' 1~h)· I .1hr111!1,111 h
1111 111111
" ' ttinri 11

vers1a y considering its origins, hisrory, and development.
The Age of Reason

Liberali!m's origins ?egin \vith the Eighteenth-Cenn1ry Enhf(h1~n111"111, 1he "Al(<' ol
Reas~n, a powerfu.1tntelJecruaJ1n~vemenr chot evennrnlly rr.,hnpt•d thl' rrurnrt~n and
Amencan world view. The key ideas of the Enlighrenml'nl wc-1 l' vuited hy thr
philosophes, a circle of intelJecrual critics that included such notnhle~ o~ Orn I\ Oidr 1111
Etienne Condillac, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The philo~orihe~ b~·licvt"d thu 1 huniu~
beings could achieve unlin1ited and ongoing progress if allowed 10 11p1)Jy tht-lr rl.' 11 , 1111
to the problen1s of society. 1 For then1, the applicncion of renson n1~·nn1 11sli11{ the
method of scientific inquiry, not only to exn111ine narural nnd physical pht•1111n1~na , h111
to examine human life and society. Such inquhy, they believed, would rnnhle tht'1n 111
discover the narural laws that not only regulnced nan1ml pheno111eno h111 could he
applied to social, political, economic, and educauonal 1nstirutions. l ( tht~r nan1rul Jaw,
were discovered and permitted to function freely without reprc:~\lon fro111 ~·hurch on1l
state, human life and society could be reforn1ed, i1nproved, nnd perfocrr<l. I low.-vl'1 ,
powerfulJy entrenched special interests and inscin1tions \Vere in pln('c 1ha1 hl11d<t:1l 1ho
needed inquiry and the projected reforins. An1ong the instin1rions 1hn1 hlockt•d rt•funn
were the monarchy, in which a king n1led wich unqnesrlone<l n111horhy hy 1ho grn<'tl of'
God; the aristocracy who occupied places of nscribed in~uencl' and piivil~l{d nn1 hy
merit, but simply by their birth into privileged noble fun111ie,; A( '. h111ch 1hn1 eniphn-
sir.ed the unquestioning acceptance of its dogina; 11 ~oc1ery and ecunorny ba•t'd 111!, ngltl
social-class divisions and the proposiaon that the "poor would alwn)·~ he wuh "" , and
IChools and teachers who told studenis that "they lived 1n che be•• of nll Jl""'hlr
worlds."
PART n 101'.0IOGIE'.S A:-;O FDUCATIO:-.'
176
The hilosophes' questioning of rhe insritucions ~f rhe old or~~r generated a
rph II authorirv chat worked to undermine the establishment. n,....
P ractice o c a enging ., · R 1 · f "'"
ideas conrn buted t0 the rep ublican ideology of the Amencan evo unon o 1776 and
the French Revolunon of 1789. . . .
The Enlightennienc theorists made the fol!owmg c~ntnbunons _to L1beralisrn:
(l) the belief that scientific inquiry could be applie? to ~-ety and soc1aJ 1nsnruoons,
(2) th human condioon could be impro\·ed by sooaJ, pohncal, economic, and eduea.
oonaJerefomis; (3) progress \\'llS a real possibility for the h~an ~cure. In Chapter 8,
Posnnoderru m "'llS e.-canlined. Recall that the Posunodenust philosophers att:ick the
Enlightenment con uuction of r~on as a contributing factor to the conditions of
oppression they attribute ro moderrusm. . .
The Enlightenment theorists developed some unportant ideas about eduanon
that would become part of Liberalism's educational agenda. They challenged the tra-
ditional assumption that education should be entruSted to the church. Religious dog-
matism, they argued, \\"llS antithetical to rational scientific inquiry. They quesnoned
the usefulness of the classical curriculum of Greek and Latin inherited from the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance and urged the addition of scientific and practical
subject:S inro education. They argued that education should be used to cultivate
informed and critical thinkers who used their reason, rather than training dogmatic
and superstitious confomlists.
John Locke and the Contract Theory

John Locke (1632- 1704), an English philosopher and political theorist, is especially
important for establishing the foundations of Anglo-American Liberalism. His f.rsll]
Conc"71;ng Human Undnnandmg (1690) is a classic statement of empiricist philoso-
phy.2 In it, Locke attacked the Pia conic theory of innate ideas and argued, instead, that
the human mind, at birth, is a blank slate and that our ideas come to us from sensation
of the external \\"Orld. He also \\TOte &mt TbO'Ughts Crm«rning EducfTrion (1693), in
which he asserted that the aims of education are to culm11te virtue and \\isdom and 10
prepare indhi duals to manage their personal, economic, and political affairs prudendy
and morally.
It \\'llS Locke's T:::o Trrlltisa ofGur:trnmmt (1690), however, that had the greatest
inftuencc on Liberalism's ideological deveJopment.1 Challenging the divine nght of
Icings theory of go\"emment, Locke made \\-hat \\11S then a bold assertion of indiVJdual
rights. Each indindual, he said, is born \\;th the inalienable 112tur3J righrs of life, lib-
erty, and property. People come together and establish a government to protect these
• • • • • . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .111111
TIIE ENLIGHTENME.l\'T'S CO~'TRIBtrnON TO 1.IBERALISM

.... . I . Use of the socno6c method to discm-e.r the oarunl Jaw . · ·
. , ...
.
~ - ·~
,. '
'
,\
'
' . 2. The need for reform of cxisong lllSOrutions
3. The J>09bility of human progress
~cm.mg SOClety
1 ~.,··_
tl!Al'TI It I 11 \'1 \, 11111 RAI 1\.\1
177
ngh1' 9lfll1n'1 tho,c who would try l 1 · I I
. 1· h h ( vio ate I 1c1n. <1ovcrnrncnt ariM:• from the con
' ent o t e p1.>op1e w o are govern d ( ·
c · •<wern111cn1, thu~ re\ulu from a contract a
n1ut11al,dgrec1nen1 nrnong those who arc governed. ' '
. 1o Cthlll'C that govcrnrnent doe~ not becorne too powerful u k b I I
~lt'"'lard' into h 1 F. tl , i<. e ur t sevcra
r· . ~ ~ystern. rrst, 1ere 19 the principle of repre~entauve government
and the, elcc~1on ?' a s n1em~ers hy 111ajoriry n1 le, dctern1ined by simply counting the
votei.. ~nd1dates \\ho ~ece1ve the rnost votes are elected to office-as legulators or
n1en1be':' of th e execuove branch. Of course, with a 111ajoricy, there is a minority,
who~e n g htS are to be r~sp~cted. Majorities and minorities are cemporary; in the next
elecoon, the current ma1onty 1nay become a minority and vice versa.
Funhe~, ~ e. governm~nt is divided inro three branches: a legislarure that passes
the laws, a 1ud1c1ary that interprets and adjudicates tllem, and an executive that
enforces the1n. \,Vith thi s threefold division of powers, no one branch is to become
more po\verful than the others.
Locke's system also included the safeguard of fixed tenns for those elected to
office. Elected officials come from the people, serve for a fixed term, and then return
to the people who elected them to office. Importantly, Locke warned that if a govern-
ment violates the conditions of the concracr with the people, the people have the right
to rebel against and alter or overthrow it.
Locke's warning against repressive government strongly appealed co the col-
onists in North America who rebelled against the English rule of King George ill.
Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Independence, borrowed Locke's
ideas to justify the American Revolution against a tyrarrnical king. In so doing, Jeffer-
son asserted that Americans, as individuals, possessed the inalienable rights of life, lib-
erty, and pursuit of happiness. When the Constitution of the United Stares was
estnblished, it contained the important Lockean provisions of representative govern-
ment, cliecks and balances, and majority rule.
Classical Liberalism's Doctrines

In nineteenth-century Europe and America, a body of political, social, and econon1ic
doctrines called Classical Liberalisrn developed. The following section examines these
doctrines, whicll represent an important phase in liberali~'s hiStory. It .is also im~r
tant ro note that some of these economic ideas were readily accepted 1n the U nited
States and, ironically, beca1ne part of American Conservatism. (Conservatism is exam-
ined Chapter 12.)
W I I e •
L0cKE'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO LIBERALISM

1. 'The individual person comes first in sociecy. . .
2. Every individual has the inalienable rights ofbfe, liberty, and property.
J. Government is a contract between the people and the go::::lt.
4. Govcrn1nent should be 1 rcpr•enattive l)'IUID of checb IDCCS.
5. The political sysum ii perned by majority rule.
Liberali~m 10 115 ongin' and m its clti51cal phase was a reacoon agamst autbon.
tanan govemments. espec1311~ those of absolute monarchies and landed an5t0c:raat..
As an ;deoloro. Liberalism gained its grearest support from the Dllddle ~e
lawyers, bankers, businessn1en, and 1ndustn:ihsC>-u·ho u·ere shut out of pos1oons of
power 1n the old order based on one's birth. (In the early nineteenth cen_tuI]·. the £Ult).
pean class strucrure bllSlcaUr consisted of three classes-the upper an tocraoc cJa,,
the lou·cr peasantry and small farmers, and the business and professional c~
located beru·ecn them, and thus kn0\\11 as the rruddle class.) In place of a ngid hicrar.
chical sooet), Liberals argued for social mob~Jit)·, in _u·hich indi'"-iduals co':"~ chmb a~
high as their merits, especially measured by 1ndusmousness and productJ\,t)', uouJd
take them.
In asserting themselves againSt the \'C.Sted interests of t:h~ rime, Liberals sought
safeguards and prorections againSt authoritanan go,·emments tn the form of u·bat can
be called negati,·e freedoms-freedom from go'·emmenc conrrol and impos1000
Xamely, they u·anred lau·s that pre,·enred governments from interfering u;ch freedom
of speech, press, assembly, and religion. For their O\l'D protectio n, they \\.-anted the due
process of common or public lau•, and freedom from arbitrary arrest and confinement.
Economically, the middle-class liberals, u·hose position reseed on earned rather
than inherited wealth, u·ere the rising up~-a.rdly mobile class. Believing that their pro-
ductivity and indUSttiousness u·ould be best: reu-a.rded in a political siruation free of
restraincs, they endorsed a free market, laissez-faire, capitalist economy. Ther jusofied
such an order by appealing ro u·hat they called the natural lau-s of supplr and demand.
Based on Adam Smith's Tbt ~~'t11/tb of .\ '11ti1J11S, supply and demand meant simplr that
when goods " 'ere scarce there would be a demand for them in t:he market. Entrepre-
neurs "·ould rush to produce t:he scarce item and rnal.:e a profit in so doing. Houe-.-er.
after a time, the demand would be satisfied, o,·erproduction \l'Ould occur and the pnce
would fall. Competitive enterprising individuals u ould then invest in and produce the
next item of scarcity and so on. In the process, there u·ould be periods of economic
prosperity, followed by periods of recession. People u•ho invested un\\·iselr "·ould Jo1,e
their money and some workers u·ould be unemployed. H ou·e\"Cr, in this model the
government \1'3S to stay out of the economy. It should not gee 1nvoh-cd in pro,1dJJ1g
relief ro the un~mployed, nor should it interfere uith ho" businesses operate U
allowed to f'.uncnon narurall~·· the free market u·ould, br its own operaoon. creitc
greater efficiency of producoon and labor and eventually generate a higher le' el of
economic prosperity, which u·ould benefit everyone.
Classi~I Liberalism had implications for religion and educaoon. Liberals
opposed the idea that there should be an CStllbhshcd church dut ""35 officiall\' rccog-
ruzed and supponed by the State. ~{any of these Liberals \1-Cre di~nters frodi official
church~, such as the Church of England m the l:rured Kingdom. Like Jefferson tn
the U~1tcd Stares, they opted for separation of church and state. Further, man\ Liber-
als believed that Church-related or -controlled schools "·ould '- ~ d · e
the ki d f · · I duca . uc: too ogmaoc ro gi1
n o cnoca e non that indusmous, compeoti'-e persons nccJcd m 1 mod-
em economy based on mcnt rather than bmh• Th-· also """""~1 funU> · ~'
' -· m11.&· . b···
.,, r - 'IC ....... -: • &?".... Cir 7 ftlOJft.,n!i9,.~1 "Yt""<K''I USJnjt
~
.1.
rll'C'U
la4r
7
5\ I 11 Fr• If ,._ t • 11 zd1 # echools and n......;..1h the l.,,J.
~in__~~_.:_~__:.:.:.:..=-~
nh Peal tuml.'Ul~Lann anJ
CHAPTER ELEVEN LlBERALISi\I
179
•••••
CLASSICAL LIBERAL PROPOSITIONS
1. Assertion of individualis1n, especially in the economy

2. Freedo'.11 fronl government controls and restraints on individuals
3. Opera no~ of the natural law of SUJ)p)y and demand
4. Producnvity ~d econor_nic progress through competition in the free market
S. Need for pracocal, applied, scientific education, free from Church control
Greek languages and liter~~re-that was considered the hallmark of an educated per-
~on. Abse~t from the trad1oonaJ classical curriculum were subjecrs such as mathemat-
ics and soence as well as the applied studies of engineering, accounting, and so forth
that w~re needed for an innovative, competitive, industrial economy. Liberals wanted
e~ucan~n~ re~orms. They wanted greater access to schools, especially secondary and
higher lilStltunons, and a more scientific curriculum that could be lead to economic
productivity.
Liberalism in Transition: Utilitarianism

In the early nineteenth century in the United Kingdom, Utilitarianism, a new philoso-
phy developed by Jeremy Bentham, attracted those who wanted to reform social,
political, legal, and educational institutions. Utilitarianism, as its root indicates, argued
that philosophy should have utility; that is, it should be useful rather than just an intel-
leetuaJ exercise. Bentham drew into his circle such leading reforme.rs as James Mill and
his son, John Stuart Mill.
Bentham's Utilita.rianism, a reconceptualization of Lockean Liberalism, ques-
tioned some laissez-faire Classical Liberal doctrines. Utilitarians argued that at certain
times, the state, or government, needed to enact reforms, modernize institutions, and
deliberately seek to improve the human condition through legislation and education.
Bentham believed that all human decisions, including those needed in order to reform
society, could be made by the principle of utility-that which brings the greatest good
for the greatest number of people. Utility could be determined by using a calculus, a
way of adding up the amount and degree of pleasure or pain that would occur when a
decision was acted upon. Bentham believed that institutions such as the parliament,
the law couns, the prisons, and the schools had become so weighted ~own by tra~tion
that they functioned poorly and needed to be reformed and modernized according to
the principle of utility. .. .. .
Among the Utilitarians was the social and polincaJ ~nc ~o~ S~ ~· who
revised Bentham's ideas into a ringing statement of human liberoes.. Mill believed that
society and its institutions, including schools, .should ~ope~ to all ideas, ~ wipop-
nh1r or unconventional ones. In an open-mmded SOClet'J'., ideas could .be discussed.
bated clarified and revised. In an open forum the best ideas would wm out an.d. no
' ' f cherished uadiaon
would _..,1 was limited
IOWlded in U&e• ~
J80 PART U IDEOLOGJES A.''O EDUCATION
only to the point where it interfered with another person's freedom. Espou ing polio.
cal and educa??n~I r~forn1 1 Mill becn1ne a proponent of ~omen's ri~hts a~d &'\lffrage.
The Uohtanan1sm of Bentham and John Stuart Mill moved L1berahsm in a new
direction. Nor only was it an ideology that sought to safeguard individual and civil libcr.
ties but now it "'lls to be an instru.JJ1ent of social, political, economic, and educational
refonn. The new social reformist strain in Liberalism split the Liberal ranks. Some Lib..
erals remained loyal to the Classical Liberal doctrines of noninterference by government
and laissez-faire in the economy. In the United States, these Classical Liberal doetrincs
became a key part of the Conservative ideology, examined in Chapter 12. Other Liberals
saw the government as a necessary agency of social reform. The new social refonnist
Liberals were gradualists, not revolutionaries. They believed that reform should take
place incrementally and bring about a gradual improvement that restored existing insti-
tutions to an efficient and good working order, rather than overcuming them.
Based on our swvey of Utilitarianism, we can speculate on how a Utilitarian
would reform schools. They would accept schools as necessary and beneficial institu-
tions. However, over time, schools, like other institutions, can become overly formal
and too traditional. The curriculum and methods of teaching might become irrelevant
tO socioeconomic change. They might not reflect scientific discoveries and technolog-
ical innovations. When this happens, the schools need to be reformed and reinvigo-
rated. Curriculum and instruction could be reconceptualized to incorporate new areas
of knowledge. New subjeets and skills might need to be added and obsolete ones
removed. Such a process of educational reform would save schools as an institution
and make them more relevant and efficient. This kind of incremental and gradual
innovation would work for the good of the greatest number of students and teachers.
American Modem Liberalism

In the United States, Liberalism experienced a significant transformation in the early
twentieth cenrury when it was infused by ideas from the Progressive movement. The
Progressive movement arose in the first two decades of the twentieth cenrury and is
associated with efforts to reform American politics, society, economics, and education.
Progressive reformers depended on investigative journalists such as Upton Sinclair for
his expose of the meat-packing industry in The Jungle and Ida Tarbell for her expose of
the Standard Oil Company to inform the public about political corruption, business
•••••
DIE UTD..ITARIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO I.IBERALISM
l. Ar. times, IOC.iety needs rationally directed and scientifically based reform.
l. Reforms ~d produce ~ greatest good for the greatest number of people.
J. Human ~ and ICtJOllS can be calculated aa:ording to die amount, and degree,
of ple1mue or pam they produce.
4. Rebma aboul.d ~ rvithirt the system and should be peaceful and gradual.
S. With tb•t pideh,,,. for reform, human rightl and resporwibilities can be preserved
..t ••'MW to die patat number of people.
Cl L\Plr 'Jt E.l.J:.\ '£..' I ID£ llAI I\ \ I
181
1nonopohe~. unsiinital') food and d .1

p '<l Th I R • ~ngtn1119 utlll(l Proirrc. ·•~c pt1htK.1Mi> soch •~
resi enb COl orr 11<~e,"tlt and \\oourow \V1l'41n and \cninor R1Jbcn ~FoUcnc
CJnpha51ted legi,louon th111 \\ l>Uld rer11111 1 1111vem111-~1 C\1th hu n- I d.
I " .... • " ~· 111onopo rer. an
ron rn-e n11n1rn re'ou1 ce . Like the U1lll111rion•, Progrc:~\i vc• winced 1,, Uk ~
1tnu graJu~I rne11ns II> ~olve problerns In ~01.1cty hy cnacung la ws that regul~d the
cconorn) "~1.le pre ervtng the free-enterpri\e 5Y"tern. (Sec Chapter IHfor 1 dna• 1on
of Pro~1visn1.)
In the 193~, President FranlcJ1n Roosevelt's New D~l sough t to me the fcdc-ral
!tO'~mment to bnng the country out of the (ireat Depression of the I930t. Rootevch
dcs1~ed pro~1ns to provide relief to the millions of unemployed people and their
~m1l1cs, to omulate economic recovery, and to reform the system through regula-
tions. Roosevelt's New Deal, like the earlier Progressive Movement, used 1ncrernenal
refonns t~ pr~serve a~d revitalize the system rather than radically transforming or
o.verthroWlng it. The important point of both the New Deal and the ~rlier Progres--
sive Move~ent was the reliance on government, especiaUy the federal government, t0
act ~ a maior agency of reform. This change in modem Liberalism was aJmast dia-
memcally opposed to the Classical Liberalism view that government hould say out
ofsociety and the economy.
Along with the new Liberals involved in politics, several leading educators, mo,
called for the development of a new Liberalism chat urged the government to provide
the needed social services in what had become an industrial, corporate society. Fore-
most among these educators was the prominent Pragmatist philosopher John Dewey,
who urged that Liberalism become an active ideology that would create a cooperative
society to promote the economic well-being, social welf.ire, and education of all of the
people.s George S. Counts, a ReconsO"llctionist educator, caUed upon teachers ro join
with other Progressive groups in working for a more planned, collaborative, and shar-
ing society.6 Harold Rugg called upon the schools to prepare people to use new tech·
nology for social bettennent.
As a result of the New Deal and similar movements, Liberalism was transformed
into Modem or Social Welfare Liberalism. While Liberals stiU prized individual free-
dom and civil rights and liberties, they now extended their ideological perspective tO
allow government to play a greater role as an agency of reform and regulation. The gov·
ernment, especially the federal government, was tO improve the general welfare by pro-
viding pensions, health care, social security, and aid to hitherto disadvantaged groups;
ending racial segregation and promoting integration, affirmative action programs, and
protection for persons with disabilities; and giving aid to people at the ~ny le~. .
Liberals now believed that education was about more than learrung basic skills
and subjects. Public schools were redefined as agencies tO promote ~dual s~ial
change. They were to provide compensatory education to help econonu~ly disa~
YUttaged children; devise means of ending racial segregation and promoong rac:ial
imep'ation· mainstream children with disabilities into regular classrooms; provide
' ........,.. . ,cbilctbood education· develop programs ofsei education, drug and alcohol abuse
1111111, and AIDS ~tion; and create a climate of multiculnualism.. 11;1 o~er
. . . ICldemiC lllStlW·
the new Li
-miey were remedying SOCt·a1
-
solving
• •• ••
MODER..~ UBE.RAU \1 PRIX ll''l l'..~
1. 1lte-
ttbm..a.J
:-an
~
"''*' .
I :\In\'"'.:- "~""1"' "''"' •"'' "' 111•1111•"'"' h\ '"' 1
,, .1
l . In the-~~ . ,,1 ~I ,"\'\f'\'~lt>, "1 I\ U\.I.: ''"''"''' lh~ I •kf'll 11'" ell\
lllttlt ~ na~ ~ :'\ . ~ ""' N'l\\l'll\ t.n.l T\"~llAth\11
) . In a~~~' the- ~>\ «1\l\W1lt h~ t. l\'l t\I ('IA\ II\ (11"1'\ hhl~ Ml\ l~I, lll\1'1111)111
mt'n'- hfVch C'att; C\h ~t\\'lllal. t.n..\ 11th<-f hlllllAI\ M'I\ 1\
4.. Elhnnoa. ~ and ~ ""' ,....,.'\.., "''"'$ '"'' 1"'l"'"'1hih11<'~. •• ,~~u ...
academic ootS.
~ Lbc-ral lPf'l\'41<"h a~ , t"ht~¥<1 tht "'le

M111 *"'' "'"\
t '''" of tc~~hcN.
~ •~tt no lon~.r ~'~ ''' ttlk'h ~ills*"'' ~11h\~"t$l tht1r !\Ile~ he{~ll\c hr.1~tlcr
and ~ siocial "'Ott anJ roun~lil\~ t\1n<'t1<111~.
MODERN J .JBERAl .IS..\ f'S COJlE BEJ,JEFS
In dlis section ~ 111-ill tdcnn~·• anJ l'OO\ll)('flt on llhcnhsn' ~ i..'\)l"C hclicfs-thc l)rin·
ciple;s lying at~ Man Qfdw- ~'tQ\ Cluipttr lJ 111,n 1ncluJc • J1~ ~~sion of An1eri·
can Consavanws• lppropnitlOO of l~ 0&.~ll.'11 l.lhtr.I C\.'i.)n\Ml\tl.! <ltk'trinci. llc1'C,
Libenlimi's rott principles att plll$ltloMJ 11rith1n t~ n~ldcm or S\ll:i11l· "'tlh\rc oricn·
tatlOll that charac:teriRs L~raltill\ 1n too~mpll'l'1' .\n~N,.....
An 0,.-in•isrn About PeGple

\ Vhen )'OU meet otht.r pt'OP!c l\1r thl!' tim nn'f, h\1w \k) ~'\)U tt•l't? Are )'0\1 cia~r IQ
meet them. or att ~-ou auoous, Wll) or Mpt\.~ A$ • t'ftchcr, ho" J<) you fed
when you meet your srodenu for tht tim amt~ IA'I )1\lU up«t ~onlt ro he " ell
bet-avui. coopenm~ 1earnas anJ ~n tt> ht 11l..Ji$cipbMJ tn.lUhlt1naL."t" "h1>"111
disturb your telehin~ and ~&r cl.$$1'1•teS' tt.minJ? Cnderiy'n~ t~ qu0it111ns is
whtit you bclMn-e about human betn~ and their MN\ior.
Liberals tend t0 ha'~ an optimisric: V'it"· of human nature. Th~ tte pco1>le •S
either (IOOd by nanitt. as did Rf>ILtMtU.. or •t 1..at monlly neumal •t h1nh the "''th
possibility of becom~ cthical pellOM. ~· ~ the pt111m1~ ~ 1)( hun1•n
namre th.c sees l*lflle as inhereridy "'1. •-.k. wtdted. and a..y.
•'~ L1htral,1 the
-m. principle• as an Unpomnt OM. Tlwy m11t or bcllfft thtt 1(• i-l'IOCI h\ 1n the
··~t'" 1i:incl of~· en~t~ ~ th4t oppomm1~ f\lr ••
CMIOD, she or he will do the "rilbt
~· ~the~
"""'t" kinJ 1)r fllu·
on •np• k1nJ 1n the
II •'UJIC•
.bo1e. When a per90ll does the ... IOAJ ......,• ........... ww)d .. thttt IS
nm 11t ;"I••-. wilta dl12r IOdal •Wwm trn ar cheir -.C.tian. lftd no« inhtl"tnth
zltL• lfwt&owwhat the•1te;M•li:inclo1 _. . .._,_."'*"'"'•~
-.12•• am 111. \\\a.•12 • • • • 111*c1zn41ad\•t •ill I"''"
11\f'l1 RI I I \ 1 ' I llll Rr\I 1~\t
181
' uh: f)O..'ii the e\11erient'l:s nnd uu itlv11 t .
al~ tend to put the prh uory re~1l11n~lhi~l;n~11;1u11ol.• io !lo wh11 iw n1ch1 Nl)(c •h•t Lit,..,
1or, l'lt~er than on the individulll. Y MXic tyand c:cluta1111n fl1rthanl(lnK litht"
( I el) related l-O the Llhenil o i
l'lchef 11' hllOlllll frtedOlll (fpAOpl r~ llll\flJll lblJUt hu1111n nature ll rht (lifti{I " '
. · "' e are tr4~tca y good 8 h ( ·,
ti\ ht'rttu ly e11I, then tlley can en 'o the 'r . l ean, or 1 at lta 1d 1ey ''"' 111,.
enils, l~edo1n doe~ not t"enn dol' y h g eate~t po'ls1ble freed1.11n, ' f() be ire, (,,, L.t,
· "
q11enl'C.~ for yourself and for oth ,
1ng w atever you pl case, w11· hout reg2rd ''I the""*"
l~'t' the rilfht '-ind of proced ~~· With freedon1 comb responi1b1hty, «pct ,.Jly u1
good. then they should be ;re . •n.ce people are good or have the J)Ol'1b1Jiry,if~1ng
te.achers should be plnces f ~e tod th1nlc,f to express themselves, and ro 1Cl ~hl;1if• arlli
. 's 0 ee om o thought and of expre~~ion
i:.
i.. A
Ll11<:ra 11sn1 · h ·
ian belief tha h trust uman benevolence runs up again•t the uad1cit,nal CJiria·
red t . wnan 1ngs are born in sin, retain a tendency to evd, but can 1)4
~ed by faith. Fundamencajjst Christian , for e.umple, would consider the Lb-
m school atm~pher~ to be overly permissive and a misuse of freedom that penn1u
srudents"to .be d1~p~ve. Conse~tives would see the Liberal atticude about IQWI
~fonn, fixing th~n~ through social and educational engineering, to be SQ naJve that
It compo~ds SOCtal ills. Conservatives believe that there is evil in che world an.d il>me
people will chose to be criminals and thus should be punished.
Social Intelligence
Based ~n th~r assump?ons abo~t '!1~ goodness of human nature, or at least its benign
neutrahty, Liberals believe that 1nd1viduals can and should use their minds 1n wa~ dut
are socially intelligent. Social intelligence means that individuals, acting r.ogether, an
cooperatively solve their problems. The stalwan modem Liberal, John Dewey, argued
that the scienti6c method could be used to solve problems that ranged from the per-
sonal to the social and political. In a democracy, people, free to use their reason. an
define problems, interpret information, consider the evidence, make the correct deci-
sions, and act on them. Th develop social intelligence we need to h2ve an open society,
a marketplace of ideas, free of absolutes, customs, and traditions that interfere with the
questioning attirude necessary for critical thinking.
Educationally, the Liberal call for social intelligence and critical thinlang lw
many important implications. Schools should be places of academic freedom, where
teachers are free to teach and srudents are free to learn, without having their freedom
curtailed by censorship or arbitrary controls. The curriculwn should be open w new
ideas and to methods of inquiry in which srudents are free to ask quenions and chal-
lenge the sutuS quo. Libraries should not be censored but should include conuoversial
books. leachers should encourage the development of sorul intelJigence in •mdentt
by using methods that emphasiu open discussions, permission to share and w quet·
ideu, and &eedom to make decisions based on the evidence._ . . .
There are ~ objections to the Liberal concept of SOoal mtelhge~. En~
· va1uiDf human subjectivity, warn that the Liberal cooapt of f()Cljl inr.eJIJ.
ml)' ht is submerged w cht
184 l' \ RI ll 1111\II01.lt 'A'l)l IJU<.ATIO'I
l{f\>llp\I \\'Ill, (See C:hA ptcr 6 for n dhetlS"on of f"Stenuall\m .) ~Orne C:on-.erv
111Ne that the \O-t"alled "open MX'let)'·" ~o pnicd hy L1heral~. 1 a nu no1ner fur : "'1
1
011~1\ C ~nc1Cl) 1n " h1ch u uth 1111d \lllurs dcpt!nd on how 11 p:irt11:ular l(Toup defi Ptr
inven ~iru11tion. \ \ i thin thi~ kind uf gniup- ba,cd detenrunatton of elhu:s, there.~~:
unt\ ersal stllnd11rds o f heha\·1or and everything end up bclnl( doudt"d b) relau~ism 1
•
Although they rnay or rnay not be religiou rn their personal lives, L1bc1111 heheve ~
religious identification and church men1ber<ihip are individual matte~. not publ
1
ones. Indi"iduals should be free to pnetice their religion but should not impose u.;
beliefs on others through srote-ordered observance, suppon , or control5. Thert
should be no religious test in order ro obmin citi~ensh i p or hold public office.
The Liberal tendency to secularism corncs fro1n their long struggle against tilt
establishment of religion as part of the state and educational systems. L1bc1111s m
Europe opposed the establishment of an official state church, such as the Church of
England in England or the Roman Catholic Church in France. Thomas Jefferson,
who reinterpreted Lockean Liberalism ro justify the Alnerican Revolution, argued
against the establishment of 1 state church or religion in the United States. For Liber-
als who follow Jefferson's line of reasoning, there should be separation of church and
state, and church and public schools. Believing that religious dogmas can block free-
dom of inquiry, Liberals contend that public schools need to be free from religious
controls. They oppose religious instruction, religious observances and prayer, the
posting of the Ten CommandmentS, and the teaching of Creationism in public
schools.
The separation of church and state, so strongly supported by Liberals, has gen-
erated some strong opposition in the United States. The chief opposition comes from
Christian FundamentalistS, often associated with the neo-Conservative ideology. Fun-
damentalists contend that the United States is a Christian nation and the ideas of the
founders of the republic were based on Christian ideals. They argue that Liberals,
while denying the right of others to religious instruction, have imposed their own
creed, Sccular Humanism, on public schools. They see Secular Humanism as a rela-
tivistic philosophy that places all truth and values in human beings and society rather
than in God. Secular Humanism, they contend, asserts that right and wrong are rela·
rive, and depend on what the group says they are in different siruations.7
The Right to Private Property

Since its origins with John Locke, Liberalism has maintained the core principle that
indmduals pcllSeSS the inalienable right to acquire and own property. In modern
terms, the Liberal assertion of property rights means that individuals have the right to
employ and fire other people, and to earn income, invest it and make a profit (to earn 3
11m1mor financial dividend on their invesonent). This self-motivated economic inter·
ttimulaUll people to learn and to earn.
CHAPTER ELEVEN LIBE.RAUS.\I
185
a ·revision
beral5 or modification of d1e concept of the ri I.(ht lo property occu rred. "'1od ern
Li . no\~ argue that th~ KO'·em1nent needs to as 1st individual 1n the lo1Aest
soc1oecono1n1c le\-els, es~crnlly dlo!>e ot the poverty level, with resources-food,
h,eal~ care, lo\v-cost housing, nnd job trnining- nceded to help them improve their
s1ruanon. ~,·emn1ent also n.eeds. to enco.ur:ige affinnative-a<.uon prognms that give
preference ~ coUe~ an~ un1vers1ty adnuss1ons, and in employment, to members of
underrepresented m1nonty g~ups. Tu support this assistance, dlose 1n higher income
groups should b? taxed at a higher rate-a progressive tax-to generate the needed
re~nu~ fur ~~a!, heal~, and educational services. For Modem Liberals, property,
" •bile soil an ~diVldu.al. nght, should not be permitted ro override the right of a person
to the ?ecessioes of living a decent life-to having access to health care, housing, and
educaoon.
~t is on the property issue that Classical Liberalism, now part of American Con-
servaosm, .and Modem Liberalism take divergent ideological paths. Contemporary
Co?5ervanves argue that excessive caxation, caused by the programs of the Liberal
SOCtal welfare Stllte, is tl1king away the right to own property. Liberalism, they say, has
been transformed into a form of state socialism.
Individuals and Associations

Liberalism, a middle-of-the-road ideology, tends to perform a delicate balancing act.
It assens both the primacy of the individual, and the importance of human association
in politics, society, the economy, and education. Locke proclaimed that the inherent
and inalienable righrs t0 life, liberty, and property are possessed by individuals and are
not bestowed by government, nor determined by membership in society. Further, as
John Stuart Mill argued, individuals have the right to pursue their rights and interests
as long as they do not injure or restrict the righrs of others. Thus, Liberalism endorses
the free and competitive interplay of individuals in society.
Modem Libe.ralism reaffirms these individual rights, often framed as human
rights and civil liberties, but simultaneously emphasii.es the importllDce of human asso-
ciation in government, society, and education. For Liberalism to work, there needs ro
be a shared social consensus to use the processes of peaceful, nonviolent reform and
change. Consensus means that there is a meeting of the individual minds, a social agree-
ment, to hold to certain principles and to follow agreed-upon processes to solve prob-
lems. The maintenance and use of representative institutions in a demOCJ'11tic society
requires a consensus that promotes their validity, viability, and worlcability.
In our everyday life, the Liberal idea of working together to promote the genenl
welfare while holding individual rights can be su~~ up by the wor~, "~mminee."
Most of us have served on a committee. A committee IS composed of individuals who
have a common cause, problem, or project. Individuals are expected to speak their
· arrive at some kind of group agreement or consensus so that the prob-
or the project accomplished by collabora~ve efforts. . ..
can see the I .iba · at work m bow ~ die individual
phasi rive
at to
- a
r\lt I ll ll'l\ 'l \ 1' .11 ' \ ' 11 I l)l \ \I Ill'

I
«' tht') au• olso encouraged u> be good group
,,'I"' 11,11, 1 ,_. l"' 'llfl1\ \11he '• e tnn '. ll•luin.uh e lcan1ing 10 ~olve group prob-
111
' I hare• to me ul...•. ,. 1 Iy n11rrors
• .L
111 ntl'I'•"• l~l u.. 111111~ 011, "~ I,he Lllle111 1 utc 1 010111y in schoo s n1ere u1c
ltnt•, •ti.I 1\1 ht' h:oun p1")C1 •
1
L •..• .. .. Jetido11
, 111 U\.'tC'"'• llt1IVlul1• 1 ~0 1111
""u . • , , • • • •
1n1unuve 1s pnz.ed
I.ii{('• ,l1d1\lt\11t1~ 111 \ 111e11\;• ) :'i;. ··! , nicnibcr in 11 corporote tcl)n o n1 y.
hut''''~ l~1111" tea1n IJlll) er i111d 1111 ct c1.;t ve
1'' mphHis on Process-Playing by the Rules

· d · the scientific method, to due process
l 1"'n1t 8~ p~ one111.e1.l u1 th~ir evooon to dures in enacting legislation. The
"''"re the le", 11nJ tu u5ing tJarh~mentary P"?ce th ds or procedures to make
L11J\o!'ll einphasis 1s 011 pron>Sl'-USlDg appropnate nie o .
thin~ wurk hiirl)\ effectively, 1111d efficiently-espe~alldy i~· gov~~~~n~~~()~~n~fyd 1
e1.lu\'11tion, Liben1ls tend to use tlie following process in ea ing wi issu ·.
• 11robl«"n1 to be soh-cd, such as regulanng · trdffi c, 1mp
· ro·.:"g
•u• airport security• or pro-
.
Viding pro:riptton drut?S fur seniors; (2) define and research. the pro?lem b~ ~bng
"'IX'" " 1tn~ to te5 tit)•, collecting statistics, and conducong pubhc heanngs, (3)
b&ll«'<l on th«' l"CS«'trch, propose and enact legislation to solve the problem and regulate
the soci«'ty so !bat the problem does not reappear. . . .
Educationally, the Liberal c1nphasis on process operateS 1n .two dimensions: .(1)
respecting the process as a metliod of learning and problem solving and (2) knowing
how to use the pl'\x:ess. For tlie process to work, those who use it need to be commit-
ted ro, and V1luc, it. ln other words, children need to acquire tlie belief that using the
procea is fair. It begins with 111king turns in using playground equipment and not per-
n1ltting the biggc t, strongest, and most assertive child to monopolize it. The process
Is developed by intemali&lng a sense of playing by the rules in sports, debates, and con-
lUts. Based on the comn1itment that we should play by the rules, skills in using the
111ethod arc developed: understanding how the method works; practicing its use; and
1pplying it in 1et111I situations.
Liberal• tend to endorse process-oriented education in which srudents learn by
doinl{. In Dcwey'il •complete Act of Thought," the scientific method is applied to
problemt using the following procedure: (1) recognize that one has a problem; (2)
define the problem; (3) research the problem; (4) develop possible ways to solve the
problem; (S) choose one of these possibilities and act on it to rest it.
. Many~ activities are ~ntered around a group, in what Dewey called asso-
a1tive learrung, w~ today IS called •eonaborative Leaming." Students work
tupther and enpp m • mutual effon and shlll'C infonnation to joindy solve a prob-
lem. In IO doing, they not only solve a particular problem, but also learn how to func-
don 11 NlpODlible team pl1yen in a democratic society.
C Other ldeol0fl11 do not object to following rules or playing fairly. However,
•••-*"'would find the Liberal emphasis on proceu and procedure to be esces-
~ woald 1Uep tlw Ubenls tend to be 10 preoccupied with the process that
Nlle•ua Ind content. Funher, they Wll"D that •wing the process does not
ID'7 ••h!Mt or IOIDI 1'1ioa ii pod or bad, ript md wroq.
.
~
•
t ll-\l'l 1•fl Il l ll\ '11N I llll•R \I IS.'.l
187
'''hile 1101 uppo~cd to th" ,.1
• ' ' 111l'l'Jlt of\ i
fheo11,1s \\ 011ld ':1)1 1ho1 Ihe I 1h . I ·~ "K II prncc~,. 11co-Marx1't\ and c:nucal
. . I c Iii )II Oll''' f llCR II
1hnt It 1~ rll{!{l't to fi1vrir the t1 1111111, 1 I
~Paying wnh a "111arkcd deck" 1n
. .1111 1<•<>1111 'I hey . I th
n1ett I> n routine pluycd 10 cn,urc th • ~"Y L1a1 e Liberal process 15
lll I1lo\c who to 11 l r~>I poI1111:5 and the economy
1110111111111 1herr l I1un1nnncc. (Sec c:hirpter ~ .
19 for ( '. r1tiL'1ll ' l'hcory.) 11· 111 u di,cu,sion of Marx.l\1n and C:hapter
Being ln the Middle C nn Be Uncoinfortnble

Co~r.cnip~rnry LibCeralisin is an ideology tha t rnkes a rnoderate n1iddle-of-the-road
posiuo.n, ct:\vecn onservntives on the right nnd Socialises, neo-Marxists, Critical
Theorists, nnd others on the left. ~n tin1es of crisis, Liberalis1n often comes under pres-
sur~ fro111 tho~e \vho call for hurried, sweeping, transformative, revolutionary change.
Thking ~ cnunous, m?denue, and incre111ent:1I approach to solving social, political,
ccono1111c, and educational problems, Liberals arc suspicious of advocates of sweeping
grand designs thnt promise to bring about so111e kind of utopia. Liberals such as John
Dewey, for ex111nple, were highly suspicious of both Fasc.istS, on the right, and Marx-
ists, on the left, \11ho promised co create a perfect world order by purging those identi-
fied as undesirables because of their rnce, religion, or class. Liberals look with dismay
upon those who hold extreme positions but are able to change sides so quickly.
Being in the middle can be both cornfortable and uncomfortable. You might
reflect on what it means to be "caught in the n1iddle" when your friends are having an
argument. Being in the n1iddle is cornfortable when there is a consensus, that is, when
the majority of people share the same commitrnent to use th~ same process. It is
uncomfortable when, especially in ti1nes of crisis, the extrem~s gain more strength and
want to bring about a c.hange that does not follow the established rules. ~or example,
should civil rights be maintained and due process followed when there is a threa.t of
terrorist attacks? Liberals will opt for freedom of speech, assembly, and expression,
even to t he uncom11 "ortable poi' nt of •allowing those who want to destroy these freedoms
to speak and org;inize ag;iinst them. . . .
· I rheory especially the foundaoons of history and philosophy of
In ed ucaoona • · th ·ddl Th ·h d
education Liberals often find themselves very much in e_m1 e. . e~ are~~. e
fronl the 'right by religious fundamentalisrs wh.o want to 1nsertdpa rt1cuhar rhe 1gious
. . h 1 3 nd b neo-Conservatives who want to e 6ne t e sc oo1s as
doctnnes into the SC oo s Y • . . rograms. They are pushed from the
. 1 d . · · tions and to 1m1t soc1a1 P
1
Strict y aca e1T1Jc. 1nsoru . . Theorists who want to use the schools as agencies for
1
left by neo-Marx1sts ~d Cno~ \,Vh f.tced by these diametrically opposed forces,
a nadical transfonnaoon of soci~cy. enf rhe'r particular ideology, the liberal argu-
oftcn "true believers" in the nghtn~S O l'~entary procedures, and taking a vote
.......... peaceful ruscussion, follo~1ng pa~ ale remedies for pressing social prob-
....... m.-jority rules, ofte~ seem ~li P that commitment to following the
..~~!:Ill,,. . . . . . . . . not drama~c, ~iberals 'ddlev~ the best way to maintain democratic
lit means be•DI ID che au e, 15
188 P.\R'l 11 lDFOLOGl~..S \.'Dl·DU< \I Ill'
Progress
Liberal bthe\C~ a is po,31 hle to 11111110\c the h111n.1n c;ond11111n ,11111 ' 1111.1111111 I hr) 1111
not bthe'e that the poor ,1111 ah111)' he pour lil'tc.111, they look lur w11)~ 111 ~1111'1111 1111
the condioon) of poi <!rt') and •l(llOranc;e th rough '<K 111l 11n1l cd11c; 111011111111 "II'' J111, 11 "c
Qpph ,ociJl inrelhgencc 10 ~olvulg prohlcn1', 1hcy hel11:vc the ht111n' t 111 ht pro11i1:.
\!\el) berrer than the past. Thi\ ~en~c of 1nnk1nl( thin!(' ht·11cr ulh1111' the hthtl in
progres:.. Libernls believe that ..ocicry c;·111l be dynnn11cnlly chonl(ctl for t ht hc1u·1 ~nu
hu1nan intelligence can create n hettcr society, .. ys1cn.1 of guvcrn111cn1 ' nntl tduc;.1111m~1
srsten1. The liberal outlook is directed 1owurd rcfonn1ng the prc,cnt n' 11 11wan~ of 111,k
ing the future better. The Proi,.,.es~ive rnoverncnt in cd~1c:nion wn~ .ha\cd 011 1hc hehcl
that educaoon could be in1proved upon, he rnore liberanng, ond ~ociolly rclcv11nt
LIBERALISM'S EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Throughout the chapter, we provided a running com1nencary to point out \Onie of the
general implications of Liberalism for education, especially educational theory. At thl\
point, we wilJ discuss some implications for educational practice.
The Purpose of Education and Schools

Liberals have an open-ended outlook on the purpose of education. They sec education
as the process by which human intelligence is exercised, enabling individuols ond qoci-
eties ro adjust co change and to develop innovative ways of directing change in order co
secure maximum social and economic benefits. The key is co encourage individuals to
look forward co change rather than fearing it. Funher, individuals and ~ocietie~ ~hould
noc drift along, buc should deliberately develop plans and strategies co achieve the
desired consequences.
For Liberals, there is no one single or primary purpose of schools, as there is for
Idealists, Realists, and Conservatives. Liberals see a need for schools to be adaplive
and anticipate social and economic change. Accordingly, the purpose and function of
schools is to be fluid, flexible, and responsive to social change and 1>roble1ns. The
school should be a multifunctional agency that performs, along with its acadernic func-
tion, other functions such as providing for vocational preparation, health care, coun-
seling, recreation, and other social needs.
Policy
A contemporary development in educational foundations is the idea of policy srudies,
m which areas ~f srudy such as history, philosophy, sociology of education, and com-
~avc cducaoon arc used to mfonn strategic planning for educational insuruoons.
!1'ae~ tend co sec policy as a flexible planning attitude that establishe~ goals for the
• rdiacc future and ~ocaces resources co accomplish these goab. The lcind of plan-
. .pis favored by Libenlr ll'e nrely rrdiail OI' trllllfor11iidft, but arc de., 1gned to
l..,J U '-1 • •-• - - - ' -- • ...,. 1 U~l\.l\.L.JS1\1.
189
solve problems \Vhen they app Th . .
· b ki · ear. e basic ·
oon y ma . ng it sufficiently Aexible to in intent is to maintain the ~ystem of educa-
problerns: For example, the age of electro ~o':Por:ne n~w technologib and solve new
opportunity for schools. Li bel'llls w ldn1~ inforrnatton presents a challenge and an
include technology in the classroo ~u .. ev~lop plans and aUoc:ne resources to
tion:1I :1reas. In setting educational mri:ri~vin~ •t ~ place alongside the more conven-
jects to fit technology into the sc~ d es, it nught ~e necessary to drop some sub-
inclusion in the curriculum. e u1e and to proV1de adequate resources for its
Curriculum and Instruction

Based on their flexible n1 I ·fun · I
· · ld b ' u ti Ctiona approach to schooling, curriculum and
~stru~hon \VO~cuJ e constructed and designed to fit changing social needs and prob-
ems. e curri . urn cannot be established to last for all time but is subject to revision
and reconcep~ahzaoon. depending on social changes, needs, and problems. The basic
elementary skil~reading, writing, communicating, and calculating-would stay in •
place. H o,vever, Liberals would continue to experiment with innovative methods of
tea~ing them. Subjects such as history, science, language and literature, and mathe-
maocs, would be found in the interrnediate and secondary curriculum but these sub-
jects \VOuld be constantly revised to incorporate new developments and insights.
Depending on current issues and problems, new subjects will need to be added
to the curriculum. For example, the AIDS epidemic requires safe-sex education;
the rising incidences of scllool violence require programs of conflict resolution; the
increasing cultural diversity of the United States requires multicultural programs; the
problem of drug abuse requires substance education; the increasing obesity of Ameri-
cans requires health education programs. The curriculum in not set in stone but
should be the educational response to changing needs and problems.
The school milieu, the educational environment, should be or~ized to encour-
age the values and artirudes Liberals prize. Student government p~oVlde~ ~n oppo~-
. r
n1ty 1or srud en ts to learn and practice the processes
. of democraoc
.d decision
· making.
r
s d s and radio and television staoons proVI e an opporturuty 1or sru-
tu ent newspa~erth free flow of information and communication. Various clubs and
d ents to engage ID e th e1r
. own lilterescs
· d Iearn to work
· ·
organ1i.aoons encourage students to develop an
\vith others.
Teachers and Students .

B 'ble inscructor who is ready w diverge from the
The Liberal teacller should be ~JO 3
sen cs itself. If there is a breaking news story,
prepared lesson plan when the occasion pr~ reacher should be ready to discuss it with
a significant current event or controversy~! ~elate it to the subject being srudied. For
students and hopefully, but not necessan ~, can be examined as the evencs occur and
. 0 ft.he past. For exa.mpIe, 1nc1
example the reaction ro th e War on. Terronsm . .dents o f eth -
· of sl01
put into 'the perspecove · ilar s1ruaoons
. the aftennath of Septem ber 11 , 2001 can
nic profiling of persons of Arabic descea~cans during World \Var II.
.
be related to the 1ntemm ent ofJapaneae
,.
\~ ~ \i \\I ,\, I ' \ I' I l'I 11• I
'
• \
°"" \\' II 11\, I 11•, I II 11hh llh•ll•ll 1<1111• •1 1 111 I l11.l1\ld1111I,, I .11 hw1d11111 h ""'"
,, ' 11' ~ '\' ll'\1111\11111\\, h '" ' • 1111.t h11p1 ~ -.111.11 1 111~ 1111• ' 1111111111141 d 111 hr h111h 111111.
' '*"'' l\ldlll\i I\,,, 1h1 11"'"1' I 111111p 11w111l111•lllp, 1•111, I• , .. 11111 I Ill ""~1ll1llly un\l
''i\41\\~\'\ \\1ul\, 1 1l\i\11111. 11lt1 '" """" .1lh h ''' d 11"11111111.111111111111111 \111il1111 iir•m11•,
\ \ ' 1, 11 ,h,1111,1 II,,'"il'"" 111"""""'11111 i. ''• · I\• 11111 11 •I 1h~n~•', 11111l•l<'J
\ \\ \\I 111t-.; l' h111
--- - -
- -- ---
ll'll'\ ~ l \R l ' \lll l , t lN 111\l~ R l'\

•
111 th1'' \ 'll,111,J11h11 S1111111 ,\llll1h•11• l. 1 p~ 1h1• l .lh1•111l t11 14u1 11c111 101 l11<llvl1lual frcc:-
,l-.'11\\' ""' 111h111"'' 1-c,tl'\11111"'1t•ll1•111111c111, d1111d1, Q111I othc1 llllthr1r1t1c•, gnd al'1<1
\t' II' th ):\\1\\ 111~ l'f''''ll l'\'\ Ill\" \llllhll 1111t) 111 11111\\ \IKICt)'. rh1\ ~elctllCIJl from
\hi\ t I~ '' llh'h11l1"1l hl.'I ~11,l' 11 "11 d11'"\°• d1111ucnl, 111111 fortcful enun1.1auon
''' thl" l\ol,,,. \ 1~1'111 I" 1111·1pk' 111 II (t'.111111 of 1hn1111ln :ind 11ultv1dut1l eirpre~\1on that
un,\t<t'hl" the." hht'rr) \\f 1111\h l1h111ls 111 Mll'lcty 1111d 111'11 p1'ovklc 11~ the free<lo111 to teach
\\ll\l I'\\ lc-;1n1, .\.s ~\)\\ 1\'1111 rhe St•kcti.111, y111111rny wi,h ltl Cl)llSidcr the following focus-
11\~ q1tt',ll1' ""
l. \\'hllt does ~\ill ,1cti111' "~ 1h1• 1111111~ ofh111111111 lihcrty? Do you think contempo-
1'111') .-\n11'rk~111 s11dt•ty 11nd 1•d1u:111io11 lhnhs pcr~o11nl frccdo111 und expression?
l)n) 1111 Ix· lie' t' 1lrn1 1h11~ should he \'c1'tlli11 1ll'c11~ In which frccdo111 of expres~ion
should ht- li111111'd?
2. C:nn,1dt'r ~ \ill'N 111 !1'111\Clll 11ho11t frccdo111 fron1 re~traints and freedo111 lO de6ne
ont<sclt~ \\11111 11r!l the rcstr11i11ts f1·0111 whld1 we shoulll he free? Whnt are the
po.ssihiliclcs 1h111 "e should t•11joy In order to define oursclvc~?
l. \\'hy does l\l1ll 1n'1'l on the 111<h1 to c%"prc\' unpopular opinions? Exa1nine con-
1c111ponil) Atnt<rk~n society. Arc un1lopul11r opinions freely expres~ed or are
the)' silenced?
4. llo\\ \\Ollkl 1\lill re'(){lnd 111 the \t11te111e111: Education Is tJ1e trnrumi~~ion of the
cnltuml herthll(t•?
S. l low well d11t·~ 1"1111~ nr~1111cnt rcson11tc In 11 tiine of heightened nationul secu-
rlt)• und nnxlctlcs posed hy the 1hre11t of tcrr11ri'1111?
The object of th" F~"Y ,, to 11,;cn one whether the 111cans u~c:d hy phyiical force 1n the
very simple principle, 11s <'nt11lell to l(ll\c111 furm oflcl(lll flen11ltics, or the n1onal coercion of
absolutely the deahnll"' of socil'ty with the lndi- puhllc opinion. ·rhot principle is, that the 'lOle
vldual in rhe way of ~'llnpul~lon ~nil l'1111r11I, end tin· whkh 1111tnkind yro warranted, individu-
l"mmJolln Sruar1 ,\\Ill, t>it I~ Nn York llcnry lloh encl C'o., lllMI, pp 1 ll, 20-26, 29 J2, 4J-"S,
90-100.
CHAJYI ER f'LF\/&"1 l.IBE:RALISM 19 1
ally or collectively, in interfering with the lib- there is n pr111111 Jurit t'\lse for punis.h1ng hun. h)
erty of action of any of their number, is self- law, or, where le~"lll penalnes arc not safel)
protection. That the only purpose for \\•hich applicuble, by !(enen1l disapprobaoon....
p<>WCr can be rightfully exercised 01•er nny But there is a sphere of acoon in ,1·h1ch
member of a civilized community, against his society, us d1)tingu1!>hed from the ind1'"ldull.
will, is tO prevent hann to others. His 011'0 has, if nny, onl)' ar1 indirect interes~ compre-
good. either physical or moral, 1s not a sufficient hending ull thnt portion of a pel'\On's hfe and
warrant. He cannot rightfully be cornpelled to conduce which nffeccs only hin1self, or 1f n also
do or forebear because it will be bener for him affectS others, onlr \1ith their free. volunmr,.
to do so, because it will make hin1 happier, nnd undeceived "consent and paroc1panon.
beause. in the opinions of others, to do so \\'hen I sav onlv hiniself. I 1nean directly and in
would be wise, or even right. These are good the first ~srnn~e; for 11·hnte1'er affects him.self.
r~ns for remonstrating with him, or reason- niay affect others through hin1sclf; nnd the
ing with him, or persuading hi1n, or entreating objection which mar be grounded on this con-
him, but not for co1npelling him, or visiting him tingent)', will receive considen~tion i~ the.
with any evil in case he do otherwise. To jusofy sequel. This, then, is the appropnoce rc~.,on of
that, the conduct from which it is desired ro human liberty. It co1nprises, first. the 1n"11rd
deter him, must be calculated ro produce evil ro doniain of consciousness; de.inanding liberty of
some one else. The only pan of the conduct of conscience, in the most con1prehensive sense;
any one, for which he is amenable to sociery, is liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedorn
that which concerns others. In the part which of op1ruon and senan1ent on all subjectS, prncn-
merely concerns himself, his Independence is, cal or speculati1·e, scientific, 1nornl or theologi-
of nght, absolute. Over himself, over his own cal. The liberty of expressing and publishing
body and mind, the individual is sovereign. opinions may seem co f.11\ under a different
It 1s, perhaps, hardly necessary co say that principle, since it belongs ro that pan of the
this doctrine is meant to apply only to hun1an <..'Onduct of an 1ndilidu:il "hich concern other
beings m the maturity of their faculties. \ \'e are people; but, being ahnost of as much in1por-
not \pealang of children, or of young persons t:1nce as the liberty of thought iisclf, and resting
below the age which the law may fix os that of in great pa.r t on the saine reasons, is pmctically
manhood or womanhood. Those who are still inseparable from tt. econdly, the pnnople
1n a State to require being taken care of by oth- requires Liberty of rosces nn<l pursuiis; of fron1-
tn, must be protected against their own actions ing the plan of our hfe to qut our own ch:uacrer;
as wtll as against external injury.... of doing as \\"e like, subject to such conse-
It IS proper to state that I forego any quences a may follow·: \\1thouc tmpe.diment
advan111ge which could be derived to 111y argu- from our fcllo"·-crearurcs, or long as "h:at \\'C
IDCn t from the idea of absmct right, a a thing do does not harm them. even though the)
independent of unluy. I regard unlu:y as the should think our conduct foolish, penerse, or
lldmate appeal on all ethical quesoon : but 1t wrong. Thirdly, from tJus liberty of e.ach indi-
• •he uohty 1n the largest serue, grounded on \1dual, follo" the bbem, w"idun the same hn1-
. . pm• '?Int mtercstS of a man as a progTes- 1ts, of comb1naoon am~g tndi\1dw1s; freedom
• • I' I Those interests, I contend, authonze to unite, for any p~ not tn\"Oh'ing hann to
. . nhj12i1111 of ind1V1dual spontaneity to others: the persons combtnmg bemg uppo~
1 uol, only 1n respect to thO'le acoons tO be of full age. and not forced or de.tt11 ed
concern the interest of other r-\o sooety 1n -..·hic:h thC'IC Libernes arc
... de el ID ICt hunful to others, not. on the " hole, ~pect~ i; ttte, "h.u:e "er
l92 l'Akl II IDI tll, 01,lf \A "'Dl IJIJ(,Al Ill
m:i~ be 1u fonn of guvc:rn1111 n11 anrl 111111 1· "

Ill f11fr ljlllll liil( 1IJ,. 'llf1j1·• I 11( (, ~·'-
cornplerely free in wh1th rht·y do n•ll ,.,j,, ;_ ""'"ru,f
11 pinlurl, II I~ 111 111 1:11rr 11/1/111 1111111,. 1,f If~!\!
ab<.olutely and unqunl11ird ·n11• 1111ly i11•1:d•1111
which deserves the n3me, " 1hn1 of p11ri.111ngn11r wl111 •.1y, rh.H rho ft tc tAJ1'l'\\ll1r1111all 1,1111,w. •
ah1 1uld 111• 11e1111Ht,.1I, ,,,. U1111l11111n thai rlit
0\1rn good 1n our 014TI ~:iy, \ll long a• we: do not
lli:illllC.'I' lw t1•111p1•r:111•, !Hid !111 n•it r~ l>it
attempt to depnve other~ of their•, or 1n11ic:de
their effora co obl•11n 1L Ench 1t the proper hiit1nd• 11f f1111 cf111111••l <111. M tu.h 111ight '" b id
gu:irdian of his own hellch, whc:rher hod1ly, or 11 n the i1111¥J'l\1l11l11y o( ft#1n1& where tlu:~ •••Jr
mentlll and sp1nrual. Mankind are greau:r icain- f"~tll h11und~ ~r; t11 he J'la<.~J , (1,r I( tJ" tctr I
crs by suffenng e3ch other to live a~ ~ee1n' got>U off1:ncc 10 1h11Hc wh1111c 01,fnJu11~ are att2'.l--A,~
ro themselves, dun by compelling each lO hve think cirrcru.:nce 1c911(,c,, Ult•t th" 11fftr11, •
as seems good co the rest. given whtntvtr tht at tack i• ttfbng and ptJWer.
•• •
/'ul, and 1hg1 every OJ'J"Jntnt wh1, 11usha tht-ri
... Let us suppose, therefore, rhat rhe hard, 11nd who1n thi:y find It dl(fi"·ulc to a11twer,
government is entirely at one with the people, app<:a,.. ci> thc1n, i( he ;h"ws any Atrcmg f«lmg
and never thinks of exerting any power of etit;r· on the ~uhje,L, an intcrnpcratc opponcnL But
cron unless m agreement with what it conceive~ thi~, though an llnportant C(lruidcration in a
to be their voice. But I deny the right of the practical poin1 o( view, rnergcH 1n a rnore ftrndt.
people to exercise such coercion, either hy mental objection. Und'1ubtedfy the 1nannet ()f
themselves, or by their govemrnent. The power a8~erting an opinion, even though it be a uue
itself is illegitimate. The best govemmtnt ha' one, may be very objecdonabJe, and 1nay jusrly
no more tide w it than the worst. Tt is as noi- incur •evere etn•urc. But the principal offonut
ious, or more no.uous, when eiened in accor- orthe kind are ~uch a• it Is m(J)tly im~s1ble,
dance with public opinion, than when in unless by accidental self-betrayal, Lo bring ho111t
opposition ro it. If all 1nankind minus one, were ro conviction. The gravest of them is, to argue
of one opinion, and only one person were of the sophistically, to suppre9s faw or argumcnu, tO
contrary opinion, mankind would be no more mi8state the clements of the case, or 1ni,repre·
justified in silencing that one person, than he, if sent the opposite opinion. But all this, even 10
he had the power, would be justified in silencing the rno<;t aggravated dc:gree, it so continually
manlond. Were an opinion a personal ~se~ done In perfect good (aith, by personJ who are
sion of no value except to the owner; if to be not considered, and in many other respe,15 may
obstructed in the enjoyment of it were sirnply a ~ot de'ltrve to be considered, ignorant or
pnvate injury, it would make some difference incompetent, that it iJJ rarely possible:, on ade·
whether the injury was inflicted only on a few
persons or on many. But the peculiar evil of q~ate grounds, conscientiously to ~tamP th~
misrepre1enution a• morally culpable; and ~u
silencing the expression of an opinion i•, that it
lS robbing the human race, posterity as well all
le~s could law preiumc: to interfere with r]l~
the cX1SUJ1g generation; those who dissent from kind of oonuovenial miacondua. Widl repr
the opinion, still nlore than thCM who hold it. If towbatilew .a,m 1 asbylllw1 fC • • " '
the opin1on 11 right, they are deprived of the orfM,a 17... 111 , %L a,pa:••F'':
1
1
opponun1ty of exchanging error for truthi if . . . .. , . , f1nszd?l'rs..t•1rre•t!
wrong, they lose, w~t is almott u great a bai.- :-:J• •;a 2 i 1trM'lt ... ~
cs •r• 4 .a.;;.,...
fic, the clearer perception and livelier imp,..
uon oi troth, produced by tQ colhtl(Jn WW. 7 , , l . . .
t• •
fl? ,.,.a.......--:
~
.___. .......
~111
"4;6~ 1;1?f
....... ....-...
1m1 lf 1 ~-
7 • ·· . . . . . . .
error. ,I If!
Jt1tl Fl~---
CJ.-IA.PTER ELEVEN LIBERALISM
193
only be used without general disapproval but
~anifest themselves; but not inferring these
will be likely to obtain for him who uses iliem ~ces from the side which a person takes, though
the praise of honest zeal and righteous indigna-
it be the contrary side of the question to our
tion. Yet whatever mischief arises from their
own: and giving merited honor to every one,
use, is greatest when they are employed against whatever opinion he may hold, who has calm-
the comparatively defenceless; and whatever ness to see and honesty to state what his oppo-
unfair advantage can be derived by an opinion nents and their opinions really are, exaggerating
from this mode of asserting it, accrues almost nothing to their discredit, keeping nothing back
exclusively to received opinions. The worst which tells, or can be supposed to tell, in their
offence of this kind which can be committed by favor. This is the real morality of public discus-
a polemic, is to stigmatize those who hold the sion: and if often violated, I am happy to think
contrary opinion as bad and immoral men. To that there are many controversialists who to a
calumny of ~i~ son, those who hold any great extent observe it, and a still greater num-
unpopular opm1on are peculiarly exposed, ber who conscientiously strive towards it.
because they are in general few and uninfluen- .. .
tial, and nobody but themselves feels much ... No one's idea of excellence in conduct
interested in seeing justice done them; but this is that people should do absolutely nothing but
weapon is, from the nature of the case, denied to copy one another. No one would assert that
those who attack a prevailing opinion: they can people ought not to put into their mode of life,
neither use it with safety to themselves, nor, if and into the conduct of their concerns, any
they could, would it do anything but recoil on impress whatever of their own judgment, or of
their own cause. In general, opinions contrary their own individual character. On the other
to those commonly received can only obtain a hand, it would be absurd to pretend that people
hearing by studied moderation of language, and ought to live as if nothing whatever had been
the most cautious avoidance of unnecessary known in the world before they came into it; as
offence, from which they hardly ever deviate if experience had as yet done nothing towards
even in a slight degree without losing ground: showing that one mode of existence, or of con-
while unmeasured vituperation employed on duct, is preferable to another. Nobody denies
the side of the prevailing opinion, reallr ~oes that people should be so taught and trained in
deter people from professing contrary op1IDons, youth, as to know and benefit by the ascertained
and from listening to those who profess. th~m. results of human experience. But it is the privi-
For the interest, therefore, of cruth and 1usoce, lege and proper condition of a hum.an being,
it is far more important to restrain this employ- arrived at the maturity of his faculties, to use
ment of vitupe.rative language than the other; and interpret experi.ence in bis own way. It is for
and, for example, if it were necessary to choose, him to find out what part of recorded experi-
there would be much more need to discourage ence is properly applicable to his own circum-
offensive attllcks on infidelity than on religj~n. stances and character. The traditions and
· however obvious that law and authonty customs of other people are, to a certain extent,
busin~ss with restraining either, while evidence of what their experience has taught
ought in every instance, to detennine tbt:m; presumptive evidence, and as such, have a
· by the circumstances of th~ individ~ claim to his deference: but, in the first place,
emning every one, on whichever side their experience may be too narrow; or they
-itwtien't
~ ...
bjmeelf, iD whose may not have interpreted it rightly. Secondly,
•I'~· of experience may be cor-
ro him. Customs are made
for cusron11ry C11'l"l1n1.;ranet'S, 11nJ L"11Shll111ll') 1nonil, ltkl' the rnuscular powers, tre irn
01 11)' by bcinK used. The faculties tre ~~
chana~ and hi ci1'l"l1111,t11lll'\'~ t•r h" d1an1l'
tcr m1y be unC\uto1n•I)· Th1nll), thout(h 1hc
no t'~crci~e hy doing • thing merely b-..'
ochers do It, no 1nore than by belicvtng ~""'lllt
cusrom~ be both )!'!~ as l'\bton1 , 1111d ~t11u1ble
to hint •rtt ro cm1f\,m1 ru C\bn1111, n1crcl .s L'\IS· onl) because others believe it. If the ~
ton1, d~ not cd\IL'llte or dc\'Clop in hi111 1111y of on opinion are not conclusive to th~~
O\Vll re:ison, his reason cannot be stren~
the qualities "hich 1u·c the disuncti\'C cndO\\'-
but is likely to be weakened, by his ad<lpbn
mcnt of• htnnan being. The hu1nan fut."l.lldcs of
~ptioo, ju<lgtncnt, discri1ninati~-c feeling, and if the inducements to to act are llO( Jt
mcnl1f Kthity, and C\~ n1ora\ prcttrcnCC, llI'C arc consentaneous to his own feelings and~
exercised only in 1naking a choice. He who does acter (where affection, or the rights of ~
anything because it is the custom, makes no are no~ con~emed~ it is so much done ""'1~
choice. He gains no pnctic.-e either in discern- rendermg his feehngs and character inert and
ing or in desiring what is best. The mental and torpid, instead of active and energetic.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we examined Liberalism as an ideology. We traced the history ofliber.
alism &om its origins in the Enlightenment, through John Locke and the British UtiJ.
iwians, to classical and modem Liberalism. The core values ofLiberalism-t beliefm
progress, an openness to cbangc, a willingness to experiment, and a tendency to inno-
vate-were identified. Liberalism was identified as encouraging a secular, progressm
system of schools. Relying on democratic parliamentary processes, its approach to
change and reform is gradual and incremental rather than transformative.
1. How do contemporary Americans tend to define Libenlism~
2. Compare ~d contrast classical and modem Liberalism. ·
3. Why do Liberals tend to emphasize process and procedures?
4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Liberati ?
S. Why are Liberals often in the middle on policy in:?
...
CHAP"f'E.R ELEVEN LlBERALISl\1 195
3. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of neo-Consen;itism 1n poliocs and in

educ:ition. Why do you think Libcr.tlis1n has been on the defCJ\SJ\'e?
4. As a class project, co1npile a clippings file of articles from newspapers and magazines
that deal with topics such as school unifonns, mandatory sundardized tesong, ett-
ationisn1 vs. evol utionisin, the use of the phrase "under God" 1n the Pledge of Alle-
giance, and other current issues. Determine bow Liberals would react to each lSSUC.
S. ' frace the development ofLiberalis1n as an ideology in Vlestem culture.
JNT'ERNET RESOURCES
For an essay on Liberalism and its history, consult
http://library.thinkquest.org/3376/Genkts.hon
For a lecture on Rawls' political liberal.ism, consult
http:/rmfolbrls.ac.uk/-plcdibllect 1O.html
Gerald F. Gaus analyzes Liberalism as a political theory and a philosophy at
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberalism.html
For a definition and discussion of exponents of Liberalism, consult
www..umr.com/entry/SS2617.html
For a glossary of terms related to Liberalism, consult
www.cs.nd.ac.uk/people/chis.holt/home.infonnal/lounge'politics'liberalism.html

Donner, Wendy. The U«ral &If John Srvn Ml/l's Mor•/ tl1ld PolitK.J Phiio1opby. Ithaca, i\'Y: Cornell
Eberle, Christopher J. RL/igimu C...wtiOtl in Libw•I Politia.. New York: Cambridge Uni,-usity Press,
2002.
Frecden, Michael. Tbt NnD Li«r11/ism: An ltkology ofS«WI Reform. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978.
Gans, Chaim. Liberalism tl1ld Cu/turol N11tiOt111lism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Gau,,, Gerald F.]ustifootory LJ«ralism: An Essay im Epistmwlogy tntd Polnu.J Tbtory. New York: Oxford
Gaus, Gerald F. Tbt Modern Liher•I Tbtr;ry ofMon. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1983.
Hunter, James D. Cult11t't Won: Tbt StnJggk Ill Dtfint Americo. New York: Basic Books, 1991.
lvison, Duncan. Postcolllniol Liberalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Kym!icka, Will. Libero/ism, Cqmm1mity lln4 Cu/nm. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
Locke, John. An Es:uty Conarnirtg H - Uiulmumding. Ed. Peter H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 197 s.
L-Oclte,John. The &allfll Trrllli# ofGwmmutlt irt TIN Trurim ef~ Ed. Peter Laslctt. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Pres, 1960.
t--kv, Michael. F.llligbU11m.wt inul Am.fr- Daatrtts t» Kat. New York: Cambridge Uru~ty
...-~ -p;_, 2001.
John Smart. 0. 1..i1itrrJ inul Otbn- ~· John Gny, ed. New York: Cbit.d UniTa"Sity Press,
l9Pl.
...pt:usM. Kelley, 1976.
196 PARTD IDEOLOGIES ANDEOUCATIO '
Cambrid e, MA: Harvard University Press, 200 I.

Rawls,John.]l<Stitt'f F11nm: A RtJU~""i:~lumbia ~niversity Press, 1993.
Rawls, John. Politial LJHr~. New ~ · MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
Rawls.John.A ~efJustia..C.a_m~ gebrid : Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Riley,Jonathan. Ubtnl Ualiutrom/Jftf. ~m th ge Books 1970.
Ryan, Alan.
Spect0r, Jobn SIJl/Zrt
Horacio. AwtllMmyMill.tmd eo7
Rig ts: t ora Folltldadons ofLiber11Jism. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
New.Yibork:_,ba°wt,
Steiner'. :tel. An EssAy on Rights. Oxford: Bas~ Ba~ell, 1~

Th
omas,
Wiilli
am.
M .,, N " '··Oxford Uruvers1ty Press,
1u. ew xor"' • 1 • Pi
Urbinati, Nadia. iWill on Dt:ml)(FtNJ: From the Awm111n o
85
/is to
·
Rtpnsmliltive G{)Vtrnment. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2002.
NOTES
1. For a cJauic discussion of the Enlightenment, see Carl L. Becker, Tbt HtllVmly City ofthe Eigb-
unttb Ctrnfll] ~(New Haven, CT: Yale Univeisity Press, 1960).
2. John Locke, Ail &s.y COllanliag H - ~g, Raymond Wilburn, ed. (New York:
Dutton, 1947).
3. John Locke, T1Z10 Trt111tim of~t, Peter Laslen, ed. (New York: New American Libruy,
1965).
4. John Stuart Mill, On Ubmy, Alburey Cutell, ed. (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1947). Aho,
see Alan Ryan, John St1<11rt Mill (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970) and William Thomas, Mill (New
York: Oxford University Pres, 1985).
5. John Dewey, liNr.o.. .U S«MJ MM. (New Y<rk: Capric:om, 1963). Also, see Allan Ryan,
]eft DnDey 111111 tbt Higb Tide ofArwriaa ~(New Y<d: W. W. Nort0n, 1995).
6. Law1eoceJ._DemUs and William E. Eatui, Gt.p S. C•MtJ: &bia1tt1rfor 11 Nn;; Agt (Carbon-
dale and Edwardsville, Il.: Southern Illinois University Pras, 1980)
7. James
1991), Davison Hunter, CWt.rr W<1n: Tk Srntgk ,. Defi- ~ (New Y<d: Basic Boob,
pp. 2+-28.
CHAPTER TWELVE
•••••
CONSERVATISM
In <:h.lf~ler 12 "e \viii e:\11111ine Conservutism as an ideology that seeks to preserve what
1 ~ cons11.Jers to be the vit11l t1spects of culrure. In the late twentieth and early twenty-
first
· cc•111 u.r";• ( '.o~serv:ittstn
· has had a 1narked resurgence in politics, society, the econ-
?111). .an~ edut:illot~. \ \'e \viii define Conservatism, trace its origins and development,
1dent11) its basic principles, nnd dra\v out its itnplications for education.
DEFINING CONSERVATISM
Conservatism is an ideology that e1nphasizes the preservation of institutions in what

is believed to be their pri1na1y and traditional fonn and function. The word's root,
ronsm•e, means to keep, 1naintain, preserve, or prevent loss or decay. The meaning of
Consm•11tivt can be further explained by taking a closer look at the terms primary, tra-
d1ti11n11I, and to keep, \vhich are essential elemenrs in this ideology. The adjective
p,.i,fl111y 1neuns the 1nost i1nportant, essential, basic, and original (the first in itS origin).
The adjective traditional, based on the word tradition, 1neans to hand down, to
t:ran'1nit, or puss on existing beliefs and values fro1n one generation to the next. Here,
to /J11n1t down can be visualized by thinking of parents giving a family legacy, as an
inheritance, to their children \Yho, in turn, will pass it on to their offspring. To keep
1neans to have and to hold; to receive son1ething and to hold it as one's own possession.
\Ve can use the words primary, traditional, and to keep to further develop our defini-
tion of Conservutism. Conservatives believe that instirutions have a primary role and
function in society. For exa111ple, rnarrioge is the primary institution for a 1nan (a hus-
band) and a won1cn (a wife) to live together in \Yedlock. Conservatives believe that the
pn1n11ry function of marriage is sacred and that other rela~ons":ips such as ~ man and
wo1nnn living together out of wedlock or .a sam~-sex mamage ~1stons an~ VIOiates the
high purpose of this instinnJ.on. The fa1nily's pnn1.ary purpos.e 1s to proV1de the h?me
enV1roninent in which 111narned 1nan and wol11llJl raise thetr children. For Conservaoves,
lhmnative fainily styles distort the fun1il~ primary role and function as an instirution.
Schools' priinary purpose is. to provide a~ acadenuc. educati?n to students. When
. . , take on nonace<le111ic custo<l1al, thern~euoc, a~d so_c1al funco~ns as ~ecommended
by Liberals, schools dilute, weaken, and distort their pn1nary role m society.
197
1Q8 l'\IH It 11)1<111)(.ll' \"/tll lll'C \lid
11 ,lmllil 111 p1 1111111y l\uclh l11n"l h11i1llr, ti

11dtl'l th I I
NII\\, " l.ln &1111 II11'
Ifill
, 11 1 111.~
l
ucl f1e1111 un j(l' ill"lllt11111 , I 1 •tlult,
' " -·I I I\\ 111 Ln1111 1,.,1If" 11 I--I11 11 I• ''' Jlrcivide ,th"'
1 ran,1111111n~ 1111..- 11' ~ 11 ' 11 ul 1111111111 u 1111~111
1111 1111 1
ihc ""'''· 1h 1:h1ldl"(11 ,\11 h11 1 " 1 plu 1111111 ~ 11ro t o h 1l 1tt11l11111l11rtl 1111tl ht1w th ., '
h . I lr11111 h11\\ 11-1 " i I II , 1te
~'''"'it'111 h 1 ~,•on "' 1
r.
Li•cp lu~dtut lon~ n•lll 1 on Ill( 0111111 "K tu thc1t
"' 1\111,•1111n . ( 1•n,en 11rh e• " 111" 111
11
pnn1•1111111l 1rnd1tinnul p11rJ1 '"· h1 11 t1 1111, 111 rol(i•rcl 111 lnNtl1111l1111~ (I) 111 lllAln
l~lc-uloi.riNll)'. ('nn,tnitll''.11 "11'" 11;ll' l\_inctlonlng 11cl'ord1111( 1111hclr1111rnd··•
l'll111 •111nrl pre.-c.
• •n ..,, rho·c)io
in~tlt1111nn~
• •
'"' • • hcl~tl lnstlu11 Ion ~ w11 1 c I1 I111ve1 I1c1•n ah ere·'"'
,.,. , 11 r ,nsc• (i) to 1cs101 1 1
u
nn1o,11n111nr pn1na. J 1 1 • • • • lt1nln nc1·01·dh1j( io their orll(lnn 1' fl' 1a11n1 y, Qllu lrt.
t 1 •
o~ i·hun~d 11nll 1\ ret ~10 hlonl('lcrhf1111c111k •n ~"' no1111c:11ull111lc custodln l, Ho<.:lol, and thcra
thtinnal p11111ose. I sc oo s ""Cl 1 c . • , l I r
• fi . h I\ d ins should he rc111ovcd so I icy c:on rct 111 n ci An< f)<:r111r111
1
pch l~tlC ~~Cnnlns, tJ't'~C .;n~n:l l;i~ttlrlC 11cutlc1nic runcdonS. 1'b1c:hcrs nrc lo ICAlh au
t e1r ongina , rrt 111on , ' , h II I i nl rol ~ hy try ' 1 L
tle1nic skills anti suhjcc~ and nor d1l11tc or dls1ort c e1r ll'llt l Ot • c 11 If 111·~
...o•_br-s1tters,
· t herap1sts,· ,.,.. ~.,u n·-ltl""
s" • •• or •t"·lal
• "' workers. Tin1e , thot •~d\)>en1 I on nonaa
dem1c funcnon_ takes tin1e on<l energy away froni the pru nAry A<..'11 cin c purp<xc for
which schools were established.
WHY STUDY CONSERVATISM?
Since Ronald Reagan was elecre<l President In I980, (~on~ervatls1n hos heen one of the
major ideologies in the Unlte<l Snues. Ir was es1Xlused by Presidents Reagun, George
H. Bush, and George W. Bush, who called hhnself a "conipassionnte conservative."
Millions of Americans identify 1he1nsdvcs as Conservatives, and Liberalisn1 1 once
dominant, has been in retreat In recent years. Conservatives have strong views on soci·
ety, the economy, religion, the finnily, education, and schooling. Many Con}ervativt
~deas ha,·e ~ articulated u policies and enacted as laws. Among them are reductio~
1n wcl~re ass_istance and the use of m1nd~ted standardized testing to assess srudenu
1caderruc achievement. For these reasons it is important to study Conservatis1n.
SITUATING CONSERVATISM
.:.,. . " . .
. .' ..
·-.-
<1L\P'IFR l'\\lt f\~ co,,1 R\ \fl\\I
199
non~ ripped n'11ncler the ~ l·voluu 1111 1 1
" h ' rn, prot1uLl'd 111oh rule ~1ul o d1ct111onal "rciim of
u:rror w 11 "'~'' arre"' tnJI • I ,...
• '•
Or th e f renc h Re~o I111100 hehcve I hJlllrj(c '• ant C'l'l 11t1un, Rohc:,p1crre and other i:c;ilots
h .
l t Rt I e ent1' Jll\llhcd the 1nean~ 11\ tht' attempted
cu cre:ire ~ utopia, a Jll.'rfeLt ~uc · • h '
ti d h icty on cnn · I hey hcl1cvcll thc n1u~s c~ccuuons ,~ere
JU~ e • l c ncce,,,1ry ~tcp~ in clhni1rnti111< 1ho~c who Mood 1n the w~y of crcaona 11
pencct repuhlic. Burke warned l h.11 \Uc h coun'e I~ o f pcrfeluon and re\ioluoonal'} "
ucc:ss were doomed to fail. l lun1an beings, who 1hen1,eh-e~ are 1rnp<rfcct, cannot p<>'>-
1bl] create a perfeet roc1cty.
\\.'am · ...
• ~ng n~inq ~· e sweeping chnngc~ wrought by revoluuonary violence, Burke
argu.ed that A sp1n1of1nnovntion is gcnernlly the result of11 '>ellish remp<r, and con6neJ
View;. People will not look forward to posteril), who ne"er look b:id"'-:ird co their ances-
tors. He procl111med that trndinon, the nccu1nula1ed and tin1e-tested wisdom of the
human race, was a culu1rnl inheritance, n legncy, to be kept by one generut:ion and passed
on ro the ncn. Social, political, religious, and educational institutions-family, Stllte,
church, and school-were not convenient societal agencies to be expenmentcd \\ith, as
Liberals claimed. They were inst:irution , founded upon a prin1ary set of purposes that
were uruque tO each of them. Tugether, they held the culture and society together. ma1n-
t:11ned them, and passed thein nlong as an inheritance frorn the past generation. to the
people of the present, who, in rum, w'ould trnnsinir them to future generations. Right
and wrong, ethics and morality, were not matters robe detennined by taking a vote, con-
ducting a poll, or reaching consensus; they were the historical and traditional resulcs of
humanlcinds long march fron1 barbarisn1 t0 civilization. Smndnrds of civility and propri-
ety, enshrined in customary manners and behavior, represented the \\-ays in which
humans had worlced out their behavior and relationships to each other so that hann and
violence we re kept to a miniinum. Based on his interpretation of the evencs of the French
Revolution, Burke warned that to ignore trn<lltion or to recklessly try to change sociel)'
was ro invite social cala1nicy. In extolling the British systen1 as one rooted in Consen"JO\-e
pnnciples, Burke concluded:
Our political systc1n Is placed on a just corrcspondcnee and symmetry with the order of
the world and with the mode of e(istencc decreed ro a permanent body con1po5cd of
tr~itory' pan; wherein, by the .disposition of stupendous wisdom, 01oul~ng t?gc:ther
the great myi;tcriou• incorporauo~ of the h~1~1an race, the whole, at one 01ne, 1s ne"cr
old, or rniddleaged, or young, hut 1n a cond1tton of unchnngcnble constnn.C')'. ~10' cs on
through rhc varied tenor of pcrpcrunl decoy, hlll, rcnovntlon, 11nd progrcs.~1011.
••• • •
BUIX£.'S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONSERVATISM
?'
I . Tradiuon ., the acrumulated wisdod th e ht:m•n race.
2. E:o,r1ng "lClal in~tiruuon-' have '"'1 ,'.t oina'1 pr mall/ purixi.~s. d fro ,
3. Civili 1cd and civil cul1urc is on nncr tn n l'C 10 10 trn1\,1111t1c n1 ~11cra11011 hl
'
acncrauon
..!00
FR1\I ( ;()NSPR\ ' ~ l 'l\' F l'UI N( ' I PI FS
A \\'e1lk 11\unnn Nnt urt•

l lnlike tht• I lhc1\tl~ hcni~n 111 11t•111n1l \tt'W uf h111111111 11111111\'. ( \1n<t'l\~1111 t·' '-1•c tht
hnninn heing- 11s 1111 i1111,crfct•1 1111d lluwcd l'l't•11111rc. F11r ~111111· ( \111s1•rv111 ivc.;, h111111m
n111111'tl is tlo\111rl~ht ~inf11l: ti11· 01hc1s, It j, dnnm!{(·d. U1•1·111,.111of1h1s lnhtrt111 i111pt'dc(
don. indilkhmls hove 11 1111tdc11cy 111 ui.'l>d•an, sdtish11l'~S. und viol1•11l'c. l'hl' s11111'\-c t•f
hnrrtltn \\'l'll kncs!l Iks wil h ot11· i nsd111·1s 11 nd i 111p11lscs. \ Vhlk 1111r in~linl'IS 1111• dt•.:iitrwtl 111
keep ns uli1 c nnd drive us n1 oh11dn liiod, 11~11cr. und SC'l111l uctivil)'. 1hil)' lH:td 10 hti
checked or c11rh1•d so th111 1ht1)' do 1101 th•11•1• us into t'\l't:ssivc ond ~t:ff-wountllnit nnd
udtlicdve behnviors. \Vi1 h the ri!{lll kind <•fnpbrlnit\n!oC 111 11ll''od fi11111ly. tho ri1-1l11 kind tif
ed11r:trio11 in nn effective school, nnd tho l'11h urn lly it1!(1'!l inl'd prnl't i1'l' of l'ivilit)'o " c l"n
curh nnd rei!l'n in our tendency tn sdt'..icnuificntion und iinp11lsi1•c h~·hndlll'. Stichtl in~ti
rucions-sro tc, church, tiunily. school-csu1hlish the< l'orrcc1 ~1idt'linl's l\ir h111111111
behovior. By followirig these l-"1lddines we cun nvoid ''1olcnl't.', tl11l1rt:hy, ond C\plnln1rk1n.
Conservnrivt$ fcor socin I u111·l'st nnd t hti nlil'nnt ion of i111liv1d11n Is fro1u 1hd r SlX'\tt1• •
end culture. 1' he co1111n11nity pr<>t11(11cs culturnl 1111d soci11l L'<1ntl\>I thot intl'Etr1111• indinll-
unls through such institution~ ns fi1111il)', church, nnd si.:hool. ' l'ltll fo1nily is the 111ost ind-
n1nre of hun1on insdn1rion~ nnd l1s l'sscnliol relurionships nllo11 1rn<litiu1111l \~1lucs tu ht<
crnnsn1irrcd in n fun1iliur, persunol, nnd n11rt11rinll' 11'11)' f1~11n p~rcnts ro their chil1lrco.
The church, inrernl'ined in the cuhurc nnd rcinfol\:inic the fo1nily. pn11n111cs ond intl·r-
prcts n1ornl ond ethiettl vnluc~ in 11 rclii..r!ously ch11r~d cont •xt. For t'\i1111ple, tht'
Judeo-Christinn con1n1Und111en1, "1 lonur th)' fother nnd 1nother," l(i1·l's di\ inl' ~'11ttcr1011
ro fn1nil)' nuthority. Schools continue, rci nli>rce. und extend lhe vul11c ttir1tmti1111 ht:!f\111 in
the fun1il)' nnd the church. 1' hesll prl11111ry inslitutiuns 1ntns1nit the trt1d1tio1111l l·vrc.• 1if
knowledi.."C nnd vnlues, pro1ecti11K indivi<luols fron1111icn11tion nntl so1:iitl in~mhiht).
Like Plato in Thr Rrpu/ilir, Conscrvorives fnvur 1111 nrl(l1nic so1:iet)'• one 111 whkh
the vorious p11ns, the socinl clnsscs, function in 1n11ruol coopem11on 10 pl'(1111ote tht
general health nnu well-being of socict)'. 1n11ch '11..c thtl oq:rnns funl't1on lll)(ctht.'r fr1r
the health of the bo<ly. Tht)' <1ppose nto111i~tic ~ociet)'· in wh1ch 1·11t·h ind111duul p11r
sues her or his spednl intert·~ts without conct'rn fur the ~eneml 11elf111c. The~ al'o
wurn ag11inst the tn,tes generoteu by the 11111'~ ntedrn th111 tt'llY to pull puhhc ' 11111~~
down to the lowest l'On1111on <lenon1inetor.
Respecting the Past

Conservatism is historicully rooted in a ve ....ion of the llll'I tha t l'(>n,tntl't~ a '-11.'.n'e 111
tradition. It b the power of l)ll't t-xpt-rit.'nce, (lr!f11n11t.'tl P\ cu•ton" t111d tni1lit1l•n,, chJt
Cl-lAPTli.R TWELVE CONSERVATISJ\1
201
shapes social instirutions 0 d h • . . • • •
. n un1nn re 1attonsh1ps. Trad1non 1s the le•rncy the reposi-
tory,. o f .h wnank1
fr nd's coll ect1ve
· an<,I tested wisdon1 that nlainroins social " stnbility
' and
cononu1ty
.,.., d' . 0111 one gene , · ti . .
r,1non to 1e next. Tud1uon represents the cultural heritage. .
h ~ra 1t1ons-expressed ·111
. re1·igion,
· Iow, literarure,
· nrt, and 1nusic-are the basis of
;rn~ culture. It is through cu1n1re that people build a sense of identity and meaning
at gives 0en1 a sense of roots, a genealogy of belonging. For Conservatives, a partic-
ular event m the past is not a unique transitory historical mo1nent but beco1nes part of
ou; collective memory. What operates in a well-ordered society is a continuurn mat
urutes the p~st, the present, and the future. Education, both informal and tllrough tile
school curnculum, .should create a sense of belonging and identification mat gives
each person a place ill the culture. History, literature, dra1na, and music can be used to
create a seo~e of cultural identity that connects the young to a great and vital past.
Language, literature, and history should celebrate me achievernents of me past, the
maJOr events of the group's collective life, and me heroes and heroines who best exem-
plify the group's values and aspirations.
Historically Evolved Institutions and Change

Conservatives believe mat human instirutions are the products of historical evolution
and perform necessary primary functions in society. Human institutions, each serving
a primary purpose in society, have been shaped by a continuum of historical experi-
ence; they are the products of tile test of time. This continuum, mis historical continu-
ity, should not be broken by revolutionary actions or me untested innovations and
social experiments of Liberalism and Socialism. Social experimentation will only cause
moral confusion, weaken the safeguards provided by civility, and bring about social
disequiJibrium and cultural disarray.
The Conservative world view emphasizes a decided preference, indeed, a long-
ing, to maintain historically evolved institutions in a way mat is true to their ori-
ginal primary purposes. Relying on tradition as a source of aumority, Conservatives
take a cautious and moderate disposition to change. They tend to endorse me saying,
"The more things change, the more they stay the same." Conservatives do recognize
the importance of scientific and technological change. How·ever, mey believe that
these kinds of changes in the material realm-mat of science and technology-be sub-
ordinated to and put into historical perspective and traditional cultural controls.
While changes will inevitably occur, mey need to be accon1modated and incorpornted
into the traditional cultural heritage, rather man changing me heritage itself.
Excellence, Equality, and Hierarchy

European, more than American, Conservatism, emp.hasizes that the society ~?~ is
functioning well is guided by l~ade~s. wh~ fo~ an ar1sto~~cy o~ cu!~e and c1vihty,
an elite of well-educated, public-spmted mdivtduals. This ideal 1s sunilar to that ex-
pressed in Plato's Republ~c that s~ciety should be governed by publicly spirited intellec-
t:ua1s, the philosopher-kings. This better educated, more prudent, more.ta~ent~ group
is to lead and guide their less-educated, less-talented followers. \Vhar is 1mphed here
ii that not all people are equal in intelligence and ability. Some are bener in these
202 P\RT U fl) lOl l)( ,f f \ \ ' D f lll < \ llP'
area~ th.in 01ht1, , l'ht• 101<' !11 ,,h11111,, j!l•tn !111' pr11po•11111n , I\ 111
ulc:nuty lhO\c
are gifteJ anJ pnl\11le lh1' 1tl "tth 1ht• l.1111l 11l etl11u 11111n th dt u1l11~1110 their lcack ~
potenu~I IP
\\'hen the '11<.·1.11 .inti polilllJI nnlcr " lt111t uo111ng 11r11p1:rly, 11 " orgin
JCt.urtltn~ f\) the 1n1111:1ple uf the h1enird1) I he n1t11lhl1' of " Kitty t~ll 1nt<• a~
or rankeJ ortler, 111th the n1u<,t Jhle tJk1ng Jeatlcr\h1p po<,1uon\ Jl ihe h1erardnca ..,..._
1n1r anti the kss talenretl toking their place~ 1n the ~ubortl1na1e d ,h \t ' or gradn
CO~'TE.\IPORARY Ai\IERICi\N CONSERVATISM
\\'ith the election of Ronald Reagan as President 1n 1980, Conservausm 1n the L"nile(J
States enjoyed a rrong re\ri1•al in politics, culrure, economics, and educaoon. ln "J!lle
''ays, American Conservatism reflecrs the general conservaove pnnople~ idenati~
above. In other \\'ll}'S, however, it is more of a hybrid ideology that encompas~ se~cnl
ideological strands, including the market-driven econon1y and values associated v.1ch
Classical Liberalism. (Classica.I Liberalism was discussed in Chapter 11 .)
A Conservative Version of the Cultural Heritage

American Conservatives, like Conservatives in general, look ro the past and co tradi-
tion as a source of authority. As is true of other ideologies, they have created theJJ" O'iln
sense of the past and their O\vn interpretation of history. They view the Amencan pm
as the history of a unique and exceptional people. (Refer co Cha peer l 0 for a discussion
of American Exceptionalism.) Americans are a good people, ordained by Divine Prov·
idence to settle in a ne'v world, to tame the wilderness, and to establish a republic, gov-
erned by law and civility. As in the days of the ancient Hebrews \vhen Mosaic Law was
regarded as a covenant benveen the Jews and God, American government, coo, is a
covenant in which the people adopted a Constirution as their instrument of self·
government. For them the Constirution resrs on the tradition of essential Chrisrian
principles and precedenrs from Anglo-American common law. Unlike Jefferson's call
for separation of church and state, Conservatives see the United States as "the city on a
hill," the New Jerusalem, originating from the religious principles that the Puritan
fathers brought co New England.
In the frontier settlemenrs of the western territories that became the United
States, the pioneers were comn1unity builders. As soon as they had consrructed clieir
crude cabins, the next srrucmres to be created were the tO\vn n1eeting place. the
church, and the school. These instirutions were the transplanted agencies of ci,~hl)"
Along with the concept of co1nn1unity building, another interpretation about the
winning of the West entered American Conservatism. The West was settled b)' ru~
individuals, who through their own courage and initiative conquered a hostile en,i-
ronment. They and their fami lies stood on their own two feet and did so without go"·
ernment handouts. The rille and the gtu1 were the necessary insrrun1ents they use~ co
protect themselves against hostile Native An1ericans and outlaws. For son1e Arnencan
Conservatives an important aspect of this vers ion of tl1e past is rugged inJivid111z/tS111.
which differs greatly fro1n the European version of Conservatism that rests on gover·
' \I I II\ I \ \, I , I\\ \ , \\ 203
\\ ''' 111 " 11 nln 11•' 111 ' I I 1 II I

'Ill. lh \ I Ilh lnllll lht~ \"Cl"'IOO Ol· l hC
\ l•111111\lllfl;
' 1 l\l\i\\ ''' 1h \\ '' '' 1h, ' '"""'·'" t 1111''" ""' \\t1thh1c111ha1111d1nJu.1l1 h~\e
11\-\ I ~\ 11 1 \., \I i'1\1I II ~I o111111, 11111111111111.1111 ''"' ~11111'11111•1\hl1..t hi th<' Con1nru11011.
\ '''' \\ ~'"''' '' ''' 111 ( 1h.11 1h~ \. 1111,.\ "'~''' "~ ,111111111 111 1111m1gr.in1•, of
I \ ' "h,i' 111 111 \ 111, 111 - "' h111l th l'•'' 111nJI h 11'1111111 ~1111 n ·;111n1111c opportun11'
1 1
1
1 11, I 11 I h 111111h111 h.11111 '''''"'"'' lh 1ht 11111e '"'"' 111nntl(T•n" am\cJ, lhc;
"''''"' ~" \11 11111111 \1111111 •h 11.h 111 f\1\\1.111. l ht lha"11.\1.·r111K of th1~ l'UI-
"" \\ 1 \I\ 11\ 111 1•1 1h I 1~h~h l.111~1a~; \l) thl' ~ncNI Pn1tc1tant cthK, (3)
h ' l"- 1 1111 lh \ \11111111\111•1\ 1111111l1 IQ11 . \ •\) ~ 111ll1t1!(1\C1~ to 11 or!.. hard and tu he ..elf-
'''l-.1•'1'11~ 1111111~\\l\t' 1\\1.\.'I: :-.l(1l 11 hl.'111hc1 \llllJ their duldrcn) acquired and pan1c-
I\' Ix \ 111 111 \1,111~, 1.l\\11111\dlll 1.'Ultu~ (\1111cn at11 e~ 111)(\IC that Amcnca\ n10\l
1 111 11111111i:,1 11\x ll\1111 '''*• thl' \h1.IJlt l';111 , 1111J ' 011th \111enG1-should 11n1tate
1h \\ ' 111 \\111, h th ,,1,1, t ' ''"'" ' ' ' Eu!\•pci11111111n~nl'. bela1ne .\Jnencan .
1
\ 1 ''''"" 111~1" ""''"'~"~ qul!lotl\ln the ;&\'\:Ur.K'~ ot 1h11 1er11on of the pat.
\ \,1\\ ' I, 1\11 11.111,\"'''"lt'• 11\~1 Pl n11t the Jl\llllt. 111e \ ei:;1on of the past, myth ennnncJ
"11\\ \11,1111\, I \111\ ' 1t j1.\lllllll)t p111nl in ~h~pi11~ tJic ideJlol(}. \ \11ile 1ve are speaJ..-.ing
'\\\ 1h1 lh ' '' tlle l\,111e11"\\lt1t IJ~1loll) here, the ~111e tnht\ltt ofn1yth and history
111•111,I 1._, ''':-.I \\1 'hli\' '''"'''''II' fur L1hcr11ll, \la"ists, and others
l'h \ 1111' l"\11l1\ \1'1'11111 of the SIJ\'\.'C\'IUl lll\:('!lT'dtlOI\ of 111\Hllgr:tnts ID to AnlCr-
\\i'll ht , 11o.1h11,"• 11.1111 ''l\ '"'' h;1• 1u1u1cn1c cJuc;1t111nal 1n1phc1uon-. Fir'St of all, there
1, tht n1•111111 th\\t 11 111\\\ll.'I 111 ,\111en1.'tln culture e.l:ists th,1t 1111s detined '" the earl)
11 111 '111 lhl.' l'l'\111hhc . NI.'\\ ~nl.'rnbons, he 1hey native bo111 or ilntnigr.mts, arc to
11.\,.,11h111111 tl''lllll.llite n1\\1 th\.; 111o<lel. l 'he 1110Jcl is not open-ended and ch;1nging-it
"''''h'\I 111 ~ '\~1h111lh 1.khncJ 1-ers1on of thl' t\Jneric.in cultural heritage and trJd1-
111111, 1 1\11 11111•11. 1he 11. ' ' 111 tu11her the 111'\"-'t'•S of a&n1ulation into the model. chool~
111 "' 11o111, 111 n 1111 \111.-11,;111 \111\uni.I rorc t\l ~n1dentS ~(I that the) adopt, and adapt to.
1he '""''" 1111, n1 11111' 1h111 th tu¥h~h l""ll'lla~ 'bould be the language of insuuc-
111111, nllh\•1 thllll 1111,1,\11~ h1h11~t1hMn. S.:hoob should in1p;1n ;1 ·olid culturJI core
1 111 ~1'11 1•11 ,\111t-1 l\'1111 h111111 ~ ""'I 1ilt'111t111-e, 1111 he1· than teacl1ing n1ulticult11rJ lisn1. The
'"'" , 11111111"''-"-' b1 1hc ,,•111101 Nl.'us on 1'C'pl'ct frir lcgiti1n;1l-c 11uthority1 h.1rd work,
1hH11, 11\-.: • 111hl U\ It' '"'l"ll\\tl11ht~
l'luh"•'l'hl.'i', ~111. h "' l\1,1n1,iJe1u1~l'I (d1,..:ll!>sed 111 Ch1111t:er ll) and Critical The-
1,, '''~ \ih•, ll" 11 u1 ( 'h~p1 1 11,1), "Ill'-'' that 1he veflJion of die ~etthng of the \ \~t and
ihl' ~ ..11111111111111 ul 11111111~'""" 1~ nol an «\\:Unite ~nditi<>n ofh1sro~. It is a <."On~tn1c
lh•11 11l 1ht• 1l11111l1111111111,111p 1111J I~ 11M' ll'Ctill!11e1\ ufthe 1111st th11t t'lltion;1liz.es their
h1•~,•1111111\ 11\t'I ~11h11"l111111t•1I 11n111ps su.-h 11~ 11\he-, Af1·ic:1n-, llispani<>- :ind other
\ull'dt ~11~ !'he \111ed1"'' ( \ 111•cn "'h ~ l'Cn11i11011 of the 11ast is 1.-0111-e) ed b) vanous
1dl\1 •n• \,.ll"11J~ 11\•11111 t hi! 1111111111g ol the \ \ e't 111 111ouo11 p1ctu1'\'S 11nd tcle11s1on pro-
\l' A""· 111•1111ld1 11111 I•. '""I "1n1l' ll\'ll<le1u1, h"l\lne•.
hi" 1111• 11t 1111t1n~1l1111~I relauon•, (\•n,e1"1llt11-es ttn,l 1\1 thin!.. <lf the t:nucJ
'It-I\'• ,,.~ \ll\11111\ 111h11h1u11I h1 1n11111ll1 ll'\\\\I \IC\)11le "ho<lo the 11ght th1ngn1 h)rt1gn
1111~h· I lw \ 11111~11~1<1h'<1-.'~ll't',~lll!l a 11111,tc 1h1H otJ\e1· 1.\11111111es \l()uJ.J Jo 1vell l\1
hllh•I" ''''" \ 'i11t•l'lldllll'• 1111.he \l~•I 1e111lt1I h> he "ola111111i,1~, l~lie,ing that the
\ 'nlll'il '11111'• •h1111l1l l"1 -• h11lt' •~ 111,... hlt' hi J,, \\itb 01he1 1.·011ntries end a101J
,11 ~, .nth 1h•111 1111• "'" h•t llttn tn\\.leJ b) tJit l•tl.('er "-Vrld role lhet t11e
204
. h, wor~ of the rwcnucrh ond lwenty·fir
o rc,uh f
United Sr.i1e' now r IJ)~ 11 ' I •l cthRI 1hc Un11eu·' Stalc\ h3\ lhe ngh1 s1 ltn,
o th
runes. Ho1~e1cr, 1h e ten J enC)' 1u heI·'1cveft 1111 , rcnrn1n~. (',11rrcn1 ('.on\ervative, "' th.l
·"""
fl • t wor u n h 11Jrt1
un1laternl Ol'l.:1'10ll' 1ha1 u cl c>•l or evil countru::' w11 good or e'Vl) J. d ~
. I
poht) tend~ to ti" it e 1 le wi
I 1rld 111111 !(II ' .
. . , ., 111 ndintt c11hcr-or 1noral tenns-•y
~a tr
'·
Foreign poht:) 1s pre,e111c 11 •J · , re 1111111us "' "'' ou art
.
either 11 ith us, or ll!('illll~L us."
"'
l\tarket Economics
. Co · have ado1Jted the economic theorie~ that c.n...
In general American nservanve5 ' · I • 'd fth ·~
' . L'b .
nated as Cl as~1ca 1 1 era 11sm. They have revived Adam SrnJt,
k s 1 eas o e law of S•"'-
·..-
ply and demand, the importance of co1npetition, the m.ar ~ . econornr, and the f'rtt
1
· syste1n. Th e 1'deas th at were once directed to 1nd1v1dual
enterpnse . business entreprc·
neurs and industrialist.~ are now applied to the larger and more. in terconnected corpo.
rate economy. Recall that Chapter 11 indicated how Modern Libera~s have pr.ofoundly
revised these ideas and prefer that the government play a larger role in proV1d1ngSOOa]
services.
In opposition to the Modern Liberal social welfare state, American Consen-a.
rives advocate an open-market, free-trade, supply-and-demand economy; compco.
tiveness; and the deregulation and privatization of social and (some) educational
services. A free and co1npetitive marketplace, they maintain, will encourage the most
industrious and able individuals to achieve and produce without having to fear the
weight of carrying the less productive on their economic shoulders. ConserYatives
believe that government intervention in regulating the econorny leads to bigher wes
and ~~fficient bureauc.ra<=>:· It is i~portant to restore the economy to its free-Bolling
condioon ?Y deregulanng it; that 1s, by removing the controls of government regula·
tory agencies.
~eri~n C?nservatives have little of the European Conservative's sense of
pate~alism, 1n wh1c~ the upper classes look after the welfare of the poorer classes. For
Am~ncai_i ~onservaoves, the paternalism of the modern welfare State keeps those who
receive aid 1n a state of depend7ncy. Conservatives charge that the social welfarcassis·
ranee programs enacted by Liberals actually create and maintain an underclass of
people who are dependent on welfare checks Le II d 1. c that
· 'ded L'b I d · · t a compete an ma...e sur
m1sgu1
tive.
1 era s o not impose social welfa
re
sch emes that limit
.' . 1n. d'1\11'duaI jn1ua·
Conservatives believe that moder11
regulations that weakened Ame . 1 ~
we are-state Liberals enacted bureaucrabl'
cic
r1can ccono1ni • d . . ,__._ the pu ic
schools, hampered by performing too c pro ucnvity. F"'wer,. ----~
the imponance of basic academic ski~any n~na~ademic: f'uncdoaa, have~
They have replaced the tried and 1 and s~ 1 ?Jcct1 that couatba• IO ~
r th . rue, trad1u~-·
respect 1or au onty, and patriotisrn w' h h .,....
la us 1'1h•
~ L.........t
-
. . ma-all.
Wf;V ~
ification. Rather. th an preparing the ~~ll~t~~R~scltyp•; lh;bw 1111f~clsdi.
an entrepreneuria 1society, public '>Ch ._WCI AJU» Bid~ ~
1
educationists, have mi~ec.lucau:c.1 child;=~~· too c' & OMl!bt'11l.., ........... ~
CllAPTl'R1"\\i•LVJ• (()'"I"\'
· ·' ' " All\\!
205
rn.addition to rcforrn1ng \thool, h . r '
3C:ldem1C roles, ( :on~CI VllliVCS , , ~ C IC Iring wh,11 lhty heht:VC are tht primary
freedom of choice. ' fhc) nr~c ~~ntci;i thnt 1here Nhou hl he Kremer educational
educauonal 1nonopoly ~llp(lOrtt•~ ~ c pu~llit• !K:hcKil .'Y\ltrn ha\ hccome a \1rtual
1 11
government- subsidiicd voucher, th Y Ill h:~c rnxn uon, They call for a program of
1
the prh·ace chool cif ·L 01

u1e1r c 01ce In Suwou
· h ·h enable. parent• to ~end 1he1r children 10
possible to distinguish the nlosi' •ffi' c. a conit>e~uve educ.:~uonal arena, 11 would he
mediocre. Effective school· le ecuve and efficient school ~ frorn tho~e that are
dents Thu~ the vo h s wou d attract academically inclined and rnoavated ~ru
sch~ling a~' arena o~~h~rll sys~en1, a forn~ .or educational privat1zat1on, would make
c .1 eng1ng compeouon.
Religious Fundamentalism
Chr!stian ~damentaliscs, son1etimes called the "religious right," are often strongly
affiliated '~th ?1e Cons~rvative ideology. Like many of their counterpans in Europe,
Co~servaoves in the United States believe religious principles provide the moral foun-
d~oons of a pr?perly functioning society. A good society is one that recognizes its reli-
gio":s ~oundaoons and emphasizes them throughout its institutions. ""-'hile some
Chnsoan Conservaoves would challenge the doctrine of separation of church and
Sta~, many wo~ld argue that the courts have interpreted the doetrine too rigidly. They
believe the Uruted States, as a nation, rests on a generalized Christian ethic, summed
up nicely by "in God we trust." They do not want an official state church, but do want
a conscious affirmation by government and educational authorities that America's
instirutions rest on a religious core of values.
Christian Conservatives fear that some trends in modern society have under-
mined fundamental values. 2 They assert a need to restore "family values" and maintain
the f.unily as an institution in which a married 1nan and won1an rear their children. In
the good family, the husband and wife have a faithful and continuous relationship.
Women's roles are as homemakers, cbildrearers, and caregivers; men are the primary
breadwinners. Christian Conservatives reject alternative family arrangements and are
especially opposed to same-sex arrangements.
Religious Conservatives, Christian Fundamentalists, and Rornan Catholics are
also opposed 00 the Supreme Court's decision in Roe ver-Tus Wade, which legalized abor-
tion. Conservatives say that abortion denies the unborn child's right to life.
Christian Conservatives' educational agenda is to restore religious values to
schools. Many of them favor prayer and the .P?sti.ng of the Ten <?omman~e~ts in the
schools. They oppose the teaching of Darwm s. th:ory of evoluoon as a s~1ent1fic truth
about the origin of humankind and want Creaoon151ll tau~ht. Sex-educaoon pro~s
need to be carefully monitored so that they stress absonence from sexual relations
before marriage. . . .. . .
In terms of entertainment, mooon p1cmres, and teleVIs1on, Chnsoan Conserva-
P• oppose programs that violate what they regard. as the fundan1enta! norms of
demncy. These are programs that portray sexual relaooos among unmamed people,
· and aimilar behaviors.
206 PART a IDEOLOGIES AND EDUCKrlON
CONSERVATISM'S EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS
T he Purpose of Education and Schools

Conservatives believe that education is society's way of transmitting the cultural her-
itage. Each of the essential human institutions-family, church, state, and school-
have well-defined primary responsibilities in transmitting the cultural heritage from
generation to generation. The primary purpose of schools is to educate children and
adolescents in academic skills and knowledge. (For discussions of other philosophies
that emphasize academics as the primary function of schools, see Idealism in Chapter
2, Realism in Chapter 3, and Theistic Realism in Chapter 4.) Schools, Conservatives
argue, perform their primary function best when they also introduce and transmit the
cultural heritage-its skills, knowledge, and values-to the young. They promote cul-
tural continuity through language, history, Hterature, and the arts. Educators should
safeguard and protect the traditional curriculum from those who want to experiment,
add nonacademic frills, and impose nonacademic functions on schools and teachers.
They warn against being deluded by panacea-like promises that the introduction of a
new subject or method will make teaching and learning easier or more effective. From
time to time, certain changes, such as the introduction of computers and electronic
information technologies can be integrated, as Jong as they are linked to and reinforce
the cultural heritage.
The Conservative Cultural Core Curriculum

Conservatives believe that the curriculum should transmit a cultural core rooted in
Western C ivilization and American culture. As noted earlier, ideologies each have a
version of what constitutes the cultural heritage. The heritage of Western Civilization,
as Conservatives define it, is based on the great ideas and events of European history.
Conservatives admire the ideas of such thinkers as Plato, Aristotle, Aquinas, Luther,
Calvin, Locke, Burke, and others.
Posonodernists, Deconstructionists, and Critical Theorists contend that what
the Conservatives daim as the heritage of Western Civilization is reaJJy the ideology
devised by a dominant group at a particular time in history. Feminists argue that what
Conservatives proclaim as a heritage actually represents the patriarchal rhetoric of
white males. Multiculturalists argue what the traditional core emphasizes as Western
Civilization is reaJJy white Eurocentrism. Lynne Cheney accuses those who attack a
core, grounded in the Western culture, of deliberately downgrading "ideas and prac-
tices associated with the United States and its Western heritage, including ...
the Enlightenment legacy of scientific thougbr."l Defending Conservatism, Dinesb
D'Souza argues that truly liberaUy educated students need to be "conversant with
some of the dassic formulations of other cultures, and with the grand political and
social currents" that are increasingly interacting with Western culture. This kind of
education "is best pursued when students .. • san:b for unite1tal mndards of judg-
ment which transcend particularities of rxe, gender, and c:uh:are," tbm providing
t 11\1'11 I{ l\111\1
1
'"'''"'"''\I :Z07
Values of Ot-de-r nnd <,;lvllh)•

1hai '"h 0 1I · I
Con,en 110,·e,
u 11r1."\1e
" ' 1 ' '"' Itf('tl 111111llllf1111hc 1111111111111 cc1i1111 in \1'1111' 111
1 nn beh11\ tor• .\lh._'lndtd h) l)<'llt') ~ 1'1'11111111111~111. I 1ht't'\ll1'~111,
'~Ill'' ""ti Pt~tl{IC\
~ivisin. tht' n1or11I clh11111t of s~·ho11I~ hus htl't1 i•111ikd hy hl•d1111l•111 pc11111,,hc11c'\
1
irre~1~1 nsibility, nnd lnn11p1'\1p1 h11t1tll't''1S1111d hd11111111'. \111.he 1rn,1. 11•11~hl'l'S 111Hl 'l.'.ho11I~
" :e.reo respected. Thi' l'e'fli'l't 1111• cnt nrtl h) e1nphi1,ir ln111he 11111111 I v11luc' pu11 1nu,111,
d.11t.~ence, hard 11 orl.., re'l'tl.'t to~ pt 11111\1 prt.1pc11y. 111111 the pt ~l'llce 111 111111111c1' llllll
Cl1'1ht)'-that 1nntlt) thil Untt1•d Stl11l'' 11 11•'1.'0l 1111111111. ( :1111s1•111tt l1 cs sur it is d111c 1<1
rt'llssen the core value~ in schools nnd tllll•1~1tll tc1~1111l•hch111• lt11· 11111_1 vlulc1t\'C, Schools
should be pince' in \1•hich 'l\tdcnts le""' 111 r~•pt'lt thl.'ir l'lltHll•)'· their 1a11d1c1,, 11110
each other.
The Conserv11tive Policy A(Ct-llclll

An1ericnn Consen'llo,·es hu1c n dc.-finhl' ed1tl'llt1111111l 11l{c11tl11. l'hr) \\'\Hll \\11c,tort: lhe
school to 'fl•hor rhey bt>llcve Is h" pr!n1111 >' h111c1h1n i11\ll lll.'l11111 111 "l.'11llc1111c ~k.1lls 111 11
clin1nte thnt en1phnsizes niulltitlnnl 1n111·nl \'lll\lr~. l'hl1) ' hclll'"l' 1cstu1'1ltl1111 Is nccJc<l
bel'ause decodes of 1nised11l'11t Ion h) l)l1ll't')''>i Prt11t• 11~111•1 s, Llhr1'11 ls, P nil{t r''" c~, ( :111
rural Relnrivists, und S<-cnlnr I l11n111nl\t' hul'c 11111le1111lncll thl' lll'11llc1111c untl 11101111
foundntions of the puhlic school. (Fot' dbcns,i1111s Ill Pt'lljllllll\ISlll, ~cc c:11~1p1c1 ~. hll
Libernlis111 Chnptt•r 1 I, nnd tilr P"11.t1'1·sslvls111 <:h11ptl1r IH.) ' lhdu)\ l)0Nt11111llcrn1s1s,
Libera don Pedoitt>l{lh::s, Crlt il~1 I Thtc 111'1 s, e'illl c1 llt' 11n1hll·11h 111'11li•1s, 1111d 111hc1 s 111 c
us in!( teacher-educ.'llnon prt1l(fll'"' 1u 11ndcrnu11c .\111c111;1111 p11t 1111ti,111111111111h1c,. (Sl'l'
Chapter 8 for Pos11nodc-mi""• ( '. h11ptl'r 14 l(lr l 1hr11111110 1>~1l~lf''~· 11111l ( 'h"111c1 111
for Critical Throl)•.) Prn1.tn1n ti sin~ t•l h11•11 l rchH h ''"1 in•iuii 1u•I)' 11 c11 ~en• 1111thtl1111ul
1noral \'alues and 1111rrion,n1, P<>,1111odrrnl,n1\ 111111unc11l t h111 the h1111111111111 1 t1lur
carrying work• of \\'esrern 1.·1\llt1a1111n Ut~ 111rrrh 111,111111,• l'llll•lllllllllll~ 1lc'i~ncli 111
give do1ninan<.'t' to powerful f{Nlllll' \\l'~kcn~ tho \:oll\1111' ol \\ c,1cn11.:uh1uc. I 1hc111
tlon Peda!(Ol(}''ll attack on the tt'lln,1nl~•l110 nl tht' h1•11hlll\' 11 r11ken-c tho 1 i111I 1~Jh! ol
illlimiction. {~riti1.11I Thtory\ 1rndtn~·y 10 •er •111.·1t-11 11• 11 \Ct 111 111111e1 1rl"111111,h1p'
~on race, clus, and ~ndrr \\ e11kt-n~ the 11111\ c-r•~l 1111••h11111t l•1111lr. ''~tc-. lhll" h,
1nJ ,,·ho11I. It """I"'" ~111 I """ 11 ~11\'' 1.i111 1 111~1 h "'Ii 1 , lu""'"'" l"''ll' 111, 11,1
\nll'nl.ln <•1111 1111111 11,, 11, h1 ",,,.,, ,1 '" 1111 11 11111 h1111111111 t•I l"•1•aH111J 111 11
t.l11l11te1l ttJ1h1•1, ""'' 111111111\ 1111h 1h1 111111111111111111!111 1111 " 1"'"'"'" I 111
rr.1n'1n1n1n~ 1h 'Lill,, \11h11·1 1,, .111d ,,1h11~1111111 111111111
Restoring \ c.Hl{'nll<' S 1 11odun l ~

(.' on\t'I"\ at t\ t'\ 1n\l\l on h1~ h lll Jtl1•1111l \t.11111111.I. 1111d 11111.I • h1" .I• 1111 I 1r •1 l1r 11 't, rurn
able fur ~nldent '' lll.ldl'lllll 11r1 111n11.1n11 II 11h11•1 11 h11 11111 lc 111 t 1I111 11 •• • Ii" , , I "'
~tan<lards .ire cult11n1ll~ h1.1,rtl, l)1nr,h I)'"'"" 1'"II'"• th~I 1111 h 111111-11111111 , 1 •
~con11non 1nde:1. lor 1111 \I ho '""l 111 1111111111 ,. 1hr11h11l11 ., 11 f' 11 illr n l 111 , 1 1 "I
background." Tht') uni) tll\1n1n1n,1t!' 111-111111•1 1h11"' t.11hn14 "111 11111 I ilu 111 -• I ,,,, 11
flt Risk ( 198~) l11unl·hrtl t hr 1n11Jnr (~llll\t'r\ 1111111111111111111H t 11\ ~ 111411111•1 t111 111111~1 11lr11111
subversion of school~ nnd ill.'clininit lll'>Hi1•111l1• -1.in1h1n l~ I hi, 111111!111,1l 1r10111 11llril
for a curriculun1 of nclldenllc ba\lr' 111~1 hi<11u11 k '• •11t•n1 "• l ,1111111.111~, •• •1 111 •111.l1Mt
and h1stOI), and con1p11rer luc'raC). rhr Rr11ir~11 111h111nl~1r.1111111di111"1"''1 ~•II ''"i!Y
that encouraged rhe ~n11es ro cnncc ll'f.'1~lu11on 1h111 1ulllr1l rrq11111111,11h 111 1hn '"'" 1,
especially 1n Englt,h, nlarhenllltiN, nn1l ,1·1rn111. II nl•tt rn111111i11111l 1hr111 111111J •I 111
dardized resung to de1emllne s11Hlen1 ,. u1i1d11111l1 r11n11,r1rn1 111 •I'• 1 1111 II' ~ii• 11 ~rl
The initiative srinl11ln1ed b)' A Notion 111 Rllk lrd 10 the •1~n1h111l• 11111111111 ·111 ti1 1h1l 1
t:ion that asserts thn1 school$ need 10 he h11ld n1•1•011nH1hl1.1l11r1hi; 11111dr111l1 l11•111111h111
they are supposed to provide. The only wny ro dt,11t1r1nl11 n1·111lr111lt 1111t1pl'tr111 \ 11 111
require standardized tesiing rhat n1en,11re, ~111d..,n1•' 1H•udr1Hil' 111 hlc1~1•1111• 111 , r•jl 11111)
in the L:ey areas of rending and nlnthe1nudt"i. '1'h1· F.ch11:,1rlon A11111 JOO I, 1hr N11 ( 111111
Left Behind Act ~ponsorcd by the (~enr!{t' \\', Ilu•h 1uhnlnl•11,1!i11n, 1r1111ltc• •I.II • 111
implement st11ndardi:r.cd te~ung in renchn11nnll1nnchrn1n1i,, 111 11r1uk• 1hrrll 1h1111111h
eight in order to receive federal fund~. The in11·n1 nf 1h1 l'lhll ~11111111l p1 tlfl) h
Schools n1usr have clear, 111ea~11rnhl e j{URIN focu~l·d nn hp~l1• ~klll~ ~11111·•- 1111~1 ~111111 I
edge. Requiring nnnun l ~rare 11sso~~ntl1111H In nrn1h nnd ren\ilnjC In Mr11d1•• I Hwlll 1·n•llH
that the goals ar~ being 1ner for 1iv~ry child, ~v,1ry y<'nr. Annunl 1c-1ln11 l11 ~v~ry II' ~ol1
gives teachers, pnrcntH nnd polky1nnk1·r~ 1ho l11(11r1nprlu11dwy111•1•11 I•• {111oillil 1h"1 lhll
dren will reach ocodcmic succes•.6
•••••
WILLIAM}. BENNE'f'f, Tiffi CONSERVA'J'IVI~
CASE IN THE CULTURE WARS
William Bennett i' n fonncr Secre1ary uf gd11l·~ 1 lon nnd • dth•nd1•1 111 ( '.on•lll v~tlve
principles in Ameril."lln ~oc1e1y, polirk,, and rdlll~llon. 111 ~ u1111r11u1h 111 C:11n,rrw1l•1t1
as an ideology i• included becau~ Bennru lntl'l(rtllr• (~11nll!rv•1t1111 with l'trrn11IMll•l
vtlucs based on rhe Ari8totelian·Tbomll~lt:= lftdilNln. /ta )'UU ,..,, 1hr
selection, you might wi~h to conlidll'.. • •••llw1
~~---- ................
CH..\PTl:R n \ rl\"F c;0 , ,1 R\ "''"
209
1. I lo" U\>1~5 Bennen dc:h ne "('.011\cr.~t"n1•"
2
• ~:~~~~I:-;~? or Ul\Jlfl'ee 11
ilh " "'nett\ tndur~c111rnt 11( edul'llOfJn f11r
1
''lum-
3· Do) ou a~~or d1~gree " 1th Bennen\ de cnpuon of \II hat con\Otult$ a sound
prognim o aracter educauon) \\'hat contemporary ~nencan 50CUI and edu-
caoonal trends " Ork for or agiimst such a prognm?
4. ;an rou identify any common theme~ 1n Bennen·~ ph1lowphy of educaoon with
ose developed in Chapter 3 on Reah m and Chapter 4 on The15oc Reali\m,
"·e confident that our SOC:ICI} IS cnnsm1mnst w

:\'o man is a good citizen alone, Plaro our young the nght mes.s;iges, teaching them
teaches us in his dialogue Gorgios. And so incli- the right lessons, about the funuly, drug use,
\i duals and families need support, their values respect for religious belie&, and our mean1nll' as
need nourishmenc, in the common culture, in a nation and our responsibilities as 1ndl\idu:l!s)
the public arena. Our common culture is not Is the public air conducive t0 moral and mcel-
something manufactured by the upper scracum leccual health? I belie\ e that mosr .:\mencans
of society in the elegiint salons of \Vashingcon, would still answer .. no" co these quesoo~.
New York, or Cambridge. Rather, it emboclies Even social scientists now recognize the
cruths that most Americans can recognize and importance of sound values and moral norms m
examine for themselves. These truths are passed the upbringing of children. EmpincaJ srudic:s
down from generation t0 generation, transmit- confirm " 'hat mosc people, because of their basic
ted in the family, in the classroom, and in our common sense, already know. \\bat decermmcs
churches and synagogues. They reside in what a young person's beha,ior in acaderruc, se.'CU:ll,
Burke ca!Jed the "moral imagination" of the and social life are his deeply held conl'lcnoru.
nation. And roday, the moral imagination of and beliefs. They detennine beha,ior fur more
mosc Americans is, I believe, sound. than race, class, economic background, or eth-
But far too many decent Americans still nicit)•. Nature abhors a \':ICUum; so does a child\;
remain, in effect, on the moral defensive before soul. If that soul is not filled "ith noble seno-
their own social and culruraJ institutions. \ \ 'e mencs, "ith \"irtue, if we do not attend ro the
cannot hope to reclaim our culture until 1ve "bener nngels of our nature,• it will be filled b~
reclaim these institutions.... son1ething else. These 1narters are of O\ er-
Can Anlericans be confident that their whelming i1nporca11ce ro our children. As the
children are going to inherit the habics and val- Ron1an scholar Pliny the Elder put ir. "\\'hat \I e
ues they themselves honor? Are we confident do co our children, the\' •
\\ill do ro >Oetel'\.•
they will be raised in an environment that prop- Looking today at "·hnc "e see manr kid> doing
erly nurtures their moral and intellectual quali- to the1nseh·es, ro others, and ro society ar 13~~.
ties? Can we have confidence in the culrurnl \1•e need ro refle<.-c on what sociery collccti' ti) is
signals our children receive fronl our educa- doing 10 then1 in the critiC11l task of inculruni-
tional institutions, from the media, fron1 the tion, the passing on of our \'lllues, 1n an often
world of the arcs, even from our churches? Are hostile arn1osphert'.
210 P\Jn n 10Flll l1(,JI' \'I> I lll'l ·\l ltl'
I started 1nr l'areer 1n j.'111 t•nu11en1 ., u l11,uph1, 1hr '' h1111I' 1111;i 11111 h• IJ~c l\411 111
ph1lo<;0ph1l'lll consen-:it11 l' l '.on't'I'\ ~111 1" 11 11' 1hr11 1111w h11111111·1l IJ\l ul t111h11111111111 "1111111
I under-tund •t IS not e''t'n1111ll1 1hl'orelll,1l 111 111111,11 \,11111·,, 1o11ll1'1, 1h1·1 11111 h• 111111" ihe
1deolo~l'lll, but n11:her 11pnic11c11i11111t1l'r 11! e\pe d11ld 111 "d1111h .. 111, (111111.ih11·, (\\hllh """"'
nence. It seeL.s to consen e the l>eM clc111c111~ of ind11dl111( p.11 r n1s, h111l 1111 "1111h1" 10 11111111c\'
the pa<t. t•\ \ 'h111 is consel'\1ai.;111?" Lincoln onee "l'h11 " 1•11 h11·~ d11rilll11ilt111" lllttlt'lll\·111 th1l11'1
askt'tl. "ls it not adherenL-e to the old 11nd nit'd, cln1ily 1'11l11t's, it l'lnnhnl "'""' 111111 dr'lrt• I h"
against the ne" and wuried?'1 It understand~ f111111of111111 111 rclu111 ""1 ,,1111. 111d1,,1,1h~t 110
the Ullporttnt role that t:railinon~. 1n~olutions, ~et of 1·alue' \\ ,,, rt!(hl or w r111111. r11·1') 11("1) h~,1
habits and authority h:l\'e in our social life nn e1111.1I rt!(hl 10 hr' 1111 n 1..lur,, and .ill 1 ~111~
together, and recognizes n111ny of our national 11 erc ~llhJCllllt', reln1111', tWN•n,11 I h" 1k,ll'\l1'-
UlSOtU:oons as produets of principles developed n1•e 11ew 1ook hold\\ uh a 1l'nl(1'.11111·
01-er on1e b)• cusrom, the lessons of experience, ...
and consensus. Conservntives nre interested in The lenders of1h1· 1·01111111111•1•h11ol1nn1(
pursuing policies that 1vill bener reinforce nnd 1nen1 were nminly citi2l'nS who w1•1r pro111in(nt
encourage the best of our people~ common cul- in their t'01nn111nit:ies-h11,in1•"111cn, 1111111,lrr-,
ture, habits, and beliefs. Conservntism, coo, is local civic und governn1en1 oftid"ls. l ' he,(
based on the belief that the social order rests people sa\\• the schools n' 11ph11ltlc.-r.. of ' tun·
upon a moral base, and that what ties us together dnrds of individual n1ornhty untl ~1111111 llll'Uh;l·
as a people-the unum in t plun'bus unum-is in tors of civic nnd personal 11m1c; the f11undc:r:. of
constant need ofsupport. the puhlic schools hn<l faith th11t puhlu.: c:llul'll•
... cion could 1each !(<>Od n1or11l ond d1·ic chnn1ctcr
Improving American education requires fron1 a comn1on ground of A111eril'llll l'11luc~.
not doing new things but doing (and remem- But in the past qunner ccntul) or w,
bering) some good old things. At the time of son1e of the so-called experts hel11111e t\pert< of
our nation's founding, Thomas Jefferson listed Y111ue neutrality, and 111orul edlll'llOon ''11'
the requirements for a sound education in the increasingly left in their hands. The l'On1n1on-
Repon of the Commissioners for the Univer- sense 1;ew of parents 11ntl the public.:. th~t
sity of Vtrginia. In this landmark statement on schools should reinforce ruther than un<len1nne
American education, Jefferson wrote of the the values of hon1e, fiu11il)', 11nd l'OllllU'). 1111s
importance of caJculation and writing, and of increasingly rejected.
reading, history, and geography. But he also There are those tod"y still who do\n1 11e
emphasized the need "to instruct the mass of are now too diverse 11 nation, thut we l'On~ist tif
our citizens in these, their rights, interestS, and too many competing con1ic1 ions und inrertsts tu
duties, as men and citizens." Jefferson believed instill common value~. The) ore 11 rung. l)f
education shouJd aim at the improvement of course we are a <liver..e people. \ \'e h11\ e ah1 ~r"
both one's •morals" and "faculties." That has been a diverse people. And os ~l11dt,on 111\ltt' 1n
been the dominant view of the aims of Ameri- Fttkralist No. 10, the con1pet1ng, bnh1nc1nic
can education for over two centuries. But a interests of a diverse people l-'1111 help c:nsurt thl'
number of changes, most of them unsoW1d, survival of libeny. But there are \'lllue~ that ull
have diverted schools &om these great pursuits. American citii.ens share and that 11eshoulc.I1111nt
And the st0ry of the loss of the school's original all American students to l.:no11 and t\I tnal.:c- thc-1r
moral l1USSIOD uplains a great deal. 01111; hones!)·, fairness, i.elf.-dt"<."lphne, tidehn· tv
Starting in the early seventies, "values task, fnenJs, and famtl)'• lll:~nal l"l'5Jll.lll-'Jb1hn.
clarification• programs staned turning up in love of counuy, and behef 1n the pnnctpll:' l'I
schools all over America. According to this phi- liberty, equality, and the frttdon1 t\1 prtk·t•"~
·------·
tll\PllR l\\ll\J 111,\lll\\ll\\I
21 1
one' faith. l"hc c \phnt tl:Jlh111K 11f tht ,, , .1h1e,
tlrt·n, "1111t th111, , .tucai .. r\ h I I
"the leg:tl") of tht' l~1111111011 'lhuol, u11d 11 " ,1 . '111 l Jl31 111< lrl'
le!(:K} ro \I h1d1 11 c 11111'1 tl'tu rn .111c11 111111 "'· r1111 t.111'1 c•111·u •h1l
~ •Ir1·n . to 1.1.c
"
111c''·1111·<, .1h<1111 111le, ••r "•1ral1t\. scnou\I1
Pe<>ple otrcn '·''. ~\c<,, "c shuuf,/ tt:Jth
tht''t' \Jlue,, hut bu;,.• do we 1c,1d1 thc111:" l h1., un Ic'' lhl'[ '"l 1d11h, 1al 111 :t th• •- •• n11t:• stn•-
ouo,ly 111their1foy 10-day .ilfdir... <:en.un lhin!('
que,uon Je,en c~ :1 c:1nu1J response, one that
1nust he \;lld, ccn:11n 111111" laul dr,v.n, anJ cer
1, 11 '1 ~·n en often enough. It b hy e.'<J><l\lng our
1a1n exa1nple~ \ct. I here" 111111ther v.11, .
ch1IJren ro ~oo<l charJcrer an<l 1n.,1ting II\ in11•
\Ve o,hould al\11 do J hcner J<ih ai' cumcu-
t11non that 11e will transniit lo then1 a 1noral
lum selection. ·1 he re\earch \how' 1hat lll(nt
tounJ,1rion. This happens when reacher-. and "value., educauon" exertl\b and <,eparatc
pnnc1pals, ~} .their words and actions, e111body courseo, 1n "moral reason1n!(" tend nor ro affett
sound convictions. As Oxford's Mary \ .V.1 rnock children\ behavior; if anything, the} ma~· lea\.:
has written, "You cannot teach morality without children 1norally adrift. \\'here to rum: I behc:\e
being commine~ to morality yourself, and you our literanire and our histOf') are a nch quaTI') of
cannot be con1m1ned to morality yourself with- 1noral literacy. We should mine that quarl"}
out holding that some things are right and Children should have at their disposal a stock of
others wTOng." The theologian Martin Buber examples illusuaong what we betie1e to be right
wrote that the educator is distinguished fron1 all and wrong, good and bad-example' illustrating
other influences "by his wilt to take part in the that what is morally right and wrong can indeed
stamping of character and by his consciou.rnm be know11 and thar there i'> a difference.
that he represenrs in the eyes of the growing \Vhac kind of stories, histoncal evenu,
person a certain selectio11 of what is, the selection and fan1ous lives ain I talking about? If we want
of what is 'right,' of 1vhat should be." It is in this our children to know about hone>tl', •
\1·e should
will, Buber says, in this dear standing for some- teach the1n about Abe Lincoln walking three
thing, that the "vocation as an educator finds irs rniles to return six cents and, conver~ely, about
fundamental expression." Aesop'~ shepherd boy " •ho cried wolf. If we
There is no escaping the fact that young want then1 to know about cournge, we should
people need as examples principals and teachers leach then1 about Joan of Arc, Horatius al the
who kno\v the difference benveen right and bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the l."nder-
\\Tong, good and bad, and 'vho the111selves ground Railroad. lf we want the1n to k11011
exen1plify high moral purpose. . . about persistence in the face of adversity, they
As Education Secretary, I \/1S1ted a class at should kno1v about the voyages of Columbu,,
\\'aterbury Ele1nenmry School in \Vaterbury, and the character of \ \ 'a!>h1ngron during the
\ 'ermont, and asked the srudents, "Is thb a good Revo lution and Lincoln during the Civil \ \ 'ar.
school?" They ans1vered, "Yes, this is a good And our young~t should be told about the
Little Engine That Could. If we \\ant the111 to
school." I a!>ked them, "\Vhy?" Amon~ ocher
la10\\' about re;pect for the law, the)' should
things, one eight-year-old said, "The principal,
understand why Socrate> rold Crito: :N~>. I
~1r. Riegel, 1nakes good rules and everybody I ,, must submit to the decree of .\then>. It 11 e
obeys them." So I said, "GiYe rne an ex.amp e.
want our children to re>pecr the nghts of oth-
Anti another anS\vered, "You can't climb C)n the ers. the\ should read the Declan1non of lntle
pi~ 1n the bathroom. \\'e don't climb on the pendence, the 8111 of Rights, the c;e~ ,hul'Jt
pi~ and the principal doesn't either." . Addre''• and !\1arun Luther King, Jr.\ "L~tt~r
This e.\.a1nple is probably roo sHnple to froni Binninghan1 Jail." Fron1 the Bible the~
plea~e a lot of people \Vho want to make the hould Lno11• about Ruth\ loyalr. ri > ' "" ~·
topit• of moral eduaiuon d1·ffi cu tt, but there il1s Jo;eph\ forgi1ene'' of hi\ hruther-. J.•nad•' '
km-.1'. .nn ~-~r~-.,,n11 •n rh ~ ::an~\\o·er of thoo,e ch -
212 l'\RI II llltOl.<X,lf' \'J>FJ>l < \11<1'
fnentbhip \11th OJ\1d. chc ( ;,,.,d ....1111.1111111', ht .1hll\, h 1pp1. und •111 ~c<> tul but t.l en1
line.Inc:"' 1<1\1-anl ~ 'c · .1ni::rr l'hl I )J1111\ , 11' 1·1 '"""II· .111.J !(IMl•
ne.,,. and l·our-ai:-e >n t.1nn~ ( n•h 11h 111.lltl.lll). llHH 1' 1111 !(tllClll 11111'1111'\lfJll 111
l'hc,c are llllil .1 lt.'11 ut the hu11d1c:d' ot 1111 t1~. It 1.1k•·' 1hc l< 011-i '""'• lo1u111111t ol cff11ru
C\J111plc, \It' c..-.in l'Jil 1111. \nd 11c nccJ not !!<'! 11l .1t.luJt,. h 1.1kr' c1rtl11l .111cnt1t1n
1n111 '"lit:' hlc.- nudcJr "ar. Jhon1on. cre 111on-
j,rn, or euthan.1"J. I'hi. ni.1) l'Olne a~ a ti1'•1P- Noth1ni.c 111orc powerfully dt tcn111nt:\ a
poinnnt.'nt ll• so111e people. hut the fact i\ thac child\ heha1•1or than hi' 1ntern.1J tt>1TIJ>ll\\, hi\
the fun11Jt1on of ch.1r.1cter 1n }oung people 1~ behek, h1'> ,en\e of nght and wronl!. Ir a duld
eJucaaonJll\" a ta'k thfferent fron1, anti pnor to, finnly belu:ve.,, 1fhe ha' heen taui:ht and ~'Wiled
the discu,,1on of the great, difficult controver- to believe, that <ln1i.,,..,, pro111i\cu1ty, and 3\\~ult
''es of the da}. Fi~t thing-. first. \\'e ~hould ing other people are wrong th1n!('> t<> d11, th~
reach values the same \\'11\ we reach other will contribute co h1!> own well-bein!( and to the
things: one step at a tiine. \\'~should not use the well-being of others. And 1f th•'> le'>'>On "mulo-
fuct that t.here are rnany difficult and controver- plied a ni.iJlion times-that is, taught a nulhon
\ial morJI questions as an argument abrainsr tin1es.-we will have greater and hroader wt:ll-
basic instruction in the subject. After all, 11•e do be1ng, fewer personal CltaStrophe!>, le!>; •,oc1al
not argue against teaching physics because laser violence, and fewer wa.,ted and lo~t live;. The
physics is difficult, against teaching biology or character of a ~ociety i., determined by how well
chemistry because gene splicing and cloning are it cransmits rrue and time-honored ~'3.lu~ from
complex and controversial, against teaching generation co generation. Culrural maners,
American history because there are heated dis- then, are not sinlply an add-on or an after-
putes about the Founders' intent. Every field thought to the quality of life of a country; the}
has its complexities and its controversies. And detennine the character and essence of the
every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So country itself. Private belief is a condition of
too with forming character and achieving tnoral public spirit; personal responsibility a condition
literacy. As any parent knows, reaching charac- of public well-being. The invesonenr in pn\·ace
ter is a difficult task. But it 1s a crucial task, belief must be constancly renewed.
because we 1van t our children to be not only
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we defined and analyzed Consen·atism in terms of its historical
antecedents, its key principles, and its educational implications. Consen'lloves see edu-
cation as the rransrnission of the cultural heritage co the young in order ro preserve
and n1ai ntain it. The principles enunciated by Edrnund Burke were identified a\ a
fountainhead of Conservative ideology. \Ve pointed our that 1n the American experi-
ence, Conservacisn1 has embraced some economic ideas of Classical L1berahsm. The
nse of neo-Conservatism as a major force in American politics and eduC2oon wa;
ex.amine<l in terms of the Consen·ative agenda, the demand for restonng an acade1n1c
Lurriculum, and for establishing standards l'erified br sta.nda.rdized tei.ong.
CIL\PTER l\\Tl \ 'F co''' R\'\rJ~\I
21J
DISCUSSION Q UESTIONS
I. ldcnu~ and dcscnhc lhc ba\1c principle, ofCcm\cn~u"n
2. \ \ n~ was Burke so troubled by the French Revolution )
3. \\~y has ldherde bc~n n, reviva l of Conscrvu1i~ 111 in cuni ciuporary Amcril~n .,, l,
SOCICty, an e UL"lltlon. I "11111 •
4. Andal)7e the Conscrvati"e belief that educauon ~hould transmit the cultural hcnu""
an stable v-alues. r'
S. Do you think the n1ood on your can1 pus is Lilicral or Cun~crvativc? \V hy)
INQUIRY Al" ID RESEARCH PROJEcrs

1. Listen to several "talk shows" on radio and television. Determine whether they
reflect the Conservative viewpoint. \.Vhat arc the major messages of Conscn':IU> c~
on these programs?
2. \Vith the permission of your instructor, prepare a questionnaire to be administered
to the 1nembcrs of your class. Ask a series of questions based on Conservative prin-
ciples to elicit whether the 1nembers of the class agree or disagree with these prin -
ciples.
3. Compile a clippings file of articles from newspapers and 1nagazines about current
controversies in education such as the standards movement, ;r,ero-tolerance policies
in schools, school prayer, creationism versus evolutionism, and school uniform s.
\.Vhat is the Conservative position on these issues?
4. Organi:re a debate on the proposition: Public schools should cransmit the cult:ur.il
heritage, require a common core based on \ Vcstem culture, and emphasi1.e tradi -
tional values.
INTERNET RESOURCES
For a discussion of the ideas of Russell Kirk, a leading A1nerican conservative, consult
www.townlull.com!ball_of_fame/kirk/kirkhomc.html
For a discussion and an essay on Conservatism, consult
www.xrcfcr.com/cntty/SS2667.html
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTIIER READING

Abbon, Pamc Ia. an d """'ace.
'•' I • Cl••rc
~ ·
The Fnml"''J
anti the Nt'"JJ Right. London lllld Boulder, CO: Pluto
Press. ~ 992 · .,.._ Dt 1, /uhlg 0 ,.Amrri(JI: Tbt Figbt for 011r CMlnn-r 11fld 011r Cb1/Jrrti. '$cw Yorl;
Bennett, \\'Jham J. , ,,. · - 1
Simon&: S<:husrer, 199!. I h G Th Phi/otophy1fEdm111UI 9,,m, A St""-fr-llirSpttr/Yt
Brcckold, Louis 1., and Ross, Rs P. · . .' f ,\ iichl 11 Press, 1960. .
nlfd U.ntingt. Ann Arbor: Um"c~'k.:'wudon 1~Fr.ilfft. Ed. Doniel"· Ritchic. lndlanapoli•. L' ·
Burlr.e, Edmund. f1Jrtbtr Rejkrtioas 1 '
Ubmy Fund Books. 1992.
°"
214 l',\Rl 11 11)1• 1)LOC11•~ /\Nl> l'OUC.A1 ION
llur~c, l'.1hnund. ()11 RnV1lu11on. Rohcrt 1\ . Smith, ed. New York: I lnrper & Row, 1968.
Ch~ncy, Lynne V. '/io//l11K tbt 'troth: IVky Uur C11/1urr and Our Cou11try lltJVt Stopptd Maldng Stn.rt-and
11'1>"' II ;. <:1111 Oo l/oout It '<cw York: Simon & Schu)tcr, 1995.
De>11111r, Rohcrt. Rr<111t111g Consrn•11rism: Onlrrs//011, Srrnuss, nnd 1/1t Rupon.rt to PostmOiltmls'llt, New
I IP\Cn, c·n Yale Unl\'Crslty Press, 1994.
l>'~ouu, DUlcoh l//1btri1/ Ed"10lrton· Tbt Politra ofHilu and Sa on Campus. New York: The Free Press,
/\ Dlvi"'"' of Macmillu1, 1991.
Frohncn, Oruce. I 1rtu111111 tht />romist of Conservnt/rm: Tbt leg11cy of Burltt 11nd 11Kqutvilk. Lawrence:
Unwcrs1ty Prc;! o( Kansas, 1993.
Gonfictl, P~ul. /hr ConsrroMrivr Afovtt11r111. New York: 1\vnync Publishers, 1993.
1londcrlch, "led. Constro111ism. llouldcr, CO: Westvicw Press, 1991 .
Kirk, Russell. Ar11t/mif( f'rttdimr. Chicago: 1lcnry Rcgncry Co., 1995.
Phillips, Nonn~n R. /'hr Qurst for Rt·rrllrnet: The Nro-Consrrv11tivt Critl1Jflt of Edut11tion11/ 111ftdiorrlty.
New York: Philosophical I .lbrary, l 978.
U.S. Dcpartmen1 o( Eduetoon, Office of 1hc Secretary. No Child ltft Btbind. \Vashington, DC: Edu-
cation Pubhcaliont Center, 200 I.
NOTES
I. F.dmw1d Durke, RtflutloN on tht Rtuolutlon 111 Fran,, (London: R.lvingtons, 1868), pp. 459--460.
2. James Dilv1.on I lunccr, (.'"''""' lll1n- ~ Strt1rgk,. Dtfou llmma C'lcw York: Basic Books,
1991), pp. 197 2().1.
3. Lynne V. Cheney, It/ling tbt /i"JJth IYby Our CultUN 11"4 Our Country Ilavt Stopptd (1111/tlng
Stt1Jt-1111J ll'h#t 11~ C:•n /), llHut It ('cw y,,..i. \1mon 1nJ Schll)tcr, 1995), p. 24.
.+. D1n~h O'C,ou1.a, ///1/Hrw/ f;,J,.1111ot1 ~ l't/11uefRNr 1111d St1 on Compus (New York: 111e free
Pres5, /\ Divi>1on of i\11em1ll1n, IW I), pp. 249- 2S2
S. Ibid, pp 249-25 I
• 6 U.S Dcparmicnt o( f.dunnnn, ()fhce o( the °l«TCUI), ,\ 'o Cbtld Lefi /kb1nd (\.Vashington, DC:
hdueauon Puhlkarion~ \.(ntcr, 2001), Jl 7
CHAPTER T HIRTEEN
•••••
SM
In this chapter \Ve will examine Marxisrn, an ideology that became an important revo-
lutionary doctrine in the t\ventieth century. Marx.ism, also kno"'ll as Scientific Social-
ism, shaped the revolutionaiy doctrines Lenin used to establish the Soviet l:nion.
\'Vith the demise of the Soviet Union, it continues to be the official ideology in the
People's Republic of China and Cuba. Today, Marxism is used as a tool of social, eco-
nomic, political, and educational analysis for those 'vho are critical of capitalism and
seek to bring about socioeconomic change. In this chapter \Ve \vii I define Marxism, sit-
uate it in the work of Karl Marx, identify and examine its major ideas, and draw forth
its implications for education.
DEFINING MARXISM
To define J\.'larxism, we must begin with a discussion of Karl Marx (1818- 1883), the
founder of the ideology that bears his na1ne. Marx, a Gern1an philosopher, econon1ist,
wd journalist, created a synthesis of revolutionary ideas in his The Com11utnist Mani-
festo, written with Friedrich Engels to rally their followers during the European revo-
lutions of 1848. His most detailed socioeconomic analysis was /)as Knpita~ a
multivolu1ne \vork published in 1867, 1885, wd 1894.1Marx.ism cw be defined as the
social, political, and econo1nic theories of Marx, which interpreted Western history as
class struggle. Marxism is also referred to as Scientific Socialism by those \vho sub-
scribe to the ideology to distinguish it from non-Marxist varieties of socialism such as
Utopim and Democratic Parlia1nentary Socialisn1. T he designation, Scientific Social-
ism, rests on Marx's claim that, unlike philosophies such as Idealism that assert that
reality is spiritual or supernatural, Marxism bases reality on materialis1n, matter that
can be examined scientifically.
SITUATING MARXISM
As a university srudent, Marx srudied Hegelian Idealism, the philosophy that dom1-
natecl Gennan intellecrual life in the nineteenth cenrury. Hegel believed human
! 16 J'\IH II ll>l ·OIOGILS \'\Dl' JJLC\llO'-
.. . ntained in the Ah.,olute, tht: hii.the\t

.I ltl , of the• tl ca., co .d d.
hl'>ror. \\a~ the tlialecrical un o ing .1 .1II · lea.,. Each 1 ea conra1ne It'> opn.J-
d .,our~·c o • u · ·t1 Id ,..
and 1110\t l'0111prehen.,1\ e 1on 11 '111
• . r:
re con1prehen~1ve 1 ea "ou re,uJt
.. hi.,hcr·on1er. Jttc> I I (F .1· •
\Ire. frorn rhr' cla\h of 10 ea,, a " . ,. 1 in the -\bsolutc tea. or a ul'><.'\l\\ion
. ntrl it t:U 1nun.11cu
The prtll:e'' "01ild connnue u
of! !egel, ..cc c:hapcer .?.) . d ar•rucd instead chat realtry wa\ n1att rial
ti
\for\ .1 b•Ill one <l H lian
egt: • lde·1
.,·e of Ile •el's" dialectic, \Vh1c h he re forrnulatt:d 3 ~•
1..,rn an
nor ,p1nt11JI. Howt:\'er, he rnade u . .g conornic classes to control the rnatenal

le of con1pet1ng ~ocioe ·
cI;1,., con A1ct-th e scrugg d f roduction. Tbu~. 1n Marx\ 1<leologr,·
,. .1 • • •• 1·r
l()Ullu;HIOllS 01 l1C,
th Cmeans ' and n10 , e~. o1. P(' fo)(OWS the )3\V Of. the dialectic . "
3~
dia lectic:1l 111a1erialis1n, matter, the pnniai Y ea tlity, fi aJ strugg·rJe the proletariat th
s1rug1rle occurs henveen conflicting classes. In ie n. th ~ 1. A ' ' e
·"' · h · adversanes e capita 1sts. supporung
working class will inevitably rnun1p over ll!> ' • '. h. h . th .
' • 1. · ·c determ1J11 sm 1c assert'> at '>oc1•
corollary of dialectical matena ism is econon11
\V
. 'r d · th
· and whoever concro ts• tlie econorruc 1oun 1
ecy\ ba.,e 1s econorruc . anon. d contro . ~ e
'upen.trucrure o f th e sooery. · ,Marx bel'eved 1
that human behaVJor is eter1111nt:d bl'•
econon11c forces. . .
In politic.-al ideology, :\1arxi~m 1., 3 .,.,0 ciated \~ich Communism a~d some ~aneues
of Sociali.,m. The Co1nmunis~ proclai111ed themselves co be .\1arx s true d1~c1ple~.
Marxi.,111 \vas a highly significant ideoloto in the nve~ti~th cenn1ry. Fro~ 1917 .to
t 989, Maric.ist-Leninism, or Com1nunl'>n1, wa'> the official ideology of the (,om1nun1st
Party that ruled the Soviet Union and the Soviet-conrrolled satellite countries in ea~~
ern Europe. Soviet Con1munisn1, under Lenin and Stalin, created a ruthless authon-
tarian police State. vVith the dembe of the Soviet sy~rem, Com1nuniMl1 lost its official
status and is in general disrepute in the fonner So\·iet Vnion and in eastern Europe.
The People's Republic of China \V3'> e\tahh'>hed a~ a .\larxist nation in 1949, where
J\tao ZeDong \vas the chief interpreter of \1arx1~111. Today, Con1munis1n re1nain'> the
official ideology in China but there, too, \1arxl\111 1~ bemg diluted and rev1.,ed a'> the
private sector grows as pare of that countrr\ 111odernization proces'>. Fidel C:a~tro\
Cuba remains a nation in \vhich \larx1'tm 1' the official i.rate ideology.
The critics of Marxism contend that It 1s a failed, discredited, and totalitanan
ideology. Arguing that it has never really been implemented, Marx1s1n\ defender, say
that the Soviet version of Communism wa~ really authoritarian stl!ti'>rn rather than the
true in1plen1entacion of Marx's idea\.
Son1e but not all Socialises rely on Marxist doctrines. D emocratic ">oc1ah\t\, who
~~e the parliament:try proce~s, believe they can succeed through poliuc:il and educ.-a·
t~onal 1neans rnthe_r than by nolent revoluoon. Generally, Sociahsu, work for the reduc-
non .of class pn\ileges and a more egalitanan SOCJety, \\lth greater equuy 1n the
d1stnbut~on of social, health. and educational -.enices. Thev fa\·or '><>mt dewee of public
o"1lel')Jup of basic sen1ces, and 111 '>Orne ca.'CS. of basic ~dustne,. For ;xample, ther
"oulJ f.a,or gu.vemment-o"ned, rathe~ than pnvate, ener~ product.ton, health care,
an~ rran~(>(>~Uon. The European "Xlal democratic paroes and the 'OflClal \\elfare uc~
an Sc..-an<l1~\1a represent Democraoc S<x:tali't ideology put mm pohcy ant.I pracoce
. \\'hale .\tamsm has suffered 'enou) reve~als as 3 pohncal ideolog:. at renu1ns
an imponant theoreocal perspecti\e in philo~phy. es~ciall~ in educaur;n:al ph1loSO'"
' \
11~
•• • • •
\L\Jt)R \\(lRh.I"\(, \\\l \II' I I< l '\;\ ,._.\I \ll\1\\1
I.
i I
l
' I
~ :'I th lau
... In th hn I •tn1g le. th
ca '
' \ th \ rthruu I
•
ph~ . ,.\l13n Bloc!.:, argu1nl! that \ IJr\1,1n ,hould not he eqwt d" 1 t
emn1c:nc' that ha'c 't~lc:d 1hc:1n-.ehe, 3, \lar\1~t. , 3\, \I Jni•m\ c:ur101~m:ng unE101r-
unce he, 1n chc: " 11' 1t '1eu, 'OC'lc:t\ • Edu. :itor' , uch a.• B<rn
:\tarn-ma' a mc:an' of anal~ z1n1I c:Ju,; 11on an a C".tp11afi ,1 "K'tc:n l'.1.in
encc:d Ptht111odem1.,1n. L1hc:rauon Pc:d.1go1,T\", .ind ( · nllL"JI I hco n Pu,tmodem
dt...cus,ed 1n (:hapctr X. L1bc:rauon Pedag';;I?' 1n ( 'hJpccr 14 1 ~d Cnt al Th r\
Chapter I 'I.) • •· •
\\ID' STI...'D\' .\L\RXIS~1?
Despirc: it-'> do"-nfall in the: !:>o\ ic:r l Tn1on, thc:rc: i' another d11nc:n,111n to \tar'1, 1n th.it
needs to JO\ oh e u' a' c:duc:irol"I. From the: rime:" hc:n \tar' ''rote D11J Nipzu / und Tbt
CfJmmunu7 \lanifrsto, \[arxi,rn has bec:n a pouc:rtul 1dc:oloi:1cal tun:e: nd a , 1i,rn1nc:ant
tool in pol1t1Dll and econon11c analy~1s. \ \ 'hc:thc:r o r not \1 c rc1c:L·t \ l.11 ,1,111. \I c h.I\ c co
n:cogn1ze char the pou·er .\Ian. hr:l' c: ro c:conon11l factor- 3., .1 fon:c 111 'hai11ni: "!X'let\
pohncs, and educ:it1on h:i' profound!) 1nt1uentc:J ho" "< 1h1nl.: ahuut thc: \I .~
the field of educaoon, e'pec1;1ll) 1n the: foundation' of c:d11L.1non. 'anc:uc:, ul \I , ,
and neo-.\1arxis1n exen a \1gii1fican1 influence on t'duca1ion.1I an.1h , 1, · rhl" , 11 h •
.\ 1arnsm abo 1s u,eful in under,1Jnd1n!( Po.,a1u1Jen11'n1, an 1n1110n.1n1 l·1•n1< 1 n
1n1,vement 1n philo,ophy and licc:ran1re 1 'hcre are al,o c:le1nenc' ol \ l.1r\1,•11 11 l'Ju),1
Freire\ Liberation PedagOf,')' antl in C ri11cal Theor~ .
MAJlxisM'S BASIC OOC'fRJNI•:S

In this '>eetion, we iilt·nuf> ~nd l11n1111tn1 on \011w of \l.1r,\ 11.l'K d11<.1nnc' and tht:'n
indicate how they ha ve hccn 1cv..,cd h) lon1t•111por.1r) nt•o \ l.1r\1'r'. I he tenn neo-
Mam.t refers to new 0 1 contcn11l111.11 \ \ t 1n1'1'• \\ho, 1~ h1lc keepin!( \l~rx\ h;J\IL
doctrines, have rtVl\C:d then1 1n tt: nn' of the 111odl·m \1tUJt1011.
2 J8 l'IRI II IJ>FOI OC,fF' l'Df IJLL\rlO'
M a rter in Dialccticril A-lotion

, . . hco is 111,1ncr in dialcclical motion. As a university 5ru.
· . I' Id 1·11111 .111 w h'1c h a II llIe,3 ., ca 111 e forth frorn the m·1n d of
I he has1c d111:11n1c 111 \l.ir\' c
dcnr \lar1 sn1J1ed Hege ' C•I" • I II th bo d' 'd
the ,\h,olute Idea lhe uni1•er~al idea that containel a 0 er 'u r inate 1 .ea\. Hl\-
r ' f h e i·'ea\ on earrh and change resulted frC>m conA1ct~ in the
to11•11 J> r1ie un10 1l 1rng o t e5 u . 1 hb
.1 E .1
rea In1 o f 1uea\. 1·e1T 1uea >ta u • te·' a thesis
· ch·ir
• e1nbod1. ed a partia
't:h . trut ut al.,o con-
ta1neu.1its
· contrau1coon.
.1· : F ron1 the conAict of thesis · and ano es1s den1erged a lle\lwr ~
and higher idea, a synche;rs, that was also an i~ea ~l~r generate a new confi1ct
Although Hegels dialectic wa~ roored in his Ideali~t sprn cual nietaphysics, 1\1arx bor-
rowed the concept of the dialectical process, which he transferred co ~is Ol\'tl 1·ers1011 of
reality chat was strictly material or physical. Marx be~ieved ~at tile idea~ and perc~p
tions of human consciousness arise fro111 human acovity, v,r1t:h economic producoon
and control of the n1aterial as the base of sociery. Our ideas about reality and how we
perceive social relations are determined by tile n1ateria1 conditions, the economic
foundation5, of sociery. In!>tead of a conflict of ideas, ,\llarx saw hun1an history a~ a
ceaseless struggle between economic cla~ses 1vh ich 1vere, in turn, based on concrol of
the niateriaJ conditions of society. Thu,, hl\toncal and social change is a process of
confiict and resolunon bet11 een opposing economic forces in society.
1\llarx's dialectic is a w•ay of thinking, an epistemolo~ry, that sees tile hu1nan situa-
tion as imn1ersed 111 a proces\ of conflict and \m1ggle. In tile d1alectical nuJde of
thought, there are always t110 opp<>-.ng -.des and rw·o sec. of arf,"lll11ents. These oppo-
sites are contradictol'} stages that 11ill be reconciled in a synthe~is, a new thesis.
D ialectical reasoning connnues to be used b) neo-.\1arx:i~ts 1vho ana lyze social and
educanon bsues in term; of contrad1caun~ or conA1cts to be re\olved. Although they
are less cerc-Jin that histol") 1s dctcrn11ned, they conunue to find tile dialectic a useful
fonn of 5ocial and educational anal}sis.
"rhe Material Conditions of Society and C lass Confilct

1\1 0 in1 porcant and rela ted idea\ 1n .\1arx1sm are the mate · I d f d
'I· . A' F \I h · na con 1uons o \OC1ety an
c .1~' con 1ct. or. arx, w o saH.I that matter 1s what 15 I h h h
1cal be1n" w1th ph\ ioJ 0 .,;,.., 1 _,_ d d rea • t e un1an he1ng 1s a p y~-
"' .\ c-·~ .. nee~ an n\'es and w ich b · th LI h'
her to chinl. In chi~ J>h\'~ica.I real' , h . • a rain at tna11 e\ 1m or
It\, umans work, produce g ~-.1
.
li1·e. How the goods are produceti'and distrihute 'JVU' or cor11m1>d'itie~, and
non .tnd are the economic foundao · h dare the mtans and modes of produc-
11). stare, church. 5'.:hool, law coU::." u~;e w ich rt~ts the ~al ~rrucrure-rhe f2m-
concrols the 1neans and modtJ. of ~po . fo~t:e. and anny, frJr ex.ample. \\'hOC\er
l b understand how ,ociet\'. polio pr u~o~n " 1 !1 alc;o C('Jntr<>I the!>e ocial instituoons.
the economic ba~the means an~· a~ e u~oon really ~·ork require us to examine
Throughout much of hl5ton·~ : °t pr<~ucoon that support thern.
crops, and ra1SJng livestock. Land "1:: 1
~: snnwed b)· 11.orking the land, gro\\1n!
depended throughout much of h • ma renal condition upon ,.. hic.h socaet)
med1e\'2l pen<Xls.•-\ strong ~u::r:~unng the Greel.: and Roman, cla ,ial. and
~')'stein 1n ~h1ch they O\\Tied the 1 d rnor<>. the med1e\-al lmil!hts created a feuchl
an and forced 0 th ,
er-., the AA~, to 11.uri:: for ~
1I L\l'll~ ll llWll!' \ I\"\
" ,,,,
uld111on 111 ti-1111: h n itc Illa 'ILll lnr ? 19
\
J111'lI' U ' l 'l I I h t ' lhllr l h ~' Ill l
a nc, o f I
llllt:IM h \\ il,lllt d !o1h11 hi I\. I I
' " a1 1111 1I1 •u11~nJric.r
\~n<, 1!1111 ~1 pru,h" 1, •h r 11 1 hai.-cn
" "1•u1111.1lh " ·uuld
" ' thr f,1n11n111111 ''' 1 'h" <I " ' l h~ hour l , 1 d 1 ·,..,,.
Ulh I ""'J.. up Ill Ilt't Cllllltl llllt 11 II I "' nud,dle l.:JI"'
llt • 1111 , •ud1 I
th 11\\I1i-tn.1 I rc•olutrnn 11 t ih ' l•ll I n~ ,
1
I'"''Ill•C1n, Jl11ed "uh ,.01111 · on ''
· 'le111 11 I .,
1111 ' pr 11d11~t1(1n ~n I nu
' 1.11 c 1111.111, 111•• 111111 •
rcn1,i.110\\ n :1' (.apitah, •
111 "hll·h <> • 111 ~111~ lTeat I the cc1ifll(Jlruc
11
" 1th neo- ( .on>en , an, 111 '("ice ( ha J' 11 hr,t ·1l11ccl " 11h Ia1"e1 '1~trc I1ber11
1ao, 111 for a d1'icu3310 ~ of capt ~tcr 11 1111 I ibcrdl1,rn and< haptc:r 12 on (
.;1('1tJ /m11 dt:n1·e~ from the u e I a 1,111 in rt'IJ•1on to these 1dc:ol c:> The ltl'lm
and technolog\ needed to 'r ~ 1.?pital <111:•ne\ _•r cn:dit) to purchJ<ie the rr.:1d11nc1r\"
S th d H - . b P o uce good, Delcndc:r- ot 1.11p11ah•m such :as Adl
mi an er en Spe~cer, 111 the eighteenth and n1netec:nth cenruncs cla ed the
coin peaaon of econo111Jc force' in the free market \\Ould re,ult m !,'Telter effiae~
and pro<luC0\1ty. Econon11sts such a' \lalcon Fnedman make a 'un1br nl'l?Umc:nt for
capitalism today. M~dem industri al '>OC1ety 1s con1posed of C\<o d.i-'e.' the c:ipnah~u
who 01111 the factories (the means and n1odes of producuon) and rhc: prolc:r:inat. the
workers who produce goods but who do not own the n1achine' 11 1th '' h11.h the\ 1<url.
~1arx believed that econo111ic class is our primary idennticanon. t>ur \11t:1.1l 1n1er-
actions are based on our relationship co the economy-the r11e;1n, and n11>de' of pro-
duction. The economic class that controls the econOm) al,u concrol' '"t:1ct\\
institutional supersrructure. An1ong these institutions are the ~r.ite lthe go,emrnent ,
the church (organized religion), the courrs (the legal sysrem), the police Jnd m1hun
(the arms of state po\\·er), the media (agencie~ of infonnaoon), and che 'chool (th<'
agency of organized educaoon). The explo1ong class also ha, creatt'd a fa!": 1deolo.!\,
designed to mislead and miseducate the 11 ork~rs so they are not con,c1uu' ut th<'•~ true
situation as victims of exploiration . .\-1arx predicted that the 11orkt:r\. a' a re,ult ot their
exploitation and repression, would organize, arise, revolt, and 01·enhro" their l-ap1tal-
ist exploiters.
· · e co <ee control of the econo1ny as the real sllurce ot po11 er
N eo-M arnstS cononu ~ l h
. d . Th all for a critical exa111ination of the econon1} to rc\t~.1 " o
1n mo ern society. ey c ' f . <l . d the nerwork~ uf con,u111p-
es the rneans o p10 ucnon, an
owns much o f th e resourc , J dern corporarions rht.' l'Jp1r;1lt,t 'uc-
. Th d k establish how arge a10 .,
oon. ey un erta e to J'ticians through c:unp.1 i~1 contnhu1u1n,,
1 01
cessors of the older industrialists, ~ondrro ~ . and use the coun' ,;, 1<'!-.'lllllllZ.e tht.>1r
manipulate the media through paid \'ero~ing~ ' an arena of contlicu'ng c1.'(1non11c
3
. d · for thern ren1a1n~ · •
expIOttation. Mo em society, r' 1
ntours o c 3'>'> stru:-
rrgle to enlirgt.' \tar\\ pn1let.1rtar to
' • I
interests. They broa d en th e co oinen the hon1de''· JnJ the poor. t "
include oppressed racial and erhn1c group~. \\ the ~iarerial condlf1on' of 'ocieC). that
the ownership and exploicacion ofrhe ecfo~~ ~ }• ·nation. Unl!!sS J Jee1) anti thorou!{h-
11 1
fonn'> 0 u1'>cn1n1
cause racism sexism, an d o th er . . foundaoon., of moJem '>OC1er} occurs,
, .
going radical re~rructnnng 0 f the econo1n1c _ ,.
. Th
will be delw,ron~. e connnuation
. · bout •rreater e4u:u•ty
piecemeal reforms to bring a "
:!.'!0 P~"l 11 ID OlOC ~''DI ll \
11
''
l"' crt\, 8111! 111111.,uct' tn scx-,et) an I

ofnin ta ,11 ''II c1 'un- u!lllllll 111•111equ111t• l
«' · , •h anti c11111.:al cu1111nauon of the nature
I
\1 J 11 11 ~ Jll 101 U I l!lltl 11 "L
' u ''' c '" ' ' nrah•r do1111n:11ol
1 111 11 ... ,
1 " I \ ren I 11a uli'
a ""'' ,,, "'"11..1111• ,,"'"" hr h .,hool\ funcuo~~L-
1! 11I 1al cu11111uo11s 111 " L - -uoc
t ;a,he, to (\JllUne 1..nllGI ' " lllllll 11111111, of untrnplt'}tll n1, la1..L: uf halth arc,
11 111
,urnn1nJ1ni: nc11-..flborh 1
fhjl
""i'
ind ' l " 1111111111111 "ill ""rk 11, l"rnhat and 1.orrc:ct the
1
lh1,~lllitll lrill<;J<\I '
lll'I•1ul" ''
1.•
" II I 1, 1nd r 11\c the c:unsoou nas of
ta!,, !• ''~" ot ulll'lllll<ll'lll. p111111<ll<< I\ ,,1p11~ ·~, 'lj to rl~c1r t:~ ilhllilllOn
,ni.1< r' 1l>.1ut tht• 1n1e 11.11111•• 111 rill ,1111J1111111' th.I! ca I
\ .m~Jrd of the Prolct;1riat

'
' . \l J h ·h 1- . Jt~ 1·nudru.:h En.,c(, , ,,ert: not rnc111hcr' of the prole-
""" J \ ln I ' L It: d ' ''"I ~. ~ I" h J d d
· ~ 11 the\ "ere not tacton \\orl er, ..\l.1rx. a unl\ el'>IC)' graduate'. a came a oc-
torate 1n phtln-oph~ and " ~rked a' a 1ournah' t. If 1t is our economic clas, that defines
u, , ho" t.'Ould .\Llrx, bum.elf. ha' e c,capc:d the th1nhng that got:~ "1th he1ng mid~
Lia,,: \\an l't'.a,oned that a qnall 1nrellectual ehte of de<l.rcart:d rt:\ olunonanes, "M
L.nc:" the true cour;e ofhhtOr\, ''ould le:id the work.mg class revolution. Because thc:y
"c:re rerno,ed from the acruai rne;1n' of production, this group of 1ntellt:crual i<leolo-
!fl't' could ~cape and rise above their econornicaUy detennined clas' position. Tius
'anguard of the proletariat would: (1) study the true course of history a' a process gen-
erau~J b} econnrnic class conflict; (2) organize the \VOrkcrs and raise their consCJous-
ni:s' ab()ut the true conditions of their exploitation; (3) lead the revolution at the
correct 1noment; (4) organize the new classless society that is destined to replace the
cap1tahsr economic order. Ir is important to note that the vanguard engages not only in
theonung bur is also activist. ·
. In contemporary neo-.\1an:ist thought, the idea of the vanguard has been
re,1sed. In the older .\larXJst 1deolog}, rhe vanguard, a secretive group of coru.pirators.
governed by ngid ideological constraints, \\·as an elite. Neo-Marxists are tnore h.L:eh ro
fa,
· or Tha broad-based
· d form of organrzation and. acti"ism that is mo r e popu1·l!it th an e·11t-
1sr. · e reVISe
fr thvanguard does nor necessarily refer to intell ectua Is or 1nte · 11 1gents1a.
Com1ng om e grass roots, from the oppressed them I th ' d
th h · f .. · se ves, e ne\\' vanguar 1~
ose w o are consCious o the cond1ttons of exploitatio d · d
of the oppressed. n an can aroculate the nee s
Marxist thinking significantly influences those h0 .
move111enrs such as Liberation Pedago, and Criti w belong to current aca<lem1c
ideologues of conte1nporary neo-Marx~sy cal Theory. In son1e respects, the
• · 1 111 rese1n ble a va d .
oon. However, their goal is to build 3 broad-ba ..nguar mo,·en1ent 1n edu1.-a-
opc:rate as an cine. sed coalJaon for change rather than to
c:ontemporary neo-lvlarxi\t ed
hlce the international bus1nes~ cor1)( UC;Jtors reject new fom15 of nll><lem capitalism
consumer- d nven M>CJety as rhe old >ranonI , .econ om·re g Io bahsm 1 and the ethics of a
e~p Olt3tl\'t: l.':lp' J' .
the ·~u:mauona I hus1ne~' corporation as a l.'a i . i~a rsn1 rn modem guise. Ther see
allowintt a small ehte Lo oppre~~ a ina~ . ~ . p L~hst invention that on a lobal M."'31e is
have located fat'tories in third-world s orce .of workers. Multinatio I g .
countnes in Afi . na corporauons.
nca, South Arnenca, and .~ia.
C.l I \IYT l'R Ill IR 11' I·'\ \1 \l{Xh,\ 1
221
where worker~, often llll'luding .. h111
. 1al·cd \lllall fon i1,.. I· .t ren, work •·11 'a ne·,ir-po\trry 1evt:L Agnhu,ine.,.,c,
roo, have t I1sp
• • 1 ; ,\ J lllS \I'll1
1 hUITt: \ rl . . '
produce food for C\port whilt: 111.1n, 1• "" ing e-crop agncuhural t:\lares that
.
are are 111-noun~ht:d. · / o l 11c rc'1dcn l\· {1f 1h e t:ountl)· 1n
· which
. they opcr-
. Jn a cap11ah.,1 . \Ociet~· and "dti••at

.. .. 1ona1sy\tern srude111 0 f h
are 1ndoctnna1ed into a "fal,e ideolo •"that denies' ' t e opprt\\td !{TOUP'
cnncalh· exan11ne the .,ocial pol· . h') d theni the .opporn1n1ty t<J \rudy and
· ' • ioca 1, an econo1ruc condit h
their ,ubiugation. The im sition f h . . •on\ t at Chnrn 0utt 10
. f h . p<l o t e official ideology denies \tudenr\ a t:ritical
d d
un. er.,tan 1ng o t e1r reahtv Th ~ 'larxist
· task 1s· to raise· the revolunonan.· c<in-
f th . · e 4 eo-1v
sc1ou,ness
r I d o . e rnasses ' ' the pro Ieranat,
· th rough propaganda, .informal educanun ·' and
1on11a e ucaoon. '
Historical Inevitability
In Marxist thou~ht, .the march of history is inevitable and inexorable. Jn an ideological
form .of pr~desonaoon, past, present, and future are the producrs of the working.. of
the dialecacal process-the struggle of contending classes to control the means and
modes of production. 5 Tht: dialectical process follows a predetermined pattern that
relentlessly builds new syntheses fron1 the clash of thesis and antithesis. At the currenc
mon1ent of history, Marx wrote, the conflict is between the capitalises and the prole-
tariat, \Vi th inevitable victory going to the working classes.
Capitalis111, with its never-satisfied appetite for profits, is destined to sow the
seeds of irs own destruction. Its de1nands for more markers and 1nore consumer goods
will lead to spirals of ove11>roduction that will lead to recurring economic crises, reces-
sion, and depression. Capitalists will be forced to reinvest profits to increase produc-
tion without being able to guarantee the consumption of commodities produced. N;
the ranks of unemployed grow because of "economic restTUcturing," 1nore people will
need goods and services hut \viii be unable to purchase them. Imperialist wars would
result beC\\·een capitalist nations that seek mastery over colonial sources of raw mate-
rial and markers. Unernplorment, once periodic, will become chronic, and condition.,
grow ripe for revolution.
After the revolution, all insrrumenrs of production will be centralized in tht: pro-
letarian state created by the victorious workers. The cliccitorship of the proletariat will
be established to bring about the refom1s needed in a classless society. The scare appa-
rarus will be ciken over and redirected to ensure the working class consolidation of
power and concrol. \\'hen the remnanrs of the old capitalist regime have been obliter-
ated, a classless society will appear, 10 utopian fashion, in which there 1s no repre~s1on.
\\'hen evervone i~ a member of one class, the \vorking class, the state, as an instrument
of the dominauon of one class over another, "'-ill wither aw·ay.
Contemporary neo-.\1anosts are most likely to reject or seriously revise ;\lane\
original premise of h1sconcal tne\-icibility. \\'h1le they may soil think in dialectical
tenns that involve the clash of opposing classes and see society as an arena of compet-
ing class interests, they are unlikely ro accept the idea that \icrory is inevitable. Event\
are not just going to cake place because of the workings of a fated dialectical proce~'·
The muggle will be long, with 1nany temporary setbacks along the way.
222 l'IRI I I IDJ 01OC.ll' S1.'D I Dll( llHl:-.
Class Conflict
.
I l1'concal cl-onom1c ch;1nl{C " can't
·<l Il} 1J1a~ •tnt""I"
' ""
co conuol produ<:uon The on·-
It'" of nc\I da,.,cs an<l ihc n:,ulnng d•"' conAt<.:t arc ~etenn1ncd by the cconomy.
S1><:1al dJ'' J11 '''ons are Jctcrn1111c<l h) the das'e'' rehnion~hip to the 1~ean,, tno<les,
anJ o\I ner-hip of production. The 1Jeoloi,ric<1I rationales used to legu11111ze cla\s dom-
1n.u1on rc't on an economic base.
()1er an1e, developments in econo1nic producti~n d~croye<l the .feudal system.
.\lodern c;1p1talism brought inco exisLcnce its own ana_thesis, .the oppo~in_g proletarian
cl ~1ss. The exploitative 111echods of capirnlis111 brought into eXJstence and 1ncrea\ed the
nu1nbcrs of exploited, property-less laborers. . . .
T he proletariat, dependent on selling their labor for their liveli hood, were
forced to give up any claim to the products of their labor. ~factory workers, the pro-
letariat were denied ownership of the nieans of product:Jon. Hov;ever, they created
wealth by laboring on the machines and using the materials owned by their expl oite~,
the capitalise;.
;\larx saw modem soc1ery grouped into two grear opposing can1ps: capitalist and
proletariat. Subgroups that could nor be easily classified \vithin either of the two major
conflicting classes were really satellites of the major contenders for power. The capi-
talises were the 011ners of the resources and en1ployed the proletariat. The capitalists
lived on surplus value, which J\llarx defined as a fund arising fron1 the exploitation of
the lnbor force that niade economic profits for chem. The lower-1niddle class of small
businessmen, shopkeepers, artisan~. and s111all land-holding peasants would see their
economic enterprises absorbed by the large capiralist corporations. This lower strata
of the 1niddle class was destined to sink gradually into tbe proletariat because their
capital was insufficient for the ~cale required by modem industry.
I~ the final struggle, the capitalist.' would face the prolerariat, their economically
detenn1n~d successors. Although 1t 11 a' h"to'?·', unalterable course chat the proletariat
would gain control of the means of producoon, the capitalists would unsucce,sfullv
anen1pt to resist: As a resulr of the proletanan revolution, the capiralist svstein would
be overthro1vn violently. ·
A1?1ough ne~-N~arxists _ma~ remper i\larx's sense of inevirability, they still retain
a co1111n1tment
•
ro viewmg soc1ery 1n tenns of contendm· g classes • ..,., I ·
i ru y progres-.1ve an
d
dernocrnt1c
. educators, they argue, would encourage srud ents to 1'denu fy w1u1 .L th
e
working classes and to work for endemic structural chan ge 1n · th e econorny an d society.
·
The Superstructure of Society and False Ideology

:\s stated earlier. it is matter-the matenal co cli
the base of all societies L"pon th n oons or econorruc factors-that are at
· is economic founda ·
aced. Re1ne1nber that SOCial insoruo'on . non. sooal 1nsoruaons are cre-
s are not 1ndepe d . d nd
enr on the economic foundation or base u _ ~ ent enaoe ; they are epe -
existence.•.\.lso, recall that w-hoe\'er controls th~n which they are erected for their
also ~intro! the supersoucrure.• The tenn su matena1 conditions, the econom}, 'lllill
pohaL-al, religious, aesthetic, and educational1'~t refers co the hod) of legal.
eas, pnnciple~. and 1n tiruuons tn •
C JI \11 1l'R 11 lllfl'FJ<'\ \IARX-IS\l
223
'oc1ety. In a n1odern societ)' . .
.I .I • • It ,\ 1\Cl \\Ill 1Id
rneu1.i, anu entert:a1nn1en• in I include the •1 f
• 1 11\tnc, I h ' >uru,.. o inf! th
rhe pre\\, radio, tele11sion ninui · c u~c of the word intlusrry h innauon, e
encerta1n1nent are manufu~turin J~ 1d1u.:1urc,, ilnd other pr1idutcr I er,e nnphc, that
The mode . g an \cll1ng a produ 'o in111m1auon and
m naoon-\rate 1' th ct.
Th c. nauon-state, · .1
unuer capiral'i<> . e principal ag • enC}'. 1n t he \ocial \upcr 1 .
•1 • • " control ha, niiJ· ' rutnire.
ren1, anu pn~ons to protect it, espt:ciall r:om . itary ~nd police forte,, a te!?al 'Y'-
re\·olutionanes. The church an " Y. dissenren, and, of co111·,e from \larxi\t
• • ugency In the ~ll ' •
to the starus quo that protects ca . • perstrucrure, give\ relig1ou., \ancuon
agencies · th at indoctrinate
· the youn, pita 1IMn . · Further• th e nauonn · I sc hool '>Y\ten1' are
ideology to them. The ))uhl'ic scho gl to acce.pt the status quo by tranq1nitting a fahe
u· s
\trucrure of society It is d · · cl o syste1n 1n the nired tares is pan of the super- ·
and economic relationship~s;~~te to ~eprodt~ce ~~e idea.s, the ideology, and the sottal
. c I . ~u~tain a capitalist, and inherently unequal, soc1en.
In bo th mrorma educanon via th d' d. . .,
f;
31 1
•d • • e me ia, an 1n schooling, the role played bv
'e eo1ogy is t~portant in defending a capitalist society. Although the dominai{t
cla\\es h 1v1ll proclaun their 1deolom. "'' t<J 11Le true , •• · IabeI 1t
'larnsrs · false. Afialst 1·dtoloy;y 1~
·
one t at purports that the agenc1e' 1n the \Uperstructure have a life of their 01111 and
ar.e not dependent o.n concrol of the economic base. For example, religion, dealing
with the human r~laoon~h1p to (;od, ~eek.' to create a separate real111 of thought, theol-
ogy, to explain this relat1on\h1p. The rel1b'10us en1pbasis on a heaven and an afterlife,
Marx fell, 1vas the opiate of the 111a\\e1., whicn deluded them from understanding their
true econon1ic condition.
Another example of fohe idco lob') can be found in education and other ac:1den1 ic
area,, e\pecially in Liberal\ \I ho da1111 that tht:y can be objective and not rake a po~i
tion o n social and political 1\\Ue\. \1arx1\t.\ dann chat objectiiity is not pos~ible: you
are either on the side of the opprc,,or' or on the side of the oppre~sed.
Contemporary neo-.\1arxi't cduc;icor) cononue to pay great attention to who
controls the economic foundanon upon \1h1ch the supersrrucmre re;rs. They point
our that the schools are concrulled by che cap1tahsrs and often serve the interests of the
niodem business corporation. The~ behe'e it i; nec~sary co exa1nine the acmal eco-
nonHc condioons in 11 h1ch an 1n,tiruuon functions. If you 1vant to cut through the
\enuinencal fog of the false 1deolog; Lhat proclaims the public >_Chool to be the age~cy
oI• equ.111n · o f opporruni"'' \ 'OU h·11 e co go to schools and their neighborhoods. \ou
•.., • • . . · .1 I th
· .1 th en· ~I cond ic1ons of schools 1n the inner c1ues anu ana y:re e
ha1e co 'itUu\' e mat u cl d h
h mele~<;ness, une1nploymenc, gang violence, an
•
. . . • . rugs. ave o n
nd11p.1c:1 that po\ e'~d of anal\ ~1s will replace fal5e ideology with true ideological con-
e Ul':lCJOn. Tlus iun o . . nance of economic durn1nacion on ~oc1ety
sc1uu,ne~~. "h1ch ,,,JI demon'>tr:ite the 1nipo
and l'Ulrure.
\ •aluc and Alienation .

. ba d 0 the producrion and ~le of an 1mrnc:n<.c aclu-
\\'ealth tn a capnalb-nc socu:~ b _ 'e ; good~ for "·hich there " a marlc:t -,0111o.: of
mulation of commodioes. nun~hl~e medi~e--satbfy human nt:e<h. If the pro<l-
1
these l'omn1odioes--fooJ. dothtnf. the ' pat:aIDcs will use an acJ,em~1ng l'3.1np~1gn to
UCt does not satish· a hun1an neeu. I! OI
•
224 l'\HTll ll>IC>I c)(,JI \ \°'D ICl>l< \I 10"
t•un11ncc people t h;H the) need 1hc prothtt I and ,hould bu) 11 • Bct:aU\C tht: pr11dU1.t
cithcr.,an,fic, or 1., pcn.:ciiul to ,Jn,f} •1 hu111Jn need, ll ha., a pru.:e on the 111arle1, "h 3 t
\tan t-.illcd a use l'lllrll' For \ t1r'\, thc 1.1lue I\ dcter1111ncd h) tht: an1ount of nect:'-ary
luhor needed to prouulc the cun1mod11'). L:thor power, the 11orL: needed to niake <.ome
pruJu..1 . " Jl,0 J t:ornn1odny that can be \old ln exchange for their lahor, worker-,
rct:cl\t a \\J£"t' 1h:11 .,11,t:un' thcrn f(1r further proc.luc11on. Bcc.1u\C lahor create!> 1111ire
c\chani..rt: 1,1iut than the co't ol work1n!{. 'urplu' 1aluc i' built up It" \Urplu., 1alue. a
pncc h1ght:r chan the cc»c of production, that pro1;dc:. the c:i1p11all\t 1vith profit. lnl\
profit 1> u;ed br the capitalbt to n1ake rnore profit. A\ a re.,ult, the 1vorker "exploirt:d in
thnt the proc.lucts of hi> or her labor are u!>ed for the capit:alis~· \\'ealth and powcr.
()n the 1nodcrn focrory a!>\en1bly line, the \\'Orker perform\ a !>n1all part of the
total production ofa co1111nodin The 11orkcr\ role 1n producuon ts partial rather than
hoh'>ut. Further, the value ha ..ed on the worler..' efforc~.., appropriared h) a non\\ork-
ing cap1t3h'>t..\.,a re\-ult of partial produc:non and cxploitation, \1·orkers heconte Jlten-
ated from their work. They no longer rake pride 1n what they are rnak1ng; the) 11ork to
earn enougb to survive. \\'ork becomes wage ~la1·ery and drudgef). The ,\Ian:ist ~eek!,
to resrore 11 holcne,., to worl and to c111phaSJze the socially useful nantre of productive
work. \\'orl then rnke\ on~ 'oc1al value 11hen tht: products arc ~hared fairly with other
worker...
i\1ARXJSM'S EDUCATIONAL L\1PLICATIO~S
.\I.1r<concerned h1tn'>Clf more" 1th ecunom11.: and nt1J1n,. 11 h h h

· \I ·1 ,.. ~. t cn1e' r an wn edut'1·
uon. 31""'( 'aw ortnJ1educ111un or o,i;huohnl! a' the "(Intent • c.I • h
1·nrcIIec:tua,I \UC1·0I, and ph),K.11 devclopn1cnt I le ernpl ~ "" cxerc"c' · t at I t:J to
13 1·. d h
tet:hn1cal cr.11n1ng 111 the ioc-auon., an · '·~· · f " £e r e 1111portance of pulv-
. u ""l'Upauon~ o rnoc.lem · , h h.
sis on the 1alut:> of !>OOalh ll!>eful labor Pol h . ~oc 1 el), 11 it an emp a-
. • \'tee n1ca 1 educati . .__ _,
prcpaniuon for rhe 11orld of work that conibin. d h J on wa~ a genera1ltcU
the lno\\ ledge and 'lrll!> needed 111 an inti el t et ieory of \Ctt:ntific '>Oc1all\tll "iih
, . ll'>tna ~oc1et}
\ lar'\J'>ITI' llll)lOrtance he\ 1113lnf\ Jn 11 . r ' .
111
T he-.e 11nphc:1tion, :ire ha.,ed on Slarx\.int ' ' P llauon, for tdt1t':tt111naf anal} b.
erprcrauon of etluc:111ion in a capitaf1~r <:cx:1-
.\l.\.R..XIS,\t'S BASIC DOCT~'ES
I. \ latter i' 1n Jialet·oal mooon.

2. \ trUggl, for control of the Illa kn al
3. l'h. 1"201:\lMJ oi the pn)letutat "ilto~da1olb of ~Xlcty C3fl>e\ clu ll
4. fhe t'l-entual tnumph , th ~ the CUrt5cio _ 5 O'Jn 1ru.
5. The ""-'1<11 <uno·~uu~~: c proletariat O\er the capi•~\lness ot the ecplo11cd c:b
6• In a cap1uilist··-· -·~e rc,ts on an ~ rsis rs bton JI.. d _ ,__ _,
cct>now)· •wk CConoauc b-4 sc a •1 c:t.:rnurn:u
' t.r. Ire al cnated from th.
Cir work
st
CJ f \PTER ·n llR'IB· '1 'I •n~
" : '-"A I S \I
cry. Especially relevant is M ' · . 225

c th I . . . ' a rx s view d1· .
1rom ere attonsh1p of C"on . at educn110 11 nee·'·· 1 •
.1n soc1cry,
. t.he c lass that c '" on11c
.
!JO
wcr Lo Ctll1trnl In M·u, 10, )C. inte'l) retcd as nosing
·
· onao1s the · ' .1rx, view th d · 1
constitutes legitiniate knowledg.e thn1cans. and n1ode, of 11roducti<',~ e ,.<l>lnd1mfian1 ca,,
· · • e curnc I c "• w1 e ne what
1n1ne approprtale subjects and escabl' h u t~in, 1ound in tht: schoc>I· 1 , II d
· 1· · is died Ii ·· '· tw1 etcr-
I n a capita •St society, in which \l'e altl1 an d p e n>unns :ind boundancs '
b~"·
~•ween
th e1u.
1
resources, expectations, and oppo..... . . <wer are unequal ly d1strihutt:d t!ducaounal
· · · d
,Marx1st-1~sptre education is to brin °
· "Ul1l1es wil l als b •
e unequal. 8 The driving goal of a
restructuring so that ownership of th g 3 bone fundamental economic change and
possessed groups. Tliis niai'or Ma . e. rne ~ns and modes of production passes to dis-
.
ory. It 1s abo a powerful tool of an 11 • fi L'
1
nose 1n1p 1caoon cl ·
. nves neo-Marx1st · .
educattonal the-
a }Sis or •beraoon Pedagogy and Critical Theory.
Schools in a Capitalist Economy

Neo-Marxists · see schools
. ·n · 1·1st society
' a capita · as agencies
· used by tbe dominant class
~o reprodn~e ~e ex1.sring c lass strucrure tl1at Favors thei r interests.9 The concept of
repro<l~cao~ . of existing structures and power relationships is an i1uportan t tool used
by MarXJsts.; it is also a key tool of analysis in Liberation Pedagogy and C ritical The-
ory. Schooling, in a capitalist sociecr, reproduces the ideological, social, political, and
economic re lationship• that are based on do1ninant class interests. The school's loca-
tion reflects the 1naterial conditions of the society. If it is located in a predominantly
whi te, affluent, upper-middle-clas~ district, ,,;th a high tax base and a low crin1e rate,
the cli111ate \Yi thin the school will reflect these n1aterials conditions. Howt:ver, if it is
located in a predominantly niinoriry, IO\\er-incon1e district, with a high rate ofunea1-
p loyni ent, the school, too, will re~ect these material conditions. .
The school's curriculu1n \>111 reAt:ct how the don11aant class conceives of and
uses 1..,110,vtcdge. \Vhat is ~elected to be part of the curriculum.will reinforce exis?ng
beliefs and values for the children of the do1n1nant ~lass and :"ill be used to c~n~1nce
children of subordinate da~ses that this curric~lun11s also valid f?r them. A~urusa·a
Lors eni lo ed b die doniinant group, will cla1n1 chat they are using standardized t~sts
' b~ Y. y of students' acaden1ic achievement. However, neo-Marxists
as an o iecnve nieasure obi·ective instrUI11eats are frame d 1n · 1
c
r
ass-re1erence
d .
ways
a II ege JI cl
' th at th ei.e bso-cati e f the do1ninant class. Sru dents then ,,,·11 be groupecl accor
· · d-
~at work to the ene t 0 , is ha ening. however, is that the te~ts are used as a
1ng to test results. \\'liar reall} . thpp h 1that mirror and reproduce the class siru-
sorriag de,·ice ro arn1nge groups'" e sc 00
ation ~ar exists outside of th~ s~ :
001
c.h they claim to be in a capitalise sociery,
Ramer than being the insoruoons a rand p.:rperuare the conrrol of the domi-
schools are agencies mat reproducediens;e·n· of equaliry of opporruniry, but rather
nant group. They <lo nor pracace the _ eoh,o are in a favored position to !>tay 10 diat
. educate . .~e " colleges and un1'·ers1aes
· c · _, · The\· 0 · · so th at they CMJ
re1n,orce meqtt:uiaes.
po~iaon b\ preparing then1 for presagious Simultaneou~ly, the children of the
rake their ·parents' places ID the corporate sect~~· to scav in their places at tbe bottom
. d I SS~ are abo prepar .
l~s\-fu\'Ore<l, dommace ca al
of the ~oc1al and econonuc C1 e.
Jn :uldit111111., lhC' <1•iuc rt1 .,1 1ht , 1ir11u1h1111, \l 111ns1' 1rg11e th~t the \\8\ S<.hu,
are!!"' l"ml'd, organizr.t, nriil npcr "' '' hJ•ed ••II the 1Jcul11 !\ .. f the d• 111urunt !!TUUp
In u \'Ullll lli,1 , 1'""" 111 ctlci t 11 c •d1uul 11pc1~11:s hlc 1 hu•1nes, 11hcrc: econotnJc
elhClc 11, 1 , , , ~·n•ll)t pt1t1uplc I ln11 1111111 •111dc111' t:un •e t I 1c1tc:d at the: I t
l!0,,1hlc Ct"' -.. ,1,, 0111 , n.tcn" ~•c 1ega1 tlc1I, hkc 1he1r Lnt pc.r;;itc countc:1111r 1 , cd
,.inoaul ( J l l., 11 t111 "" L 1,, 11 1,1\111111.c 11utl.11111t'' 11 hilt 1111111111 • ~'pc:nd11urcs Pnna
p.1(, in 1,c::irdt·d ,1, nuddk 11 1.1 11 . 1 ~, 1 , 11h111111pk111c111 d11c<t11cs r\\Uc:cl 111 them froin
11fii.-1.1I' h11:hl'r 1111he 'lhoi•I hun:.111u.1<1 . ll'.ll'hcr' .irl' rc1.t.1rdcd 3\ cduc~t1r1nal f
1111n.1nc' \\ hn l.lrl) 011 the pnlc'l'''l' ol .111,1nrlrton wtth clfil.rtn~ prct:t\lr•n, and
Jent' ,\fl' hUlll;ln COl11111<ldlt1l'' lO hc prtill''\Cd thrOU!{h me \t:hool \ 111.tdllnt:I)
Edut~tnnnal refnrn1' 1n ;1 l.IJHl•lii...t ... oc.:1et} aun to develop nc 11 "a~~ 11f dr t
111nre 111th le,, e'iienJnure of tund' Fducanonal re'>Wt'> are 1nca,urcd h} fixed un-
J.1rJ, ch.It are '>Ome" hat Lile the 411al1t} i.:ontrol rnea.,ure~ u\ecl in 111.I\\ pr11ducuon
Education and Schools as a Tool for

Raising Consciousness
.\lan behe1·ed that a genuine educaoon, as opposed to capitaJht 1ndoctnnat1on, aimed
to de,elop a crirical conscioll!>ness 1n students mat would enable the1n co penttrare the
1ncellecrual fog, the rationales of those who conrroiled the 111eans and 1node., of pro-
ducoon. False consciousness, the ideolob'Y of the donlinant ruling class. ts a Strate~
U\ed in schooh to confuse the children of marginalized groups about the cond1t1om
that exploit then1 and to indoctrinate then1 in ideology that oppresses thein.
Conternporary neo-Maritistli, like Marx, call for an education mat encourages
i.rudents to develop a critical t:onsciousness about reality, about the economic factors
that govern sociecy, and the class structure that arises from it. They argue that the
dominant class, the capitalists, in their modem corporate form, control sc.:hoob as \1ell
as other instirucions, and use them for their o\vn economic profit and social aggran·
dizemenr at the expense of the oppressed classes. Neo-Marxists, today, unden:al.:e a
broader and more comprehensive examination of the causes of class dom1nanon thlt
extends beyond .\1arx's originaJ economic factors. 10 J\larxist teachers should ra1.,e their
students' cricicaJ conscious.ness by examining the real economic, polincal, and social
conditions that impact their lives. Much of the examination focuses on class1s1n, the
conyol of one cla~~ by another, ~~ racism, discr.i1nination and oppression hecau>e ~f
ones race, and seXIsm, t!1e oppress1?n of \von1en 1n a maJe-don1 inated p3 triarch:1l soci-
ety. Development of cnucal consciousness requires: (1) a realistic exainination of the
:cono~ic fact~,r~ that le.ad to expl oitati~n in m.odem society; (2) an cxpo,ure of the
false ideology_ tnt~ which students are 1ndoctr1nated in a capitalbt consumer-dnven
society; (3) a. d1scuss10? of w~~t can be do?e to .organize oppressed group' in order to
improve their econorruc, poh.ocal, and soc1ecy situation; (4) strategie' for taking acoon
1n order to rransform the sooety and economy.
Schools as Arenas of Conflict

Using conflict theory derived fron1 Marx's idea of cl fl ' ..mtt!
'k th · I · · . ass con 1ct, neo-.\1arx1't'> a.!'--
mat \Chools, lI e 0 er SOt:Ia tnStllUOOOS are places h . ""le
' w ere oppo~ing group' ,trur>"
Cll \l'llR I l llR!FJ''\ \1\"v
"'h\1
for power ,1 nd co ntrol .1 .1,, 227

. ·~ c"l'111 11I
\I hite upper and 111iddlc ··I i· ' \lfllJ.(1(11•" liuw» n h
' ' ''l''
n3ted. opprc'>sed µ-rou ll\ 1. 1 .. II 1hi
lllJu~ .1 f11., 11.d 11 , 11,
~c I c cJ• 111 11
' unt gruup>-<he
• l 1.1 1.ind . I ' '""L ~t 1111,._ J th J
plo1ed ..ind 11· 0 1ne:: n . Lt 1111l 1111111 11 111 l , thi ni c 01111-
. '"" ' llnt111pl•11ed •nr1 unJe.rcrn-
•O understand g-roui) duni
l l1Hl1Ll' <1110 \Il l .1
t"0\1,C1 0U '11C~~ . neo-i\.f arx1 ~ t edu-- . 1oruin;111011 Jnd l•• f31\e Slit I I I
J) I . \ee k 10 . (I)
,,1 u 11, • cnh cTI11ca
culture; (~ l etern11n e how power 1, I' . h t~J111111e the nJ1urc ,if dali ind das\
social control niechan isrns 1.h at th _,l l\l ll uteu hetwtcn thc d~"C.\, (\J 0~ 111111 ., the
· d e u o 1111n·11n cla., h J 1
donunate class; (4) exainine how th 1 ' ; a' cic !JpeJ "' suti<1nlin:nc the
contro l. t: ( Olllln:tnt cln;' ll\e\ '>thool' a\ agent1e' of v><.ul
SAi\fUEL BOWLES AND HERBERT GINTIS

Ai\fARXIST Al~ALYSIS OF SCHOOLING IN
1
ACAPITALIST SO CIETY
In Schoo~ing i11 Capitalist Anterica, Bowles and Gintis use iVlarxist concepts to analyze
how capitalism, as the dominant economic system in the United States, causes inequal-
ities and cono·adictions in society and education. They contend that public school~. as
educational agencies of capitalism, work to reproduce these conuadictions. As you read
the selection, you might wish to reflect on the following focusing questions:
1. Can you identify the Marxist tools of analysis that Bowles and Gintis use in their
commentary on education and schooling in the United Scates?
2. How do Boivles and Gintis define "the hierarchical division of labor," "bu:;eau-
cratic authority of corporate enterprise,'' and "suatific~tion by. ra:e, sex~ e ~ca
tion, and social class." How do these conceprs funcoon Lil a cap1tahst society:
3. Ho'v an d wh y do pu blic schools ler>itinlize

.,- econo1nic and social inequaliti.:s:
lic schools encourage a technocratic-meritocratic ideology?

4. How and \Vhy do pob
flounder on an incornplete underStanding of the

The ha lting contribution of U.S. educa- economic system. We do not intend to repeat
tion to equality and full human development
these mistakes. We must devote e_noug~ a~en
appears intimately related to the nature of the tion to the nature of U.S. ~cononuc 1nsorunons
economic structures into which the schools ·ely base a realisnc altemaove educa-
lllust integrate each new generation of youth. to secw · h
. 1 theory. No facile or superficial snaps ot
V.'e have seen both liberal educational reform ttona
of . uo.
the U.S. economy 11ill " \'' . h to
•e do not ins
and the social theories on which reform is based
• • , • • ita/iJ1 tlmrricn: EJucotion Rtfann 011d the Camradit
/1
F 1B I and l(erbertGu1as,Scboo/rrigJ11 C )J SJ-56, 102- 105, 125-126, 131- 133. Credit:
.rom Samue ~wl~ New York: Basic Books, 19?~· berPP· Gintis. CopynghtC> 1976 by Baste Books, Loe.
Non.r of Economic ;t. l el Bowles and .-.er 1 C
Schooling in Capitalist AT11rtica b~ Saniu'·· ember of Perseus Books, L.L. ·
.
Rcpnnted .
by permission o f Baste Boo..., a "'
u1.1innl\ (lhl' '"1rl.;i:f')i proti:ttlnl! a ""Ide
h1Jc the tJlt th.n our .in.th"' 111 L .-. '.1p11.il1,1n
1111111111 ;, (l.lpll•lh't' .1n1l 111.1n.1i,:cr'l aga1n•t the
11111 require at1cru111n to ";Ill<"d11tll·11lt prohl,·11h
11111, 111;1 111.11• 1r111; .ind suhtcl ung the nia1on!) to
1n e<·onolllll' 1hc11n '"""'"I 1h1' '""'1.llltl\l' ihl 111 ,l\ 11 11.1l 1nth1l'llll' of 1h1s single unreprescn-
t!\lllf'lllll 1t1t11 l'l'<ll11lllll\'' 1111 \\ hllh \It' IHI\\ 1.1111c 1111 n1111t) · ,\ 111orc clrn111:1t1< t.'Onu·~,t one
e111barl.: 111a1 '"'1111<• th.: r.:.1tlcr 11111 111 pl.I<<' 111 .1
0tx1!.: 1•ll c~l11r;11111n \ ct 11nh 1hn111i.:h 'u<·h .1
1111 uld ht· h;1rd prt."''t.'t.Tepan1.1.
, ruJ\. \\,.he ht' It'. \.Ill 1111• lllltlt!f't<llld the \IOI" 1·he un<le1110<.r;111c \tnttt11re of ei.:on1,m1c
tllf:' t>I th<' l .-. t'llll<'•Hn>nJl ' Y'ce1n .1nJ the life 111 the United State' 1nay he crated dircctlv
10 the 1noving force 1n the c.:ap1tal"t ')'ll:1n. 1h~
n1cJ11' co d1.1n~c 11.
1'h,• et·11non11 produces people. 'fhc pro que,r for profil.S. c:apitah't' niake prritit, h).
Ju•oon of conllllt;diCTes 1nay be con~1<lered of diciring a high level of output fr1~1n a f!enerall}
qu1te n11nor 11nporc1nce except a~ a neces.,ary
rcc.:;1lc1tranr 1vork force. The cnt1<.-al pr<ict'» of
input 1nn1 people production. Our critique of
exacting frorn labor as much work a' po,s1ble 1n
the L':lp1tJli'r econo1ny is ~nnple enough: the
rerum for the lo\1'est po,~ible 11 age' i\ marked
people pro<lucoon process-in the 11 orkplace
bi antagonistic conflict, in contract barg:11n1ng
and m -chool.,._" dominated br the 1mpera-
a~d equally in daily hassles O\'er the inten~1t}
O\'~ of profit and don1inarion rather than br
human need. The unavoidable necessiry• of an<l condirions of "·ork. The totalitarian strUc-
gro11ing up and getung a job in the linite<l rure of the capitalist enterprise is a mechanlSIIl
States forces us all to become less than we could used by employers ro conrrol the work force in
be: less free, less ~ecure, in short less happy. The the interestS of profits and stability....
t:.S. economy is a fonnally totalitarian syste1n Our first step is to analyse the marker and
in 1vhich the :tctions of the vast majority (work- property relations of capitalisn1, for it is here
ers) are controlled by a small minority (owners that formal political equality, legal reciprocity,
and nlfillagers). Yet this totalitarian system is and voluntary free market exchange are t:raDS-
embedded in a formally democratic political latecl into economic do1nination. Of prime
system 11·h1ch promotes the norms-if not the irnporrance is the severely unequal 01vnership of
practice-of equality, justice, and reciprocity. productive and financial resources. \\'ere these
The strongly concrasting narure of the eco- more or less equally distributed, econonuc life
no1ruc and political systems can be illustrated by n11ght not be undemocratic. The concentr.1000
the diatnetrically opposed problems faced in of control of these resources, ho"·e1·er, means
maintaining their proper functioning. For the ~e majority muse exchange their only produc-
polit1cal sy~tem, the central problen1s of de1noc- tive property (their capacity to labor) for a wage
racy are: insuring the maximal parricipation of o~ s?lary, thereby agreeing to E,rive forn1al juns-
the majority in decision-making; protecting d1coon over their econo1nic activities to owners
n1inorities against the prejudices of the 1najor- and..managers. Thus forn1al equality in the
ity; an<l protecting the majority from any undue t~ohocal sphere and equal exchange 1n comperi-
influence on the part of an unrepresentative ove markets give rise to relation~h1ps of domi-
minority. These problems of "making de1noc- nance and subordinacy w1th1n the confineS of
racy work" are discussed at length in any high the capitalist enterpnse.
school textbook on government. . But these po"·er relationship~ are still
For the economic system, these central ?nly fonnal. Once within the fqrma/ly torahrar-
problems are nearly exactly reversed. Making ~an factory or office, what pre\'ents workers
lJ.S. <.-apitalisn1 work involves: insuring the min-
~0 1:" wresting control of their acri,,ties from
imal participation in decision-1nalcing by the t e1r employers? \\'hat prt\'enr::. worLc:~
l 11 \Pl I R 11 llRT~ t ' \(
\R,\1,,,
h 1ul!h the con1h1ned po\vcr or lh . 229

1 11
1'\ ·fnun altering- the ten11., of the ir )lote11 11ol 1.a'-:t•, ~c~ I
uni . . ' e1r l·ont . · t·• 11l ~111 1 n
en1ployc~ tO\\ard ~a11,fnn1r ti r.iu olten iuu ~l'll' I .ind "'lial da" v.h1ch
'' tlh ~ . • r"t llll r ( 1 111
.
' '" 1111r~hly
nt!<
.i.,: Part of the an'" er lie, a•'"Jin
"
'
111 111ar~ct .1111~1111\1n ··n I I J
.. c •f J IC II
. 111I redII< 1111! 'the ere-
J propcl't) re1,111ons: the eniplo"e. 1 \\' · ) " ••rkr,.,,.
I . . . . ~ 111 1-\~Cll 1Ii· I
in h hi ·' . . i I in~n the
• ..niJI n~ c to re .tnu fire. fhts righ
t<1•" ife ., 1n11111lal lo heahh .1\ I 1t 4''"''1) <11 "'•rl.:
l tis enec- YI r ''"JI tll!\el••prncom
~ ho" c1·er, on ) when tl1e cost l(l , k . .inu indeed 111 L
~·· . ~ren1s • c lll'Ucl!1re' f
hi!(h• ch.u 1•,, 11 h~n the~e 1s a large pool of lahor omr 11nuld he I ) 1>owcr m the Ct<>n -
as l1heratccJ e~ lrt:akncd ">
m,unnu.ru (sucb
"
~th the appropnate skill-. available in tli
e 1arRer hun1an d I ucnuon) which prrn111t1e hill
.,ot.ieC}. into 11 h 1ch \\Orkers are threatened to be th I' e1e opn1ent. .\Iorco1er, v.c argue tha1
nl1'hed. Indeed, we -.hall suggest tliat the ·
r- . h " ma1n- i ~a icnatcd character of work 3\ a \<JC1al 3ln1 -
renance o 1sue. a reserve anny" of skilled labor t} cannot he a~cnbed to the nature of "modem
ha> bc:en a ma1or, and not unintended effect 0 f technol <>gy, " 11L Ut is,
•
ratber, a product of the cJa,\
t:.S. education through the years. ' and power relations of economic life. Though
Pare of the ans11•er co maintaining rh the srrucrural changes required are far-reaching.
dominance of tl1e unal1enated work can be achieved without sacn-
. e1nployer
. over \VOrkers lies Ill ·e
ficing the niaterial conveniences of mo<lem life.
me. direct appI1canon of force: the passage of
~1milarly, we suRgest that economic 1nequaht}
2nol3bor la,1•s and the use of tlie police power of
is a strucrural a\pect of the capitalist economy
me srnce. It is precisely against this "solution" and does not derive from individual differences
that workers have fought tlieir 1najor batt.les and in skills and competencies. \\'hile the euent of
won some significant victories over the past inequality b subject co change through changes
t-enn1ry. The direct applicanon of force b\ no in the ~trucrure of the econon1v, it is hardl1'. sus-
'
means insures the 1naintenance of capi~alist ceptible to an1elioration through educaoonal
po11er rebrions, howe\'er, in part because 1r:. poliq....
unlirnited and undisE,ruised use may be counter- The hwnanity of a nation, it is said, can be
productive, and 1n part because the labor-capital gauged b} the character of ics prisons. No less
conrract cannot stipulate all, or e1t:n mosr, of can ii', hun1anity be inferred fron1 the quality of
the rcquire1nenrs to insure the profitab1licy and its educanonal proces.o.es. In the in1ttation of
1cahihty of the enterprise. \ouch, a sociel) re1·eals ics highest aspirations,
\\e ~hall argue that a n1ajor instrument icn1pered less by tbe weight of tradioon than by
~ 1ekled by ovmers and managers in stabilizing a the hmit!> to which the social relationship'> of
totalitarian Sl.'Stem of econo1nic po\ver is the adult life can be pushed. \Ve believe that 1n the
nrbra111zanon ·of the production proce s icself. conce1nporary t:niced States, these limits are
sufficientlv narrow to preclude the educat1onal
The long run succes\ of any totalitarian sysc~m
S}'Stem from s1multaneouslr integra~ng youth
requires a \1-idely accepted ideology ju1ofying
into adult ~ociery and conrnbuong s11,m1ficantly
the 'l<1':1al order and a srrucrure of oc1al rela- co economic equality. In promoong what John
tJon,hips 11 hich both 1-:ilidates this ideology Df" e\ once called the "social continuity of hf~,"
thronirh ereryday experience, and frngments b,· in~egraong new generaoo~s mto .the. soetal
the ruled inro n1urualh· 1ndifferent or antago-
or· der, the ~ool!t are constratlled co iusofy . and
nistic 'ubgroups. . . e inequaltt11 rather than correcc it.
"fhe c-ap1tahst enterprise is no exL-epoon reproduc The panem · of economic · ·1nequa1 1ry·1~
to thi, pattern . . . The cho~en srrucnu:e of · ·: anth• •i.et" 1n the economy 1tself-v1a
Social relattoru.h1ps is the luerarch1cal dii"ISIOn predorrun • h'ch d
market and propert) tnSorunons w 1 u:ta~e
oflabor anJ bureaucratic authonry of co~nice mtl>lioe; in income from proper!)', 1n
w1 de 1ne.,- ·
Cllterpri)C. The ''~tern of scr:1ritit"Jcion is by
.
the hasic \Ocial rd,111011., of corpo1.nc enter 11 ;11ei:o1101111c 'ucce''· ' fhe educational ment0<;.
pn,es, ;111d 1n the tl•ndi:nt; 1011 ;11 <l nnc\ t•11 r;IC)' j, 1,1rµcly '>y111holil'.
de,·eloprni:nt. 11 luch lcJd., to ~ei-'1011.11, .,ecaon;tl, Clearly, thoul(h. th1'> SJ'l_nboli.,111 i3 deeply
rJcial, 'exu;1I. ;1J1<l cthnK <ll\JMntlc,, But the ctLheJ 111 the ,\menl•\11 con!>CtOU'>ne.,~. Xothin~
klegi ti 111Jno11 h}llotht•s" •· ... goes cons1dera bl} exhih1b thi;, 1norc dc;irly than the recent "IQ
heyonJ this Je,eJ of a11JI} sis. For h .. uggests thJt debate," where it ha\ been genernlly as~uined
a ma1or de111enr 1n rhe 1ntegrau,·e function of that IQ and other 111ca\ures of t01'('111ave per-
eJucaaon "the legit1111;1uon of preexisting eco- formance are important indicator' of economic
nomic d"panties. Thu; efforts to realize egali- 3 uccess. ()nly the genetic or tll\1ronment1l
tarian ohjecti\es are not simply we:1k; they are decer111i11ant> of IQ have heen questioned.
abo, as we ;hall demon\trate, in $Ubstantial con- Yet we \\~IJ argue t.hat social clas'> or racial
A1ct 111ch the 1ntegraa'e function of education. difference~ in IQ are nearly irrelevant to the
The educational system legitin1ates eco- process of intergenerational staru' transm1ss1on.
nomic inequality by providing an open, objec- Throughout history, pattern'> of privilege
tive, and O\tensibly 1neritocratic n1echanism for have been justified by elaborate facades. Domi-
assigning indi,;duals to unequal economic posi- nant cla.,~es seeking a stable social order have
uons. The educational sysren1 fosters and rein- consistent!} nurrured and under.vrinen th~
forces the belief that economic success depend\ ideological fucades and, insofar a~ their power
essentially on the possession of technical and permitted, blocked the emergence of alterna-
cognitive skilb-skills which it is organized to tives. Th1\ 1s what \Ve niean by "legitin1ation":
provide 1n an efficient, equitable, and unbiased the fostering of a generalized consciousne~s
tnanner on the basis of 111eritocratic principle. among 1ndn'iduals which prevent!> the fonna-
Of course the use of the educational sys- tion of the social bonds and c1;tical understand-
tem to legitimize inequality is not without tt'> ing whereb) existing social conditions 1night be
own proble1ns. Ideologies and strucrures which transformed. Legitimation may be based on
serve to hide and preserve one fonn of miusnce feeling; of 1ne\itab1ltcy (kdeath and raxes") or
often provide the basis of an assault on another. 1noral dc~irability ("everyone get!> what they
The ideology of equal educational oppommity deserve"). \!\'hen the i~sue is that of social JUS-
and meritocracy is precisely such a contrad1c· uce, the'e feelings are both present, with a do'>C
tory mechan13m. of"CU!>tom" and ~resignation" as well.
We shall argue that beneath the facade of .In. U.S. economic life, legit11nation ha~
111eritocracy lies the reality of an educational been 1na1nately bound up ~1th the technocrauc·
s)~tem geared row-a.rd the reproducoon of eco- mericocratic ideology.... Several related aspc:<.-n
non1ic relauons onl} paniallr explicable in ?f .the SOCial relation) of pro<luc..'t1on are le!(lt-
ternis of technical rcqu1remencs and efficiency 1m1~d, ~n pare, by the meritocraac ideology. To
standards. Thus we shall first suggest that edu- begin with, there are the overall characteri~tics
cauonal tracking based on competiuve grading of work 111 ad\-anced l:.S. capitahilll: bureau-
and ob1ectl\·e test score.'> tS only rangentiall)'
?"30~ organizaoon, hierarchical line~ of author·
related to social effioency. Then we shall
confront the technocrJtic-meritocratic ideol-
•cy, JO? fragmenraoon, and unequal par. It is
essenoal that the ind1\idual accept and. indeed,
ogy head on by show mg that the a~oon
come to see as narural these undemocraoc and
beN·een len~ of educaoon and economic suc-
l'es.~ cannot be accounted for 1n terms of the unequal aspeas of the workadav "·orld. ~torc
O\-er, the staffing of th . . • mUSt appel'
cognitive achievements of studenrs. Thus the . · tse pos1oons
egal11:anan tn proc and . --L
yardstick of the cducaoonal ment<X.ncy-test lei to the fo ess . . Just 10 outcome,.--.
<1con:s l'untnbure surpnMngly hnle to 1ndl\id- befo th la~ pnnople of "equalit) of .a
re e w" ID a lihcraJ democraa·.
•
t.111~ 11" 11u1\t l<.L'. ~ \t\RXl~\ I
)hi\ le!-riu1nation of capitali~m

23 1
· .• · . a, a '<><:1al
"' _
ieni has its counterpan 1n the indh·i.1 . 1•
. . . . u11,1 , per .ltthnu.:aJI,, nt:<:e,,ary ( lilt11
·~·I hie. Thw.. JU.'lt as 1nd1•1duals niu•t,. •an), hut it al<;() ·u fi a l'"hul11ll~ toul11ar-
..o•- I . , .on1c 10 1 '>t1 ~the h ·
·:i:pr the o'era 1-.oc1al relanons of pr(··' . lltent 1\ ob1ec:11ve d f" \te'A 1 JI 1oh a''•2ll-
"''
..o \\ 0 rl;el't n1u.\t re,pect the authonri.·
JUlU:non
and . ' JU\l and t!{alitaria~n h~~c1en1 and, iherefore•
~ . ., l:01n- \ loreo\'er the ind . d. J 11 't1erc:I) uneqwlJ,
n.'tence uf t heir 01111 supen1sors" to direct th
r· d s:. th . e1r ~ati,fied wicb • h" 1v1 hua " r~igne1 l to, 1f not
acoiioe-. an JUStl ·~ • _eir 01vn authonry (how- h1c:rarch cf
, ' ~ or er 'wn' J1' 1'1111in in the
....·er e\Cen.,11·e or 1n1n1mal) over others Th authori y ;f production. ' fhc leg1111naty of the
•· . <l . •· at ,· . ty superiors Aow' not fr1111 1 \<11;ial <:<>n-
1111 rkers be res1gne . . to their position in llrod ,
uc- u 1v.1nce but from Science and Reason.
aon i., perhaps suffi CJent; that they be reconci led
.. .
10 d1eir fate i~ even preferable.
The hall1nark of the me1itocratic perspec- · · · \.Ye must consider ~chools 1n the: light
of,the social relationships of economic hfe....
are is 1cs reduction of a co1nplex web of social
\\e suggest that 1najor aspeccs of educaoonal
relationships in production to a fe11• rule~ of ?rganiz.ation replicate che relaoon>h1p'> of dom-
teehnological efficiency. ln this vie1v, the hierar- inance and subordinancy in the economic
chical division of labor arises fro1n ics natural sphere. The correspondence between the social
111periority as a device to coordinate collective relation of schooling and work accounts for the
2cu1icy and nurrure expertise. To motivate the ability of the educational '}'Stem to produce an
most able individuals to undertake the necessarv amenable and fragmented labor force. The
mmmg and preparation for occupational role~, experience of schooling, and not 1nerely the
salaries and status n1ust be clearly associated content of formal learning, is central to this
with level in the work hierarchy.... process. In our view, it is pointless to ask if the
This 1neritocratic ideology has ren1ained a net effect of U.S. educacion is to pro1note equal-
dominant theme of the mainsrrean1 of social '>ci- ity or inequality, repression or liberation. These
ence since the rise of the factory syscen1 in the i'>sues pale into insignificance before the major
l"mted States. The robusmess of this perspec- fact: The educational syste1n is an integral ele-
the (e\'en those 1vho rejeet it have nagging 1nenr m the reproduction of the preva1hng class
stn1crure of society. The educational system
~ubrs) is due, in no small pan, to its incorpora-
certamlv bas a life of its own, but die experience
non in n1ajor social inscirotions-facrories,
of work and the namre of the clas'> <;trucrure are
office\, go"emment bureaus, and schools. For the bases upon 1vhicb educational \·alues are
the technocratic Justification of the hierarchical formed, social justice assessed, the realm of the
di\1sion of lahor leads sn1ootlily to a rneriro- possible delineated i~ people's conscious~ess,
tratic view of the process whereby indi~~duals and the social relaoons of the educaoonal
are matched 10 jobs. An efficient and unper- encounter historically cransforined... ·
IOnal bureaucracv so the story goes, assesses the Econonuc: life exhibits a cornplex and rel-
tn<l '.I }I d
l\luual purelv in terms of his or her expecte
Ct>n 'b , . atively stable panem of po:-ver and prope~
d tn unon to production. And the main relationships. The perperuaoon of the\e social
ctc~1nants of 1ob fimess are seen to be those reaoo.
l
. n•tups even over relarin:ly short periods,
· . .
~tlve and ~)·chomoror capacities rele~-:int . b . 0 means automaoc. ~ "1th a IJ\1ng
ii!' 'AOrker'\ techrucal ability ro do the 1ob.
• tedtnocratic \le" of producoon. rogedier
1s\D
orm1rus • .
. h .th
· . m stabilitY 1J1 the economic sp ere b e
·;ttlt of explicit mechant\ITIS consorute to
. d
"ith
die lbe mcntocraoc
· \1e"· of hi nng,
· pro1ide)
ed re and enend the dominant panems of
strun~t form of legi.omarion of ~ienac ni:untalJl d pri,-ilege. \ \ ·e call the sun1 totll of
power an anisnJ.S and their al"Oons . th e repro-
~ and social stratification in capitah\t sOCl- these mech
tty. Not only docs It srronglr reinforce the ducrion process.
~ !hat the hierarchical division of labor is
~c 1 th< dt:' c) ..ptnCJlt of pcr~onal needs tu 1~
\m1d't the '-undl"\ ""ul rcb11011' l'.'1"'"
11.:4111re111cllt\
t'.111'.'t'tl 1n d11h lite, a tc" '1.1nd ou1 D' ,entrJI '" But the cool:'p-;1ntl nee of Khoohng with
our aruh' ' of NIK 11,m Ill~ urc 1•rr•" h ihe , 11oal 1ela1111t1\ of 11rodut.t1on !'tJC:'> liq ind
th<" 'ocul relanon,h1p' "h1< h 11re ne•'-''"" 111 it11, ugµrc g nc level I> ft rent IC\ I• • f cduca-
the' ~IOI\ of l"llJUtal ,, pnlllt' Ollll tht -11h1hl\ 111111 lcetl "01 lc:r• into differ nt IC\. 1, v.1thut the
ot th capital'' d1\ '1un ol l.ihor ll1r1 111dudc •k< ,1rueturc an I l<•rTteSJ!! nd ngl)
1.1111111.11
tht p;lttt'rn' of rlo11111311,, 11nd ,ul1<•rJinJ• \ 111 111
the produ.uon pni.. ''· th< d"t ·1hu11• •n 11f '"' 11 1cn•I 111\1.1nl ,111 1n1emal orlt'.an11.auon ct npar
,1hlc 111 ll·'cl' 1n the h1cr~rlh1c:il dtv ~•on of
.1,!1 r ol pn1-l11\tl\< '''''It-,,,, 1nJ 1hi: d1·g1c1·'
).ihnr \., \\ e h.1ve 'ecn, the I<•" e'it levels in the
of ,,,,.-,al 1!1, 11111< ~11d "'hd.1nl\. .11110111:. ,,1111111'
hll'r.ll'l h1 of the cntcrpn'c c111ph.1s11e rule.ful..
tnli-"II1<nt' ,,f the \\11rl..111~ \ll•pul.1non-n1~11 .ind
lt1\\ 1ng-. .1111u<lle lc1c),, uepcnd.1b1ht} and the
"·on!CI\. bLi~ ' an.I" hit~'· .ind" hac- md hlue-
lJp;lUt\ 10 opcrare 1\lthout direct and conunu-
co lar "url.c:r-, to n t:nnon ' omt' of the 1111"1
0u, ,upen1.,1on. 11 hile the higher It!\ cl\ urn
....il·ent.
the 1nccmahzaoon ot the nonn' of the emer-
•••
The eJucauonal ')'tern help> mtcgratt' pn,e. S11n1IJrl). 1n education. 1111\ er le~el (Jun-
ior and ,en1or lugh '-Choo!) tend to ~ere!)
.\"Ouch mto thc: cconun11c ~>tern.
. "e believe,
hn11c and channel the aLth 1uc:' of 'itudents.
through a 'tructural l'Orrtspondence between in.
,ociaJ relaoon, and tho>e of producoon. The So1newhat higher up the edul-ational ladder,
srmcrurt' of '10031 relatioru. in education not teacher and commun11:y college' alloll for mure
onl) inures the! '>tudent to the discipline of the independent activity and less 01t'rall -.upen1-
"·ork place, buc develops the types of personal sion. At the top, the elite four-rear college~
demeanor, modc:' of self-presenta tion, self- en1 phasize social relationshipi. conforinable
imaf?e. and soc1al-cla~s identifications which are with the higher levels in the prouucoon hierar-
c
the crucial 1ngred1encs of 1ob adequacy. Specifi- chy. Thus schools continuall; 1nainta1n their
call~~ the social rdaoonships of education-the hold on students. As they "1naster" one t}'pe of
relation~h1p> hem een adminisrrators and teach- behavioral regulation, ther are either allowed to
ers. teacher.. and srudencs, srudencs and ~rudenn., progress to the next or are channeled inco the
and srudentS and their work- replicate the hier- corresponding level in the hierarchy of produc-
archical d1,is1on of labor. Hierarchical relanons oon. £,,en llithin a single school, the social rda-
are reflected in the verocal authority hnes fron1 tionships of different tracks tend co conform ro
admirustraton. to teachers co srudencs. Alienated different behavioral nom1s. Thus in high
labor is reflected in the student's lack of control school, vocational and general trac~ en1phas1ze
over his or her education, the alienation of the rule-follo\ving and close supervision, while the
student fro1n the curriculum content, and the college track tends toward a 1nore open aonos-
moti\11non of ~chool work through a systen1 of phere emphasiz.ing the internalization of nonns.
grade!> and other external rewards rather than T hese differences in the social rc:lation-
the student\ integration with either the process ships an1ong and within schools, 1n part, reflect
(learning) o r the outcome (knowledge) of the both the social backgrounds of the srudent body
educanonal "producuon process." Fragn1enta- and their likely future econotn1c posiuons. Thus
tion in work is reflel-ced in the insti n1tionahzed hlacks and other minonoes are cont.-enmated in
and ohen destrucuve competition an1ong \Ill -.choo_b ."hose repress1\'e, arbnrarv, generally
denis through continual and oscem1bly 111erito- chaouc internal order, coercive authority stnJC-
cratic ranking and evaluation. By attuning yow1g rures, a~d miniiual possibilities for advanc:e-
people co a set of social relationships Mn1ilar to n_ient.•n1rror the characteristics of inferior job
those of the work place, schooling atte1npts to s1ruauons. Similarly' predom1nan . ti v wo.~
•
..."'
CJ L\.t' J." 11111{ 11-1 ' ,, \R\l\\1
23J
. ,, ,chools tend to en1ph.1,11e h<'h 1, 1. 1
l 13 · r II • • 1 11u 111
Jnd rule-Hi oi11ng-, \\h1k• '1.h11c1I •111il -.ell c11111Ifl\ I lt. 1 II
!fl11 ' 111 \\ 1.• II 111 11,,,11 h, 11 11 111 pt d rr ~ rn• rr open
111.Jo ~uhurh' c111pln\ rcl.11" 1•1\- 11111.11 ,, 'IUl1' 1 I 8
r r •hi n mo1n
thnt frl\<lr !,.rft'.ller 'n1d1•11t p.1ru1·1i1.1tinn, 1l'" lt111.1 l •11 111 ..1 1; 1111 rh I r tl I th IT
dircd ,upcn1~11111, n111re 'llldl'1ll ekllll l''' tlllt1' 1:;"1111111 111 ila ~· 1t1 I'-", in f I~ \\11 n
in ~eneral. ·~ \.till•' '' 't1.·111 'lrc~'tng intcrn.ihzed !-: iu1 ih1. "1'1• •111 111111, h1 •I r~'""'"
, 1a11J,1rJ, ot t'1.1ntn.11. I.Ir 111 '" t: lild1 111 111 1!l ]
1r 1 , v.~r •
The 1.bfferenn.1) ~oci.tliz.1non patu:rn, or lo d1110,c ''open d.i-\ro• 11 ns for th r
..:huol' .ttten<led ~) ~rudents of different 'llCtJI Dillt rt:nlt\ 111 tht ~K.:1al reb•1cm·•h1
,]J,,e, do not anse b) accident. Rather, thei \chc."iling .1rt: tunher rt1n!1Jrlt:d tr. mieati;i~·"""
111 hna11c1.1l rt,ount'o The: pauu!\ of fuunc
rttlt•«t che F:1cr that th~ educational ohieca 1 ~,
.mJ expectaoons of adnunist:rators, teachers, an<l \Upport li1r the: c<lulatuin ot cluhlrcn fr
01inonl) group' an1I lo\\ · llllonic: b rn1;:cs ICI\
p;irents (as well as the responsiveness of srudenti.
niore r~ource; to ht! dc:>oreJ to the cluldrcn of
to ,-anous patterns of teaching and control) dif-
those \lith niore co1nn1anJinl( role:; in the eo-1n-
ier for students of different social classes. At cru- 01ny; it al~o fore<'., upon chc: tc:acht:r. anJ ~hr..11
cial turning points in the history of U.S. adn1ulistrarors m tht' working-da" ...:hool, 2
education, changes in the social relations of type of social relaoonsh1p' that fairl} clo..d} mJr-
schooling have been dietated in the interests of a rors chat of the factory. Financial uin_,1JcT.1aon'
more harmonious reproduction of the class in poorly supported school; nulitacc: aga1n;c ,maJJ
strucrure. But in the day-to-day operation of the intiinace classes, n1ulople ele(.'tl\ e cour.e,, anJ
schools, the consciousness of different occupa- specialized teachers (except for <li~phnary per-
tional Strata, derived fron1 their cultural nlilieu sonnel). They preclude the amountl> of fret' arne
and work experience, is crucial to the nlainte- for teachers and free space reqUlfed for a more:
nance of the correspondences we have de- open, flexible educational en,,ronment. The
scribed. That working-class parents seem to well-fu1anced schools attended hr the chi ldrt'n of
Favor stricter educational methods is a reflection the rich c:tn offer rnuch gre:tter opporru111ae:. for
of their O\l'll work experiences, which have the development of the capacity for sust:tined
demonstrated that subn:tission to authority is an independent work and all the other char-acteris-
essential ingredient in one\; ab[Jity to get. and r:ics required tor adequate job perfom1ance m the
hold a steady, well-paying job. That professional upper levels of the OC(.'Upational hierarchy.
CONCLUSION
. . develo ed by Karl Marx, emphasizes rhat the material base: of
Ma~JOsm, the ideology . Pd odes of production, decerinine social strucrures and
society, ~e ec~nomtc rneani~a~isn~hapter we presenred the basic ~arxist critique of
our relationship to th~rn.. . d discussed the fuct thnr .\forx1sn1 has pronded
capitalist society and iosa.tut:JOl1Sd ~~ influential concenipol'l1ry ideoluf.ries such a~ Lih-
some of the too ls of ana lysis foun
eration Pedagogy and Critical Theory.
DISCUSSION QUESTION S r S · ,, · .L
.s1n as r hc o I.ti( .•ta t jt lcolov1 in the lOrrncr\Ion ct

.
"'nton, u1e
'cl
1 Do y(iu d1ink that Marx~ • · I(' 1 ·s rclciant tlr irrc lc1•:1111 to arxism a~ an 1 e-
,,...
. bl' f Ch1n·1 ant .u ia,' '

People's Rcpu ic 0 • d" 't'i on in the United Sc.ires.
. I too I to an•IV7c
olog1ca • ' - e uca
l
234 P\R I u 11)1'01 OGtrs \;-..[) l'Dl'( \1 10'1
2. I lo" does the econom1 ,ha1>e cdutJuonJI policy and practice~ in the L nrtcd States=
3. Do you think public >choohnl( rc1nforc.:c., or di1n1nishc, cla-.;, race, and gcndcrd1ffcr-
cncc\ 1n the L'nired Sra1c''
4. \\'h) ha, neo-.\lar~1>1n C\Crtcd c.:on,idcrahle in~ucncc in co~tc1~1porary.movcmcnu
111 cducaoonal theory, e'>pcc1Jll) on Po>un.od~rn1s111 and.Cnucal I hcory~
5. Do you ab'Tee or disagree '"th the \ 1arxrst 1nterprcmuon of the c.:urrcnt ~o<:ioeco.
no1nic and educational siruatiun in the U nited Sta tes?
6. ,\ !Jrx argued that for ca pitali>111 to work, larger and more efficient n1cans of produc-
tion must be deve loped and rn nrkctS must be expanded ~roughout t.hc ~orld. Apply
t his fonn of Marxist analvsis to t he process of global1zauo11 by m11lunat1ona l corpo.
rations. Do you agree or clisagree wi th the Marxist analysis?
INQUlRY AND RESEARCH PROJECTS

1. Re!.earch how public education i~ funded. Do you think current funding promote.
equality or inequality in edu~'3tional opportunities?
2. Examine some of the program' u,ed for conflict resolution in education. ·rhcn, do a
\1a rxist analysis of these proi,.rran1 ....
3. lntcn.; c,v several public ,chool teacher>. Do you fi nd that t hey exhibit caree r saris·
faction or alienation 111 their work~ 'I hen, do a ,\1arxist analysis of your fi ndings.
4. In your clinical experience in ,chool,, du you find evidence of stratification and
reproduction of exi~ting ~ucruccnno111ic d,1,~cs? If so, don J\ll arxist t111alysis of your
find ings.
5. Read and review a book 011 education written by a Critical T hcorh.t. (Sec the chapter
on Critical T heory that appear... later 111 the book.) Do rou fi nd evidence of cla~s ~'On
Aict, ~imi lar co that dc,elopcd by \1arx, 1n the book? ·
INTFRNET RESOURCES
Selected works of ,\larx and Engel~ can be Jcc~sed from the .\larx/F ngcb Library at
""'w.marxis ts. or g/archivelmarx/wor ks.h tmJ ·
Fo r Jn c;sa1
•
o n ,\1arxism , consult
" '""'"x.re fe r.com/entry/552 725
SUGGESTIONS FOR FL'RTHER RE..\D~G

\pple, \ liclucl \ \ ldnlogt nJ Cttm..,.._ I ""'Jon. Routledge. 1990.
n.,,. rc,, '-amud. md Gm115, H~rt. \.,t.o/mg 111 ufltLlbn A111tn.:J1 :\'.e. y k.: B -5
Bnr.10, RichuJ .\. . J R.ui.:.aJ Dmrotrsa.· ~ ofOl;n:.zllst ~ • or; am: lloob, I 9
Chunhich. ' 1cholb \Lrnmr .mJ l'f~ Rutherford ~.,. F ,_;~n. \Ot"k: Peter l..anE. 199-1
1V'J() ' · 'J ur1e! 11 Dicbmon Uns\'Cnltv Pttss.
C:hunh1ch. ' idiolas. .\f.7rnmr """ \lr 11lz:r. A f nauJ £:u,,,
JamaUarke, 1994 • llUDl!f of \[11'%1!1 ltbia Ca~ tt:
( J l \l''I FR ·n llRTF.E.:-; 1\lARXIS\I
235
Cohen, (; ..\. Kori .,larrs
•
r1>,0•....._, 0.r11
~ 111ury I /) f
2000. r 'n•r Pnncttrin '\J p
1
nn<ctc•r1 l 01\.c;l"\at\ Vm\
~cnua,Joscph\ \far\·umand[)rmo.ri ..,. '\ · \
_ •
· '
·lorrJncc,
·
·()
Gottlieb, Roger S . .\ farrum, / ~-H-1 y~;,. C\\ orl (hfrml L nwt l'\11) Prcs'I, l'l'J
Joh n. Karl \ farx •s T.'btory o•·1i1, 1, rr."~.tn•, \'IJrtr11t11l Rtb1nl> ' • \ ' , 3
. Ko . I
, . •
'c" or.. ( Jin] d ' .
' C"' "'• R1111il« l•c 1'1'12
\\'h~-cn, rrancIS. rl ,\larr:A /.tfe '\/c" York· \\\\' ;_,.· >n g~ ... n,.cr"t~ Pr. ., 1'1'J5 .
' < '
\ \'{)()ll, F ll_en ,\1. Drmo.racy Against l'ap 111111:rm:. Rci;r.i:;n ~7·on & Co, 1'J')<J
Umn:rs1ty Press, 1995. g tstonail Jlacrria/1m1. '\ t \\ Yr1rk· <.imhn·l~c
I. Biographies of ;\1arx are Francis \Vhcen, Knrl .Harx: A Lift (New York: \:orton, 2000) and
David McLellan, Kori ,\,fnrr: His Uft and Thought 0.Jew York; Harper and Row, 1973).
2 \Jan A. Block, ",\tarxism and Education," in Rebecca A. ,\1artUSC\\1cz and \\illlam \l.
Reynolds, eds., Inside/Out: Contnnporary Cn11<al Ptnpt1Th:ts in &Jucat1on 0.JC\\ \ ork St. \lartm'>
Press, 1994), p. 62.
3 For the relationship of i\lanosm to Cntical Theory, see Douglas Kellner, Cn11a1/ l'brory, ,Han:-
mn, 11nd ,\,fodm1ity (Cambridge, .\I.A and Balnmore, ,\10: Polity and Johns Hopkins Univers11)· Press.
1989).
4. Block, p. 65. . . .
5. G. A. Cohen, Kori Alnrx's Throry of lil!tory: A Defense (Princeton, 1''): Princemn Umversity
Press, 2000).
6. Block, p. 66. . · d th N
7 M' h 1 \ A/ Apple "Education, Culture, and Class Power: Bast1 13crnsuen an e eo-
J\1ar~st ~~:~logy.ofEdu~tion," Educnriona/'l'brory, 42, no. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 127 128.
6 7
8. Block, PP· 65-{) , dO.H I (''nn'• StbOtJ/mg in Capitalist Amfrica (New York: Basic Books,
9. Samuel Bo"·les an er ~n ' 1 "
1975). . " . L m and Eduaitional Theory," Edur11t1onal f'brory, 43. '.'lo.
1O. Frank :\1.argorus, \1arxism, 11>era11 ~ '
4 (Fall 1993), p. 449.
c HAPTER FOURTEEN
• •• • •
LIBERATION PEDAGOGY
In Chapter 14 we will exan1ine Liberation Pedagogy, which i> pri1na?ly asscx:iated

\vtth Paulo Freire (1921-1997), a Brazilian educator ,vho develo~e_d his educational
ideas by "'orking to bring literacy-the power of reading and '"1:1ong-:--to 11npover-
1shed, illiterate peasanrs and the urban poor. The ideology of L1beraoon Pedagogy
originated when Freire recognized that hreracy brought much more to the ind1\1dual
than simply learning the skills needed to read and \\Tite. Acquiring literacy rnarked the
beginning of their consciousness ahout the conditions that marginalized them, and it
stirnulated their desire co liberate thernselves from their oppressors.
Freire recognized that ignorance and poverty \Vere not si1nply conditions that
victirnized the illiterate and unschooled, but \Vere caused by interrelated contexts of
econo1nic, social, and polidcal dornination. Liberation Pedagogy created a new and
powerful self-awareness in individual'> who began to examine critically the social situa-
tion in which they lived and worked. 1It often empO\\'ered them co take the initiative ta
change the conditions that oppres.,ed them.
DEFINING LIBERATION PEDAGOGY
To define
. . dLiberation
. d fr Pedagoio,
,. • we begin \\ith the \\'Ords I /"b · <l d L'b
I trOt/(Jfl an pt Of{O/{Y· I -
erauoo isc enve d . orn. tberatt, which means tO release from restraint · or bon <l age or to
set.bfree ·rromr..
orrunaoon
th or control.
. It is important t o d"1sangu1s
· · h F re1re.,' concepco f
L1 eraoon rrom at he ld by Liberals e~peciaUy th Cl · I L"b I fr ·'
· .
Iirom restn:unts, ·cul • ' e ass1ca 1 era s o rreeuom
para ar1y economic one~ (F d. . . ' . .
see ChaiJter 11.) For Freire the L'b . · or a iscuss1on of (,la~\lcal L1heral1sm,
• 1 era1 view of econo · fr d h · J of
free-1narket forces- is one of the t d . rnic ee on1-t e 1nterp 3}
en enc1es of mod ·
rion and control of oppressed peo 1 Th ..bo em1sm th at 1ea d ~ to t he dom1na-
social, economic, and pohocal conf e. the ndage" to which Freire refer. •~ the
woons at mve a rul.1 th
e'pecially people at the margins of 'Ocietv. ,,. ng group power ()\tr o e~.
The tenn pt"'1giJgy refers to the an:
ing m anc1~nt Greek as leading one to 1.:.n:~~ce, ~r profe~~1on <Jf teaching. Its 1n~n-
1dcology. Liberation Pedagogy then is that eddge 15 especially appropriate 10 Frcirt'-
nauon and oppression. ucaoon that frees a person frorn do!lll-
236
r(t•"I
" u-
ER FOL RTf F' I ffiFR . \110""
' r l·[)\(;()(, \
237
A very im1>ortant tern1 in L 1I
<l .· I leranon p d·1 ,
word· u~eI d
bY Frc1re t 1at nica 11 ~ ,.0
. ,
~ lhc1ou,nc,.,
e · 14°i..'
·111 } . " amicien11u1,,.
,,-10 ., p
• " orrugue~e
po11aca, an econon11c con<liuon~ an ·'~ <lr;i" 14 for au itK;1l ~"arene" of \cu·ial
.
1nate t hose t hat cause oppre,sion. Th • u ~ontra. . 1cuon '•ant I.1<le\1rt10 reino\e or ~1 _•
"I ft' " .. 1~ criucal att 11 1 d 1 1 e 1111
not as e 1st po11t1c' hut as a coniniitment ' ~ e c.11 ., to r11d1c11Iiz.1111 lj,,, defined
reach ~elf-conscruction. 10
tran,lorn1 sot1al rtal1ry to tnahle one co
SITUATING LIBERATION PEDAGOGY

ln ~iroacing Liberation Pedagogy Fre· ,
evolution as an educational the '. . uefs own work as a literacy campaigner and his
OflSt IS 0 para1tlOUl1t imporr:an •e s· h f thi
chapter examines Fre· ' 1·d 1 . c · mce muc o s
. b . . d. ires eo ogy, the theoreacal elementS in Liberation Pedago1n:
wi 11 e c11scusse rn 1acer secaons of the cha pt e:
Ivan
. , IJHch's
'b .theory of de·msuruoona
· . 11z1ng
• e.r.
and deschoohng. society is related
co• Freires L1 eraoon Pedagoin• 01 • Ill1'ch's hypo th es1s· abo ut d e1nsncuoonahzaoon
· · · · · con-
tains ele111encs that a~ticipate<l Posunodernisrn. Illich believed that technologically
ad\-anced, .modern naoons, such as the United Stares, were imposing their instirutions,
techn?log1~s, and. process~s on the people of less technologically developed countries,
es~ec1ally rn La?11. Alnenca, Asi~, and Africa. 2 (;eared co advancing a consu1ner-
onenred, macenalisoc, explo1taa\·e society and economy chat favored those in
economic and political concrol, the We~tern nations incroduced n1odern institutions--
large corporations, agnbusinesses, costly health agencies, and complex transporrntion
networks-that served them hut ignored local grassroots needs. In other words, rnod-
ern insritutioni, were being in1posed on people who <lid not need or want them. \Vhile
these modem insrirorions were being imposed, local needs, defined by the people ac
the imn1ediate grassroots level, were neglec1ed. For example, giant agribusinesses took
O\·er large crac~ of land. Aided by their pohucal allies, these corporate interests expro-
priated the sn1all farm~ of peasant families who were displaced and became landless
peasants or impoverished urban slu1n dwellers. The impoverished 1nasses were too
poor and llileducaced co benefit from the modern institutions-the airportl!, hospitals,
and universities-that served the ru ling classes.
Ilhch behe\·ed the process of modernise institutionalization was achieved
through schooling. Schools, in the modem sense, are age-specific 1nstimnons in which
areas of knowledge are packaged like productS wi~hin a ~01npulsory curnculuin. So~i
t!) 1n1phes that a pen.on has to move through this cumculum 1n order to succeed m
the modem world and economy. The more schooling one acquires, the higher the
anncipate<l socioecononuc income and social scams. Schooling's outco1nes are pro-
ICCted as higher pay, higher social scacus, ~d the a~inme~c of more of the good
things 1n hfe--rnore consunier goods. The price for thlS promise of wealth, happiness,
and power is more schooling-more cemficaces, diploma~. and degrees. Along with
1
the fonna] curriculum the "hidden cumculun1"-the underlymg arnrodes and value'>
of mstnuoonalized fo.'.mal e<lucaaon-create an addicci\'e consumerism, leading one
to want and desire thinF-i one does noc reallr need.
Illich su~ted chat the way out of the modernist addiction for m~re unneeded
lllllerial goods is to deinstirutionahze ~el) by crcaong fnendlf, t'()n",nal, hu1nane
238 l'\RI II ll>fOI O(,ff,1ll F.l>l 1 \110'
wa'' ro 't.'ni· hurn.in 111·cd,.' I he: ptolT'' ot 1ktn\tt111tionJl11.:1tion lllll\t heg1n \\1th
de~<hooltng . ln,tt·ud 11t '""'!( the ln11n.1l, 11npo-.·tl 1 urr11 ul11111, l ll1d1 propo\ed that
kl(:al pe11pli: 111 ihi·ir l(l.t""""' , ...111111('· ,hc111ld 111'.Hl' 1h1· cdtKattonal pro..:c"e' that
\Cf\l' tht•nt hl.'\l J°rcnc'., l1t1•1,t\\ 111.Jc,, f11t l\,llltJllC, \\CIC gnl~SfOOl\ ciri,'llOIUlltt>O~,
1•1i.:ra11ni: 1ntorn1Jlh .11 1h1 l111.:.1l lc1 d \ l11r:1 .Jl} t 11·l It·" t111npc 1\Cd of 1nd1\ 1du~1, v.hu
l'on11• t1•)l'<'Lh1•1 1ol11111anh 111 a local \lt11.1t1on to lt·Jrtl 111 re.HI and'" hc:cr1n1c htcra1.:
T'h1· 1n.11eri.11' th.11 tht p;1rt1up.111t\ 11,c to learn 111 rc;1d arc 1h11'r: 1hJ1 relate t.:l1i~t:ly 1u
1h1'11 ll\r:' and \\Ori.; \Jthou!(h h"lliJl'J h) a lllt:nllt: pt:r\on, the 111en1hcr' of the c1rde,
through rhe1r 1nu1ual 1nterc~t' und 1ntcr.1cnun\, .11.:n1.1U} Jrt: teach1n!{ each other to
•
reaJ. llltch arl(Ut:d that htcrac) and nu111er.11.:; should be 1aul.(ht directly, v.1thr111t the
need of 'unnounting the rigiJ pacl.:agrng-the \cqut:nce and ~cope-of the f1>nnal
curriculun1. \\'orl.: skills could he learned through an apprent1ce,h1p 'ysccm. ()ther
kind' of leammg-abouc hcerarure, history, tht: hw11anitit:s, and the am-could ht
acquired as indi,'iduals interested in these areas Joined together 111 voluntal) informal
discu~ion groups. Instead of out:s1de officials and expertS determining hov. local
people should li\·e, the people, themselves, were to identify their needs, structure \olu-
tions, and \l'Ork together to solve th ei r problems.
Several prerruses fro1n Fre1re's and Illich's \\'Ork that guide Liberation Pedagogy
are: (1) n1odern instirutions, by pro1nising to benefit hlUllankind, actually enrich and
empower a few, but dehumanize and impoverish many; (2) education and schooling are
ne\'er really objective and neutral processes, but involve ideological commionenc and
imposition; (3) it is possible, indeed necessary, co challenge the status quo and bnng
about hun1an1zing instirutional, social, political, economic, and educational change.
WHY STUDY LIBE RATION PEDAGOGY?
Lib.eration Pedag?gy is th~ edu~a~ional ideology ?eveloped by Freire, a pioneering

~d1cal b~t reflecave the?rasc. His ideas .have been influential in providing the central
~deas of 1nfonnal educaaon, and educauon for sustainable development. Many of his
ideas run parallel ro Posonodern philosophy bur rend ro restate itS p · · I : e
'bl I . , nnc1p es 1n mor
compreh ens• e anguage. . Freire
. s Liberation
. · , 1·n 1·tse If, an 1nmns1ca
Pedagogy 15 · · · II Y
valuable body of educanonal ideas and 1s also a bridge betwee p d · J.
C · ·
nt1ca I Th eory. n ostmo erlllSn1 an
LIBERATION PEDAGOGY AS AN IDEOLOGY
Ir is difficult to know precisely where to locate F · • · ·

not fit ea~1ly into the organizing divisions of h tetre~ Liberaoon Pedagogy. It does
this book since it interpenetrates all th re In
1
J:.
oso~ Y~ ideo~og}, or theory used 1n
rily designated as an ideology since It co~ra·1 ~ boo!.:, L~berauon Pedagogy 1s prima-
1
an ideology: (I) an interpretation of the pas ~~ t e essenaal defining charactt:risucs of

2
conditions; (3) a progra1n for change Al·" t, (h) an appraisal or as<tessment of present
. u1oug some n1a . .
1deoIogy, Freire himself urged his readers Y quesuon its placernent as an
\hapcd educational in~tirurions and peda .: recognize how ideology cn~ated and
gogi
1 practices. He contended that all edu-
c11v•ll RIOl<Kll 1' ' LIBERA1' 10N 1>1·0
' ' \(;()(,\
cation '~as conditioned

. by •ueo
" ' 10 ,..... Th 239
1note' I1berauon and the ide 1 ,,.,. c real choice h
Pedagogy fom1s an ideolo<n oo lhl.{) that dch11111an1lC\ r'' l!t\\I't en the •dcoloi.ry that pro-
• . . I Th eorv.
Cnoca ,,..ca nd"e "' <ll I•n~age
L e In man~. wa} , , l.1her.it1on
cop p.
het\\ e·
• t n o~tmo<ltrn phi Ir " "Ph\ and
•
A Vie'v of the Past

Life and education, . . accordin, g to Fre1re. take I .
ecause we 1ve 111 a specific plac '. Pace 1n a specific histor cal .
should take a look around Wheat ad specific ti1ne. \\'ith this contexnrnl sp·e~ifi~'.:lext
b I
h d · at o we see' \,VJ1 cl · c1.,. w e
s ape ? Do we shape them or do oth h · 0 o we see? How are our <lays
Do these same questions apply ersfas ~pe then1 for us? \\lho are chose uodiers";
. to our mil d fr' ds . ·
nine and place in \vhich \Ve l10\v 1. , \Vh . Yan ten ? How did we arrive at me
. . . ive. at is our sto ?
H •story, when studied cnticall and
quo, reveals that some grou ' t ry .
not as a celebrauon or apology for the srarus
their power to control othep o~ c a>ses. have rake~ cona:ol of wealth and have ll!ied
string of events beyond our c~~cr i~t~I'} is not a la1s.s~z-faire, anarchistic, in1personal
ers Neither i. . ~ at randomly gl\ e power to some but not to oth-
'. s our history determined for U!i by inexorable laws of the universe or of
soc~ety.a~d. the econ?my that are beyond our control. Our history is both personal and
s~cial; 1 ~ is indeterminate rather than determined. We have the power to write our own
history 1f we are \villing co seize the n1on1ent.
It is through the story of our lives-the events, past and present-that we begin
co understand our contexts. The process of consciousness-raising takes place in a con-
crete ht!>torical context, in a gh'en place ac a gh·en time. '''e are born into and live in a
specific historical situation; we ha\'e shaped so1ne of the events chat n1ake up our lives.
Howe\'er, there are impon:ant ci111es "hen othen. have taken control of the events that
ha1·e shaped our storr. Although other; 1na} ha1·e been in control, chis does not mean
that \Ve must abandon our choices co the1n. Our hves are not necessarily detennined
b} others, and ''"e have the power to cake control of chem and lh·e them as we would
like. Becoming conscious of our histoncal s1ru?oon means chat we do not accept the
status quo-the standing institutions and pracaces-as givens somehow embedded in
reality, to \\lhich we must adjust. Rather, these h.istorical products are the situational
P<>ints of origin fron1 which we can begin our journey to .self-definirion. We are not
1nerely inheritors of history. We have the power co m.ake history. . .
Freire'~ contexrualism is si1nilar co that found 1n Postmodern1s1n, which asserts
that all -..ocieties include dynainics of power, in w~ch some are empowe~ed and so1ne
are dt>einpo\\·ered. (Postillodernism 1s discussed ~ Cbapcer 8.) Freire, hke the Post-
modern . erned \\;th the marginalized people of the Earth. To cruly
uncle~-is~. d tS moSt la cone
· · ch e ·Hnrned1ace s1ruaoon~
h'ps it 1s necc:ssar\' to exa1UJne · · 111
. • , ..n po,1·er re oons 1 • •
~ h1ch they occur.
Interpretation of the Current Situation

In •nal ra , sicuauon. Freire urge5 an examinaoon of the niater1al
c: .1: }'l.lng the conternpo I) ·en It i• the e~arnination of the macmal condinons
0nwt1on~ that bear upon a soc• . ·
.Z40 ~\RI II IDl:O OGJI ~Of I l>ll \I Cl'
rhat I rt'1re hom'"' tr.. 111 \lar' (I ur 1d1"'"'1011 of \larxl'lll ~ tll:irter 11) \\'hat
.llt lhl'nL1t<r1Jlc..11di11111i.11toi1-'l•<ll"K1tll \\ho Ill liH 11 "'ner•ofpr11pcrt)~li1"
tlid thc1 a.quirt" 111<1 ""'' ,J,, th 1 111;1111101111 tl u ir \\c.:alth 1111! !"!'"er· \\'ho 1~ \\~Ith)
and " ho ,, 1n1JX", n,h,,I \ \ hat arc.: thr I'"'" 1u1I ""' 11I, ec11110 n l' and c luauonaJ
arru n Cl llt<'llt• thJt 1111 111ra111 the •h•tr11>1111• •11 111 "cllh h 11nil 1•0" er llioc: t• 1ndrt1<Jtu
1>l lall 111hl \1011. ,1111 111 ,11, ""''JI, po1l111111. ,,~1n111111<, 111tl 1duouonal--2rc h1\ton
lh .kn1ed and .,,11,1111111.• the 1111g11111g 1,;11111 111 "h1d1 11c••pk upc.:rn11 \th
he.'!0111< .:·on.-.."'tou' ul th< 1r """al reah11, 1111111-ulual• <.011111111'< 1~1 nd their P r\11nal a
-u.:1al 'nuaunn' un.I chc: <1111<huon' 11111 th.it l'llhcr rcpn:'' or hhcrntc thc1n
'l'hc P rogrJm of .\.ction

~
In ,u,-h .in 11. , •L'lL-al 1 '··-· .!ed , 1111.1uon I'n:1re 111.11nta111 that te:i<hc~ cannot
n:rn.1111 neut ii 11 hrdi: hc.:h1nd a 1e1l ol oh1c:l'n11n lc:.1l'hc:r' 1:.111110 -..ap. the 1dcokw.
ll.'.11 "'ui:> c.:onlronung chcn1. Thei hJ\'C to an\\\ er the 11uco,1111n Do t:X1'tllll! V1C12!,
economic. anJ poliocal condioons retard human hberJtion and freedom, or do thC)
prornore sell-iultillment: ( .la1m1ng or ft:rgrung neurralil'} acru;lllr aJJ1e'> the reacher
1\1th the oppri:,wr~. Tht: tt:acher either ~uppom the oppres.,or,, who ha\e appropn-
ared the marcnal condiuon' of life-wealth, land, property-and ha\'e t:on\tructt:d a
\tit:1al, cul run I, and pohncal ,~ ,ren1 th;tt jusnfie, their explon;1uon of \Uhord1naccd
groups. or che r~1:her act, to ad1'3nce the liberanon of the d"JlO,,e,,cd.
The goal of Liberation Pedagogy is the creanon of 3 flt!\\ \OC1al order. c:reaont?
the new w·orkl 1\lll corne from opening the self and society to ne\\ poss1 bilio~ for
leading a ncher and fuller life. The new world is not a utopian vision, but the result of
a tr"llnsformauon of the S<><:ral '•t:uanon into one of more open, ennched, p<l\\lb1hne-.
PIDLOSOPIIICAL AND IDEOLOGICAL

REL'\TIONSHIPS
There ar~ sub~ta?tiaJ. tra~e., of E:'Clst~ntiolist phiJo,ophy in Freire·~ Liben1tion Peda·

gogy.. (El0stennahs111 is dr~cui.sed m Chapter 6.) Lrke the Exi~t e noal ists, he rejero the
Ideahst and Reah~t asseruon , that we are defined a J>rior1· as. 3 c~ ...cegon ·111 ;1 un11 eNI
metaphysical . <;})tern. Fre1res re1ecnon of a priori fi~t ·~ r es agrees •so mewh at \\1th
pn'nc"pl
Pragmaasm.
.
(For Pragmatism,
. . .
see. Chapter 5·) Anothe r s1n11 · ·1anry· 1s- th e 1mporrance
·
,,. ·dto the
given I person 1n mreracuon . . the eavironrnenL Lik e D e11·e\, F re1re
with · ho1.1.<»
rh at
1nu1vi ua s are 1n constant rnreracnon with the 11·orld in which ch .• '. .
An rmpon:int difference between Pra · . C} lh e
1\111 and L1htration Peda"Olf\1 t• th F . gmdausm, t:.'>pec1all) De11e~ '> f,penn1ental·
rnO\l accurate and obi'ective"'way~ toalth'111re1re
• "
k S .
oes nor 'see t h e 'i1:1e11atic
- · niet hou.1ao, t he
many londs of rationality and, indeed can ·beciencc used and r ec h no Iogy are 1ncreIy ~ne of
Freire, though using .\1anist c~nce 3
" insc:nunen~ of oppre,,ion.
furore, lrke our past, is a produc.1 of hr'it<>rp~,, ~elect!. th~ ~lanl'>t dererm1ni~n1 that our
he see~ the per'i<>n a\ an 1nc:ornplete prc~cnll'lu rnt\1tah1lrry D . 1·
. . h · ra111ng on Exr,tenna 1srn,
unfinished 1nd1v1duals, we c.-an full)' un dc <.:e din th e world. ()nee we accept th~t \\ c att
to continua . IIy ·'ueti. ne oul'\t'lvcs what ~ r\tan
111 1 reall .
l at we a
re free rndee<l re,pon•tbI~
>an •nc.leterm1nate ~•tuanon . The ethical
ctl\1'11 kf·OLRlfF' 1 llll k\llO' l>J D\C,O(,\
. 241
person consc1ou'I\ acl·eiit, th
. ·b·1· ' e rt·,1inrh1hiJ11
poss1 1 1c1es. ) tot 1t ,11e •1 trnurc hlled"
\\be re Frt'lll' de ii 111 11 h prom1-c and
. I. • ' 1roni otht·r I \I 1 I
J genuine) ethrt\ll pt·r, 011 \iork ' t1111.1 "' P""""ll\" 111 h
. I I 'lo 1lt:t·11111t• t I\ lll\lstcnll, that
or he In es ant t t•lihcr;Hcli 11.01·k. llthuou, 1Jf 1hc tt1 11ri 111, t h
, f
hurn.in reetoni. 1 • : s to dianirt• ti , h·
11 "C 1 .11an~1111 ..i ,,, Jier Ill 'he
Ill, Ill "
.. ()1her E\tStcnt'·
· I" "
1,1 tsts would rcir·ir 11 • 111 n1t1r111s ,,,
I I 1
\OC1<1 •po inca 'econonuc and e·' I "' l re1rc, c.ifl tr1 tr111111u1 c ne•aJf t
. . ' uuc:111un;1 ch·1n1r . h ' ~ "
!!er-, in th e \\'3) of frcedon1 of choice . ,.,ca' anot tr for111 of nnp1,..1uon tha1
The concept of ideology 100~1 .
1
1nd1cared, Freire considers ali ed . 'icry ;irge in frtire\ L1hc:ra1111n Pt-da~"I?) \s
gu1' he L .b t eranon Pedagogy as 3 ucanon d.. 1 to he cond1tto ned h> itJc:o I"10· He d1snn-
ian ideologies that distort. bi ra ica iztng ideology, from right1\t and ltfu,t 'ectar-
consciousness Fr~ire ·in h" dstol): and rely on ni}Lhs to create a sense of fal,e
· · • ts e ucauonal work in L · Am ·
opposition to ri htist ideol . . . aan erica, wa~ rnoH engaged 1n
. . . .g . ogies that rat1onal1zed the rule of reactional'\, oligarchic
1nil ttartsnc
h regunes
k . Freire argues th at rig · IltlSt
· ..lueo
, Iogies,
· such a~ C:onservatism • ftar-·
~g c .ang~, see to ~sJo,v do\vn the historical process" b} construcung a prot~cn,·e
his~on~ i_nrerprer:ioon that defends the ruling class's pri1Lieged position. (Coru.er-
vansm 1s discussed 111 Chapter 12.)
Liberalism, though promising equality of opporruniry, e1.tabhshe' 1nsarutions
a~d procedures that create new elites, usually bureaucratic and corporate ones. that
disempower those nor initiated in the intricacies of modernization. (For Liberalism.
see Chapter 11.) Liberals tend to display a presumed benevolence toward subordi-
nated groups but fail to acknowledge that they enjoy a privileged !>tatu.'> that makes
them accomplices in repressive situation;. Rather than acting directly to end the
repression of marginalized people, Liberals tend to skin the 1nain 1;sues and instead
are content "'ith piecemeal reforms that often secure their 0\\"11 pos1aon rather than
improve the situation of those they pretend to help. Even the Liberal noaon of,,·elfare
and assistance, benignly intended to aid the poor, tends to create dependency that
locks the dependents into the system rather than liberating the1n frorn it.9 Even n1ore
1nanipulative than Conservatism, Liberalism of'.ers unfulfilled f~lse prornises.
Freire, by calling for a radical tnu:isfonna~on ofsociety, reJects_w~at he ca~ left-
ist sectarianism similar to Commun1sn1, which, adhering to a ng1dly doctrinaire
Marxism, cons~crs an ideology of reactio~ t? ~onse1:"atis1n.and_ Libe_ralism. Leftist
sectarian ideology justifies every action that ts in hne \\'Ith th~ 1neV1t:1b1lity of reachm.g
a predetermined perfect state of socie~, a utopi.a. Fo~ the leftist secranan, the future ts
"inexorably preordained" rather than tndetennmate.
0
l>llitosopmCAL IMPLICATIONS
... · di . F · '· L'beration
1 Pedagoi.•y does not lend icself to being neatly
"" tn cated earlier,·i reare
h s ·d oJom. or theory. It 01 er1aps th ese d tsoncaons.
· · In this
categonzed as a phi osop y, 1 e .,,, .
. "d . e of ats pbilo\oph1cal unphcaoons. . . .
section, we cons1 er so"? . d heai;h from Existenuah~m. e peciallv
F . ' h1losoph1cal onenraoon ra" . •
. reires P b . as an •untin1shed presence" 1n the \\Orld \\ho ,.,
h15 con~t of r_he hurnhan e~idenoty and purpose in social realtry. The idea of the
engaged 1n worlung out er or
242 l'\ll I II ll)f· OLOGIES OF f.DL'C \ 110'
1n<l1viduJI J> unfinished or incon1plete, however, is not an ab,~ction. lr n1ean~ the

pt:r.on "• enir.iiceu. 1 1n
·
seit·-1·denti.fi"·Juon
~
1n 'a concrete cultural, social, h1\torical,
k · )><>lit1-
cal and econorn1c• c"Onte~-r. Ir" · t h1., conre.\t
. rJia t c·on~in'
~
the forces chat see co 11nJ><>~e
a d~tinition, a '>oc1al consrrucuon, chat I'> not of the per,on'' free choosin~. The r:11s1ng
of con.,doU>ne'"· through Liheraoon Pedagogy. m~ans ~a.t the per.,on 1' consciously
e.xan11n1ng the objective conditions 1n this context, 1denafymg those that dim1n1<,h the
power of .. elf-fuJfillrnent. 11
Episten1ology
Freire draw' an intimate connection between thinking (being conscious) and acting on
our thought!> (praxis). To think critit-ally 111ean'> to be empowered to penetrate through
the ideological mises of false consciousness-the myths, theories, and rationales that
other'>, especially the oppresso~, have constructed to confuse and indoctrinate
do1n1nated groups. These rationale.,, derived from the oppressor\ ideolog), are
de'>i!,'lled to tndoctrtnate the oppre..-ed co accept blindly the oppressive conditions in
the '>ocial environment as bein!{ ~nghr," "JU'>t," "the \tandard," or "in the nature of
things." Thinking critically require., rhc Jbilny to see these rationales for what they
art.'-the consrrucaons of an oppre'>'1ve woup. Related to criacal thinking is engaging
in li berating d i a l obrue~ in which chc oppre...,ed H>1ce their ongoing conception~ of ~ocial
rcnliry. ()nee ch is has been dont:, n hecon1c' po,,1hle to reiect these constn1ctions and to
create true knowledge, a genuine con.,ciou\nc'' of ~ocml realiry. Critical thin king i~ not
n1ere ly an acade111ic exercise. It i., a <.-all to chanl!e thing-; by acting to tran.,fortn the con-
d111on\ of oppre•sion. As 1nd1ndual., rnale thc.,e changes in thought and act on thein,
the) are recreaung themseh e' and recon\trut:ung the 'OC1al en\1ronn1ent.
A.x.iology
In terrn\ of ethics and aestheot.-.., Freire '>Ct!'> rhe \ alue confft.ct beh •· .1 · h
• ... een c.:onu1t11in\ t at
hu111.1n1ie ;ind tho~e that dehu1nan1ze. The que.,oon · "-e val ue., f ree Iy n1a d e an d
is· =
r hll'>cn b) 1h c person who e1nbraces and is guided by them th
i1n1,o,cd on the oppressed by their oppres.,or.? According ,For ~re ey pre\cnptt11ns
. •. . h. · f . . to re1re, pre.,cnnuon 1· "ren-
1•
1c' cnr' t c nnpo\loon o one man., choice on anothe • I b.
of the 'ubord1nated person b\· unrv•s1n th d . r. t SU \tns the con\CllJU\ne\\
• 1·- g e om1nant person's \'al p · f
oppre~,1on-11npo.,ed as the ·n...ht \\ " UC\. rescnpuon;, o
I'- a\ to act-are often ind d · th
oppre,,ed and reinforced b,· '311COons ~nd th .ocrnnace tnco e
\':due' of the oppres>0r ~me intemaltzc:dr:~ ~~~ctual punishments. Thus, the
het.·on1e tree t o create one·~ O\\TI \'ll.lue,, It h ncce~~ wnaniz.e the ''ppressed. u To
the ChOll.'e rt:\ ldC \\'ltbill The ""r;Qn' :1'4-P - r" (0 become: full\' C011SCJIJUS th:it
. .-- ..enc: ~ o being .. fi ish. d"
11 a rc<opon~1b1ht) ro acti\·el\' en~~t: in maki th _ un n c camcs '1111th
dctln1t1on and -.eJf.fulfillm~L llu: '·'nd of nthg C dtt1Sl~ that bnng about scff-
, "" au enuc d · ·
l>t'nM: ol cth10.. Authenuc \-alu~ come from -L di . ect\ton making brin.,., forth 1
L - • ~•e in \1dual's . I e~
11 mean, to '"" tree ro create him or he~lf. To do cnoca 11'-arencss of what
'><> mean~ to have kno'lll ledge of the
c 11\l'TfR Hll RTEF'
I 1111 R \110\ l'I ll \
<.c ~ "\
• 243
LJBfR.-\'fIO:\' PFD..\(;()G\.,S Pl ll l
()~<>Pt 11( '\I
Fr,1111 \hlr\1,111: l'h·. I
1. RI I '\.i IC)'\\Jflp<,
C .111<1 I ' " ol
an, I "'<' tJI rcprc"1<in · l'<1tnorrul·Jlh I> 1
z• r • .
n1111 1 \J\tcnt1.1lt,111 I h , "~' l"·'"' ' , • n P'•hoc..1
3. Front Posnnodcrnis~i· \c principle thJt the hu 111111 I
· · · · n cmphasi. · •cm!(" in unhn L I
opprcs--;11·e conditions "I', . · s cm Jnaly,,_ of the • 1'ntc prr. cct
" c unposcd 11n111cc1•~tc ti>ritcx ' m "h1 h
cond1oon~ that diminish th 1. fr d

• £ ee on1 and
'> k .
non re1ers to values that are free) ch to ta e re~pon~1b1hl) for chcnte. Humaml.1-
y osen, that enlarge, and liberate.
LIBERATION PEDAGOGY'S EDUCATION

1
L\fPLICATIONS AL
~orenisre sdtat~s th.at educational institutions and processes are never free of the cond1
tl . . cont ext~ f wh'telJ th eyareaparc.Theyareneverideolo ·_
call an s1ruaoons-the -
Y_ neutral or scie~nfically obJect11·e. All educational institutions, like all soci~
poliacal, and econo~1c systems, are ideologically conditioned. Education either adiu~~
~e younger g.eneraoon to accept and c~nform to the power relationships of the exisc-
~g syste~ ~r 1t beco~es a pe~agogy of l1beraoon. Education, committed to liberation,
1mp~es ra1s1ng peopl~ s consciousness, encouraging them co reflect critically on social
r_eality, and empowenng them to transform the conditions or contexcs that shape their
hves.
Struggling Against Miseducation

The raising of consciousness involves exposing situations and actors that misedul':tte
people either unconsciously or deliberately. False consciousness-a failure or un\\ill-
ingness to recognize historical truth and social reality-is a concept Freire borrows
from Marx. Falling into the intellectual and psychological trap of believing in the rhet-
oric of those who control social institutions, including schools, prevents lb from corn-
ing to grips with the reality of what has actually happened 1n our group and per\onal
lives, leading to 3 falsified history and a faulty self-concept, and often to low sdf-
esteem. For example, a hisrory that celebrates the achie1·ernents. of the ruling class
while ignoring the contribuoons of tho>e who are 1nargmahzed, d1storn the truth and
provides a falsified record of the past. An educanon chat defines a pe!'ion's value~ 1n
terms of wealth and power and sees schooling as a rickt!t co a place in the corporate sys-
. . 1l
1 h
tern misses the mark of being rru y umaruz1ng. ·
244 l'\RI 11 IOfOll><.11,<ll llll< \11•''
Teaching wd l c.1rr1111~
I'n:1re Jtt.1d,, 11111111·, .111d l1l(lht1.I' uf 111'll Ill 1111n 1h.11 lt.11110 fJI-., r.11hcr th:in CnlK11l,
l'llll,l'11>11'11e" 111 ,111di·i11' p<'llep11011\ ol 1c;1l11) '>0111< ol th< '1.111111nl 111cth1,J\ hf
lt'Jl'f\111)! t'Olll llh>ll]\ ll'l'd 111 _.houl\ l';ll1'C 1h" l 111d of i,ll\c lOll\lllJl1'11C'>~ J 1.r tl-
,1111plt', there 1' "1C;lt'IH•1 t;tll.." 111 \I h1d1 :i 1c;1dll'l' hcUllllC\ a kind of "1;1IJ..111i: 1ex1," pur-
porting co po"c" 1..nn" ledge and c~p!J1111nit 1calit)' hy 1nean' of 111d1rtu dc~npt1<1115
or narratJ\ e,, Teacher tJll.. 11np1 1e, rhat ,n1dcnt' 'hould he auenuve l1'tcncrs wh 11 fix •>11
e~t:h \1orJ 'Polen h\ the 1.-.1cher, cake 11111, Jnd \tore 111n their 1n1nd' to he rtl.oallcd for
a te,t. Teat:h1ng-li,tcn1ng a' the pnn1a11 1n1Kle of 111,rrucuon lead\ to" hat Freire call~
educauonal "h.1nl1ng "" f.Jch hn of 1nfom1auon is perce1l'ed a' a dcpo\lt in the mind.
a mental bank, \I hen: 1t" ,tored and ;uppo,edl> 11111 resurface, to be ca'>hed in, when
needed. In trndinonal schooling, information 1~ often needed co pa'>'> ~ome k1':1d of
exa1nination. The current standards n1oven1ent that ernphasizes srnnc.lard1zed tesnng is
nn exan1ple of assess1nent based on the banking 1nodel of education. T he elaborate
testing mechanisn1s consrrucred to determine student's academic achievement in mas-
tering externally 1n1po.,ed curricula are used to sort studentS into groups, reproducing
the inequalities of che ex1snng social and econon1ic s;-stem. 15 Freire's discussion of sub-
1ect matter as banking closely resembles Illich's critique of schooling as creating addic-
tive conditions of c.lependency and consumeri\nl.
T eaching as Committed Partiality

Freire completely rejectS the proposition that teachers can and should be neurral or
impartial on social, political, and economic issues. Freire says of himself, "I am not
impartial or objective; not a fixed observer of f.icrs and happenings. 11 16 Freire is espe-
aally critical of educator\, such as Liberals, who claim co be ideologically unbiased and
open-minded in their teaching. In Liberation Pedagogy, such clauns to objecrrnty
mean the teacher is not conscious of the tn1e conditions that affect education, or is
engaged in a pretense that covers up ideological conunitmencs.
Freire believes genuine learning occurs when teachers and students engage in a
shared, ongo1n~ c.lialogue that creates rather rha~ .transnlits k:no,vlec.lge. Knowledge is
created when teachers and students share and criocally reflect upon their experiences.
An important mo1nent occurs when ~achers and srudenrs begin to evaluate critically
wbat ~ey know and how they got th1s knowledge. This kind of consciousness-raising
reflecoon marks ~e oppo~nity for examining and transforming life.' ' According co
\1acedo, a close friend and interpreter of Freire, genuine teaching:
• Recognizes that all social and educationa l situations are 1'd eoIog1ca · I.
. ll .
• I s eth ·1ca y co1nn11tted
·· to fight racial, sexual and class d'iscr11111nauon
• • · · ·
• Reqmres a criuca 1capacity, tempered by humility and reflection.'~ ·
Freire assercs that teachers should have rwo un · .

critical atrirude row-ard socioeconomic and political :rranr trarrs: a tough, ngorous,
1ty (and therefore respect for srudencs) Havin r ty, as "·ell as a sense of humil-
. g a rigorous cntical a d tha
the teacher need\ to approach the ideologically fr d ' ruru e means t
ame context of teaching with a full
'
245
and reali,ric :l\~arenc,s of con ltt1011, I th11 11111 11 1I1
This. 111;1\· n1ean !{01111-( .11•·
,...1111 1 l' !(1 J111' ind . , 1111c potcn11Jl1uc, ol h11111an 1rcl't I11111.
, iii
lt!nging the po\1cr '111ll'turc hoih lll\IJe : J!(· 't lonvtnt1hn.1I 111 s<11i11i, ~nd dul-
1111
the 1eacher need, 10 rcn1cnihei thai ,he or l~c IUl'ldc ol tht' 'lhool ,\11he ~~na: inne,
to learn fro111the1ne1nher\ of lhu~ C<> n1111unny does not l..no" tve~th1nu • ..,, Ina ha, rnuch
anJ fnn11 'rudenl\. This hlendinir of. • -cspec:ia11 Ythe d1~tllll"•"ercd l!r<HJp.,_
" cnuca 1aware
ro engage 1n dialogues "ith srudent' th ne~s an d hu1n1liry "111 aJJ,,.,. icaclu.:n.
at exa1n1ne the srud •
c.1~'11''''It h rI1e111 ho\\' thev ha\'e felt en rs expenence 111 life, and
bn<l of dialogue is 1nrend~d to hrin, r;~:~;n or suffered ~om d1i,cnm1nat1on ' fb1s
denrs-an awareness of the ini d' g scientizattbn 10 both t<:acher' and ~ru-
. , .·· pe imenrs to self-fulfillment
In F re1re) 11e1,, teaching is not 11 • d · .
learning the memorization f .. ~ co. ecnng an transJDJmng knowledge; nenher rs
• • • O in ormanon to be retrit:\·ed in the future. Teach1n and
learning require that the teacher and the students be mutually engaged 1n constnfcune:
kn:tedged thr~ugh critical dialogue. The participants in the educaoonal dialogue-
tea e~ an ~ru. en rs-are reforming the1nselves. This idea reflectS Freire's reliance on
the Existen?ahst th~me that the human condition is one of incompleteness 1n which
we act to bnng our lives, through our own actions, to wholeness.
PAULO FREIRE, PEDAGO GY OF THE OPPRESSED

Paulo Frei re's PedflgO!{Y of the Oppresi·ed, his groundbreaking inrroduction of Liberation
Pedagogy, was an influential book that changed thinking in educational philosophy
and theory. It transcended the boundaries of philosophy, ideology, and theory to
embrace all these areas of discourse. Based on his experiences in literacy can1paigns
among the rura l poor in Bra:iil, Freire argued that education that raised consciou;ness
could be a genuine insrrun1ent of persona! and soc~al libera~on. As you read the selec-
tion, you niay wish to consider the follo,v1ng focusmg quesoons:
l. \Vhat are Freire's arguments in ;uppon of the idea that human beings can
achieve their own humaniution?
2. Distinguish bet\veen "oppressed consciousness" and "oppressor consciousnes,. ~
3. \ \ 'hat is critical dialogue and why is it so important in Liberation Pedagogy?
• ·que of"narration" and the ~act of depositing" as methoch of

4. An a1yze F reire~ en 0 . . .. ,
teaching. Do you a{,rree or disagree ,,,th bis cnoque.
S. H ow doe, Freire define "probleni posing" reaching?
J ' [htnsbtl-d bv \1fr.i Bergw•n Ramos. "1e" 'ork: I lerdtr and

~~om Paulo Freor•, PttU/l"/C'f oftht ~)Pf;'";~· 7,. Exl"trpted from PrJ/Jgo,f{'l oft~t Opprrtsrd b) Poulo Fr..1rc,
••d•r, 1971, pp 27-29, of0-41. '·:- ' R ·,.tcd by fM!mUss><>n of The Cononuum lotemoaonal Pub-
Copynght O 1970, 199 l by Paulo f rrire. •P"
'"h1nr Group, Inc.
246 l'\~111 IDl l>IOCll \01 I DlC \llCl'
\ \ ni)e 1he prohJe111 of hu111ani7.1lltlll h.1, ,1)\1 ,\) '• ll l'.lll' n), hct-c1111c 1n nirn oppre,,o...., of the
fru1n an a\iolo1-"ll·.1l pu1111 of 111:11, hl'l'll 111.111 \ "Jl)H !:.'" 11,, hut 1at her re,torer.. of the humanit)·
cencral prohlc111, it 111111 t.11..i:, 1111 1hl' th.11.11 t1·1 of hot h.
of an ine'l'Jp.ahll' 1·,111rern ( on1·ern 1111 h11111.1n 'I h..,, then, '' the: grt'31 hu111ani'it1c and
izaaon lt-;1J, at 11111·e to the rero1-"111111111 111 h1,t11nc.1l tJ'k of the oppres~e<l· to liberate
Jehun1;11111.1t11>n. 1111t onh J' ;111 ontologK.11 Jl"' thc111,chc' and their c1pprt:'>'>1 ll'S lh "ell. The
;ibih!) hue J' Jn h1,tora:;1l re;1lit). And <1' 111.111 opprc,,or'i, who opprt '• t:xp~ort, and rape by
~rce11 c' the C\tt'llt of Jehwnaniz.anon. he ;1'k' virtue uf their power, cannot hncl 111 th1'i power
hun,elt 1f hu1nan1z.:lnon 1s a 1iable pos~1bil1ty. lhc \trcngth to liherate either the hppre'\t:cl or
\\irh111 h1>tOr). 111 concrete, objective contcxrs, thcrnselves. Only power rhac 'ipnng., from the
both hu1nani1.ation anti dehun1aniz.arion an.! weakness of the oppressed w1 II he ~ufficiently
pos~1b1lities for man as an uncompleted being slrong to free both. Any anen1pt to "•,often" the
consc1oui. of his 1ncotnpletion. power of the oppressor 111 deference to the
But while both humanization and dehu- \1•eakness of the oppres~ed almost alway~ mani-
manization are real alternatives, onlv che first i~ fe~ts itself in the fom1 of fabt: generosity;
man's vocaoon. This 1·ocation is. constantly indeed, the attempt never go~ beyond this. In
negated, yet it 1s affirmed by that very negaoon. order to haYe the cononued opporrunity to
It is th1varte<l br injusoce, exploitation, oppres- express their "generosity," the oppressors must
sion, and the violence of the oppressors; it is perpetuate injustice as \veil. An unjust social
affimled by the yearning of the oppressed for order is the permanent fount of this "generos-
freedom and justice, and by their struggle to ity," 1vhich is nourished by death, despair, and
recover their lost hun1anity. poverty. T hat is why me dispensers of false gen-
Dehun1anization, 1vhich marks not only erosity become desperate at the slightest threat
cliose whose humanity has been stolen, but also to its source.
(though in a different way) cliose who have True generosity consists precisely in fight-
stolen it, is a distortion of the vocation ofbeco1n- ing to destroy the causes which nourish false
ing more fully human. This distortion occurs charity. False charity constrains the fearful and
\\icliin history; but it is not an historical voca- subdued, the "rejects of life,'' to extend their
tion. Indeed, to admit of dehumanization a, an trembling hands. True generosity lies in stri1ing
historical vocation would lead eiclier to cyni- so that these hands-whether of indhiduals or
cism or total despair. The struggle for human- entire peoples-need be extended less and less
ization, for the emancipation of labor, for the in supplication, so tllat rnore and more ther
overcon1ing of alienation, for the affirmation of become human hands which work anc.J work-
men as persons would be meaningless. This ing, transform the world. '
struggle is possible only because dehwnaniza- This lesson and this apprenLice)hip must
tion, although a concrete historical fact, is 1101 a co1ne, however, from the oppres!>ed then1selves
given de'itiny but the result of an unjust order and from. th?~e who are truly solidary "ith
that engenders violence in the oppressors, thein. ~ mdiVJduaJs or as peoples, by 6ghting
which in tum dehumanizes the oppressed. for the res~oraaon of their hu1nan1ty they will
Becau'>I! 1t is a distortion of being 1nore be attempong the restoraoon of true generosity.
fully human, sooner or later being less hun1an \Vho are better prepared than the oppressed to
leads the oppressed to struggle against tho~e understand the terrible s1gn1 . '6cance o f an
who made them so. In order for this struggle to oppressive society'· Who surrer
tr fli
the e~u _L
have meaning, the oppressed must not, in seek- 0
r . . 01
pp ess1on more than the oppressed? \\'ho can
ing to regain their humanity (which is a way to be tter understand th .
e necessity of liberation?
not g:un tlus liberation h)· th
...,, 1. " 1 11
247
a••' - f h .
.i. u••h the! prax1\ o L err que\l for ic
anc.:c.: bnt
h th
hu111;1n \ \"t1h
.,.ri• !°' •
• r ret.111?111t1on o
f th
e necess1n to .:,,h 1. 'hip of OJlprl:'.o;i1 t t:\tahh,h111cn1 of ~ rdauon -
• I roui.:h
1,,ea · • ""' t or 11\Jc1 er in h1\tOI) '~'. \l••lcntc ha; 11/rr,1Jy hc)!Un.
\llJ rhh ti!?hr, beC'Jtc.e of the purp<1,e K" en i;
the opprc,\ed H 3\ \111len1:e l1tcn in1uau:J hi'
b1 die uppre,'>t!d. ''ill actually constirucc an ac.:t
•-1 e uppo"ng the lo1·elessness 11·hich I' 1t t hey tht:m.,elvC\
· C1i1 .u1uld thev. lk· 1he 1n1ua1r11"\.·
tl1 01 .h , IC\ at
How could .L • 1.. .. drc the rc.iih 11f \11r1lcnlc:
e heart ot t e oppressors 11ulence lov~I
th I h d. ' whose obiecu•e}
~ ess- · .'"' Ihe 'JM ' n"'r' 111· "•rncthmgo
nc" e1cn when c.: or e tn false generosity. e~1>cen live maugnrnuon c;1llc<l lr1rth their
... . cc a>
oppres~ed had th
oppre>s!!d? There w!lul<l h
The pcdag<>b'Y of the oppres.~ed 3 ~ • ere been no Jlrior s1tuauonc no
t1f
1
humanist an<l libertarian pedagogy, has t:1~c; dis~ v10 ence to escablish their suh1uga1ion.
anct ~rn!?es. In the first, the oppressed unveil the Violeace is ini riated by those who oppre\'
world of oppress1on ~nd through the praxis who exploit, wbo fiiil to recognize other.. a~
per~ns-noc by chose who are oppressed, i:x-
commit then1selves to 1tS cransfonnation. In che
1>lo1ted, and unrecognized. It 1' not the unlu\ c:d
\Ct.'Ond suge, in which the reality of oppre~~ion who initiate disaffection, but chose who cannot
h1I already been transformed, this pedagog) lo1e because they 101·e only rhe~elv~. lt i~ nor
cc:a>n co belong to the oppressed and beco1nes a the helpless, subject co terror, who m1oate ter-
ped3~g} of all men in the process of perina- ror, but the 1-iolent. who 11'ith their power creare
nent hberaaon. In both stages, it 1~ ai1l'a}s the concrete siruar:ion which begers the "rejem
through action in depth that the culrure of of life." lei~ not the cyrannizetl who irutiate des-
domination i~ c11lrurally confronted. In the fir~t poti~n1, hur the l) rnncs. It is not the despised
smge this confrontation occurs rhrongh the who initiate hatred, bur chose who desp.ise. It is
change in the 1vay the oppressed perccin: rhe not tho~e whose hu1n:1nity is denietl Lhem who
world of oppre~sion; in the ~econ<l \!age, neg:ne n1an, bur those who denied thar human-
through the expulsion of the n1yths created anti 11) (thus negating thdr own as well). Force is
de\doped in the old order, which like 'pei:u:i; u-.ed not b\• those who have becon1e weak under
luunt the new ~cruL-mre emerging from the re1 the preponderance of the strong, but by the
<>lucionarv• trnn~fonnauon. \trone who ban~ ema>CUlated chem.
~
For the oppressor.>, howe1er, 1c ~ alw.iys

. The peda~h'Y of the firsr ~Clgt: n1u'r deJI
wnh che prohlern of the oppresse<l con~1ou., the oppressed (whom the} obl'iously ne,·er call
"the oppressed" bur-depending on whether
ne,, and the oppres~or consciousnes~. che prob-
ther are fellow countrymen or not-"those
lem of men '\\.ho oppress and men who .,uffer
people'' or "the blind and en\10u~ n1a,ses" or
oppre>,ion. It 1nu~t roke into account their "savages" or "natives" or "subversives") who are
~ha 1 1or, their vie1\I of the "''orld, and their disaffected, who are "violent," "barbaric,"
~hiL"1. A particular proble1n is the dnalicy .of the "wicked," or "ferocious" when they react co the
Ppr~eJ: the\' are concradietory, Ul\1 <led violence of the oppresson..
hem((\, ~haped b\" and ensnng 1n a concrere .,1c-
uaoon of opprc:x"on· and ,;olence. a:iticll and hberaang d1alobruc, which
Any situation m which -A" ob1a-0 elr 1
resup~es action. musr be carried un with the
Qplojb "8" or hinders bis pur..\llt of 't!lf- p ~ ar w·harf'\·er the 'rage of their ~tru!Qtle
lflinnaoon as a responsible pe~ i ' one of ~pplr~'......oon. Tho:: content of that t!Jalof(Ue &.'<In
~. Such a suuarion in n:self con,otute ior ILi<'•• da ' ch h. I
and !>hould i'<IIJ' in accor neeh"~ i<ton:
:.:r·
~. even when S"A·eerened by &.L"e gen- conditiom and the leH:I at "hie r e opp~c...,
because at interferes ",th man's 0Zi~· ~rceive r ealicr.- But to ruh-.arute 1nont1itlgUC.
Ind bntorial \'OClrion tO be more ·
248 1'11{1 IJ IDl«JI OC IFSUI I lJl 'I \110'\
\lopn,, ;1nd corn111w1iqub for dr.tlo!(ll<' " r• 1 •·ngcnJcrl'tl 1hc1r un.1111hcnnc vrcw uf thi:
arcernpr ro hhcr.1te 1he opprc"<·J \I llh 1hc 1Hu ltl. L\1ng their dt:pcndence to c.:reate ~nil
rn,trumcnL' of dornt:,nl';ltton \rt<:nrp11nl( 10 gre.ncr dependence 1<, an oppn:,.,or tJlltc.
hhcr.ite the oppre,,eJ \\lthout rhe1r rellcc111c LihertJnan at:oon nllt'>t rc<.:Ojtlltze th 15
pamdp.ninn rn tht' Jct of hberJuon " to trc.u dependence as a weak point and 1nu<,t attemj)I
them .1 .. uh1cct.. 11 h1ch 111mt he ,a,ed frorn a lhniugh reOet-rion and aL11on 10 1rnn.,fom111 mtri
burning- h11rld1ng; 11 is tu lead t:hen1 rnto the 1n<lepenclence. However. not even the ~l
pf.1puh'it prrfall and tr:insfom1 them into n1nsse> inu.:ntionecl leadership can he ..row independenct
whrch can he rnanipulateJ. as n gift. The liberati on of the oppre.,.,ed 1., a lib-
At all 'rage~ of their liberntinn, the eration of 1nen, not things. Accordingly, whtlt: no
oppre~~ed 111ust ~ee then1selves as n1en engnge<l one libernt~ himself by hi<. own effuru. alone,
rn che ontoloi,>ic-Jl and hbtorical vocation of neither is he liberated by others. Lihernoon, a
beconung more fully human. Reflection and hwnan phenomenon, cannot be achieved by
ac..'rion become 1mpernrive when one doe; nut semihwnans. Any anempt to rreac 1nen 3!; senu-
erruneou.>ly attempt to dichotomize the conrent hu1nans onlr debwnani2.C3 them. \,\'hen men are
of human•!) from rts historical fonns. al read) dehumanized, due to the oppr~1on they
The 1n>r,tence that che oppressed engage suffer, the process of cbeir liberaoon mu;t not
in reBectron on their concrete siroarion 1s nor a employ the methods of dehumaniiauon.
L-all to arn1chair revolution. On the contrary, The correct method for a revolutionary
reneccion-true reflecrion-leads to action. ()n le:idersrup co employ in the task of liberaoon is,
the other hand, when the siruarion calls for therefore, not "libertarian propaganda." Nor
acrion, thar action will constirute an authentic c;1n che leadership merely "i111plant" in the
praxis only if its consequences becon1e th e uppressed a belief in freedom, thus th inking to
ohject of critical reilecrion. In chis sen~e. Lhe win their trust. The correct n1echod lies in dia-
praxis i, the new rflison d'etre of the <>ppres.,ed; loi.rue. The conviction of the oppressed that
and the revolution, which inaugurates the his- the} mu.'it fight for their liberation i!> not a gift
torical rnon1ent of this raison d'ttrt, is not via hie bestowed by the revolutionary leadership, but
apan fron1 their concomitant consc1ou~ rn- the result of their o"'Jl ronsaentiznfiio.
voh·en1ent. ()ther.vise, action is pure acovi~m. The revolutionary leader' must realize
Tc> achre1•e chis praxis, however, 11 1\ nec- chat their O\~'TI ~nviction of the nec~sity for
essary to tnu.t in the oppressed and in their ahil- struggle (an md1spensable dtmens1on of n:volu-
it) to rea~on. \\'hoever lacks this trUSt will fuil to oonary wis~om) :-vas noc given to them by any-
rnirinte (or wiU abandon) dia logue, reBection, one else-if tt ts authentic. Th1<, conviction
and cornn1unication, and will fan into using slo- cannot be packaged and sold; tt rs reached,
gans, co1nnn1niques, monologues, and in~truc
ra~er, by means of a totality of reflection and
tic>ns. Superficial conversions to the C.'llose of
acoon. Only the leaders' own involvement tn
lrheraoon carry this danger.
reat.icr, \\;thin an hisrorical \iruaoon, led them ro
Polrucal acoon on the side of the op- cnoCJ.Ze this SJ"·~
pressed mu\t be pedagogical action rn the
·
..... con and tlJ w1s h co change 1t.
.
aut!'enoc <;en..e of the word, and, therefure, Llk.~;se, the oppres\td (who do not
11cnon ;:1th the opp~sed. Those "ho work for commn 0emseh·es co the struggle unless they
hher.uion must not take advantage of the emo- are connnced, . and "·ho. if th ey do not -nJUC -L-
tional dependence of the oppressed-depend- su eh 1 CODllDJanent, ";chhold the 1nd1spcnsablc

ent~. that i, the fruit of the t-oncrece ~iruarion of condicons for dus struggle) must reach this
con\1ccon as SubJecrs. not a~ obW- Th- eho
domtnaoon which surrounds them and which
must 1nten·enc cnti-tt . 1---· -;
"'"'Yin the Ml:Wloon wfudi
_....,,unJ, rhc111 an<l whose marl.. th 249
~·· h C) 1iear·
ur.inda cannorac 1eve th1i.. \\nil h
t!ltton • lno" II t
ntila II \ , lm1 1n 1h
r
pro·.
~i•n of lhe nece'''~ for ~tni•«•le ( h
I
I 1.lt k1111\\ lc1h•" • ' I e 1a1L hi re-< rc;n1nl!'
I l.. I c • "" \\It llllt f .,~. "" l lL"V at h
" kn''" 1~1l11c
,.hich che ,m1~g e "un1ea<,1ble) is ind"pen.,.1hle o rtJhty rhrough u · u1n t
the reH>luuonJf) leader.lup (indeed .ll"tlon, the•

,
w .
'Cover
i1nnnm
thern,d\
rtfli:tru1n nnd
to . h h . ' I( \\ :1' ~ ., 11\ ptnna-
tht• con\ 1tuon w 1c consnn1re<l that leatlcr- ncn1 rc-trcJtors 1 h
oppres~ed in the., n ~ "~>·the pri:<cnlt •1hhe
1 1
·hipl, it " Jl\o necessary for _the oppressed. It b be wh•t b I trugg e f11r tht1r hhcrat11m '11111
~~e,.,3 1'), that'> unless one intends ro carry out but corninitt"•I " 1t > ou d be·
·
I
· anc P\eui o IHr11c1paurm,
the rrnnsfonnauon/ur the oppressed rather cl"111 ~- tnvo1vemcnt.
.ith then1. I 1 .1~ 111y be I'1ef that only the latter " . ..
fhn11of ltan,fonnation is valitl. Narration ('ll~th cl1e teacher a\ narratrirJ
Ieasth
d e ~tudenr:s to 1nernonz.e methanu.:allv
...
The OJ~pre~sed, :"'ho have been shaped bv ~e narrated content. \Vorse yet, it rum, the~
into "containers," into "receptacle," to be
the de3th-affirm1ng clnnare of oppression, mu.~r "filled" by the teacher. The more completel~ be
tind dlrough their struggle the '''llY to hfe- filb the receptacles, the bener a ceacher he Ill.
~ffirming humanization, \vhich does not lie The more meeL:ly the recepcacle, permit them-
11111ply 111 ha\1ng more ro ear (although it doe., >ch-e' to be filled, the better smdenc. they are.
involve having rnore to eat and cannot fail to Education thus becomes an act of depostt·
include this :hpecr). The oppressed ha,·e been tnjt, in whicb the smdents are rhe depositories
de;rroyed precbely because their sirualion ha~ and the reacher is the depositor. lnstead of com-
retluced tht1111 to things. In order to reg:iin their n1unicaung, the teacher issues conununiques
humanity they n1usl cease to be things antl fight nnd rnakes deposits which the srudents patiently
as men. This is a radical requirement. They receive, 1nernorize, tlad repeat. This is the
cannot enter the M.ruggle as ob1ecrs in orJer "hanking'' concept of education, in which the
latrr t<> beco111e 1nen. '>cope of action allowed co the srudents extends
The Mruggle begins \\'1th men\ rccogn1- only as fur as receiving, filing, and 'tonng the
non that the\· hn\'e been desrroyed. Propaganda, dero••ts- They do, it IS crue, have the opporru-
n1t) to become collectors or catalogue~ of the
manai.'tnlen~, n1an1pulation-J,tll anm of Jom1- th ng-. they >tore. But in the last anal~1>, 1t ill
nanon-<..':lnnot be the 1nsrrumencs of Uie1r 1
n1en themselves who are Ii led away through the
rdluman1£:lt1on. The onh• effective msmunent lack of cream~cy, rransformation, and knowl-
1> a hurnon1zing peJagog}· in y,·hich the re,·olu-
etlge in this (at best) m~guidetl sy'>te'.n. For
nonal) le:iJt:r.hip esmblisbes a permanenr rela- apart froa1 inquiry, apart from rhe praxis, men
llunship or diulngue \\ ith the oppressed. In 3 cannot be rruly human. Knowlcdg~ eine~ges
humanizing peJngoro the 1nethod ceases to ~e
onIy through invention . and , re-1111·cnt1oa,
.
an lll)truntent b\ \\ hich the reacher~ (in this through che restless, unpaaent, conunUJJ1g,
in,unce, the r~voJuoonarv leadership) can hopeful inqmry men pursue in the world, With
ntanipulace 'ru<lenb (in clus ID•tllnce, the the "·orld, and w1cb each other. .
orpr(,.,eJ), beau_,e 1t e:qiresses the consoou,- In the banking concept of educanon,
~' of the ,ruJen~ them.eh-e.. ·led 15 a !!lh bestO\\ t:d b) cho..e "'ho con-
kn0"' th~-41;c:s kno"'leJgeable upon tho'e
•• • . rd ,1der theuuo COOSlder w kno"' . 1.
nou11ng. p ro1ecr-
·
A r~oluoonarY lea<lerslup m~c acCO ·
tngh •
·1 Practice t"0-1ntn1t1111fili
educaaon. Teachc:r. "' ho; a~lute ignorance onto other>. • charac·
and .L I ) co-1ncc:nr mg of the ideology of oppres,ron, n~t~
Uuc:ncs (lei1Jer.h1p and pe<>P e • t:isk rensoc J kno\\ ledste a~ proc~o;o Hf
Oii rnlit), 11rc: both Sub1ectS, not onl} m th_e , co edu1..":lt1on an
of 'llnvt:thng thar reaht), Jnd thereb}' corning
250 l'\R I II ll>l OLUGU\ 01· J J)l,; c \I JO'
l
lllllWJ)'. The t~':ld1cr pre;ents h1m,clf 10 111' ;ru- ,ent' .1 fai.;il threat. for whon1 looking at the pa\t
dcn~ as th1;:1r necc>sar) oppoMte; hy 1:011"tler- 11111,t unfy hc: a 1nea11~ or unc.lerstanding rnore
in!(' their ignor:1ncc :1b<,ulute, he ju.'>tilic> hi'> o'vn clearly what and who 1hey are ~o that they l~
ex1,rence. The snu.lent'>, alienated like the ;lave more w1...:ly build the future. Hence, It 1denu-
1n t.l1e Hegelian d1.1li:1:uc, accept their ignorance lie> ,, 1d1 the movement "h1ch engages nit:n ai;
J\ jU'>t1t}"ing the t~-:it:her'; exisrence--but, unhke being> aw art: of their 1nco1npleoon--an histon-
the ;la,·e, thev never discover char chey educate cal 1novcment which ha' 1~ pouu of departure,
che teacher. · · its Subjects and its objective.
The rn1so11 d'vn·e of libertarian education, .. .
on t.l1e other hand, lie; in its drive towards rec- Problem-posing education, as a human1~t
onuhaoon. Educaoon must begin with t.lle solu- and liberating praxis, po.,its as fundament:al lhat
tion of rhe reacher-.,rudenr contrad1l'tlon, by men sub1ecced co Jom1nacioa must. fight for
tl'Conciling the poles of the conrrad1cuon so that their ernanciparion. To that end, 1c enable!>
hoth are snnulcaneously teacher; 1111tl \rudents. ceachers and ~rodents to bt:comt: Subjecc. of the
.. . edrn.:ntional process by overcoming aut.lioritari-
Probletn-posing e<lucat:ion afrirnh 111cn as ani,111 nntl an alienating in1ellecmaJis1n; il also
being\ in the proct:\S of /l~roming-'J., unlinbht:d. enahJc, 1nen ro overco1ne their false perception
unco1npleced be1n~ 1n and "nh a hkcw1.<,t: of rt:ahl). The "·orld-no longer something to
unfin1;hed reality. Indeed, 1.11 concr.1,t tu oilier be de<.c.nbed \\1th decepuvc \vorcls--becornes
an1111al'> \vho are unfin1'>he<l, but not h"toncal. the 11h1ec.t of thac transforming acnon by men
111cn knuw t.lleJnsclve., lo be unlin1.,hed, tht:} are "h1c.h ri:,ults in their hu1naniwtion.
nwnre of their 1nco111pleoon. ln th1., 1tll:o111ple- Prohlern-posing education does nol anti
1ion anu this awarencs> lie the \'t:I') rout~ of cdu- L';Ulnot 'en e me interests of the opprc,,or. No
lJt11111 as an excltL\1\cl\• human n1anilt:'tanon. oppre-,1\t: ordt:r could penn1t the oppre<isc<l to
!'he unfin~hed chJral'tt:r of men 2nJ the trnn~- bc:!l"n tu ljUt:SOOn \ \ ny: \\'Jule Onl)' a 1'1!VOIU-
fo1111Jt1unaJ chnraccer of reahC) ncce,,itatc: thal ttunJI') "x:ieC) can l-arry out chi~ educ:1rion in
cuucauon be :ln OnJ:.•01ng QCO\it)'. '> '1c1n.1uc terms, the revolutionary leaders need
• • • not tJke full po11;cr hefon: they c:in e111ploy the
Problcm-po,1ng cducauon i.. revoluuon- n1t:Lht><l ln the revolunonary pr~s. the leader..
.1n h11un!'\. Hence it i., propheuc (anJ. a' 'uch, cannot utilize chi: banking method a\ an 1n1c.nrn
hopeful). Hence, u corresponds to che h1~toncaJ 1nea,ure.11bo6ed on grounc.b of expe<l1enc.y, v.1th
n.uure of 111an Hence, 1t affirms nlt:n a' he1ngs the 1nrenoon of lattr hcha\1ng ma genwncl}' re!\-
\I ho tran~cenu thern\eh e\, who n1ove fon~artl
oluoonary fa<ih1on. 1·hey n1ust be revolutic>n·
11nd look ahe:1J, for '' ho1n immobihl) repre- a•}-that 1s co S<I}", d1:alog:ical-from the our~t.
CONCLC IO~
ln ch" chapter. Frcire·, L1bcraoon Po:d:t"'Ot!\ V.'lb ·~-· --•

· \\ I ed ch " ~• "'"" ...n.,.. as an 1deol<,.,... of cduca·
non. e e\p or c: 1ntlucnce' ofmcennahsm d \Li ;::r
educ.1t1on \ \ ·e then euminc·• h' an · rxl\m on Frttre ~ 1dcolo ;y of
u b oppru1non to fal,1: consc.-a dh
chat ~nume e<lucaaon •hould le:id ro ch _ oumess an 1 ar!,rument
e COn\trucuon 01 a ....... ........1
on a i:no"al cnmuunon of the condioons dlat em ~ .... consaousn • .,..~
er,. Emplu't' "''b pbccd on the teacher d ~c:r some and d.ise!DJ>O"-cr 0th
v.1ch ~rudmt,, 1, ent:'l~ed in mut\12J 1,...... ,_ an '°
1
021all} committed person, ,.'htJ.
~- ......g.
Cl l\P JI ll I Ol I< l 1:1 ' I llll ll \110' l'I I>
'<.<x,,
25 1
vrscVSSJON QUESTIONS
I. I lo" docs F"rcirc define th. h
2. \\n} docs Freire ar .c h1u11<1n being>
· • guc t at cd ·
consCIOUl>nc.,.,. ucaaon \hould rI .
d
3 • \\ nat ocs 1c 1nean wh
·L ,runu 3tc a "",-rvm'. <.T1t1cal
.
I1vc., en \~c '3) that
· we arc c:onditioned liy 1h .
4. V\'h ac does 1l
. inean when we th c contexts 1n "hich we
r . f say at we
unp icaoons o incompleteness for d
. l
.arc, incornp ere ind1v1duals? \\'hat arc the
S. Analyze Freire\ conception of th e u~oon
6. \Vhat does 17reire mean hy the "b:~: ~rand the teacher ~t~dcnt relationslup.
7. Why does Freire argue . . L g approach to education?
against UlC ' ' .L
know ledge? proposition u1at teaching is the transfer of
INQUIRY AND RESEARCJI PROJ ECTS

I. ()~ganizc a dia loguc, rno<lclcd on F"rcirc\ approach, in your clas> on the questions:
\ \ hat doc.~ it n1can 10 lie J tcJlhcr: \\'hat doc> fl mean to be a student?
2. l~C\ ie" the ch.1ptcr.. on I \1'tcn11ah~m (Chapter 6) and \larxi;m (Chapter 13) in th.is
hook and then \\rice a paper that 1denafic, and analyzes their elements in Freires
Lilicrnt.ion PcJ.1go~').
3. In a class c.li'>C.:ll'>Slon. 1<lt:nt1f1 \\hat it 1ncan~ to hnve idea~ hascd on "false conscious-
ness." Dunng }Our w;c:u,,1;1n, Jc,cJop a l"t uf me f.ictur.. that contribute to false
consc1ousncss 10 ,\1ner1can \flCICt\.
4. In J cl~ J1\t.'USSi•1n. 1Jcnuf) tho.:C "ho arc empowered and d1~mpowered 1n Amer-
lt'•ln soc1ecy in iccncr.11, Jnd 1n }uur cJuca11unJI context (your school or college) in
p.1ruc.:ular.
l\ll· ll'\'ET RF OURCES

. of· issue<, re Iate•c.l to Frt:irean education and a glQSsary of Freire'~ terms,
' .1 d 1 o;cll!..~1on
l·ur
oon,t1lt ts/Frci.rclssucs. hanl
http://nlu.nl.ed u/acc/Resourccs/Documcn .
h hiuirra h\' and d1 ~1onoffrc1rc~worli:
l'h c h 01111. ol 1n1·um1J I c•Juaar1on pro\l<les as on ~ p .
W\\'" . ill fed .o r:st
~
252 l'\RI II 11>1tII1x,11s1 ll 1111.Jt I 110-.;
(;~rtn< \bn. ( .rc..r, I •·1111, ~11ol llt~'"' '" I ran1 l/ltr lk~hoo1111f., 111'"1 1 ~"" \<irk I la'l'U •lid
Ro" "I l:J
l h•rtnn \h 1,,, in.I I n-11c, 1'.11d11 lf r \/JA·t tl•r N..1.J 1•1 11,r/l-111g l ,•fl flJ./lr>I• • 11 ll•JrlQll 111J <.;..-,.,/
( ~.1n.~r 1'l11l 1tldpl11.1 kmpk l
llh,h, hln I> 1 br I· ,,
"'"'"Ill I'""'• 1•1•1()
11 11 //j , /,.,,,,u/l"lil/ Rrt.'l!l1t11011 -..;cw \1ork; f).,ublc.byalld
(11.l ~ll
1111.h, han I> Pn.-h1•>/111~ \i~trf\ " " ' \nrk ll.urcr.1111! !<11"· IC/71
l1J1d1, hJn D . /i>.1/; Jiir (.'onr1t111ltf) '\'c1< \ork lllrpcr >11111 Ro"· t •171
\Id ucn. Pc1c. 3n,I Lcntur.l. l'ctcr l'llulo /·rr11t I lr111o11/ ln•ull11trr -..:c,. \f,rk and l.<11\don; Rou1.
lcJgc, Illrrn": Ra11nn11d ,\ ., RJHl l iirrc•, Carlos \Jbcno. Rradt11~ Frtirt 1111111 /11btr111n1: f.n.1t<al. l'tddfl!!,'il:V •lfd
lra11<Jo,..,.,.1rt1·t So.111/ Ch.inp,r "le" 'turk teacher' College 1'..'c",
C.:olurnlna l,;n~•tl'511)', .002_
Rcuncr, E.-crett S.. hool u Ix.iii.~ltrrn.irr.:a m r Ju.ilrton <iarJ.:n Caty, '1. Doubledll)' anrl Co · I'I 0
Shor, Ida, anJ Freire, Paulo. A Pfllagof{)' for l.tl>rr.111on /)1alogutJ 011 Transfomnng Ed11ia1ton Boston
Bergin & Garve}. 1987,
NOTES
I. Richard Shaull, "Preface," in Paulo Fretre, Ptdagogy of tht Opprmtd (New York: Continuum,
1984), pp. 9-1 1.
2. Ivan Illich, DestbooltngSodtty (New York: (Jarperand Row, 1971).
3 Ibid, pp. .l"-38.
4. Ivan llJ1ch, Foals for Conviviality (New York: Harper & Row, 1973), pp. IQ-45.
5. Donaldo Macedo, "F'orewor<l," in Pau lo Freire, Pedt1gog;y of Prudom: Ethics, Dmtocracy, and
Ch:1t Courage, translated by Patrick Clarke (Lanham. MD: Rowman & Little6cld, 1998), p. ni.-.
6. Swtle?) Arono"itz, "Introduction," in Paulo Freire, Ptdagogy of Frredqm: Erhus, Dmrocracy, 1111J
Civtc Courage, tl'1lnslated by Patrick Clarke (La nham, MD: Rowma11 & Littlefield, 1998), p. 11 .
7. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy oftht Opprmed, trans. Myrn Bergman Ramos (New York: Coruinuum,
1984), p. 46.
8. Paulo Freire, Pt1iagog;yafFrttdom, Ethics, Dtmocrary nnd Civ1t Courage (Lanham, 1\ID: Rowman
and Linle6eld, 1998), pp. 25-2 IS, 54.
9. 1\1aeedo, p. x.'<Viii.
10. Freire, Pedagogyoftbt Opprartd, pp. 21-23.
11 . Freire, Ptdagogy offrutfom, Ethics, Df11tor:racy and Civic Courage, p. 51.
12. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppre.rred, p. 3 l.
13. Aronowir1, p. 4.
14 Freire, Pedagogy oftbt Opprartd, pp. 57-59.
IS. Aronowitz, pp. 4-S
16. Freire, Ptdogog;y ofFrttt/(1111, Ethics, Demot'rncy a11d Civic Courage 22
17. Aronowi12, pp. 8-9. ' p. ·
18. \1acedo, p. xiii.
CliAPT£R FIFTEEN
• ••••
THEORY AND EDUCATION
~ will examine the relattons

\Ve . h'1p h
o1ten. use the \VOrd
•
tht""'
v• · '
. our evervda
1n el\veenI theory and education in thI) chapter. \\'e
op~n1on, a coniecrure, or a he lief aho~t .:: a:;f1age ~o mean that we have an idea, an
~f idlea:. about something that is general a~J bmg. \.\e refer to a theory 3!> a related ~et
ar. c is a word that ism constant u.\e in a stract rather than concrete and parncu-
tbtory and the tbeon:tical the . educaaon...\!though we frequently talk about
. . • prec1~e n1ean1ng of th d. ·
eIus1ve. In this chapter we shall . . e wor is somewhat slippery and
~chooling, and nsrruction. ti) tu c 1anf) how the word theqry is used in educaoon,
1
DEFINING THEORY
The word tbtqry is derived fro1n the ancu:nt (jreek work, rheuria, which means the men-
tal act of \1ewmg, conre1nplaung, or con'ldenng o;omething. The ancient Greeks
tended co sep:irate cheol)· from prncru.:e. For exan1ple, Plato and Anstocle regarded the-
t11)·-ab'>tracc thought about the narure of th1ng-;-as higher, more elevated, and more
unpormnt than the concrete or partn.1.1lar ('iee Cha peer 2 on ldealiJ.m and Chapter 3 on
Realism for discussions of Plato and :\nstode.) Also, noce chat John Dewey, 1n h1.,
E.xpenmencalist philosophy, challenged the Greek dualistic way of dunking and argued
a~1nst separacing theory from practice. (See Chapter 5 on Pragmamm.)
.\ t 1hi~ poinc, we \1·il l consider sel'eral n1eanings of tbtory•, each of which haq
l111plicauons for educncion. A.\ a hypothetical set of ideas or pnnc1ple~ thac can guide
pracuce, theories can be cumed into "if-dien" sroremenrs. lf I do this or net in thi~ way,
rbt,, the fotlo\\ing s Likely ro happen. Theoriung can.refe~ to the act offonn1ng gen-
1
erahiauons-plan char 11"e can rephcare 1n 1·al),ng sicuaoons-based on how some-
thing I' done successfull) U1 a gi1en field ~uch a. media~e, law, or educaoon ln th1'>
1n,wnce, cheon· arises froni ob>el"'-ing or perforrrung similar a.coon; that cau\e rt:'>Ull!>
which an be ~oapaced. Here. chc: pn>Ct:'' of fomung_ the generahunon'> 1~ induc-
C11e, m that che reasomng and logic u..ed got:> from specific to general. For example, a
fuotball coach i-rllo bas had e\.l>l!nence tn the spo~ C2ll tJ:ame a number of play'> or
·- r th h u • u~·~,fulh 1n cctt2.1n snuaoom tn a scnes of i:an1e,. In
.. . l°gle' arc ·e II
•d ceam can-·coon · who has had expc:nence
' • •• a reach<!r · . u:ach1ng
. reading
• ucanon, f'peClll r in tn' u w •
253
2 54 l'\R I Ill 1111 OlUI ~OJ • !J)VC. \ I 10'
or mathen1ancs can 1 denti~ rho~e exerci ...es ;1nd actiVJtie' that bavc \ucceetled, anJ
lhO\e th;H have failed 10 bring about the de ... ired ouu.:omes. The tench er .can generalize
ahout tho\c that work and arr11 eat a ~cl of principle> that guide inscrucuon. The guid-
ing principle), dert\Cd from,, pamcular experience, can he generalized and applied to
other reaching ~1nra1 ions. Further, a group of teachers can >hare their experience> in
leaching a particular ,kill or ,uhject or dealing with a particular issue and prohle1n, and
1tenernlize ro a set of operaong principle~ho"· ro do son1ething in a gi\en situation.
Theory can reft:r to a general absrract conceptual frarnt: of reference that can be
u...ed 10 1,1111de practice. Such a frame of reference includes: (I) a set of generalizations
or explanations about the subject or field; (2) srrategies for ho\v to apply the general-
ization . . a' b"lliding principle> in action; (3) hypotheses, conjec~res, or ~xp~ctations
about what i~ likely to happen when the generalization is applied tn a spec16c instance.
A frame of reference can be created in at least nvo ways: (I) based on experience that
arise. fro1n pracoce, as discu~'ied earlier; or (2) deduced fro111 another set of genernhza-
tions ~ 1n the case of putting a philosophy or an ideology into practice.
In the latter in~tance, the theory is formed h}' deductive reasoning, in \Vhich the
guiding principles are found 1n some larger and n1ore con1prehensive body of thought.
For exa1nple, a law~·er, ming che co1nn1on 13\\, \I tll look for precedents (earlier deci-
sions) thnt can be used tel ~uppurt her 01 his art,run1ent in :t particular case. A teacher
c:an look co a ph1lo.,ophy, ~uch a. . ldeali"n or Realism, or an ideology, ~uch as Liheral-
is1n or c:onservaasrn, for goJI ... tu he unplc:rnentt:d Ill the classroom. Here, the problem
.., taking the absrr;1c:tions, provided b} the phrlo...ophy or ideology, :tnd implcn1enting
1he1n in pr:u:oce.
Sall another n1ean1ng of theol"} h our bcltel.._, idt:as, and concepu. about phe-
no1nenon-the ub1cc:c., people and '1tuaaons-th:1t w·e oh...erve and inceraet "'ith.
Kerlingcr, for exan1ple, defines a thc1111 a. . M<l set of 1nrerrelated constructs (concept,,
definicionc;, and propu~ition'>) that pre.,cnt a S}'tcn1anc o,;1e\1 of phenoinena h} spt:cil)1-
1nir relau.'.'"' among \anahle,, with the purpo't of expl:11n1ng and predicting tht: phe-
no111~na. 1 It is \I hat we \tC J\ the on!,'111 and nature of :.01neth1ng or acuon~ and
renl"tlons tha1 rakc place. Th .... kind of theonz.1ng occur<.. when we cry 10 make \t:n\e of
Jnd gi\·e n1ean1ng ro our ~1tua11uns and the actors, oh1ect5, and occurrence\ 111 tht:'e sit-
u.n1om. It JS a 11a}. of generahz1ng about our expcnence ~o that ivt: con~tnict ~ome
C\planauon' about 11. An 1n1portanr
. charactensDc of a thcon. . ; 1.., th e 1ntt:rrc:.i.a1111n\
,1 I11p of
ll' pJn<, 3110 hO\\ It I\ possible lO deduce One prop0\10011 from an< th
In the case of all of thee mean.in!-"' of theorv. • t.he im"'>"''" ' er.I) th at t heorv ·I\
,... · ........ c P''lnt
a !,t\11d e to prJcoce. I lo\\ e>c:r, further que)tiOn\ rema•"· ·\r th 'h
·'' - ch u" • e t as)umpoun' 1n t i:
t h CO[) 1 aIlu' 1I e a,3wnpt1on) art \1lhd. can diti· be . full • r 1 d
•p I~' th • \ \ "U · 1 • ucces) 1 tran)1t1Tt• an
.. p 1...u to o tr 'ltu3Uun3· 1 unp emenaoon con.fi 1·d o's
\Hlrking g.cnernl1z:inons: For eumplc. COIWdcr the: rou:1 or 111\"J I au: the theory
rJuonale tor the ~ o Child Left Behind •.\ct: 11
~ l!S)umpuon) g11en a~ I
\ \ 'e lno.. trom busi.neM pra~ that ll •-e <aut

dear, measurable goal~ and alill'll our ~'StCDb th00 boost pcrfomuncc, <a c must set
darib are tlle t0undaoon of a pcri~ ~ em. In educauon, 1<:ademk sun·
help reacher.., dlti also encoura~ children,- bca systchicm I hidi sundank do not Jm1
~ ldren tend to pcrliJrm ID med
\\'J 1Y STUDY TI-fEORY AND Wl-IY T l lEORJZE?
Human· beings . tind
. thenlseh-es .in con,tanllr ch · .
th ese s1ruaoons " unique 10 tba th . anging \1tuaaun\ or events. Each of
issue or problem presented mat b: ~it~ng and the actor; (the other ptoplt) and the
some comn1on eleinents The > .. erent. However, in each situation chere arc:
mon elemenL~ is the fo~d . recofgntl iuo.n .and the clustering together of thest com-
aoon
school year, a teacher will fine.I o 1eonz1ng· Fore xan1pIe, 3l t he beginn1ng
tha
·
o f eac h
Ha\vever with . t )he or he has a class of new and unfamiliar srudents.
.th th ' d experience, the teacher will build up a repertoire of strategies to deal
\Vl fall _ese sru en~. The t~cher can recognize that student.~' needs ~nd abilities tend
to into panern). found m each of the different classes. From this recognition, the
teacher can genera_hze about the similantil!) found in clifferenc groups of srudentS and
create pJan.s of action-strategies-that t-an be filed in in5U11Ct1on. Further, reacher\
can collaborate \vit.h each other and di,cr1ss common successes, weaknesses, and issues
and formulate somt: generalizations about teaching. These generalizations, when clus-
tered and organ1zt:d together, are the basis of a tlleory of reaching. Such theoretical
underpinn ings a re tht: basis of methods.
Theory aho re lates to the larger "'ue of teacher profe,sionalization. In contrast
to a trade-tht: 1nastery of a ser of techni4ue,-a profession rescs on a theoretical foun-
dation-informed hypotheses, ba,t:d on knowledge, about why, as well as how, some-
thmg 1s done. \\'hale there art: certain techn1qu~ that ar~ ~ollowed in teaching,
teaching 1rself 1mphe' more than u,_1ng thc:se t~chn1ques .. It is 1nfonnt:d by concept:.
from learned disciplines such as phtlc>'oophy! h1~tory. soc1ology, an~ ps~cbolo!:)'. that
provide 3 theoretical foundation-an ex.11n1nauon of why son1eth1ng is clone 111 1t\
larger concextS.
TIIEORY AS A BRIDGE BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY

A.~O IDEOLOGY A..."'D PRACTICE
d d aon can be thought of as a hndge that carries the
This cha peer on theory an e uca lulosophies and ideologies to four selected
reader from the niore abstract chapteprs on P !ism Progressi\'l'm and Cntic:al Theory.
. o f euucaoon:
th e-ones .1 . E.ssenoalism erenn1a
.
' . • f
f rhi:on· each of cbese four theories: (I) operates ron1
As indicated 1n our defiruaons 0 d · •1 a~n< about tht purpo'e of educaaon, the
f ralizarions an t\l> ana .,.~ . (1
a coherent set o gene ch d proce•ses of reaching and learrung; -) con-
1
organizaoon and ,tJ"llcrure of 5 00 '· an le about how cumculum and imtrucnun
"\\ orL;inS? pnnop ~ th 11 ~ U f
nuns gu1d1nl? hypothc:~ 0 r ~(l indic:lto projected ouu:omo at "1\-i. 10 oY. 1
hould be organized an~ condu~edpi1eJ m practice.
the theoreriL-al a-..,umpnoru are p
256 11 \RJ Ill nu <lKl~!>Off[)L( . \l 10'
In Lht: nl!'<l secrion.,, 11I! l!\illlllne theories: (I) as derived fron1 or ded.uced from
other lar!{er anti more abstract bodies of thought \uch as philo,01Jh1e.s and id~olcigies;
(2) that dcvclur as cuucntiunal, ur school-centered, rt:spon':' to larger s~>ci~I, eco-
nomic, cultural, or polincal problcn1s 11nd i<,~ue'; (3) that arise as gen~ahzaoons or
hypothe<,e., frc11n practice<, with schools and dassrooms. l.r should be pointed out rhat
1n so1ne ca'es a theory may include all three elements: denvauon.,, re\ponses, and gen-
eralization<, frcnn pracace.
'J' I LEORY AS DERJVATION
PhilosopbicaJ Derivation
In Parr I of this book 11·e ex;unined the philosophies of Idealisrn, Realism, Theistic
Realism, PraE,'lnatbn1, Exi,tentialisrn, Philo..ophical Analysis, and Posanodem1sm. ()f
Lhesc, IJe:ili.,rn, Realism, and Theistic Re;1lbn1 are based on a grand metaphysical
.,trucnire that provides a kind of orchitccturc of the universe and the hu rnan being's
rlace in it. These older, more traditional ph1losoph1es are 'ysten1atic in that they
t:xpound on \I hat i~ real (n11.:taph) \It:.,), how we kno11 (episren1oloi,ry), and what i~ nght
and beautiful (ethics and .1t.,th1.:t1C\). EJu~auon--espec1ally schooling, curriculu1n,
and 1nsrr11cuon-1> <lealc \11th 1n these largt:r ')'terns and ~ub,un1ed as areas lhat are
inclu<leJ and expla1neJ b) the l.1rger an<l niort: t:o1npreben,ivc:: world viev1. Through-
out his1u111, these:: mc::raph)'\IC.:llli) hased ph1lu,uph1es have arrracte<l adherents whu
sought to appl) their rnnc.:1ples t1> \uc.:1ct), pohtKs, and eclu1:anon. Et.lucarors who look
to eternal ;incl un1l'er,al truth' \eek ttJ appl) 1hcn1 ro educauon and ro base a curricu-
lum on 11hat they belie1e i' ;1J11a}' !!<K><l. true::, and beauaful. For example, Esscntial-
1,m (dl\Cll'>Sed Ill c:haptcr 16) 1nclu<les man} clc1nents of Idealis1n and Realism, and
Perenniol1,n1 (1n Chaprt:r 17) draw; ht:'J\il) frn111 th~ Realism of Aristotle and Aqu1na,,
,'v[urc 1110<.lem philu,uph1e' sut:h a' Pragnrnusm, Existentiahsin, Philosophical
Analys1;'· un<l Po'tm1~<lt:rn1..in rc::1e(.t tht: 1ne1aphy\l(.'3I base of the older philosophies as
un1·enti;1blt: '~eculaoon and tum rhe1r ancnnon to epistemology, meaning, and other
·~sues. Ot:\\ t') s Expenmentah\111, a vanecr ~f Prngmacism (di ..t'US\Cd 1n Chapter 5).
had a strung influence:: on ProI,rres\i\~m. 11 h1ch \eeks to apply lht: c;oncep[.) of dt:rnoc-
r~c), c~~nn1un1~, ::;u the \Cl~nufi c method to education, schix>ling, and insrnH;uon.
0
(See C.. np~cr I r a co1np ece 1.>cuss1on of Progressivi\ln,) Pu~unodem 1 , 111 (dis-
CU!.Sell an <. hapter 8), which horruwed some E~~LenLialist theme I fl ed
· I TI Ch r '• ~tnJng y 1n uenc
Cno~':l lCOrl'. (See apter 19 1or a d.-cu ..\1on of Cnocal Theory.)
ldeologic:i.l Derivation
Theones ol CUU(."300n are ofren also dcnved from 1deol es su h •
erah~1n, ( 'on.,..rvaoSJn, :\lar<hm, and LiberatirJn Ped2ogi c as ~at1onahsm, Lib-
1.11 Part n of th~ book. School, throughout the "orld !.e~; all of which 111 CfC treated
tt'ms of e<lu~'lllon. ln thc::--e ~'tems, ~t:rongel~a; of~ gan~ud into naoonaJ syt-
and are u...ed to ~hape national iuc:notv. For example, • ~~-onalrmi arc al•'I)') prc::telll
Statc-i -eeL, to create a '><n~ of •.\mc;,.cm idcnucy . : . JC schooling an me
Uniced
~mcistrucf11rothr:ri:ounmi:- \\ithinacuunm c onzenship In KUdcnu. The
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--'-·~
·~OTil:.:.:P.CUnltfr """"""''.hl....._~~
Cll\1'11RFll." lf1 ' '\ llll'OI{\ \\:J) I Ill'
L \110:-.
257
pfliLOSOPlllCALAND IDEOLOGICA
£DUCATI0NAL T H EORIES L l)ERIVA-r ION() IN
• E.,:..:nrial1,rn "derived fro 111 Id ..1 I'.

Pcrcnnialism i~ deriied &o Rc.' ~sm, Realism, nnd Conscrvniism
•
• 1
pr<>gre~s1v1sm I~ der11ed frorn pca ism, ,I hcl\tic R.c:.1
• l"m, an d Con,cn.'llt1\111
• Critical f'heor1 · d, · d frrn r~g!i13 us111 and Lilicrnli~m
• tS cnve om I· mr •nti 3 1· 1>
erauon Pedagogy c l\m, O\anodem1sm, .\.1ancism. and Lil>-
crol O\'er 'chools and curriculwn L'b 1 • . .

Pedagogues differ on th f. erab, Conser'l'ao,es, ~tarns~. and Liberaaon
1
composition and organi:a~~an~ ~·~ducacion, the purpose and function of schools,.the
Conservatism 'th , ? I! curnculurn, and Sl}lts of reaching and learrung.
· . . • wi its en1phasrs on traditional knowledge and values has inAuenced
Essenaa11sn1 and Perer:rnial Lb I . . . . '
· h . H · ·' ' ism. 1 era ism, 11<1rh its empha.'1s on flexibility and innova-
oon, as in uenceu Pro•rressi1ism
eo • The n1es from ''•--··'
'laLUsm an d L1'b eraaon
· Pedagogy '
such as class <lornmauon, conrrol, and conR1cr are e1·idenc 1n CntiL<1I Theory. ·
TiiEORY AS A RESPONSE
T~eOI'}~ also develops as a response to social, political, econon1ic, and educalional silu-
aoon~, issues, problems, and cn;es rhat range from local to national to global. There
are 1nany examples of this kind of thtorizing.
Sin ce the 1960s, there has been global concern about the degradation of the
cn"1ronment due to industrial and fossil fuel pollution, cbe depletion of che rain
forescs, cl1e hunting of endangered animal species, and global wamung. This concern
led schools to establish courses in en\ironmencal education that emphasized conserva-
uon of natural resources, the use of alremative energy sources, and rec:yding of itenh.
These courses also emphasized per!>onal and social responsibilities and ethics regard-
ing J>rocection and respect tor the conservation of the nnrurnl environment. \,\'hen
environmencal 1 s;-ue.~ are ;crutin1zed for their global implications, they are broadened
to include quesaons abouc the role of inclu\rrialized nations, such as the Un1ced Stares,
who are maior poUuters; ;1bout the socioeconomic d1spanaes between the general)>
" cal th, n:u:ioru of the northern hemisphere and the poorer ones of the southern; and
•
abour the ncgati\'e ef!'ecrs of economic globaltzauon by mulonacional corp<1racio11Jt.
Eo\ironmenml educaaon. which originated as a response to a problern, can aJ,o
he JUitaposed \\ 1th ocher philosophies, 1deologie,, and educicional theonl:'i and refor·
mulated. For example . .\tarnsis ..ee the muJcinaaonal business corpor:iciun as a n1od-
cm fo nn of capi oilisin chat exploits the poor of the less technologically de,·elopcd
naoons. Libenaon PeJa~>gues argue chat literacy prugrams tied ro small-sc.'llle, gra~s
rooa, sustainable-develop1nent pro1ecrs \Hll empo"tr the pon:ny-ndden cla~..es in
mac counmes. TheSt' themes ofempo\\·tnnent are also en1hracetJ and \'Oiced h) C:nt-
ic:aJ Theorms.
258 l'\lll 111 llllOIUl,,01 Fill( \1111'
Tn thc l IJl)l),, inn<lcnl'l'' of '111ll'llll' 1nlrc.1,l'd 1n ":hoot, 1n tht: L1n11eJ Statt,.

\orne 'tuJcnt,, 1n t11c.11111n' .1u 11'' 1hl• l·1111111 r). 'nn1i:~kd ~ri1n' 11\lo ,,hoot,, \hooung
.1nJ l11l1n~ 1ht.'11 ,1.1,'111.111:' .111J ll'.llht1' <)nl' of 1hl' 1111"1 tra)!lt c1~c) .,fin-school' l<>-
lt:nl·t: t11<1l ph1c.: .11 ( nlu111h111t t li~h \l·hool 111 l.111k111n ( :11t•1ra1l11, "'hen mu male
'1uJ.:n1;,. 11\lllf: ~'\111' .1n<l h11111h,, k1llcd t\\Chc of their cl:1' .111dlc~ anti t"'o reache".
1'ht',t' 11ll:1tlt'nt' clear!) ~1gnaleJ th;H 1hc nauon fated a n1a11ir pri1hlc1n. Ldu01tor,
rt',ponded \\uh progrant' tu create ,,rte 'chool' w11h zero tulerantc for tho,t 'Ahn
t•ndanixt'r the h\'eS of other~. Part of the re,poni.e included prograrn' in t.onfhct re'\Cilu-
tton, .inti 1tlentify1ng and pro,·iJ1ng therapy to hullies, ~ocial i<,olate,, and hthtr \ru-
Jcnt\ \1•ith ,ocin l problcn1s. As H result, n theory of nonviolent ~are i,chool' develr1ped.
()nee t1g11in, this theory that arose ;i, :1 response to a parocular problem \Oon v.a' juna-
posetl \vi th other ideological positions. Conservatives claimed that the problem 1if vio-
lence 1n schools mirrored the rnoral breakdO\\'Tl in the larger soc1ery. Rap music,
\1deos, and games char used violence as a theme had eroded and weakened traditional
social morals and engendered a climate that \Vas prone to violence. Perm1ss1veness and
\alues clarification programs in schools had created a climate of ethical relativism that
lacked universal moral standards. Perennialists called for a reaffirmation of universal
values found in the Judeo--Christian religious rradition and in the Aristotelian philo-
sophical tradition. Conservatives called for a return to suict discipline and mornl stan-
dards along with zero-tolerance school nianagement. Religious Conservatives called
for the posting of the Ten Co1n111andn1ents in the schools as a ren1inder of universal
moral vaJues and responsibility.
THEORY ARISING FROM PRACTICE

h-lany times, theory arises from practice. In this scenario, a practitioner in a field gains
experience from dealing with a nurnber of similar instances. For example, a pediam-
cian may have treated many ear infections in children and as a result can form general-
izations about their cause and treaonent. These generalizations provide the physician
with a set of hypotheses about the prevention and treaonent of these cases. Or, a for-
eign language teacher who has taught a course in Italian to secondary school students
for several years may have identified the situations that facilitate or impede learning
the language for most students. She or he can then reflect on these situations and
arrive at sorne generalizations to guide insouction. These generaliz.arions then form a
theory that can guide a method of teaching the language.
Another example of theory being generated from practice can be found in the
"effective" schools movement. Certain schools, their principals, and teachers, are
identified as especiallr competent educators \\"hose srudents have demon~tn1ted high
le\ els of academic ~chievement. After_ analyzing specific practices that they belie'-e
conmbute to effecove schools, the C.S. Department of Education arrived at the
follow1ng generalizations, cotnpiled 1n What Works: Rtrtarch About Ttaching .,,4
Lt111'11inf{:
lll\1'11Rllt I l l ' ·111ro1<\ ''l>llllt:.\llll' 259
• <h1ltlrc~ learn \cienct: hesr "hen tht!> Jn: ablt: to do t!X'(lt:ntnent'i, .,n the\ can
"nne.,, ~ctt:nce 1n acaon. ~ ·
• Jcalher.. \\ho ~ct and cummun1c"att: h1!{h c\pect:uion_, ro all tht:tr ~rudcnl!> ohta1n
grt:ater acac.lt1D1c ptrffJnnance from ilio't: 'rudc:nts than reacht:r.. ,, ho 't!t 10 ,,
exptctaU<Jn,.
• ·r he mo,t 1mponanc characcen\ttcs of cffccrh·e schoob Jrc: strong 1n,cructional
lcader..h1p, a safe and urc.lerl> d11nate. \choohnc.le empha"" on h.1 .. ic ,k1lb, high
ll!ilchcr cxpt!ccat1on., for ~rue.lent Jch1e,ement, ant.I continuou.. a,.,t!S,n1cnt of
pupil pr()gre,s.l
·r he; effccave \chool<; tht!OI) con'1't' of a du.,cer of reLned gcncr.11i1:1tion' 11hout

i;d1011I organ11.aunn and adn11n1'trat1' 1n, tht: role of the principal Jnd tcnl'hcr.., thl' d1-
111att! of the \thou!, tnt:thod' of te.1ch1ng, and ,tudent 3.,<;e<;,1nen1. h ",1,,u111ed th;1t
tht:'e gcn1:rali1.Jt10n\ are \ alul and de '4. nhe an cffc.-ltl\ t: ..chcK1l and c-:1n he rcphl·.11etl 111
other M.hool\. ·1 he anu1:1p.ttcd re uh 1\ that 11 thc'c pracuct:' are 1n1plenlcntcd, the>
"111 result 1n 1nt:rl'11,1ng the.- nu111l>cr ol ctlcc11'c ~·JOI,.
JC>l I N [)[• \Vl•.Y, FXPFRJ ['\;( I I ' Rf I \ 11()' IC>

·r111·.()RY A D PRACl*I I
In f .,prrun.t 11nd r:.J:1,.u1 n, l)~C\ cnt1C'ILCS 1hc ctthcr-or arf..'11111c11t\ u,cd h> \(l llH:
11 .11l1tu111.tll\t and prol(Tcs nc ~ducatnn 11nd Dfl,'UCS tor the 1ntc!{rJt111n ut thcni; .111d
JI' .tl till' 111 c\pc.-nencc In the !ll:le~'tl• n. I )e\I C'\ d ~~ho'!> 1ntclhgcnt l l llc:t:t1011, tht
1111g1n uf 1hco11. 11n~l"li front e.xpc.-nem.-e 'I> hen \\c ~n to ~111iutc the l11nsc:411clll~'
ol our Ill t1on~ \ \ "e cn1r.1gc 1n the pn1'; of 1ntclhgcn1 reflc<:uon "hen \I e §t cp hie\.:
lr111n our acu11n 10 dctcmune tf II LS t 1.:in • ~ tn the d1~on 1n \\h1ch \\C \\1~h to g11,
"11 lc ding 10 the r~ults dut \\C "lint• It b from th' unclhgcnt reflccuon that "c i;;in
be •tn to c.,u1rutc \\lut con..cqucnco a plnicul:ar acuon "ill ha1c and 111male1•rc1ht
t111ns h1r 1he huurc. lt as 1h1' cpp1ng b:ick fmn1 the act itself, and rcflccung \m h•1\\ 11
lhAngc:' our life 11nd our bc.ha\1ur that 1~ the bcb•1ru11ng of thtof} Inc I • • r,t
retlt't t1ng on anJ 1uJgtn1? the (onscqucnccs of our bclu,1or 1s it.in of wh · IJt "'t ~
rt'g.tnl' to be thcol) ruing tnnn cxpcnence The sclecuon dlmu1~ h1, 1h• ,, y
11n't'' tnutt rcll~'tlon about pracu \~)-OU re2d the sclccuon )'UU 1nay "1 h t•1 l•1n
'"lt'r the Ii 1llo"1n • focus1n qucsuons
I. For Dewn. hO" does .. tclm:ru:al oTgJmil~oon· ~ from and funcuon 1n
el~nt'.ncc.
l . Jio" ~ thron aruc uoro - ~·am?S abo:.:: a a

C.l~"b~
J. \\'hit doo .oc."" see the rmuoctSblp bet•'CC!l theory and pracucc
\ \ nen J lll(lfTICnt .I~·· I CJJl,·,J thl' 11r!f.lllll 1lll il1 .111 upplli ith1:d 111 ch<' 1:xp~:ncn1:c ot tht: ~oung. But
i./(J/. I llll'"Jnt. on the n.-~llt<<' '"'"· 1h.11 li1< nlu 1,,. 11 tu·J ch, 11·ld11Clll nor blTI"fl of ti.'. llll'lllltnl? I\
l~nor n1 nnot '1>1n \11th J..1111<< k·d!f< .1 h, .11 I\ "' 11.111 1, 11 , '!'" c11 ihc ~ 'JICrll'll< r ol c:\cn tl~t: ~ •nmg c:htld.
1zeJ and proceed 10l.1dk· 11c1111 111 dchl''· B111·" .111 \\'hell ,1 diild1<1<1111 chrtt: )C-·11' ol aµe learn, nc 11
idc:.11 the ,1,11\ e pnx·l"-' ut ••1'1,':1111 111,.: IJ<·t, .ind 10 , 1ppru.1dc .1 Jla111l' 1110 d•"•·ly ;tnd yc1 10 <lraw
ideas " an <" er-prl·,t:nt ed11,.1u1111;1J pnicc'' ' " nc:ll t:llOUj!h ·' \{11\I: Ill !!Cl " ' \li11nlld: he" L'Ta r>-
t'\pcnen1.:c "t•dn<~ltt\ e rh;u doe~ not tcnJ hurh to 111µ :1111.I ll'>1fl!{ the l1lt1\;1I rcb11•1n. rhc:re h ""
lvio<d.-di.:<' of 11111re facp, .1nJ en1cna1nint! of inu:lhgent <ll'Uvicy th<H doc\ 11111 c:onf11nn to the
•
tll(>r<:' 1J.: 1' Jnd to a bcner. a 1norl! ordt:rl). requrrCTTienr. of the rclauon, Jnd ll rs 1ntclligi:n1
:1rrJnge111cnt of thcn1. It ts not true th.it orgnn1n1- 111 the degree 111 whtth It 13 not uni) c:t>nfiirmt:d u1
aon 1' .1 pnnciplc fordj.,"11 to t!.X'jlt'nen..:e. ()1her· hut consdou'>I)' borne in 1nind
''t'e l!l"PCnence \\ould be '0 d1sper-.l\c a:. to be In die earlier foml.s of txpenence the
ch;1oric. The expenence of young children cen- cnu~a l relation does not offer 1c,elf 111 tht: abstract
t<'!'. about person., and the home. Disrurhance of but in the foro1 of the relation of mean~
the no1111al order of relaaon .. h1ps 1n the famil> I!> emplored co ends an:ained; of the rclaoon of
no\1 kno"11 by psyctuaaisrs co be a fertile source means. aad consequences. GrO\\W in 1udgmt:nt
of later 1nenral and emotional troubles-a fuct and understanding is e~ncially growth 1n abihty
which re.,11fies co the reality of chis kind of organ- to fonn purposes and to ~elect and arrange mean~
1wtion. One of the great advances in early school for their realization. The most elementary expe-
education, iu the kindergarten and early grades, riences of the young are filied with cases of the
ts chat it preserves the social and human center of means-consequence relatioa. There is not a meal
the organization of experience, instead of the cooked nor a source of il luminatioa employed
older violent shift of the center of gravity. But that does not e.xemplify this relation, The trouble
one of the outsmnding problems of education, as with education is not the absence of siruaoons in
of music, is modulation. In the case of educaaon, which the causal relation is exemplified in the
modulation 1neans movement !Tom a social and relation of n1eans and consequences. Failure to
hun1an center toward a more objective intellec- utilize the situations so as to lead the learner on
rual scheme of organization, ahvays beanng in co grasp the relation in the given cases of experi-
mind, ho\vever, that intellecrual organizati()n is ence is, however, only too con11non. The logician
not an end in itself but is the n1eans by which gives the narnes "analysis and S)'llthesis" ro the
,ooal relations, distinctively human ties and operations by \\'hich means are selected and
bonds, may be uaderstood and more intelligently orga11ized in relation to a puqX>se.
ordered. This principle determines the ultiinate
\\'hen education is based in theory and foundation for the utilizaaon of actn:1tits tn
prat.'tice upon experience, it goes \\~thout saying school. Nothing can be more absurd education-
that the organized •ubjecr-matter of the adult ally ch an• to make a plea for a \'aritrv of acti' e
•
and the specialist cannot provide the starting occupaoons 10 the school \\·htle decl'}mg the
point. Nevertheless, it represents the goal to\vard need for progressive orbranization of 1nformacion
which educaoon should cononuouslv• move. It is and ideas. Intelligent activity is distinguished
hardly necessary tc> 'i:IY that one of the mast fun- from aimless activit) by the fact that ir invol\.-ei
dar11encal principles of the ~cientific organization selection of mean..-.-analysis--0ut of the \'3nety
of lno"·ledge JS the pnnciple of cause-and-effecc. of conditions that are present, and their arran~
The wa) in which this pnnciple 1~ grasped and ment--synth~is-to reach an intended aim or
fonnulaced by the <;eientific specialist is certainly purpose. Thar the more immature the teamer is,
'cry different from the \\'ll}' 111 "·h1ch it can he the sunpler mUSt be the en~ held m \.it:" and the
Cfl \J>'I l'R Ill I I' I' i\
261
- rudunentaJ') the 1ne.in, en1plo' cd 1 ~ ,
0
"'.. . . I r , . 1 .
'l\1
ur the pnnc1p e o orf_ran11~111 1111 o f •1l ·t I\ 11 \ l1e. V. I 1
l..llltlf\ \ 10
tllb· B . .
rt«tlll" re 11 111111"r'~' uu1 ••n rh ... "'""""
. ., ••f c:•1x
ll1 tenll!i of '01ne percl•puon of Lhc rcl,ttion c;f ' ' •~ ~urc '" ICL' " ""' 1nl C:lkm 111)
1
~.-•uenL·~ ro 111e;1n, applu:, e\ en 1111 11 tL in11,.,_1·1I lltl·thud, • •f "'l!:lf111.1111tn lncrc: .ar<
pl•-~ .L . II\!
,~n \'oung. ( )u1el"\11\e an aCU\1t) L'ea'c' to he "f."11\ of th" rcal1iu11 .1lrr t<l}' 1111:v11ltm c \\i ar1·
ttl~~tn·e heL~IUSI! n 1~ _bhnd. \''ith increa'e<l ~Id thnt our_ ~thtH1l,, 11hl 10,j ncv., ~rt failing 10
rn.1cunt), the problc111 of tnterrelanon or 111eans e n1:11n t.1'k. 1 hey do not UC\'d•ip, 11 1s !>atd, the
!lc<.'t)lllts 1nore urg~nt. ~ the degree 1n ,, h1ch c-.1paoty for cnucal d1'tn1111n.111on and rhe ali1hrv
Ultelligent ob;erv:1aon is tran~ferre<l from the LO rea,un. The abil11y tr1 th1nL •~ 11111111hcred, ... ~
are told, by accumulaaon of m1-.c;dlane•J11' ill·
n:baon of means r~ ends to the 111ore coniplex
digl!ltred infonnation, and II} the anempt 111
ljU!!!o"l.ion of the relaaon of 1neans ro one another,
acqwre fonns of sloll which 11111 be im1ncd1au:IJ
the i<lea of cause and effect become::s prominent ~end 1n the bu.\tn~s and cornmerc1al world. \\'e
,md ehctt. The final jusrific:ition of shops, are t0ld that the-e e1ils 'Pring from the influence
L:itchens, and so on in the school is not 1ust that of science nnd from the 1nagnification of presenr
tht1' afford opporruniry for activity, but thar they requirements at the expense of the tested culrnral
pro~1de opportunity for the kind of activity or fu°r heritage from the past. It is argued that S<.ience
the acqui'Jicion of mechan1cal \kills which leads and iJ:S mechod mw.r be subordinated: that v.e
srudencs to attend to the relation of means and must return co the logic of ultimate firsr pnn·
tmls, and I.hen co considennion of the w:1y things cipll!lt expres.sed in the logic of Arisrotle and Sr.
mlci'3ct with one another to produce definite Tho111as, in order t.har the roung ltla) have ~-ure
cf!ects. It is the same in principle 3\ the ground anchorage m their 1111ell~al and morol ltfe, and
for laboratories in scientific research. not be at the 1nercy of e' ery pasi.1ng breeze that
t.Jnless the problem of intellectual organi- blows. . ..
CONCLUSION
. . d the relationship5 ben1•een theory and educaoon. Theo!')
In this chapter we exa~une . . le that are derived from a larger bod)' of thought
was defined as a set of ideas ~ P~;~cip a;e respon>es to issues, or are generalized fron1
0
such as a philosophy or an 1 e gy, h rs as they reflect on their e~i>erieaces and u.'e

. \\ ' hasized tbar ceac e ,
expenence. e emp. ' . are theorv builders. .
r.he1n to create ceac~1ng strare~e~t shall ex;1nine four tbeories of educaoon-Essen-
In the following chaprers, . d C . · I Theorv-in greater depth.
. · p ess1VJsm, an naca •
oahsn1, Perenn1ahsm, rogr
D1Sc uss10N QUESTIONS -- tine en educaoonal theol) . .

: IJsing ,-our detinitie>n, dccenninc if
I . 1101\ \l'Ould you de bout eJucaoon. ch" a• • Cllreer? Do \OU M\C an under-
you hnve an}. theones
. . a\'OU ha\'C 3.,.1ut
1.. tea 1 ng • • · .
2 • \ \ 1ut 6 pccuoons do. . , ·h : Do rour gencral11aoon~
bo t ccaclung. mpctent reac ~r..
lying theo11. J u \\hat consocutes ~h.:ol'} of edu~.aoon~
3
) I 0 ,. 0 ur op1n1on, . consanire a
• about, ccac.: her coinpeten~ ----------~--~--
262 P\J(J Ill 11fFORlf\01· £Dl'C' \110'
INQUTRY AND RESEAJ~C ll PROJFC r S . •

1 F \J1n1nc \our t·ollcge c.11Jl11guc. ''Ihere .Jn 1111 J.er1.rinor
,· "
theorv of cducaaonr
· . . ·r
2: lrncn·ic"· ~c\cral C.:\'jlCrlcnccd cc.1chcrs. Ahcr cumplcunl( your inccr-ic"'• sec 1 }'Ou
c.111 consu·ucl .1 theory of cJuc.1no11 lwscd on your find in!(S· , . Wh .
\11.1h7e the 1ci1c:her cdu1.:;1tio11 prol:(ram at your fcollcichc or W1•:~,r~ ('·
0
1
3. at are •ts
4
C\\C~U3I clc1nc11cs? Do the1•con\titute a theory o tcac er c fuca
()ht:iin a cop1 of your state's giuJelines for the approval 0
h· d .
teac.: c·r el _ucau~;n pro.
• · the g111dcl1ncs
g1'.11ns. Analy7c · · antI ucten11111c
.1 · • 1·1· rn
-Ley rcAccr an unc1er y1ng tncorv. of
th . ndards 1novcmcnt, authen.

5. education. . .
Research a recent movcn1cnt 1n cducaoon, such as c sta L (
· ·r
uc assessment, or constn1ctivism. Determine 1 th ese m ovcments rest on a tncorv
·1
o
cclucncion.
INTERNET RESOURCES
For educational systems theory, consuh
http://education.indillllll.edu/-frick/edusys.hmtl
For link:. to philosophy, theory, and cdut11don, consulr Educational Po licy Srudics at the
Univcr,icv of lllinois, Urbana, at
http://w3.eduiuc.edu/EPS/category.asp?-tolcen-phil-n-phil-of-ed&site•Res

Archer, 1Ylargnret S. RMllJI So. ml lbrOIJ" Tlir \/orpbo11ttl, • lppr011rb. New York: Cambridge Universiry
Prco,s, 1995
Chamblr~~. j . j. fjJu.,111onal 11't•ry iJ• i1Jt'lr, >J <.unJu,., \Jbany· Sate lJnj"ers1ty of 'ii!\< York P~.
191:17.
CoUin>, Randall. Tbr SocroloKY of l'l11/osoph1t.r: ' I Glob11/ l'luory of lnttllu rua/ Cb11ngr. Camhridl(c, 1\1A:
I lan11rd Unh crsay Pre<i\, IIJIJ~.
Fcinbcr!(. \\'.Ucer. Ln.kmandmg l:dlkJIDun · IV-.anJ 11 Rt(f111StTUa/on of T:.d11<1111111111/ lnqu1ry. 'c" York:
(.;Jmhndgc l "mvcrsit) Pn::.•., 1983.
jJckson, Philip. l.1fr i11 Cln.rsro11T111. '\few York: lcachc:rs College Pres,, 1993.
l'lullip\, D. C. Pbilosopb_i, Sntna, and Soria/ Inquiry. \;cw York: Pcripmon Pre.,,, 1987.
~ihcr, I brolJ. C,..,/ \;f oJs. £ffe.-r1t·t ~:JuJ.v;mmZJ 11nd Thnr I l1Ston,, '\:cw "'rk~ Ca~sc:ll, J'J95.
NOTES
CHAPTER SIXTEEN
• • •••
ESSENTIALISM BASIC
EDUCATION, AND STANDARDS
In this chapter \\'e \viii exan1· Es . .

fu d b . . me senna1ism, an educational theory that emph:h1zes
.nil dantit.enm 1' or .asic, skills and subjects, as the components of the curriculum \\·e
\\1
. e ne . Essene
. aI"ism, s1nrnte
· ·it 1n
· recent American history of educaoon, d1'cu'\
· IL'>
maior pnnc1ples, and examine its relevance for contemporary education.
DEFINING ESSENI'IALISM
Ho'v many times have you heard the phrase, "Let's get back to basics"? Getting back
to basics means st.ripping away the nonessentials, distractions, trivialities, and digres-
sions and identifying what is fundarnental to a discussion, an argumenr, or n position.
Often in unfocused discussions it is necessary to keep "returning co the subject" so thar
the participants don't get losL in irrelevant issues. As an educational theory, Essential-
ism asserts that schooling, instruction, reaching, and learning need to focus on the
basics-on what is really necessary to become an educated, producti,·e, effecave, and
capable individual and citizen in American society.
In working coward a definition of ~~enrialism, we begin ";~ irs root, rs:tnt(,
which refers co what is necessary to and indispensable about someclung-an ob1ect, a
discipline, or 3 subject, for example. Essence re~tes c? the inaID_sic or fundamencil
characte rure of sonietbing rather than its acodencal or mc1denral fearure.,
\\"- · r· or
th na must k.no'v to understand someth"1ng.,
·uat 1s it at you · "d
'''h · ·
pat IS it th at IS most '"'-
irJ,IC,
fundamenrnl or necessary? \,Vhat is unnecessary or ma enca ". . .
'd . _1 tb , Essentialism asserts that cernun basic ideas, 'kills, and
As an e ucaoona.i eof},· I to human cnlrure an d Cl'1 · ·1·1zaaon.
· Because E,.,enoaJ-
bodies of knowledge are esseno~ . di bl necessnn· ro and funJ~menral in
· d th -'"' ·e basics are Ill spensa e, ., •
1scs are convin~e at u•C:S en called Basic &lucntiun. Basic sL:ills and certain bodie5
educaaon, their pOSIOOO LS oro d ized into subjeL"ts rhnt can and \hould be
of knowledge t."3n be formulatedhan =menrols or essentials are cite skills of liter-
taughr by adults co che young. T e~e 0·on (arithmecic), and the subjem of hi~rory,
acy (reading and "'Ti ting) and coinpdura. ~H•"'e (A more e:nensive ctiscussion of 1he
. I lllaes an 1ite•a•~ .
machemaocs, science, angi t1 '
263
26.f l'\Jll Ill I 111 l)lUl;' O F FDLIC.:ATIO'
• ·h t r) Deliberate in,tniction chat tr,1n,.

F."cnuahst curnculun1 folio''' later in the_c.: ap c · tion to the next guarantee
01i1' the b1"c
• \kilb and kno,ded(!e area' frorn f oneth~ genera
neces~ary anu essenri.1 1cu1rural
.1 •. '
the .. un 1\JI of the ov1hzation. Tc1 dl\ell!f.l(!C ronl
1rJn,111i,,ion place<. c"iliz.inon 111 pcnl. . f b c ,1_.u, take\ place mo
E'i<>enn·JllStS further in~l\t th•ll this rran~m1'SIOl1 () asl f . s· re
· ' h . 1 h h:ive stood the test o rune. inet:
cffilicnth• and effeca,·ely through .
met ous
.1 • •
t ·h·
at h to learn 1t . 1nstrucuon
. ., hou Id be
there i\ 111uch co learn and a hn11teu nine in '' ic ' h .L
. ffi · I · · ·tanl to learn from the pa.,l rat er u1an try-
rlanncd de I1berate and e c1ent. l IS llll()OI . · bl. h .
' · ' · I I· ·
111)( 10 keep re1nvenang the wheel. Sc 100 s, u1e n, ar L e academic agencac!s
LI1 es ta 1s ed by
i,ocie1y 10 u·ans111it basic skills and know ledge to itS children and you ·
SITUKrING ESSENTIALISM
l::si,enuah,111 has shO\\'ll great •mying power in edu~ation .. Despite 1nany c~~llenges
fro1n \'arious reforme.rs-Prab'lllatl\ts, Po,uno<lern1srs, Liber.ils, Progressi\ e~, and
<:nuc-JI Theonsrs-Essentialism. 1n ns \'arious forms, has been present and has
exerted considerable influence over ,chool' for 1nany years. In the nineteenth cenrury,
£.,,enuali•m rook the fonn of the "three R\ ~ (reading, "'Titing, and 'nthn1etic) and
111enc:il dl'>c1phne (the tht!OI') 1hat c.:1:rt;11n ,ub1ect'> tr3.JJ1ed or disciplined the mind). In
1he I 'JJO~. a group of educator.. who opp<"cd prugri:~:.ive education, co1ne<l lhe cem1
Essenti11/is111. ln the 1950~. E~sen11ah,n1 \\;J' vo1c.:ed by educanonal Lheorists such as
t\r1h1w E. Bt:sror, Jr., \Vho called for n return tn the reaching of funda111enu1l intellec-
nrnl di,ciplines. In the I97(h and l llHO,, Lhc:rc w:h another revival of b:isic educ:ition
<luring which the U. S. Co1111111,.,1on on Excellence m Education's rl Nfltion flt Risk
n'~erted ba,ic cdu1.-ational theme,. ln 2000, che \tandards movement began n1aking an
1111p;1ct throughour c:be l,;n1te<l 'natc' a' 'tate' i:nacted leg1sJaaon requiring ~candar<l-
1Lcd ce\ting 1n basic suh1ecc.. In 2001, the Educaaon Act "~o <:hil<l Left Behind"
rnan<lared 'ca.n<l:irdiud tesnng 1n rc:aJ1ng a' a requirement for federal auJ to local
-.chool J1,mcc.. To illustrate the pcr..1\tence of£..,,enc1alism, we briefly cx.a1nini: the'>I!
reotx:urnng call~ for a return 10 ha\lc.: cJucation.
Es9cnrialism
1 hough not arnculnted as a ph1lo,oph] of education, Essennahsm hai, i:x.i\ltd for a
long tune 11s an informal expression of"' hat 'chooling should be, einpha~i 11 ng 1hat the
curru:ulurn ~hould cons1~t of tr.ulit1onal skill~ and subject!.. This tradiuonal , 1rucrure
\\a' challen~e<l b~ P.:-ignu~t educator. such as John Dewey and Progrc .,1ve tduoa-
tOI'. t~ee Chapter ' for a ~•ion of Pragmatism and Chapter lk (t,r Progrfi-
'1\1~111 ) The Es~ennalisc.. challen~ed by Progr~n1sm. fonnally aru1.-ubtet.I their
pt)\IOOn.
• Le<l b1 _,,~ill~ Chantller Bal?ley (ll<l-l-1946), a professi,r of cduanon at
( .olumh1a l nn·e~Hy~ Tea,hc:I" C'.oll~e. the: Es~oali-t educat<Jrs proc.buned thar
pl:nform 1n I Q's. The_ Es-enriafub' platform e-tablished a raoonalc that ,.uuJd be fu1..
tu" eJ hy aJ, oaatc::. ot E~•c:noah'm anJ ba,1c educaoon in 12ttr yo Th uoo
1n~ludt'J: (1) staring the purpo-.e of e<luC2t1on by tlefirung the role of~oo~:~
a~:aJc:nu( tc:nm and expcrooon,, r.) 1Jentil}1ng dc:ricienCJ.e<. that "etc alleged!) con
Cll\Pl£lt\L\IFI'\ f·\Sf'\ff\ f (S\l , fl\\Jt
I l)l( \"!If)'\ , '\l> ~"f \:\ll\kfJ\

... equences ol tailing 10 fi,1Jt . 265
111 111
h I ' a\it tt.lut 11 1
re'icore Sc.: uo ~ to their proper roJ, 1 h' 11 11 " 111·111,1111111; (I) t-alhn" f.,r a remtcl\
·fht' E:' ' t'n11a Il\ts' "nal tn1 ..c11Ji11 ' ll1L111in r •
111
I. h " ' { lt';1t11111 " JI) I I
n1ent\ o u111an t·uhure Inc \cho 1 . 111 r.in,11111 .1111 prc:stne tht tTUtiJI d1:-
t11,k ut (r:111<rn1nr11g the C\\entiaJ . . ~~1 j '" · ' 11 " 1111111111 ha, the •pt!(1~1 and 'l\tll-defined
1'<Int1~uh1e1.1, to rh
nurcy " n1;11ncJ rned and preservec.J. '
c }'•111n11 -.<1 thar t"\I rural t<Jn1i-
•\s later criat-s such as tht: Conin .. .. . 1
°
hs1cd the deficiencies the, fou . 1 1 A llssron 11 Excellence Wt<Uld do, 1he F.s!>t:nt1ahu..,
were f.1 iling to meet the "standard~· nu 11 f n1errcan
ch. . eduv1ti1 ; >n• ( I ) tJ · <'· cJ<:mt:nta') \nJ cl tnr'
h h
geogrnp1 )'-t ac StutIenrs in Other ocountries a 1e1en1en1mec· (2)111 U theShas1c.,_rcad1ng
h h ·h I ' anthme11t· j '
a~ deni'call . defi · • · · 1g sc oo sru, ellL' "ere
'~
.1
l~guage ~kills,
). cienr tn cornparison to secondary srudents in other countnes, espc-
aa lly reading, and mathemarrcs; (3) despite ic; large e:tpelldirurC5 !Jn
educanoa, the United States had a considerable increa~e in seriou., crrme races.
. T he Ess~ntialist~ blamed Progressivisa1 and other "essentialJy enfeebhng" edu-
1
caaonal th~ones .w~akening

for discipline and eroding high academic srandards Ill the
schools. After descrrb1ng American educ-.ition's wcalmesse~. che fusentiali,cs 3!.lcc:d·
"ShouJd not our public schools prepare boys and girls for adult responsibility through
systematic training rn such subjects as readrng, 1\•riring, ar ithmetic, history, and Eng-
lish, requiring
obedience?" 2 mastery of such sub1ect~, and, when necessary, srressing disc1plille and
Answering their own question with a srrong "yes," the Essentiah~cs proposed
that the problems of American education could he soked by:
• Keeping schools on task; teaching essential skill~ and subjects and avoiding
diver~ioa by incidenrnfs. . .
• Teaching skills and rubjectS syste1nacically and sequenaalfy m an orderly and
cu1nulative manner. .
• Insisting on high standards of a~'l!dem1c achievement for promotroll and gradua-
• ~~~hasizing that learning requires discipJiae, effort, and hard work.

Fundamental lnteUectual Disciplines
The next strong ar~ment ~or Essentialism or basic education was made by Arthur E.
. who ar ed that schools, particularly seconcla'1
Besro r, Jr., an Amen can histo~an cl raf':inrellecrual disciplines" that cuJti, ated
institutions, should teach the . n aml~n Essentialists ~uch as Bagley had reacte<l
1
. 11. "l \''bile ear 1er cl "
"drsc1plined 1nte 1gence. . against "life-ad1usanent e UC3oun, an
swdeacs' personal, ~aJ, cn'!c, an eco~orn1c
. . B sror was reacong . . d ·
agaln\t Progresst1'15ln, e .
educational theory char emphasized b' Life-adjusunenr educators de1'1secJ a
d b ed ilills and e~penellces, ey re\1Se ,
. . II 3 s academic su Ject:s. . th , ti
interests and needs as we
L-··ed on these.nee b·eccs
Ot:\\"curnculum chat '""w . sru dents' ~Cl)
- as co highlight . ·da}. nee<ls
and often de-emphasized , th e cadem1c
0 1..11s .Iior rru1ntllln1ng
· · ·
discsu line).
J For e.xan1ple, s....
and issues rather than 1nn:Jlecnu.I ._ P money, and using leJsure orne fur fulfilling
effecn,·e inrerpenonal relao~s, mana~gthe cumculum. Be,wr accused the life-
.
ret:reaoona f ~0 infused
. 1 pursuits w·ere .5ong anIllano-1nte
. . llecrual rhc:ory of eduCllaon on rhc.>
ad1usonen r eduC"d cors 0 '
266 l'\Kl 111 llll ·()l(J~_,or ~ l)CCA'l 10"-
.. I11111 h' introducing trhw hne,, and ~1th lo .

<,chool,, with diluttn)! the ha,1c 1.11n tlll ; \\tr.
tn)! JcJde1n11: 'cand.1ri.b. . C ·nu iJt, , :1r•!11eu.1 t hat t!uuc:.1uon .1 •
' hou Id pro\Jd
1
Be,tor hkc tbc e;1rI1cr ' c.: · ' " d I h"1 10 '·
k'oun<l 1rJ1n.1ng 1n che fundJn1cnrJI \hi~' of thinktn!{ rc:prc,entel l}' ' '1· 't:•cnle,
• . 1 other d1,c;1phnes evo vcd in the c:our f
111.11hc1n.1nc,, htcr.nure, lanhruagc, Jrt ,inu \e 11
1. •
n1;1n,.1nl I', unir que t f.or us.ible "'"n<l\I lcd••e
1 .., • cul turd I undcr~tand1ng,
. and 1nu:lltth•·J
•....
•· 'I •
pn\1 er , e J!>serre at e <l th th role <ll. •"
·'~
lltJob and the funcaon
. of
. teac:h1ng
. and
. lt:arnin g
w '''to cul th ate 1ntellecrual discipline). Based on the libe;al arts a~d \tienct:\, the fun-
cla1nentJI intellecrual disciplines, organized into a reqwred cur~culuin of \kills and
sub1ecL, , represented the best 111cans of educ~ting people to lead in tel Iigen1, purpose.
ful, civilized, and productive lives within civil societi~s. The ele.n~entary sc~ool t'Ur-
ncul un1 \vas to stress the fundau1entals of literacy (reading and \vnang) and anthmeuc,
provide an introduction co the naruraI sciences, geography, history, and libral) and
research skills; and elicit the behaviors conducive to democratic citizenship and 0111-
tt}. These basics \vould provide the necessary foundacion for the skills needed for fur.
ther education and for later life. T he secondary school's curriculun1 was to consist of a
core of fi, e intelJecruaJ disciplines-<;c1ences (chemistry, physics, biology}, mathemat·
1cs (algebra, plane geomerry, crigono1netry, analytical geometry, and calculus}, histol').
English, and foreign languages. T hese funda mental skills and subjects should be
required as the essential core and standard fo r all srudents. Be~tor argued that a tliffer·
enciaced curriculum in which able srudencs cook the academic subjects and the students
with less ac;1demic ability enrolled in life-adjustment progran1s \Vas inherently
undemocratic.
Neo-Essentialism and A Nation at Risk

In the late 1970s and throughout the l 980s, a pronounced revival of basic educ-ation
occ"llrred
.. . resurfaced· The neo-Essena·a11·sts, o ften aII1ed \\1 th
and a new Essentialism
pohocal a~d cultural conserVllov~, developed a critique of existing schoob and pro-
posed a reform program co remedrate perceived deficiencies · ch d · I
especially in public schools. In several respects the neo Es1n ~el' ucao?nal sf}~Btern,
· h . • - senna 1st reVlva o as1c
Ed ucnoon ec oed the earlier Essentialist platform of ch 1930s I · ·
· h' . · tb . . ' e . t 1s important to rec-
Obrn1ze c is ongoing eorencal lineage ofEssentialism t cl d · h cJ
in Alnerican educational history The ne E '. o un erstan why it as staye
in ,\merica's public schools and . d tho; lslse~uallsts developed a list of \vt:aknesses
state e ro owmg:
• Pennis h·e, open, and progr~•ive edu . h

tion in basic skills of readtng, ViTltin a:iaon ad n~glecred sy~tematic 1nstnJC-
1n the tandards ofliceraC). g, computaoon and had caused a tlechne
• Supposedly innovative and experimental
..ocial \rud1e:., and science had sa .6 d pro~ such as the "nc:\\"' nl3th•
narnc: of ill-defined proce!>) lc:ami~ ce h sub1ecr matter compercncic:) 1n chi:
chinking," "whole language leamingg" sued .. ~ the "~overy method," *t:r1nc:al
, an con•tructt\1sm.''
267
Neo-Essentialism, ~upported h} a re1-h:ed neo-Con,ervan"n, recei\c:d a r 1a1nr

boost "1th the election of Ronald Rea bran as Prei.1dtnt 1n 1980. 1crrel Bell, <;ecrc:ral")
of Education in the Reagan adntinis[racion, appointed the (:omnussion on Excellence:
in Education. In .4 >-:atton at Risk, a highly publicized report, the (.omml\s1on cla1me<l
the l:nited States was facing un educational crisis caused by secondary curncula that
had been "homogenized, diluted and diffused to the point that the}' no longer have a
central purpose." using dramatic \Var-time rhetoric, the Commission \l'a med Amen-
cans that "the educational foundations of our society are presenrly being eroded by a
ns1ng ride of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a ~ation and a people."1 The
Commission recommended that all high school sn1denrs be required to complete a
curriculwn of"Five Ne''' Basics" consisting of:
1. Four years of English;

2. Three years of mathen1atics;
3. T hree years of science;
4• Three years of social studies; • 6
5. One-half year of computer science.
.• N. ·
rr anon at Ris1<,
1. e- ensively covered in the media, gained a national audience.
"' k I d
·d R d Secretary Bell urged the governors of each State to ta ea ea er-
Pres1 enl eagan an ' . d ·cu1 hi h d . 1.. f
· · bo more academ1cally focuse curn u1n, g stan aru:. o
. to bnng
shi p role . a ut ad :..... proved classroom d1sc1p
· · 11ne.
· Tb estates heeded che call
acaderruc achievement, an ,, ..
and the scandards movement was born.
The Standards Movement . . .

·ement is that Amenc-.in educaoon will be
f th scandar ds mo\
The essential theme o e . d·•rds or benchmarb, to measure srodent
improved by creaong ig . . 1 measurable predetem11ned goal shOttld be
. h. h academic scan a '
achievement. For exan1ple• an emptnca
. d • ....,.de Jen:) · -·' a spec1'Iic IeveI
' or has acqu1rcu
. f . dent is rea ing are-·- be ed b .
Set that w·ill milicate r a ~tU .cs and science. Student) could then .exam1n > sran-
··
of achie\'ement in mathemat• hi ,;ng at the set ~candard 10 the sub1ect or 1t
darilized rests to detern1ine If they are ac e
268 P\lt I' [JJ Tlll'ORlrS Of £DL'CAl lO'
arformancc of ,nu.lent\ 1n a
th e p...
· · 1
uc'
the) arc hclow or above 1t. U''n!{ ,t.in' · '
h·1,cc on
~ g at a hove, or helow th e 'ct
gi\en ,chool. that ~chool could be 1udited 111 he per c~nnmhern 'te>ing ,1andard1zed teso.
,tan<lard. ,\Jyocaces o f sctnn!{ \tan Jard' •ind n1ea,unng r he ,ed to determine
h 1could 0
. th e
ari.rue that \tudent perfom1ance in •1 parucu1ar 'c ': chool In 3 counu:rargumenc,
co~n1leu!nC\ of the reacher' and adnnnistratof\ 111 at s chc.r· to "tcac.:h for the test"
· <l d d 1s encourages cea '
cnt1c' contend thar using scan ar ize tes d <l d ,..,tion ro student'>. They argue
111 th er t han prov1
'din
g a gen e~I
· and \vell-roun e e u....,
0
rful impact on sn1den1 achieve-
thal 'ocrnl, economic, and other variables have. a pdo1ve . Although these argu111ent'
by standardize rests.
ment t hat cannot be n1easured · . <lards movement has gained a
resound throughout che educational co1n rnun1ry, rhe st:an f standards came with
strong foothold in various states. A pronounc.ed endorseg~f~ ~eft 'Behind.
the enaconent of the federal Education Act of 2001, No
No Child Left Behind

The No Child Left Behind Act strongly promoted by President George \\'. Bus~,
\V3\ based on the premise runn:ng through the standards move.ment. that academic
achievement could be measured \Yith \tandardized testS. Schools 1n which larg~ n~
bers of students fitiled to perform al the ~et standard of achievement c?uld be 1den.o-
fied and given remediation desibrned to irnprove perform~nce. I_f this com~ara~ve
idenLificadon of school performance was left undone, children 1n low-perfonn1ng
schools \vould be left behind ac:1den1ically. The rationale for the act fo llowed the usual
Essentialisr argument of identifying \Yeaknesses and then specifying corrective proce-
dures. Deficiencies noted included the following:
10<la}. nearly 70 percent of inner cit)' fourth graders are unable to read at a basic 1C11el
on national reading tests. Our high <;ehool seniors trail sru<lents in C:ypru\ and South
Africa 1n international math tests. And nearly a third of our college freshmen find they
n1ust cake a remedial course before they arc able to even begin regular college IC\cl
courses.·•
Although the act is comprehensive legislation that deals with many areas of edu-
cation, certain key features, reflecting the standards movement, reinforce an E~sen
tialisr basic education approach. The act identifies the lcey basics a\ reading and
mathernancs and requires thar standardized tests be used ro determine \tudents'
achievement in these essenoal subjects. The act mandates that m order for school dis-
aicb co qualify for federal aid, they muse establish annuaJ asse-.smenl:) in reJding and
mathematics for e\'ery student in grade:. three through eight. Ir holds ~hool dl'mro
K"t.'Ounuble for 1Inpro"'lllg the performance of aU smdencs, not j~t the~ that perfonn
poorly on the tests. Schools and districrs &iling to mal.:e adequate \'carh· progre are
robe identified and remediated. If the schools fail to meet sunda~t.b f~r three ,car,,
their srudenu may then transfer to a higher-performing public or prninc sch1J< 11.°1
..
269
iuct'RRINC; \10\.E...\lF'\"l~ r~ l · \~EN I I \J l~/\1
• li-JJH11ln.1I Rc.1J1n![. \\nun • anil \ 1

• I <s~n11.111'I Pbtfiirni i:. r111mc11c
• l111dlrc1u:il D1sc1plincs \Jo,cmcnt
• RJ~JC I· Jucanon \\o,cnicnt
• A ,\,1111Jn at Risk
• '\ran<lards .\ \o,·emcnt
ESSENTIALISM'S PHILOSOPHICAL AND

IDEOLOGICAL RELATIONSIDPS
\\'e e_ncounrer~d the \1•ord esstnct in our earlier discussions about the metllphys1c:. of
Ideahs~, Realis~, and Tho1nism that assert rhe existence of an underlying ultimate
and unl\·er~al bemg or nature in reality. (See Chapters 2, 3, and 4.) These cradioonal
philosophies, based on a belief in univers:1l essence, are congenial 10 Essentialtsm.
Although similarities exist between Essentialism and Perennialism (discussed m the
follo11•mg chapter), there are so1ne important differences. Perennialis1n, which assern.
that truth and values are eternal and universal, is derived Largely from Aristotehan
Realism and Thomism. Both Essentialism and Perennialism assen that the school's
primary function is acaden:tic and intellectual, and that the curriculum should focus on
basic skills and subjects. However, an imponant difference is that while Perenniahsts
base their argun1ents on the Aristorelian-Thon1istic concept of a rational human
nature, Essential ism is niore historically than metaphysically grounded, in that it looks
to the past, rather than to human nature, to identify the skill~ nnd subjectS that have
conrributed to human survival and civilization.
Essentialism, especially the current basic education and standards version, has
become increasingly aligned with 0~ neo-Conservative ideology. (See Chapter l~.)
~eo-Conservarives and neo-Essenoahsts agree that schools should:
• Be academic institutions that have a well-defined curriculum of basic skills and

subjects. . . .
• Lnculcate traditional values of pacnoosm, hard \vork, effort, punetnahl), respect
for authority, and civility.
• Emphasize a core based on \Vestern ch;lization and trad1nonal Amencan values.
• ()perate efficiently and effectively and be_place~ of d1'1Clphne and <>rder.
• Promote students on the basis of acadenuc ach1eve1nent.
· to a.,.
.,.,.eem·g on traditional educational principles, neo-E~entiali't'>
In add1oon . .
and neo- C onservao··-·
•..., also concur that schoob ha\'e
.. an IIDpommL role co pl<!) 1n
enhancing u. s. econonlic producti,iC) in the compeoave global economy.
270 l'\RI Ill 1 111·llRff\O~ H>LC \TIO'
Essen11.1 li,111 n1cc1' ,1rung oppo-.i11on fro111 philosophic'> ~uch O\ Pragmao~nl,

E\1'1enaal"111. and Po,n11odcrni'l11, fro111 1dculci1!1c' ~uch ll\ J\larXJ!.111, nnd from thto-
ne' \uch J\ Probrrc''" 1,111 .ind Cnuc.11 Theory. I 1hcr;1),, depending on their ~iew, tend
10 be so111c\1 ha1 critical of neo- E>'>cnu,1hsn1, parucularly wht:n 1r 1~ a\\Cx;1ated with
religic>us fund:1111cnt:1li'1n. (For a discussion of L1hcralis1n, \CC Chaptc.r 11.) Pragn1a-
t1'r' oppo..e the Essentiali\t ussun1plion Uiat the cw-riculun1 can be defined a priori to
the 'ruden~· needs and expcrience~ and ~epararcd hy conte1nporary ~ocial 1\'>Ues. CFc1r
PrJgmansn1, ~ce Chapter 5.) Po~t1nodernisi:s sec &sentialisn1\ ~!aim~ of perperuaun~
c11ilizadon via :1 required curriculu111 to actually be a dated h1stoncal rationalt that
once ensured the education of favored socioeconomic groups and classes. (Ste
Chapter 8 for Po~'tlilodemisin.) Existendalisi:s oppose Essentialism for in1posing an
other-defined, rather than self-consm1cted, identity on srudentS. (For Existentialism,
see Chapter 6.) Modern Liberals oppose the Essentialist curriculum as being coo rigid
and lac.king relevance to contempora ry issues and problen1s. Marxists find Essenoal-
i'>m to be a defense of the existing capit:alisr si:atus quo. Progressives find Essentiali'>m
to be too formal, too locbtep, and not open co the 1·arieties of human experience. Cnc-
ica I Theorhts, sitnilar to ,\11.arx.ists and Exisrenoalbrs, find the Essentialist rnandate for
basic skills and subject.~ to acn1ally be n guise for reproducing Uie socioeconomic status
quo and locking students into predetermined class-based siruations. (Critical Theory
1s discussed 1n Chapter 19.)
WIIY STUDY ESSENTIALISM?
Essenrialism is worth st11dying because of ii:s persistence and frequent reappearance.

During these various appearances, and under such titles as the "three R's " the Essen.
oalist placfonn, intellectual disciplines, basic education, and the standard~ inovement
E.~~entialists have been ver; consistent 1n def~rung schools as primarily academic inso~
rut1ons. They have been equally con\lstent 1n defining the curriculum as basic skills
and subjects. It is im~ortant to focu~ o_n th~ core_ fearures of this recurring educational
theory and to recogruze that Essenoahsts, m their educational constancy and mrnit
ment, see this approach to education as being the most certain path 0 h co al
.1 • • Al·L h th 'al t uman sun1v
anu civ1 11ry. u1oug e soci , economic,
. . and political problem ~ may change, t he
best response for schools, say. Essenoahsts
. · ' is ro reaffinn and rel y on .L · d true,
u1e tne
and te~red cumculum of basic skills and subjeas. '
ESSENTIALISM AS AN EDUCATIONAL THEORY
A., indicated earlier, ~'eooahsm 1~ a theor; of educa · tha

'""c16cs. Ir defines the school as a ,,_,,;ocul • 1 oon t tt!nd t<> focu., on
··- """'"' rura airency "·ho~e . I . th 1·
n1al and acaden1ic education ofsrudentS in .. bed , pnrnal"} ro e 1~ e or-
pre1'Cn essenual 'kills d b. Th
~hool, in parul-ular, 1s an agen.C\· of culrural , . an \'\I Jc:<..'tS. c
· cran~llllSSJon rhat paiSCS these ~senual
C 11\I' I I I{ ~1JfrF1._.._
ESS I '\J 11\t 1\\1, l!.\.~IC I . •
• J)LC. \ 110'\, "-"'D \l\'\J)\l(J)\
27 1
,J.:111'> and ~ubjec1S on a~ an inhe . r
·1· . 111ance •ro1n one " .
peruaung Cl\1 1zaoon. Es~enual"nt rcicc.:t\ th . ,,eneranon 10 the: next, therebr per-
the ..chool u. a mulafuncnonal in l.1 e Liberal and Prt>j?Tc\\1ve oncn1auon ch;u
ecuno1111c, and ps\·cholomcall, ch ' ruuon that perfiorm~ a vanc:tv of •,oc1al,
. poht11.-al,
.
· .,.. . erapeut1c rol~ F th E ·
'i:hool., and teachers are dn•ert"<l in . · or c \\cnual ...1, the more
~ to nonacademic p · h I
n:.,ourc~ will be 3\'ailable for the ~ unui~. t t e" tnnc:, rnonc:y, and
m to per onn their pnrnary aca<lem1c Fun~uon.
A Subject M atter C urriculum

E~~entia li~ts resolutely endorse h
·r~ . . · r e ~u b'iect •na tter curnculum
· · wh ·ich ~ubiec~
1n · are
d1 er~naatec.l and organ1z.ec.l accc)rding to their own internal logical or chronological
principles. T hey are suspicious of so-called "innovative" or prOCe'>s learning
approaches, such as Consrrucn,·isrn, rn which srudentS conStruct or create their own
knowledge in a collaborauve fo~h1on. Es~enriali~rs argue that civilized people learn
c:ffect1\'elr _and effic1entl} h) u..1ng tht: knowledge tbar has been developed and organ-
ized h)· sc1ennscs, ~cholar<,, and other expem. There is no need ro wa!>te time and
resources ..dbco,·t:ring" ''hat " al read> known. There is no need to conanually re-
invent Lhe \vheel. Curnculu111 that 'hrnore~ the past. rejects subject inaner boundaries,
:inc.I pndes itself on being 1nterdl\1:1pl1n;ll) or rra nsdisciplinary often, in reality, causes
educ:uional confus ion. Ba,ed on the concept that the school has a primary function,
the curriculu111, too, b very '>pec1fit: tu 111struction in what is termed the basic skills and
\uhjects. These slolls and subiccb should be well-defined as to scope, have a sequence,
be cu1nulative, and prepare \rudc n t~ for the furore.
Specific Scope
E'>sennah r.s are Silpic1011s of educanonal thc:on~ and methods that do not have a par-
ocular scope and are not de~ ned b) horde~. For them, reading and anthmetic are
skills to ht: taught in a specrtic \\3} at a pa~cular ~e 1_n a child's lrfe. I l.Js~ol) , as an
.1c.ideinic subjecr, rs defined as J ch ronologi~I d~ p~on and rnterpretaaon of the
hnni:tn past. Essentialists ore susp1c1ous of 1nterdisaplin~ 1nethods such as whole
lanh'l.Hl!(e learning and consrrucrn ism, and .broad-area srud1~s hke language ans .and
siictal '> tutlics. The,· belie' e that for so1neth1ng ro be learned n has to he taught. Chll-
dren "rll nor , 1 mph acquire knou.ledge of ar1thmeac, h1srory, and geography as con-
corn1rant learn1n~. as some Progrc:s,1vt:5 claim.
Specific Sequence
""-· -- bel ch n,crucoon tn parncalar skill, and subteen I\ derennincJ
uncnoa11sts 1t:'\'i: ar 1 th -'- h rJ
_ Iv b\ ...
1,.l')fe _, • cat of chat ~kill or sub1c:ct. In o <!T 'lli1>r-. r ere l' an " er
u1e 1m e mai .ogi h f h
to be ~bServcd m teJChmg -omethrng. for eumple. the rcac tn!? n Ament11n "t"I')
272 Jl\RI Ill 'll!IORll 'dll• I l)L ( \I Ill'-
·h . (I) cncounrer ufthc Nati\e A1ncrican~

follow~ a definite c:hronolo!fl<ill urJcr, ~uc( ;)" 1 . Rc,oluuonarv \ \.'ar an<l \tn1g~le for
an<l European'>: (2) l uropeJn 'ellI en1cn1. . • 1·' ( 'iI )icthe wc'>n,ard-1110\lnl!
• f .
ronuer; (6) the;
independence: (4) 1hc c.irl) n.1uonal pe~io< ; .11100 ;ind 1111 n11gr:it1on; (H) the Progres-
<:l\ ii \\'arand RCl.'(10\ll1.lt:llOO: (7) in<lu~rnh: 117o'· C't\1011' (1 1) Worltl \\':1r 11; 02) the
, I·' \\"ur l ·• ( JO) L c S cp1
~ive 1110' en1cnt; t')) \\ or u
' ncan'> l I1tH .ln'>lrllCt1on
uencc a l;;o . 1n . a
1
111·: eq ·..s or<ler of complexity, ah~tracuon
ColJ \ \'ar; ~13) rhe po'1- Cn1J \,\'ar wort
· · d accort 1ng to 1 ~ · '
n,1r11cular ~'Ubject area • ~ organize . . cu· be<Tin~ with ha\lc anth1neocal
,. - themaacs 1ns1ru 011 .,.
and difficult). For e\antp1e, nia h hen to geon1ecry, and nn to calculus
c:o1npuracion and operations. moves to alge ra, t ns that skills and suh)eru are to be
and mgonomecry. The p~nc1ple of sequenc~ :~~necessarily according to what may
caught according to a definite procedure an
t.urrendy inrere~t ~tudents.
C umulative
mis a cumulative proce~s. Initially,
•• 1
For EssentialistS, progre~~mg di rough die curnc~ ~ nd com urin •-are mastered.
foundational or basic skilb-~-uch as reading, w nong, a P g . d
. . h n nerat1ve power in that diey are genenc an can
These basic skills are seen ~ avi g ge r cla · students advance to
. th · Based on th~e 1oun oons,
be used 111 many o er operaoon.\. · . . d di· ki Th'
other subjecrs diat have a greater complexity and require higher-or er m ng._ IS
cumulative effect allows the srudent to ac~1uir~ a. body of knowledge that will be
nt:eded for furth er education, for work, nnd fDr hfe 1n general.
Preparation
Essenoalists see the benclunark.~ of \Chooling-proi,rress through the t'U!Ticulum and
promocion to higher grade levels-not as ends 1n themsel\'es but as an edu~nonal. ladder
thac prepares one for more advanced educanon, the \vOrld of work, ciozenship, and
effective social and policicaJ participation. E<luc:ition is a process of clin1bing the educa-
Lional ladder rung by rttng to prepare for the future. Preschool prepares children for ele-
1nenrory school, ele1nenrory school prepar~ diem for secondary school, and so on. Sin~e
~chooling is seen as leading a person ro anodier 1nstirurion and another ~et of goals, 1t 15
1n1ponant that die net\l·ork of instirutions, die educaoonal ladder, be articulated in terms
of 1~ core-the essential curriculum. In uch an arrangement, the higher imnrution secs
many of the goals of the lower ones, in that it ha~ expectaoons and enuy requirements.
Cricics say that 'iuch a closely ordered and sequential patte rn cend~ to become a
rigidly prescrib.!d lock.)tep m which sruden ~ must march to the beat of the ~a1ne
drumrner: John Dewer. ~he Pragmatist philosopher and Progres\ive educator, attacked
the docm~e of preparaoon on the ground~ chat the furore fo r which w·e are preparing
will be radically different from the present 1n which the preparanon uke~ place. E.Ju·
l"anon that tS so nghcly geared co prepanoon. rather than co experience in the immedi·
ate SJtuan~, becomes quickly obsolete. Better, ~ D~ey, \\'a\ cu ha\e a flenble
method of 1ntel11!?ence that could be applied to <iOhing problems and an C\er-changing
world. In response, E.\liellnalis~ contend that the bitiic skill J · oited
in the past and are m°'t hkelr to work in the furore. ~an 'ub1c~t.' ha' e"
1111r1rl\ 11\ll I ' f\,~i'.:Jt\I
I\ I I
II \\lC Fl.lt;c I I IO'\ 1
· 'D\f\'\ll\RO\ 273
fi t.i)ing on T ask
L,.,cnllilh'>t' aho argut: chat ~ch 001
' an<l teach
an1 J n<>t tie <li1·erled into nonacad er' nee d co stav with their priniary task
cal and t:conom1c belie~. cht:i tt~;•c ~~as.\\ 'hilt EssenuaJi·,L, ha1·e thi:tr 01111 polin-
"JC1al and eo,nornrc problem.. \\'h 1tlo cht rt\ e thac o;chools 'hould not bt: ustd to >oh t
• 1: es1: prob!
Jt:Cts th.11 are rt!le1an1 to them s<.:ho0 1 h uJ
h
1:ms can e e\plorc:d 1n tcnn~ ofsub-
ancl c<.:onrimic 1dt!lllogie~ and a~end· ~h d not endor~e purncular puliucal, >ocial,
0
1ndoctr 1nJti1Jn. Further E'>senual as.d ey should not be U\ed a' agencies of political
' l'>t~ o not behc>e that ., h I h
'>•i I\ t \111..lety\ problems and 111.,. \ \ 'h ch . c oo s a1·e t he power co
and s11h1ects that \\ill pr h at' ool, can do is cea<.:h \rudents the ha,1c 'kill.,
lern' in the futurt! f tpar~· l ern ro deal "rth \OC1al, pol111cal, and econon111.: proh-
F 1111 . · ' 'enua ist cnu<.:s, such a'> Cntjcal Thec>r1st.., contend rhnt 1he
1
po 1int-al 11111un1ahn· 1., a 'han1. The curriculum itself the}· sa~ i~
0
' 1.:
• 1 ;1 " t <.: 13111110
u1co 11~1c;111} and 11ol111calh • . dc·r.crn11ncti ·Thc r1:;1 1quc>aon.., nor 11npa.n:1al1r1
' hut ·who
·'
\l.t II t.ontru I th cl rca1111n uf thl' lllrnl1llum. •
•
DIANk R.Av rrc 11, ·r111· \ ( \ l ) l \ II( ( .LRRI C L I l'\1
\'ii > 'CJI O<>I ~~
In I 1 /1 IJ11dc, D1.111e Ra1 lllh ar b'llt'.' th:lt the fai1111'C' ut rnan) of the educationnl rcforrn~
u f thl l\\l'Olleth lcntlll) c:an h• u11nl1111cd t11 l'r11grcs~11e cduc.1101' 11ho we:1kened 1hc
Jl.ld< lllll lunlllon ut the .>lhuol, \, they Lrca1eJ d1lrcrcnt proi,rrarll) for different \lU·
dcrth, che Pn•grc 11e.s JC1•pJrd1z.cd and "caL:ened the M:hoob' tle6nrng JlJJcrnic
(h,U~lll"T, ror her, the tl\IC' leader) tn \Inen<an cJucaaun" ·rt the earlier, hut otu:n
n<·l(kl tell (\,.:1111.1h,1 uluc:itur• \ \"11l1.11n <- BJ~lt • JnJ l'klac 1-undd, nu.her than Pro-
gn:''" t!\ \lllh .1 .. \ \ 1lh.1111 Ir K1lpJtri<L unJ ( 1l'O ~ l .... Counh...... )'OU reaJ the \dt1:·
1111n, .1 ou 111.11. 111,h 111 LlllbHler rhe tull111nng lix.'1' ~ quc,111111~
I. \ l<'X.irJing tu R:111tLh, ho" Jue~ rum<-ulu1n J1lt1:rtntt2uon L':IU\C: \<Jll2f and

r t<1JI ,111111hla1111n:
l . I lo\\ Jue:_, R:ai uch Jctine an acaJcmt<. l'\lfnrulum? \\'ho •h11uld cnrtiff in ~lllh a
curnculunt: Do yuu ll!Tl"e or d1~grec "1th her:
'-· d RJiitdl h01' did Progn:ssn1ml conmhute to ana-1n11:ff«tuah~rn

\ , u co r •nt: to •
1n .\.rnc:n~-.an C\h:cauon:
274 JI\~ f Ill l 1lFORlf.SOI• Fl)l'CAI 10'-
\.~ enrolln1cnt'>. u1 school 1ncrea1,t'd 1n the , 10d1c,, But ,o wo du tho1,e who do not plan lo
.
t:arh n1ennt:th cenrun, . there: was a dt:c1dc<l !'<I 10 college, for they. 1nay ne\er hal'e an~ther
'Pht hcrwt:t:n tho'e "ho behered th,11 a hhcr.11 chance to gel in~t.ructlon about the organlZll1g
eduC'Jtion (that i,, an ac1dt'm1c curricul11111) principles of societ} and n.uure, ahout the \'an-
'>hould hc )..'1vcn to aU srutlent!> and tho'c 11 ho eue., of human expenence. E\'en 1f they chQche
wanted 'uch 'tudie' taught only to the college- not ro enroll 1n a univer"ty• rher too need the
bound elite. 1'"he latter group, based primarily knowledge and skjJls that will ennch their lives
1n the 'chool' of education, identified itself 1vith as c1cizeas, individuals, and members of a
.
tht: new proi,rrc~~tve education movement and commun1cy.
do111inatcJ the education profession in its fonn- T he conventional srory of the t1ventieth
arivc ye:1 r~. cenrury told by historians of educ;1ti()n is about
Thinking- they could bridge the f_rap the heroic advance of the progres~1ve education
between '>chool and society and make t:he schools 1novement, how it vanquished oppressive rradi-
'ocmlly u\cful, pedago¢cal t:heorists sought tionalism in cbe classroom, hrieAy dominated
al1em•1uve<, to the academic c:urriculwn for Ainencan schools, then lost 1t.'> vitality and with-
non-colleg-c-bound '>rodents. Cumcular d1ffcr- ered away m the mid- I 950s. The paradigm for
ent1ation nieanc an academic educaoon for this telling of the srory 1s L3\\'l'ence A. Cremin's
c,on1e, a nonacademic education for othel"i; th1\ niag1stenal work Th( Transfan11ation ef tht
approach affected t:hose children-ma1nl} the S1·hool· Progressh!im1 i11 A111~rkan Ed11(ntion,
pour, imn1igranrs, and racial minoricies-who JH76-1957. Thi~ is not the story told 1n this
were pu,hed into undemaniling vocational, hook. The progressive ec.lucacion move1nent did
indu~trinl , or general program~ by bureaucrat' not d1'tappear in the 1950s; at the very ti1ne
and guidance counselors who thought they Crl.!111i11 thought he 1vas writing its obinrnry, the
wen~ inca pahlt! of learning much more. Such 111ovcn1l.!nt was at a 1011• ebb, hut it ~prang hack
policu:s, packaged in rhetoric abour dern<x:rat) to life tn the early I 960s. More troubling, it
and "1neeung the need., of the individual child," 1,prang- back ro life 1vith anci-intt:llecrualisn1 at
encouraged racial and social srraoficauon 1n the forefront.
\Jnent-an .,chools. Thi~ book "~IJ argue rhar In Cremin's important book, anti-
th1., 'ttraufit':lt1on not only \l'llS profound!} intellet-rualism appears ~ an cx.'Cas1onal, unfor-
undcn1ocn1nc but wa~ harmful, both to che chil- tunate by-product of the progrl.!~\lve eduotion
dren 1nl'oh ed and co American society. moH!1nent for much of tht century. However,
\s u ..ed 1n thb hook, the term ~nca<le1n1c th1'> hook argues that ano-1ntt!llecrualisrn w:h :in
curr1culu111" doe~ not refer to the fonnali.,cic tnescapable consequence of unponant strains of
1nethud~. rote ret,tacions, and student passivic, educational progressivism, parucuarly the 1·er-
ahou1 \1 h1ch :ill reasonable educator~ and par- \ions of progressivism that had tJil.! 1nost 1nAu-
ent~ hn' e Jll"tl} t'tunpluined. ::-.ior does 11 refer ence on American public education. Crerrun
onl} ro 1e.1ch1ng baste skills. Ir refers tn'tread co and other lusconans of progress1\·1srn !(ive ~hort
tht: S) ,ten1;111c ~tu<l} of language and bu:rarure, 1,hnft co the mo\'emenc's cnocs, such a~ \\11J1am
..c1ence and n1.1themaocs. h1srocy. the ans, and Torrey Harris, \\~tlliam (.:handler Bagltj, and
foreif{ll languagt:', rhe-.e stud.ie:., commonl) l.sa2c Kandel; in thb book tht:y are rreared ''
de'i<:nhed toda} ~a -hberaJ educanon," con\'!!) major figure~ in Amcncan t:ducaoon 'll·hosc
in1portant kno" leJ~ and ~. cultivate ae<.- ideas were babnced and i.oond, 1f not often
cheric unaginauon. and teach srudenis co thinl heeded. :ind whose phtlo!iophy remain• central
cnmallv •
and reffet.mdv• about the v.·orld in ro the reconscrucnon of ."1ncncan cducaoon
"hid\ the\' h\e. toda\ ,
•
Cem1nly the t"Ollege-bound need these
\\'h) <l1>c:!t uu.. •rgwnent about the~
Cll \P'll·k \I\ 111' t ' ' ' , ll \I l'-\1 ll\\lr
11>11 \fl1):'\ '''DSf\..,ll\RI>' 275
1112tter n...l.1\: \> "<' 'hJll ,ct•, \\ h,·nc\ L·r ih,• ll .I
dein1,· l'umculu1.n ''J' 1hl111nl u1 11111111111 1<.t. ~ 111111111 •·1"1' '''the "1 •rid. tlll!llA~re ot the '"ni.:-
bn!e nu111hc:r' ol d11l.tr,•n ''<I<' pu,hcd ihi, , 111.~h 111!:' "' ""Ille, tl1 l'} Wiii tum to 01her 5owco
ih~ ,d10,)I ,, ,1c111 '' 11h1111t hl·11,•h1 ol ;1 l!c: 1111111 t '"' 111lu1111.1111u1 111d \ll1nul 111nn ( h1ldren
tJii<~t 11 1n \, the •l<~llkl111( <·11rnt·nh11n 111, 1 lh 111d.1~ '""II 111 .1 •i.: 1 ''' 11nd •cs •hape;J 111 1he
pt1p11 l,11 u1 l111rl tltt lrtlllll 111c1h 1, and v111;111er-
111111111 1;1nc~ .a. the l'entr.11 l o.:u~ uf the puhlt1: 1:1.1I .1dvcr1t\lll!{ I \C1ytl11ng l.ct11rncs tn\1.a,
.,.-h,x1I ,I -1e1n, rhe '.:houl\ lo,t 1hc1r anchor,
c1c111h1n~ 1~ )>Jlk.1gctl I•• fi1 the terms o
W(' -~ 1•e ol 1111S!-u.>n. their 1nten'e 1nor:il coin cclchnt} Jnd \en">Jtr•mah~rn, fam11us for a m1n-
lllll n<Ot nl the inccllt:cn1al de\elopn1ent of ea1:h Uh~ or n1 o, then ~one.
chi J <lnce that happened, e<lucauon refon11 If we art: to ha\t: a 1:hance of reda:rrung
llll" ern~nts \\·ould co1ne an<l go w11h surpnsin!{
our \t:hoo)., a~ center.. of learning, "e must
rap1J11y. aln1osc rnndon1ly, each lea1ing ics mark understand ho11 the~• ta1ne to be the w;n• We\•
tithinu in the schools. 01 er tin1e, as this hap- are. Ac c:he opening of tht: n1·1::ncy-fir'>t cenrul').
1iened, educators forgot how to say "no," even 1\n1encnns fi nd thenl.\eke\ 1n ;earch of rrad1-
to the loopier notions of what schools were for. dons that nourish and 1Jea\ that make sc:n,,e ol 3
Every perceived need, intere~t, concern, prob- world char ts changing \W1ftl). ()ne of the grear
lem. or issue found a place 111 the cuniculum or ,·inues of rbe academic trad1aon 1s rhac it 011--an-
pronued a rationale for adding ne\\' special1~tli 1zes human knowledge and mako 1c compre-
tO the school's Staff. Once the hierarchy of edu- hensible to tbe learner. It a1111., co make a chaonc
caoonal values "'as shattered, once schools lost world coherent. It give'> inrellecrual srrength to
their compass, hawkers o f new wares could ma r- those who want to understand ;,ocial experience
ket their stock to the schools. Every purveyor of anti the nnrure of che physical world. Despae
!iOClal reform could find a willing customer in sustained efforcs to dim inish it, the academu.:
the schools because all needs were presumed rrndirion survives; 1t survives bec-Juse kno11. I-
equal 1n importance, and there was no longer edge builds on knowledge, Jnd we cannot dts-
any general consen sus on the cencral purpose of pense with the systen1atic srudf of human
:.choohng. knowledge without ri.<.king n1ass ignorance. It
Today, as the schools compete for chil- survives because it retains the po11·er co
dren's time and attention with televi!>ion, enlighten and liberate tho;,e who seek knowl-
movie~, the Internet, and oth er mass media, edge. Now, as parenis, educators, policy mak-
ihoo;e who run them 111ust know what schools ers, and other cirizens setik high srandards. 1t b
alone can do. The schools must reassert their rin1e to renew the academic tradition for the
Pnmary responsibility for the development of children of che twenrv-first
•
cenrun. •
Ywng people's intelligence and characcer. • ••
SchWJs must do far more than ceach childen Large social organizaoons cannot SUL'CeeJ
"how to ltam" and wbow to look things up": unless they focus on what they do best. The
sa1ne is crue for schools. \\'hat i~ 1r char schools
they mun teach them what knowledge has mosL
and only schools can and 111u~c do? They cannot
value, how to use that knowledge, how to
be successful as schools unlcs' near!~' all of their
Organize what they know, how co understlllld
pupils g:iin hrera.cy and .nun1erac}', as well as a
the relationship between past and present, bow good unde111rand1nj( of h1stOr}' ~nd the soence~.
~ 1t11 the difference between accurate ITTforma-
lireran1re, and a fore1(tll l;1ngwige. They cannot
~ llld propaganda, and how to curn infornu-
~ into unde:astanding. If youngsterSed. abre
- "-n .-ious studies, unencumber Y. e
;r be successful unles.\ ther teach children the
iinporunce of honesty, perwnal responsib1l1ry,
1ncelleccual curiosity, inJumy, kindness, empa-
...fftnt ideas and conavvenies of Amencan thv, and L'Ourage·
1111 ~ history, unrouched by the great poets •
276 l'\KI Ill ·nn Ol{Jl~OF iiDL'CAl 10--:
ondary cducaaon is virntnll} prcdude<l tr0111
'>Lhool' lllU\l prcpart: youngstt:r> u1 h;1\c hi!(her educ1oon, from 1nany de\lrahle carter<.,
1he M\ cNulc 1nrelhgcncc" of'' h1ch \ \ ilhan1 ·r froin full parciopacion 1n our J)(lh~t"al 'Y'tern,
Harri' "rote, rhe 1nrelhgence chat allow' 1n<l1 and fro1n en1o~ment of o,,h:z.inon' gr1:a1 ac,.
n<lual, 10 lt:am ni:" t:1,b and take char!(C of rhenc trea3ures. The society that allo\\ s farg~
th1:1r Ii'"'· 1 ·he) 111u\t reach them to u.'e ,pn- nuniber' of it> citlzen' 10 re111a1n uneducated,
hohc lanKllJ!!C and abscracr 1de:is. The) 1nU\t i1:.morant, or sen111iteratt! 'quandcf' 1t' ~t'"lll~t
tcac.:h young,ter, about the culrure and world 1n ih>eL, che intelligence of its people.
which they live and about culrures that exhteJ 'The disciplines taught 111 >ch1x1I are
lung" ago anJ for nway. uniquely valuable, both for 1n1hv1dual~ and for
lf ~d1ools know and affir111 what rhey do society. A society char doe' not tench 'cience to
well, 1hcy l.'On liht:rate thernselves fro111 the fods the general public fosters. ~e 1~rolifcranon qf
and panacea\ that have often been inflic.:tt:d on irrational dainlS and anasc1enufic hehcf S\s-
tht:n1 by prc\\ure group~, legislators, and wdl-
rem\. A ~ociecy that tunl' it~ hac.:k on che tcach-
nu.':ln1ni,t enthu"a't'. School~ cannot compete
in!( of hi\tOI'} encourages 1na~' anlne>1a, lc:.lnng
wuh 1he visual drama of television, the Internet,
the public.: ignorant of the in1J)(lrtant events and
and the n10' 1es. But the mass media, ran<lon1
idc..-a' of the human past and t!roclinf! the a11c
and nnpcr..onal a' they are. cannot co1npcte
1n1clligence needed for the furure. \ den11K:rat1c
with tl!(lcher., \\ho have the capaal) to f,'Cl 111
know p>un1:.1<,ten., in,pire them, and K111dc the111 ,11C1c!) that fails to teach the younger gcnera-
11on it' pnnc1ples of sclf-govc1111ne11t put> the~e
tu rc,pon,1hle 1narurity.
·rhc thret 1:.rrt.':lt errors den1on.\trntcd 111 pnnc..ipfe, at n\k. A \<>C•Ct) that doc' no1 tench
the!>C page' arc, fif't, the belief that \Lhuol\ youni,:,tcr' ro appreciate great \\1o rk\ of litera-
,hould he expected 10 ~olvc all of socu:1:y\ proh ture and Jn perm1rs a coar\ening :ind dcgradn-
lc111\; \ccond, the be.lief thar onl} a poruon 11f 11011 uf 1i- popular culrure. A soctt:ty that 1s
children need ncce~~ ro a lugh-quahry at;idcnut· n1c1.1ll~ 11nJ ethn1L'llil) <livt!rse require\, n1ore
edut'l.ltion, nnd third, the belief thJt 't:h<~11, thJn other '11c..1eae,, a con\c1011' cflun co build
\hould e111pha\1,r;e ,rudents' 1mmed1ace e\Jic:n- ,h.1rc:J \alut:> and ideals atnung 11\ cittz.enl'}'. A
ence' Jnd 1111n11n1zc: (or e'en ignore) the 1r.1n,. "'ic1et) that tolerate, ann-111cellcctuah,n1 in It'>
1111"1011 of kn()\\ ledge. The tir..t of th~e ~hool' t-:in t!xpfct to ha\:e a du1nhed-Jow n cul·
a'"111ipu11n' le-aJ., 10 a Jo,, of fucus. W\erung 1he rurt that honor- cclchnt) and ,tnuunn r4ther
~hool' fnin1 thl!1r 1110\l bruc mission; the \tc.:onJ than kntJ\I ledge and wi~dorn .
contnhu1c' to low Jch1evement and anti- 'x:hool\ "111 nut be rc:n<lc..-rcd 11h'\t1lc:tc by
de111<K:Nllt: pohc.:1es, the third depnv~ )'Ounf!· ~ew cechnulugscs becau.'e their role a' teaming
\'teN of the 1ntdh~t1u.1l po\1er that denies fn11n in\uruoon' bas het:omc: c\·tn inure 11np<1run1
le~min!! 11h1111t the expent!nces of other. and pre- ~~~ in the pasc. Ttt:hnolr1i,'}' t11n supplt:nitnl
1en1s then1 fron1 'ra1uhn)! on the shoulder.. of >ohn!! but ll(Jt n:plac;c: 11 · c~cn the 1n11'>t
giants in every lidd of thought and acnon aJ\·a need t Iet.i:ronsc tt:chn(JltJgi~
' arc ine1pable
Perhap' in the pa•t 1t "J!i pi.1-.,1ble tu of rurrung th.,1r V.tJrld ,,f tnf11nnauon into
un«rtt!ut·,ue a •ign1ficant pomon of the popu-
lation "1thout c:au•ing serious hann to the
nanun. :-.:o k1n~r. E<l~<taon. roJa) more than
rre<i
~mrc kn<Niedge, a fonn of 1ntclltctt12I nu~c
t dcilled and educated tcachcn.
bt cffecu\-e, schoob mtl~t o:mcentratt
at an~ tune 111 the past. '' the kf1· to St!CCeSSful on tbc1r funda l __.1
i-mapaoon 1n 'iOCI~ A ~· or girl who cin- learn mrnu nnsSJon of tc:ldung aou
noc rnd, wnte, <.>rUK mathcmatia 1s locked out That1:;~~ the!) must do n for all children
of "ery ton o( educational opporturut)~ A man the - the m-uarctung gml of schoO!> ai
t"Wl!tlt) • b.rst ce!ltllr)
or •'()ltlell W1th<lut • ~ elanana., and S«·
( 11 \I' I I R s1x·11 I ~
277
(0;\°CLUSION
£.,,ent1alism, or Ba,ic Edu~

~duon, J> an ed . . I
IOil!( ume. Jr ha., den1onsrra1 ·' ucauona theory that has bten aro d r
' eu great longt:\"I . un 1or a
\C h OilI \ prunary runction t() be th . C) Ill acrual ~chool practice. It ~ees the
• ·1 e preservar1on and
CJ r h u111an c11 1 1:i.at1on. Ir empha~iz~· .
.
trans1n1s~1on of the h:l\i<: tlemen~
learn ing:!!. the 111a,tery of the~e skiil (I) 8 curr~culurn of ba\ic skil ls and ,ubiecrs; (2)
,r;1ndard~; (3) ~chooJ., 35 place\ of ord!r and ~~Jects according tu high and verifiable
Lion; (4) thar che goal of or . d ·discipline, and efficient and effecuvt: 1 n~u-uc-
g:in1ze educatio 1 .
tn ii, and pamoric in<li\iduals (' ti n ~ to prepare people to be producove,
d:1nl1zed tests to in ea · .urren y, the \tandards rnoven1enr and the U\t! of ~ran-
. · 1
,,u resn1tentac·1den" ··L· H • •
t:nce ofEssentiali~ni d . ' ' ! IC .1cn1even1enr re ecc the connnu1ng 111Au-
on e ucauonal pohc.y niaking.
I. l)cnnc I•'~cn11 ••li•n1 , JillJ 1111Ilt:.ltc how II .1ppli1:s co the con1en1porarv school and
curncul111n. -'
2. Reflect on} our own cd11.-:111on1I c'pcncncc. Du vou find c1·idence of an 1'.sscnaal1st
or lla...1t I dutaunn ur11:n1Jt1on: ·
3. ()f the ph1lu,oph1e, Jnd 1dc<1lo~1c' c,;i1n1ncJ Jn dm hook," h1ch is most, and which
" lca:.t, ttnnp.1111,lc ''11h l'"cnu~h,m:
4. I JO\\ ntuth of} our fon11aJ t:dut~t11tn h1, liecn ha\Cd on the doctrine or preparation?
'i. l)o )OU 1h1nk tha1 the cun1ci11p(lran >lllndArtl\ mu1cmcn1 and the use of \tandard-
ITcd tc't' r .....,onate,, "ell w uh I sentuh•111:
INQL'lRV \."11) RESE.ARC.J I PROJI-C ~I ~

I. \ IJintJJn a d1pp1nl! file ol Jrtu.Jc, al.out ~uc.:;u.inn th~t appe:ar 1n the popular (non-
profc,,10nJI) pre''· :\nal)7C the ~n1dc, and dctcnn1nc 1f the)' repre>ent an r ~..cnual·
''' oru.:ntJnon •
.?. \ !Jl.: J !J,t of the ,kill' Jnd \UhJet"tS that }OU think arc C''cnual or net;c,>ary 10 a
,ounJ ctlucA1ton. l)oc>) our IJ,1a!fTCc"1th the l's..cnualc•t p<»1aon:
l. l>chatc the propc,_1oon: Irue equaht) rc<.1u1r"' all 'Uldtn~ 10 cnrt,11 1n 1hc same
turn ..'Ulun1.
4. <..r~.atc a currtti.11;1.r core b:t~ on E'.cnnah~t as,umpuons.
S. ('onJu.:t J >\II'\ ci of the rncn1hcr. of) our cl;1." on how they Jc fine th.c rule and funt"
tl<•n ot ihc -~hool, dc:1enn1ne 1f th~ opllllons rcpr~t an 1.sscnaalat oncnuaon.
6. Rei tC'1> '>C\ .ral rcxtbool.• ~ in coo~ Ill profes§lonal IQCF.hu edua non. f)ctcr ·
mine 11 thc-.c: boob rdlea an oncnuoon t!at 15 for or an.inst ~~11~1n.
~'TT llESOl."JlCF.S
Fw- the (.oun.:11 h•r JMsrc Educaoon. •~·
hnp/1'w ww.c-H.Ol'l(
276 l'Alfl Ill n1ro1t1ESOF£Dt:CAllO\J
School~ 1nusr prepare young-.. rer.. 10 han! 0111 t 1ll'education 1s virn1ally precluded from
the "\·ersaule 1nrelligence" of which \\llh,1111 'l higher curu:anon, frorn n1an} desirable careers,
Harri.., \\Tote, the 11uell1!{ence that .11lu\\ s 11ah· lnun full p•trtit:ipauon 1n our poln:L-al system,
\iduals to learn ne\' ta~l, and mke ch;lr)!t' of and front cn111yn1en1 of c;1V1hz.a1111n' !{feat a~
thelI ll\·e... The\. 1nu't te;1ch tht!111 to u.,e .,,. 111- thcuL trca<,urcs. The ~o<.:tC!} that allows large
bohc language ;tnJ ab.,tract ideas. The) 11111.,1 niunhcr' of its ciuz.cns to rcrn:11n uneducated,
ceach young-;cer' ;tbour the L'lllrure and world 1n ignorant. or semili1er.ttc squanders its greatl:!tt
which the) h\ e nnd about culrure:. that exhn:d •lsset, the l.lltelligence of its people
long ago and for :l\\'U). 'fhe disciplines taught 111 \thool are
If schools kno\v and affi.nn what they do uniquely valuable, both for individuals .and for
well, the; can liben1te the1nselves fron1 the fads suciety. A society that doe.~ not Leach ~crence to
and panaceas 1.hat have often been inflicted on the general public fosters. ~e ~rolifera.tion of
them b; press-ure groups, legislacors, and \vell- irrational claims and ant1sc:1enufic belief sys-
meaning enthusiasc.. Schools cannot con1pete ten1s. A society that rums its back on the teach-
\\ith me V1S1!al dran1a of television, the Internet, ing of history encourages ~ass arnnesia, leaV1ng
and the mo\ie:.. But the mass media, random che public ignorant of the important events and
and impersonal as they are, cannot con1pere ideas of the human past and eroding the civic
with teachers, who have the capacicy co get to intelligence needed for tbe furore. A democraoc
Imo\\' younir;ters, inspire tbecn, and guide the111 society that fails to teach the younger genera-
ro responsible n1aturity. tion its principles of self-government puts these
The three great errors demonstrated in principles at risk. A society that does noc teach
tbese pages are, first, tbe belief tbat schools youngsters to appreciate great \VOrks of litera-
should be expectec.l to solve all of sociecy's prob- rure and art permits a coarsening and clegrada-
lems; second, the belief tbat only a portion of tion of ics popular culture. A society that is
children need access co a high-quality academic racially and ethnically diverse requires, more
education; and Lhird, the belief thac schools than other societies, a conscious effon to build
should emphasize srudencs' immediate experi- shared values and ideals a1nong itS citizenry. A
ences and minimize (or even ignore) the trans- society chat tolerates anti-intellecruaJjsm in ics
mission of knov1ledge. The first of these schools can expect to have a dumbed-d0\1'11 cul-
assumptions leads to a loss of focus, diverting the ture tbat honors celebrity and sensation rather
schools from their most basic mission; me second than kno\vledge and wisdom.
contributes to low achievement and anti- Schools \\ill not be rendered obsolete by
democratic policies; the third deprives young- ~e"'. te~hnologies because their role as learning
sters of the intellectual power that derives from 1nsotuoons has become even more iinportanr
learning about the experiences of others and pre- than u:i the past. Technology can supplen1ent
vents them fron1 standing on the sboulders of schoolmg but not replace it; even the most
giancs in every field of thought and action. advanced electronic technologies are incapable
Perhaps in the past it was possible to of turning their worlds of information into
undereducate a significant portion of the popu- mature kno,vledge, a form of intellectual magic
lation without causing serious harm to the chat requires skilled and educated teachers.
nation. No longer. Education. roday more than
To be effective, schools must concenrrate
at any nme tn the past, is tbe key to successful
on their fundamental mission of teaching and
parncipation 1n society.•.\ boy or girl who can-
not read, \\Tite, or use mathematics is locked out ~~rng. And they must do it for aJJ children.
of every sort of educational opportunity. A man t must be the overarching goal of schools in
the twenty-first cenrury.
or wo111an without a good element:ary and sec-
I JL\1'11114\I\ 111 !\ I \\I ~
11 \I 1\,\J, lll\\ll
277
( <>~N
I "1·1111.1lt\111, toi 11.1\tl I ii
111111-( 111111• It I'·" t I<·1111111\tr
t1c11111n " .1n cducaufln I h
'' 11111 ,(\ p11111.tr) h1nl111111 11 .1,1ctl grca1 Ion gt:\ in Ian t t!l>I"} that ha, ht:en
' •c 1h • ·1 actual h 1 ar<1und 1or
c
a
" 11111.111 Ll\I 11.1111111 It . c prc,cnauon and '>C C>I> prac:uu:. It \e
I hn1ni.: ·" theI ttl 1·1 . . c111ph.l\11c,: (I) a cu - ul tran,m1ss11m of the ha• I C\ the
h:.11 · ' cI\ ol h rnc: um f ba ,1c e ement\
,1.111d.11tl,, I I) 'thou(, 1
I c\c 'kill, and \Uh . o ~1c skill~ and 'ubJcct!t' (~)
, ·" II Jlc\ 1 f .1 Jt:Cts accordm h ••
uon, ( t) th.11 the l·""'I •1f or, ' :irucr, <lt\C1phnc, and effi g to igh 2nd \'l:nfiabh:
t I\ ii, Jntl 11.111111t1t inclt\l l gan11c<l e<lucauon "co r otnt and effecuve tn\truc-
1l.utl111:tl tc'" to 111•· t ua!,, (.urrcnth, the \tan·'a pd t:pare people to be produc:ove
,.l\urc \Ill I · u r 'mo,·emen d th ·
1 11t .111011al poltt) makin~.
cllll' uf I \\l'lll lali\1111111 c I c cnt .1eadcn11c ach1e,cment reA . thtan c U>t: of 'tan-
ec:t c cononwng mAu-
DI\( U\~ I C)N QVF "i'I l ()N\

I. c11n
l>d111c 1 ''u111.1l1,111
ll uh1111 . ind indttJt c h"" 11 applies to the cootcmpornry· school and
2. 111
Rdlcu I tl~ ""'ni•m
l\.1,1t"" '""' Jllr111.1I c\ I)(ncnc c J),, )OU find t-.1dence
"" nCJrtcntJllHll' . of an 8,;cntiah~t
111
3. () I I h< phi I"" iph"' and 1.l,·rol11111e.' c \J rnmcJ on du' I . ' .
,.. lc.l\I, t11111p.n1l1I,· \\Hh I "cnt1•lt,111 ; )O()k, "h tch is most, a nd "hich
4. I It"')1111 tlun~ thJt the <'>nt<ll•J>ur~n •tanJ•rJ
11111th 111 )ll1tr !urtn~l cdU<Jtllm hJ, been bJ-.cd on th
' · Du ~ ' mun:mcnt and the use f
cdoccrmcofprcparn uonl
d t
11<"1 ' ' ' " rc,ortJlc.• \\ell "uh I 'cnuah'\111' o Stan an -
I
ll\QL' IR't \ N I) RI· ~ I· \R C 11 PROJr C I S

.--~ 111
I . \I J1n1.u n i d1pp1n, til1 "' Jrtidt JI.out cdut'2Don wt apnMr the po '-
pu..r ( m >11-
pr11lc!5! 1onJ I ) pr~ \ nJ I11c t h...- an IC(' · - an 1·~cnua1-
-, rep-ant
I anJ detcmunc 1f th"''
ht 11rtcnt Jt111n
,l,;111~ anJ sub1cc1.> that you thJnk arc ~.cnual or ncL~, 1 1)
2. \I JLc " 111.t ol the
10
a
sounJ educauon. J)oo )1lur h~t a!?f'Ce -.1th the [ '"'"wlr,t po!>IOon'
1. l>cl,. tc the propoS1t1<1n 1 rue cquabC} reqw= all <rudcn!!. 10 enroll m the ~me
<'><rnculurn
-4. t re.ate • curncul.ir core ba.-.:d on h.s~tuli•t a>SUD1PtJO°"·
~ . <. on duct a SUf'"e\ ol thl' member-. ol )'(JUI' class on 00.. tbory ddinc the role and fwic-
unn of the ,chool, ~ 11~ opmiOl1S repr~t an Eacntisfut oncnuuon
6 . Rc11,n,1 ,c,~ral (c:i.tbool.:• u-ed tn ~in
profes>ional te1cher ed11C1t1on. Otter·
mine It thc..c bot l, re.t!cct an one11t.a00ft th.at i. for or a~ £..entialiwn.
fur the ( ·.,uncil tnr H••• Ci<:Ju•'lloon, acce->

hnpll w-.<'-b-e.0'11
2 78 P\R1 III 11 LFORll ~ O~ 1 l>l ( \110'
f o r ~Llndan.J, .llld J~l·o 1 11,t.ilnl11, 111 the ' " C.hald I.ch Behind ,\1:1, t:ontact the L S.
Dcpartn1ent nt I d11l.1llun .ll .
""'"' .ed.go,/in itY11c:lb/ p,1rt3. hem I
Sl:GGESTIO~S FOR FL'RTllER READING

Bl-,tor. :\rthur E, Jr.. fJu,.n1orul llasrdondr. Rttrtat fro111 Ltamtng 111 Our Pub/1r Schoo/1. l:rbana.
Lni,eniC) oflllino1~ Pres,, 1953.
Bl'Stor, Arthur E., Jr Tht Rtrtoration of Lt11n1111g:. I Program far Redtnni11g the U11fu/jiJ/td l'nrmtst Df
Amtriam Edu.-ntion. ~cw York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956.
Bunzel, John H., ed. Challenge to A111eric1111 Scbools: Tht Cose far Stn'lldnr1Lr ttnd VnlutS. New York:
. Oxford University Press, 1985. .
Hirsch, E. D ., Jr. Cu/rural Litf'T'acy: What Every A111eria1n Needs to K:!ur.;;. Uoscon: I loughton ..\11.iflhn,
198- .
'\;ational Commission on ExceUence in Education. A Nation at !Wit: Tbt lrnperativt for Eduuno1111/
Reform. \\'ashingcon, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, l 983.
Ravnch, Diane. Lefi B1ult: A Cenrury ofFniltd School Reform. :-:e"' York: Si1non and Schuster, 2000.
Ravi~ Diane, and Finn, Chester E., Jr. What Do Our I 7-Yeo1~0lds 161ow? A Report on the Fim
~'auona/ Asresmtent ofI liswry and Literar:u1·e. New York: Harper & Row, 1987.
NOTES
I \\'illiam C. Bagley, "An Essentialist's Platfoml for the Advancement of American Education,"
&iUUJtional Adm1nistrat1on and SuptnJision, XXIV (April 1938). pp. 241-256.
2. Ad?lphe E. ,\1eyer, 'foe Development of Education in the Twentieth Century (Englewood Cliffs,
'-1J: Pren ace Hall, I 949), p. 149.
3. Arthur E. Destor, Jr., The Rmo,.ation ofLe11rni11g: A Programfo,. Redee1ni11g the Unfulfilled Promise
ofAmmc1111 "Ed11e11tion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956), p. 4.
4. Ibid, p. 7.
5. N~tional Co':'"1mission on Excellence in Ed11a1tion, A Natitm at Rislt: Tbt ITnpl!'T'ative far Etfucn-
nonnl Rqf!!m (Washington, DC: U.S. DeparttnentofEducation, 1983), p. 5.
6. Ibid, p. 24.
7. •Vo Child Left Bebtnd (Washington, DC: U.S. Printing Office 2001) 1
'd
8• IbI ' pp. 8-9 • ' • p. .
• • ••• CHAJ>n:R SEVENTEEN
PERE
Jn Chapcer 17 \l'C will exa1n1ne th ti .

1h;1c educ:nion is universal .. he e ucaaonal theory of Perenn1al1~m. which 3 ,,c:m
" If · stressing universal knowledge
• as isth uman narure i.....,e
an ti values, Pcrenni•ilists look
dations for educatic;n and schi~~lin e r~~cc~ing patterns of h~ma.n life to sec the foun-
non and 'chooling ·ma . 'd g. . e \1 ill define Perenn1al1sm s approach co educa-
' s1 te it 1 enofy 1·ts · · · •
education. ' OlaJOr pnnc1p1e.,, and Its 1mpbcaaoru. for
o~ o'lv
DEFINING PERENNIALISM \ ,pf- \ \ ~ ~c, \
' ' a,. 'V
I \e.'
am an am~teur gardener and I have a perennial garden made up of plants that come
up ea~ spring'. bloom for their particular season in the summer, die in the fall, are dor-
mant tn the \VJDt~r, a~d return again each spring to repeat their life cycle. Unlike
annual plants, which live for one season, perennials return and repeat their cycle of
growth each year.
In philosophy and in educational theory, Perennialism flows from the rradition
of the great founders of Western philosophy, especially fron1 AriStotle, the Realist, and
Aquinas, the Thomist. (Realism was discussed in Chapter 3 and Theistic Realism in
Chapter 4.) These philosophers were concerned with metaphysical questions about
ulti1nate reality. Perennialism can be defined as an educaaonal theory that proclaim>
that people possess and share a comn1on nature that defines them as human bein~
This common human narure, in the Aristotelian tradition, is grounded in rationalirv
and is the same at all times and in all places. Possession of this commonlv shared
rationality makes it possible for individuals to search for and find universal cruth and
live the values based on it. Like the seasons of the perennial plants, this human rational
nature is a possession of all generations-pasr, present, and future: It enables ~ch ~en
eration co find the great universal comn1onalines that transcend rune'. place, s1ruat1on,
and circumstance. Jc makes it possible. to read, unders~and, ~d be gwded by the great
thinkers of the past, such as Plato, AriStotle, ~nd Aquinas. \\Je can also read the ~eat
writers, listen to the classics in music, appreoate the greac works of art and be guided
by their wisdom and enjoy their beauty.
279
280 1'\RI 111 llllt\Rll'l'l llll< \lit''
'l'<' r1C.'lllC .ll r"'' 11111c anJ 'Plct

ltnpr1•,,t·d "' tht' l<'<U•nni: 11.lllltt'"I I11111 1.11111iht• <
, 111 h h
tor 1:1111unn!! trut ' :ind
'
I I
the Pt'rt•nn1.1h'1' .1r1· 1•01K1'r111:d 1111 I111 1.11 t H'\ · 1 1 1 I
• 1· 1 • • 1111"' 11111:1,, 1111 n1u'1l1Jn ... ,, 1th
'"lue~. ( en.1111phtl1"11ph1•1,,111111·r' P 1111.Hu11:. · •
I I 1h n 1n11h nd '1luc. a' did the
their ""'l!'hr' .ind 'l\ k'. "·" < i .1p1ure•I J ' 11111"' " . h I d _,
· · · · II I
pn..1,ncr 111 Pl.1111, .:.11 <' '' h11 1111.1 1 '·"' Ill '!-! •1 •l•1 1 11h1·r 1h.1n ' .11 " " ' an ut, toned
. .
· "I • \ ll
unaLre' nt realn1 tReh:r \II r tilt\' ci,:011 11 11: • ' 1· 11 • ( ' 1\ ~ 111 ( h,1n11·1
1·
' ) I heir 1 n,1~h•
• •
,
Jre ~1n1>0J1ed 1n ph1l1i..11pln. htt·r.nurt'. Jrt ••1nJ 11111'11' '>11111< ol thi ''e 11 0 r~. ha1 rl?
\\lf'l\ ed rhe te\l 11f an1e. hecon1e d.l~'ll'' rh.ll .1pp1..1l 1n pt'npl<.' of Jll .1:c:n1:r I Don .. r r
e1:ample, Plato»; Rrp11/>lt1". \nsu 11 It"~ \ tc"b1111111d•r1111 Ctblfs, Rnu,,1•:111' '"1•1.i/ C ntr11
Tolsto~ \ II :ir .111.! Pt.Hr••111J other ~'l'e:ir '' nnng-. h.11 e been reJJ h1 11 urnen nd men r
different on1e' :ind m different pl.u:e~. Perenn1Jh,1 eJuca1or' 'eek ttl hnng the youn.
of each genernuon into conracr nnd undersranding 11 uh the'e c1J~' 1 c'.
SITUATING PERE1'1NIALISJ\1
Perenn1alism ha, had•• long h1srory, rhough nor'' ti.1sh1onable one, 1n n1odem nme- ;'l
most culrures, there is lirerarure rh:1t is considered s;1cred, or nt lensr JeepI} phdo oph-
ical, and is reg-Jrded as a font of"; ·dorn in thJt p;1rticuh1r culn1re In Ch1ne't: .ui I
Japanese culture~ this re1 erence j, gi1·en ro the Confucian c!Jss1cs: in India ro che Bh
gavad Gluta; in Islamic cnlrures 10 rbe Kon1n; and in Judaic and Chnsoan l·ulrure> n
the Bible. These sacred rexes are considered reposirones of pcrenn1o1I auch' :ind 1l -
ues, and educaoon has heen focused on stud~,ng and learning fro1n them.
In \Vescern chilizntion, Perennialis111 has been hea1 ily influenced b~ ,\r1srorle\
Realism, especially his assumption; thac the hun1;1n being is rational md thJt hJpt>1-
ness consists of acoons that conform co reason .•.\riscotle"s assun1poons becan1e po1rt "
\Vestern history "'hen Thomas Aquinas 1ncorporare<l then1 into Chnsrian doccnne
For a verr long period in \\'estem cililization-from the (~reek and Ronno
Classical Period to the nineteenth century-Greek and Lann "ere reg-arJeJ i..; rhe
languages of the educated person. The works of (~reek and Roman 11Tir~r~ 11 ere t'lll1·
sidered classics and used as texts in schools. To these Greek IDd L,1tin dJ'''f" ''~ e
added the great \Vorks of rhe ,\ledie1"3l, Reformaoon, Ren:ussance, Enl1)!htt'nmen1.
and modern eras. In 1nnny 11•n)'S, these secular texts were held in ~1hn0!>r the s.111te
regard as the religious texts. Esree1ned as the be t that cililization h.i~ pro<lu1·t'd. the'
often formed rhe core subiecrs t0 be studied br rhe educated person.
In the modem era, especially in the nventieth cenrurv . und tothn. ' Perenn1a1t,111
has been in retreat, fighting a rear-guard defensi1e action :1g-J.in,r Pr.igmau'r'· Po-1
modernists, Progressives, and Cntical Theorists. \ \ 'hile these more modem ph1lo-o·
phies and theories challenge Perenniah;n1, rhe greatest threat h.i' l'<>nle fron1 the
modern socier:y and economy's en1phasis on specialization, and &o111 educ:iuunJI pn>-
grams designed to prepare speaaltscs rather than generalts~
Alrhougb rhey might not always identify then1seh es n• Perenn1.1ltsc.. the Pen"n
niali.st position has been ublr defended by educanonal theori.~rs ·uch as Rubert \ hi
nard Hutchins, ..\lortimer :\dler, Allan Bloom, and \\ill1am Bennett. Hun:h 1n'
28 1
former pre,1<len1 of 1hl· l 111\cl\ll}' , 1 c 1 1 1
ounde<l 1n the \lll<h ol tht• grr.ii 11.,11 ~: .,1 \~ ,'.· !-:"• "' V11t·cl '''' 1a general cducau11n
fiorr1111er ,\dler, dr.1h1•d 1hc p,11c1l'J p 111111, \le 111 ' l\til11 ill•in I l111th1n~\ a~!><ICJatt:,
'cron lor· aII \l\lttllt\
I• , ' \II .111 Ii110111
I 1 ·11 ' " 1111 Ii ' .illi·d f,,, 1111· ~.11111· "Cncral edut:a-
·1111 l~t·rl
·
I °
1 1 111 ii 1 11·1.111v1.111 rr• hrghcr cdut:atiun 1
\\'illiarn Bennctt, .1 I11nnt•1'lc1.rc1:11y111 l'.dlll 'llrr 11 Jr 1 1 ·I ·
. ' ' , •,., r l•11rr11vt·rs.r111111ral values a\
a 11'11) to renew \ot:1c1 y and ccl11ca11on.''
\\11Y STLl])Y PERENNIAJ,ISJ\1?
Perenniahsm . nu:rit'> 'n1d~. a' ·1n • "< · I t ftcory I1c1.a 11\e 11 rel1-
~ It Kat1on.1
· ell\-
.in 11np1,rtant
world rrall1t111n 111 ccl11c1111111; 1hilt 1\, 1h1: g-rcill W•H"~' or \at:rcrl t1.:xl\ l'•ll\C)' v.1;dnrn
ha,ed on 1111 1\·cr,a l ;1nd 11.:Ltir1t·1111n11h, In Wc\tcrn civilization, Pcrennialism trans-
lates Anstote~1an and ' lho111i\t n1etaphy,1c' :11icJ cpt\tt:rnology into cducauonal theory.
Although eclipsed by the n1ore 111odcrn thcuric' of c<lucaoon such as Progressivism
and Cnocal Theory, Percnn1alism rernain., a \ign1ficant the<>ry.
PERENNIALISM'S PHILOSOPHICAL AND

IDEOLOGICAL REIATIONSI-IIPS
Perennial ism derives its basic principles froin the Rcalist and Thcimist philosophies,
especially their metaphysics. The Univcrsc i\ seen as purposeful and operating accord-
ing to a rational design. Humans are defined a~ rationaJ beings who, possessing the
power of free wiJI, can use their rationaliry to frame alternatives and choose among
them. \\'hen functioning properly, human beings will act rationally and make rationaJ
choices. The traditional philosophie~ believe that a major purpose of education is to
cultivate and exercise rationality. Perennialism'~ ideological derivations are not that
obvious. Some Perennialisr.s such as Robert Jluu:hins were in many ways civiJ libertar-
ians. However, Perennialisn1 also has an affinity with Conservatism, especially 1vith the
older European statement of Burkean principles-the need for an 1ntellectuaJ elice.
Often Perennialism and Essentialism, t.reated in the previous chapter, are
equated as traditional theories that agree on the einphasis given to such shared fearures
as: {I) the school's primary purpose as an intellecruaJ and academic agency; (2) the
organization of the curriculum into discrete subject macrers; (3) the tmportance of
Structure, order, and sequence in curriculum and instruction. However, there is a sig-
nificant difference in the foundationaJ beliefs of the cwo theories. The Essentialists
~rgue that the school's purpose and its curriculu1n is .largely a product of h~story in that
Jt emphasizes the ilill~ and subjects that have contnbuced to human SuTVlval, produc-
UVJty, and civility. Perennialists look to metaph}"iics, especially t0 human nature, so
they see the purpose of educaoon, the role of the scli~I, and the organ1zaoon of the
CUrr1culum as comtng from bumanicy's endunng and uruversal ch~ractensocs.
The Perennialisr theory of education 1s oppose? by Pragm3oscs who see realuy as
her.ng in consrant Aux. It is also opposed by Exi~tenoalists who argue thar the Perenrualisc
282 l'\RI Ill 11 I EORll:.~ OF EDU( \ 110'.'
(I urnan nanirc and cduc:at1on that

theon of cducaaon j, ha,cd on pnur dchnHion' " :tuncc and choicc. Phtlo,ophrcal
. d I . I\ r1cr\ona 1CXh ~ .
are c,tabh,hed pnor to the in 11 H 11 '1 , . ropo\ttion\ arc cn1p1nc;all} non\·cr-
1ia\JC p I • I
1
.\n;11,c,11ou le.I conrend th at pc•rcnnr1ll\lll'
·. I·' .1 1 ,m"~ Pcrenn1a 1\111, c; a1n1, l<>
. . d(' .. I I hcon\t\ ivou u u
1hahlc. Po,tmodem1sr!I an .nut:a . rraovc once u\cd to rauonal1zc thN
. 1 ,kinrr a 111c1ana •
un11 er-ah~ an d rune ~sness 3 ' 1113• "' partic:ular period 1n h1~tory
control of favored classes. namely 1ntt:llecn1a1c1it~. at 3 •
PERENNIALISM AS A THEORY OF EDUCATION
A Metaphysically D erived Theory

\\'h1le many influential contemporary theories, especially <?ritical Theory, rt:iec.t
metaphysically based claims to unive~al truth as mecanarraoves that 1na\k a once-
ful'ored elite's claims co power and control, Perennialism exalt!> rnetaphysiC!> as the
source of universal truth. \\'hile Critical Theorists reject universal justifications,
Perennialism builds its case on eternal and universal principles. Like Anstotle and
Thomas Aquinas, Perennialists assen that the universe itself is governed by rational
and spirirual principles. Like Aquinas, 1vho defined hurnans as rational beings,
endowed with intellect and free \viii, Perennialists see education as a means of cultivat-
ing human reason. They define the school as an incellecrual agency that has the pri-
mary p~ose of developing human reason. Based on these metaphysical principles,
Perenn1ahsts assen:
• Human beings, everywhere and at all times, are endowed with the power of
reason.
• The possession of rationality enables humans to express their ideas 10 symbolic
systems and language patterns, that enable them to communicate with each
other.
• Human beings have free \viJJ in that they can c d h b
alternative patterns of action. onstruct an c oose erween
• Behavior is most humane and civil when it is ba , d kn
se on ow1edge and reason.
Affirming Aristotle's premise that human bein . .

est happiness comes from exercising d . gs are raaonal and that their great-
\\'e inhabit a purposeful. incelli "bl and app1}'lng re_ason, Perenn1alists also assert that
gi e, an orderly nruvers Thi · 1·icy, order, an d
purpose is the source of universal a d al e. s raaona
. . . n ecern truths and valu
Perennialiscs reiecc the proposn:ions f th es.
°
accident and that we are accidental bein \\~~~who assen ~at the univer)e 1~ an
appear co change over time, thev insist thartbe e _they recognize that some things
the search for truth and beancy and the m ~ost imponanc aspects of human lrfe-
and are un1\'ersaL ystenes of love and death-do not change
r 283
Perennialists also rejec~ ~he prop<hition 1h~ 1 '11 111 1311 heing' are defined by hered-
ity. environ~enr, race, erhn ic11y, ~ender, and cJa,~. vVh1le spec..ific geographical, his-
corical, pohacal, and econo1n1c siru?non' cond11111n hu1nan '>oc1ety and 1n ~urution~.
chere i~ som~chmg about h~inian he1ng' that tran .. ccnd~ the\c foi;tors. It " this co1n-
inon hL1rrian1ty chat 111akes it possible to co1nrr1unicatc \Vith and \hare the hopes and
fears of people every>vbere rn the world. ll is this universality of human nature chat
makes ic possible to recognize hu111an right\.
An Epistemology Based on Reason

PerennialistS rely on a Realist (Aristotelian) epistemology, namely char hurnan being~.
through sensation and abstraction, can construct concepts that correspond co the
objeccs found in reality. All people-regard less of tin1e or place, race or echn icity, gen-
der or class-possess the same intellectual power to grasp the truth and use it to guide
their behavior. \Vhat is true i~ ahvays universally valid. There are not different truths
for different people; they are the same for all people. Using syllogistic rea~oning, the
PerennialistS assert that: (l) the truth is eremal, universal, and the same for aJl people;
(2) education is about the truth; (3) therefore, education, too, should be universal and
the same for all people.s
A General Curriculum Based on Universals

Perennmlists move their argument from the metaphy~1cal claim that we live in a pur-
poseful and rationa l universe co a considerauon ofhun1an being~. What is it that makes
a being hun1an? They find their ans\ver in a universal human nature. Regardless of the
accident of place and time of birth and regardless of race, gender, and class, all human
beings are endowed with the po\ver of thought. They can create intellecrual con-
strucl~, or concepts, and ca11 represent these ideas in the form of symbols. Whether
they speak Arabic, English, Spanish, or Swahili, all people are language creators and
users. Therefore, language is one of the universals, rooted in our common human
nature, that can be found everywhere at every time and is a perennial subject in the
curriculum. Each individual has a personal history and as a member of society, they
also have a remembered past, a collective history of their own human group. History,
too, as the colleco\·e memory of the hun1an race, has a place 1n the curriculum. In
e\•ery culture, people use mathematics, from simple cocmring to complex ~ystems of
~eo1necry, algebra, and calculus and so mathematics, too, has earned a place in the cur-
ncuJum. People have sought to explain the biological and physical world in which they
live through the narural and physical soences, which are also mduded in the Perenn 1-
alist curriculum. People live in o.,,iJ soc1eoes and produce and consume goods; tbere-
fo~e, civics, political science, and economics merit a place in the curricuJum. H uman
:mgs have ah~•ays ~ught to concreoze and portr3} their profoundest experiences
thto works of art, hterarure, and music. These fine ans, too, are ~·ortby of a place in
' CUrriculum.
ltl•I 1'\li I 111 1111111111 '> <II 1lll 1C 11111 "'
, . . I h' Tho1n1'>1n, :11'><> contt:nd that
1
H1 hf'.""" l'c·11·1111,.1l"''· '11 1I1•'' """1' 111111111111 I I ie , '011.,hi ro exp l;un l he reIaru,n.
1 C,'h rl'>llan1r;, Bud.
1111111.111 111 '"fl' h.11c .11\1 ,11' 11 111 ' l111111e"I < ,uc ,1111 i.1·nlo•n. . JuJa1"11,
,,.. .
1111 Ill'\ 'l\'111' ll1 I 11 t ,.., )'fi
l
,1i,p h1·1111·111 <....i ,111.I 111111.11 ·h••ion' that have exernp 1 t:d the
111 th.
1 11111111 \ICll 11I I t ,..
1111"111, l l1111h11"11 .11111 ''I ,1111 · ' 1 1 11 "a univt: r,al experience, 'h11uld
1
1111111.111 " .II• h l.11 I I11· 11I\ 11 11· I hI' '""" I Cl III' 1).tlll l"·i·"nni·1h'>t'
' •
> wou ) -'
u p1a<;e '>tu1h 1,f
h.1\1 I pl.111• 111 1hc 1llllllll1lllll IH 1'' Ill '
11' 1µ11•11'
' •
~ ~ ' •
h11111.111 '1'111111.1 I111 .1111 111•I11.( 11111 •111•1h1tollllll1'•l'\llC . . ·ilasts Perenn1all'>t'> enu1iro,<: .I
a ~:ill-
' I t 'h 1111"'' •llH 11 ' ,,c1111. . '
l 11..1' 11 11'.1I"''· lI,1·.1 1''''· 11111111
' '\s ·1 p1111c1p
. · 1c cif curriculu111 organ11.a1111n ' tht\.
.111.t ,11h1c·11 111.111<'1 1,1.;1•1 1·111 11 1 ·' · ' , 1 I1ave used to c:uluva tt l111:ra,1
h111t.. tn1 K1111l.1111·1· 111 1110,1· ~t..tll' which t'tvdizcl pcop e he acc~tnulated knowltdat, f
1
whit'h rcprescnr t ' " '
1111.t 1111111c1111') ·'"' I 111 1111"e s11 l111·1·,1..' . . ~ he111ancs · · sci . ·ence• history and human1-
1111· h11111.1111.11·1· l.111i.:1u1g-1• unt l Illtl.lllltc, 111. · 1 . 'b · f the Perenniah'>tS th
111·, .ind ph1h>,oph1 ;111d r1•1ig-ion. ·rhc di,11ncnve enlp asis ? th bo ks a~
0 3
"'''•th1•111 otl ho111 ,;thl'r <'dlll'<tiional thcoric,, is their emphasis othn ~great d~
1h1· rl.1,,1<'' nl .1rt, 11111\lc, 311d iller;uurc. ,\ classic is a \\'O~fulk ;~ as :ptu~t: r
1•,,1·1111· 11l th1· hu11\;tn ,c,1rch for \1hat"1n1c, good, and beaua · . e au dor o a c1as-
· from different ames 1
" l h.1, p1o\1d1•d .1 11 >Ill1011 th :11 t'n;t hi C!> ot h er,- d Ar'an tip act)-t<J th h
,h,111· h1·r or "" 111,ights. For e\;1111plc, the philosophers Plato an . ~to e, oug
1
II\ 11\).t 111 .111l'll'11t (~rccct', in 1hc1r sc:1rch for rn11:h and beauty, have conunued to engaE:t
1he .111ent 11111 of 111odcrn people. John Stu;1rt Mill, \vriting on lib~rty, ~nd Kar~ :\larx on
l'l'o1101111c,, rc111;1in relevnnt. Tcibtoy's ~Vin· //!Id Pence, though \\rr1tte~ tn the n1nete~n ~
ci·nt 11 ry, still elicits a profound res ponse in modern readers. Ale~s de Tocque\1llt >
insig-hts 11hout A1ncricnns rc111:1in an enduring, but also prophenc, analysis of the
/\nicricn n charricter.
·rhough oriented 1nainly to subject 111nner, the Perennialist, in the later years of
, chooli11g, c'pccially :it the college and university level, seeks to develop a sense of cht:
intcgr:nion of the field, of kno\vledge into large-scale generalizations \\·1th gn:at
cxpl:in:n ory power. These generalizations provide perspective into the principle; that
oq{nn11e :ind govern the universe and explain the commonality of the human family
B,1,ed on their allegiance to 111etaphys1cs, Perennialists orient their approach to i::duca·
tion in the great classics, the 1netanarratives of phiJosophy, theology, history, ltterarurc.
and science. le is at this point of great generaJizations-metanarratives- rhat an
i1nportnnt rheoretical clash occurs between Perennialists and Posonodernists and
c :r~1ic.al Tl~eorisrs. Fo.r the Perennialists, the great classics provide the "mystic chords"
~1f 1ns1ght 111co the universe and th~ ~u111an condition, which generates wisdom. Cnt-
lt'>, such ns Poso11oderntsts and Cnocal Theorists, contend that these niecanarran\·es,
elcv;1tcd ns classics, are really tin1e-bou~d, historically generated justifications for one
cla'' tt'. ha~e powe~ over ano~er. '."1uloculruralist critics also argue that the so-called
~rrc;it dass1cs of \\iesrem c1vilizat1on are based on 3 Eurocentric atnarchal, eho~t
view of educaoon. ' P
A Universal Value Core

ju\! O\ h111nan narure itself, in its world experience b . co
r d · th . · • as provided general ans~er.
what ' hou Id be 1oun in e curriculu111 this same · f ~I
' nature is also the source o mo•• '
285
echical, and aesthe11c n1h1e' "h.11 1s !{noc.l ;111d ri!{ht ;111d be;n1nlul. Perenn1ali~t' are
tiJnc.l of refernng ro rhe enc.luring\ 1rcue' ''' rhc ci>11,l\rcn1 \a lite' chat fortn the :1xiolog-
1cal core nf ec.lucauon. Such \ 1m1c, ch1,tcr around \n,tcnle', Hnluen nle;\n. J habncec.l
and mo<lerau~ pus1uon that J\Ot<ls t\ce,,c, of t:\tn:n1e 1nh1h111on and n:press1on on the
one hand :ind excre1ne exh1biuon nnJ indulgence 011 the other Re;\\lln <:01ne' into pla)
to •~ide people in finding the mean of mo<lerauon .
Reg-ardle~s of lheir ethnicil). gender. race, or cla''· indi\1dual' ha\c the nght to
en1ortheir bu1nan1l), to exercise their rationality. and to en10~ the Farth\ good thing".
In otber \vo rds, hun1an beings ha\'e primal'). inherent, un1\ersal nght, that are nor
gi\en by go,·emments, societies, or classes. They question those, t:'ipeciall) Posm1od-
erniscs and Critical Theorists, \\·ho contend that the n1osr important a.. pecc. of 1n<l1-
,;duals are based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconon1ic cl:1ss. Human rights. 'ar
Perennialists, are not determined hr gender. class, race, or ethntcl!J but b) humani~
itself. In reply, Critical Theorists contend that ro speak of general hun1an rights in the
abstract is misleading; in most cases, human rights are ,·iolared because of econo1n1c.
sexual, and racial discrimination and exploirncion.
PERENNIALISM'S CRITIQUE OF
h-10DERN EDUCATION
.'\s mentioned earlier, Perennialisrs have been fighting a rear-guard defense against
many fearures of modern education. ,i\.lthough all educational theorises look for Baw'S
in positions they oppose, this kind of cntique has been especially import'Jnr for Peren-
nialiscs such as Hutchins, Adler, Bloom, and Bennett. Based on their grounding in
Aristotelian philosophy and the classics, the Perennialisrs have strong vie\vs on \\'h:ir
has caused \veaknesses in modern education. As the}' see it, a1nong the ills of conre1n-
porary American education are: presenris1n and too-early specialization.
Presentism
Presentism is a belief that everything of significance, rele\'llnce, and imporrance is hap-
pening at the present time-right here '.1'1d nO\V. It ten?s to re!ecr the pas~ as antiqua~
ian and largely irrelevant. I t is focused 1nst~ad o~ the 1mmedmte happening. \\'hen ~r
loolcs to the pasc, it explains it almost excluSJvely lil ci:rnis of the present. Present1itn1 1s
characterized by looking to public op~on polls ro discover whar peo~le feel ~bout ,an
issue; it is characterized by rurning quickly to the ln~emet and th"e ''?rid \ \ 1de ,;' eb
ro find information about a subject. Ir is chaniccenzed by the talking head~. the
" " h · an instantaneous quick, and capsule analysis of difficulr issues.
cxpens, w o give • . 'th · h
· kn
The qu1c ess, unme· diacy and superficiality assOC1ared w1 presenosm as resulred
· I ck f · that' would come from care fu I research, sran d.1ng back·a b'1r, an <l
m a a o perspective Id' books th cl . d h
re8ecting on 1 theme, issue, or topic. T he wor s gre~t fh' etluasStcs, ~r~n ~ t e
. db th truly educated person- a \'lew o ow ngs anu s1cuaoon'
perspccttve ncede Y e
auly relate to each other.
286 l'\Rl 111 n-tlORll'OI Jill< \Jlll'
Too-Earh Speci.1li1Jtion ·itcif .1.. hu1n.1n hetng<; heture

. I I hr•t 1,, C<1uc.
Pcrc:nn1Jh'c- ,,1n1.-11.l 1h.11 111.ll\ ulu.11, ,11111; t , .,1i11uld cn10> ·' general liberal t:dut:a-
hc1nir tnunt>J ·"'I'''' 1.1l"t' I \Cr\ h11111.1~1 i.-l11·1i.:l., .,hould not he .,ortcd out and placed
llllll ·<'t:Jrt'd hi 1h.- 1.uI111 ,1u1111" I 1c·!'ol1
• -,1 111 t:n
I . ltOll<ll an1I 1ct I11111.:~I '·' J 1Jf
.. • Th ''KIO
"'· '. ·I "cncr.1 • voc.1 • I' . I
111 d1t'lt'renc cduL'111111nul trill"-'• ,111.: 111 ',.. II 1 •., I Note th:H the crcnnia l\t ll\t: r1f
"'rung,, not 11nh under11ocrat1c. but " I' i i ic .1 1.1• •ences and not 10 Ihe I,111t:ra L I 1<lt111.
• • •L b I .1n., anu sci ·
"hh~·rJJ educanon" refel"! 10 u 1e 11 era 'have dif{crent abiliry level\. fl11wever. differ-
''~" Perenn1;t11..c' reco~rn1ze thac people th·H able ~cudencs .,houlcl en1oy a gt:n1:ra!
cnce' 1n Jcadem11: Jh1hty do not mean ' ·gnecl co vocational pro!rrams
.... •
cuu.:Jooa , J em1ca
" h1IC! Ie.. ~ ac.1 .. II·
} 3 ble onc:s
.
are ass1· curriculum ~ub1ects . -
ma~ be
\ \ 111le all cudenr..· 'hould ha\'e a general hberal educaaon, h them ac th e1r Ieve I o f a b'l 11n.'
prepared tn a grnded n1o1nnt:r so srude~cs ':n approadc ferred until after the compl~oon
Tec.hn1cal and \'Ocauonal educaoon ~hould be e h. d th
· .
of a general liberal educaoon. Some Perenn1a scs, sue · Li . has Hutc ins ' argue . at voca-.
· 1 an d rechn'1ca1 educaoon
aona · shoold not cake place in schools at all. . It.is more. efti-
cienc, argued Hutchins, if chis kind of uaining rakes place in apprenaceship or train1n:'.
programs located 1n 1ndusaies and businesses. . . . .
Perennialisr:s are concerned chat presentism and speoahzaaon ha"e seno0>l~
eroded the necessary general knowledge and value core that sustains ~ivilized so:i.:cy.
Such a core is rooted in the culrural heritage, the past of a people, and is recorded m its
enduring works of arr, literatul'e, philosophy, and politics. This core is eroded by the
sensationalist attention given to 'vorks of popular culture that enjoy acclaim for a fleet·
ing moment in time and then a.re forgotten. Specialization also undermines a tenable
kno,,·Jedge core when ~pecialists use an exclusive Language, a "jargon," \\lth \vhich the,·
speak only ro each other, rather than to the general public. Premature specialization in
the education of the roung means that they are programmed to learn the specialn- and
its terminology before acquiring the needed kno,vledge and value base. ·
THE NEED FOR A STABLE CULTURAL CORE
Recent decades have seen considerable

. . struggle 0 ver th e core o f the cumcu · Jum
Alth ough th ere are many pos1nons on the content ch h uld . .
three main camps can be identified· (I) th b a~ s o be mcluded m cl11s cor<'.
·
chose who see ic in global often Third vVi Id ose \\' o see it d
roote 1n · \\"escern cul rure:· t'l
•
of a general core and see i~ in speci'.fi dor terms; (3) and those \\•ho reject the 1de~
Perennialisrs argue that c'vili' d
c gen er ethnic
. '
·ai
• or rac1 tenns.
1 ze society n d f
generally accepted knowledge and val Th ee. s to rest on a well-defined core o
ring aspecrs of human life, especiaJJ u~s. Ar' ey bel.ieve this core is rooted in the recur·.
\Vestern _civilization. In addition, ch~ • istotelian. metaphysic~ and the clas~i~s ot
111
and c135Slcs found 1n the American e Y ~int to the important principles cradioon>.
··
Cnoes xpenence '
argue that the traditio 1p .
\\'estern culture and is therefore ~a ~r~nn1altst core is culturnlly biased in fa,-or of
Western value core, reflecting the b~su .c•encly multiculrural. They argue that the:
IStoncally b d .
ase views of white European male,,
c fl \1 1 I IR \I \ l >..: I l;f•'\; I
' I RI '\"1 1\ I 1\\1
ncf.(lclh the broader global 287

underrcpre\cnted groun~ ,~. ch~J>tnen1.:e. h needs 10 incl d
1· ' •uC 3\ ~ia \r u e material fro h th
ga)' an d Ie~ b •ans. These cnac, ar ns, , •TIL'an_~, African Ameri ni ' eno
"ho ha' c hcen margin_alized d !nle that •t "tmpananr to met d cahn,, wo1nen, and
lit to race d u e t t vo1c1:s of tho
1ant co int: Iud c the voices of peon) h ' gen er, class. and ethnicin· 1 · '>t
. d group of critics 1· ~t " olive 1n Jess. rechnologically ·1·
',.,. \et:on t" a1\O 1mpor-
<level d .
th ' • II ten 1nRuenced b p ope rei,'1ons.
ory, argue\ at ancmp~ to 1n1P<,,e 3 g r Ostrnodem1\m and Cnucal ·rhe-
anu value, I'> cit.her a delusion or a cl I1'-enera ~ore, allegedly based on un1ver,~I truth
1
• e 11eratt! n11srepreen
;incI 111nelt:\'llle\'> are ra1se; the \CJ-t:allccl 'e
c
. s taaon.· Claun, ofnn i,ersali Ly
the c<.:onorn1c. and p()litical inren:\l f g nt!ral universal value core really rep re\eni:s
Rather than \eek1ng a univcr•~I k ' odpan,cular group at a specific rin1c in hi~tory.
0
"' nnw1c ge ·ind ,.3I ed
111111ic:d1atc \llua11on and to the pee
1 1 h0 ' ' ue, ucator~ shou ld look to their
1na1!{1nal11eu and explo1ted-hnve ' ~ ~ ' ' inter~ct in them. ~hese people-often che
u:n 10 1hc\e unique \'lllC.:t\ th
1
cir 111111 \tone~ to rt:IJ. Ir is more m1po11<1n1 to lis-
an to 'C3rth for unl\er,3 1.,.
ROBI R' J \1. Il l.JI C llf'\;S, C.J "' R.\I l l>L'C.\'rIO:"
Rnht'l I I lutclun,\ ari.."11111cnt l11r i:c:nc111I e•l11ait111n 1n h1~ The H1f!,hn' Lenrn111f/, u1 A11ur-
''"'" 1111.:l11<led here htl.111'•' ul the d.1n!) ~ncl d1rc:ltne'' of h1~ theortUl:a l po\ltson. In
h" d1\t ll\\lon. I l u1~h1n' 111.1Lt.., the: dJ~sit .Hb'11111c:nt for Pt:rt:nnrnl1"n, na111ely th:1t :1
11t·111:r.il cduc.:.1111111 " the ,,1111c 1111 1111 p<:11ple, rt'!fJrdlc:~' of nn1c: or pince. l luLt:hin,\
c:111ph.1'" on tht' 1ntc:llc:1t11al '11t11c:~ 1• 1lc:rnc:tl tn,nt illc: .-\rl\tord1an nntl 1 'ho1 11i~1
phil11,11ph1e, e'anuneJ 1n <liapu:" \and 4 \,}"II read the ,decnon, you n1ay "'""to
run,nlt·r the lollo\\ 1ni;i fl)C\1S1ni: quesuon•
I. \ \'h\ doe~ Hut1:h1n~ uq,rue 1lu1 a person mu't tir,t be: e<lucnc:d 3\ J gtnerali\I
belc;re he1n1? 1n11ncd as a spcc1ah,1' Do )OU D!-'Tc:t: or di..a)!l'tt: w1th l lutch1n\?
•
nnun punvi,e of "(;houl, and collt:g~~ c:11n1part hi'

\. I 111 I hnl: h 1n,. \\ hst " th e P • . , ..
'tc\1 \\ tth th.11 of Broud) in ("hJpter 3
fi
cu!um based on the great bf,c,b?
... \ \'h, dO(' Huti:hll'·' an?UC or a cum I
unn-cmoes arc. E\cl)i>cid; onn"t he a ~pct.12 •
:idd. He mmt therefore be cut off
t m C'\-er] ;:eld bm !us o"n unlcsl he lw the
num et"en ~ • I h
,_,,.: -drn oon dut other Spca2 Uts 3\ e •
..imr~<=
j)ll \ ,,,
111 1
, c 1 "cnl·r.11 ed111:.1111111 111 th!.!
~- mear• ~ uun bJ,-inl! th< -1n1< I.in· tin.I h ".
11111
11
I!
nd ' " h111l l!llD'1 11 ) 111 11cr.11c:
the
hJll<I 1111111Il I .I 1 h
;:-.u.:e and the -.in1e ~eral mtt'rt•l in ~lh An• I , < n 1Il< ,,••11 I < ·tlllll' 111.1\
·
he ,0111e11 •11 \1111pla.
~~ · ~,. ~<:e It m ir.- lu'-in • • 1111111''n ,,,~,l . t f \\C.t t"'\()\\ \\ h• II •I ,..Vt;llel .ii c1h1t:a1111n I\ .
-~at fundlmenw 1\!e-J• In 'tx ' · ' ' ' " 111 11
I h.: ,<lu:111c ch.u I .1d\.1nL:c "ha,cd rin
1mpomnt ' emp1nell ...._,, n.~ 11•1' 1"'"'' .1nd 1•enc111l c•d11c.lllOl1 I\ cduc:atu111
t lll' lllll Hiil th •II "
ai:'\.'U11luUt~ 1110n;; 11'\lJ ""In" J,1r.1 1 fie -1~·1.1h-1 · . Ii• itli whet hl'I' he f(Oe' on to Lht.: uni
1111' l'\ t:I I • • • ,
L'l 2 IUrTO'I\ .c u "'i.• 11 be <"An J,1 tll 1..1.'<'f' up It di he 11,el11l 10 h11n 1n tht 11n1 -
11
1l'l'll \ tll ll(ll ·
10th the btt· ... " "erie• U\ it. <. )iher 111cn. "'en . ill be equalh· U\cl11l 1f heh never.)!ties
1 el' ti\, I 1 11
ffi ru_, oun ue''irtxnent, -tru~:lmi: n1 ' "''
ch.-re 1 111 11 Jthnit th•H n 11111 not c U\elul tr1
a~•t ot "Uobt ' i:.apperung m their l'"n ' l.'g-
hini ouc,iJe the uni\ er'1f) 1~ the popular senSt:
me,'1:;. of me -ubre...'t. .:a.'ll' ,. h ~ co ;.cep up
. I "' h 1113v not a.,.,,,c h 1111 l<> make m<inc:}
with ,.fut , .::•pp.:rung 1n J:l,, The:\ nu' no". o t un 1., , . L. • fa
or to get ahe;ul. Ir n1a} not 1n any 011>1ou\ ,h.
~· r li.i'e '°'1lc ~era. unJel'tJ.nJmg ot
ton <lliiust hun to his environ1.ncnl or fit him fiir
'II< l:ut i.e i - dn1n!r bcc.iuse the' all hJ' e sonte-
dnnz m C· OT:mo~: me' .u-e 1n the •.une depan- the conceinporary scene. IL 1vil I, ~owever, have a
men"L But the lb,·~ shorJ\ ~ uron ll!' "hen
deeper, 11 1t!er uriJiry: ir \viii culnvate the 1ntd·
c~en th:· d~;. oi romp~ehen,jon "-ill be lecn1JI \1m1es.
unpa -ible, ~11..<c oi the ·11'1n1te ~phmng of The trouble 11; th the popular nooon of
suhtect nuners m.i ;:ne p~·l\e rubmer- uohn 1., that it confuses i111mediate and final
!!ence oi an\ tde:LS b,· our Ul"1•tcilce on mfurma- enm: ~ l:icerial prosperity and adjus0t1enc to tht
. rent or educanon.
-tion as the con en' ironn1ent are good n1ore or less, but they art
••• nor goot! in themselves and there are other
. . . I should like ro wL about content, nor goods beyond tben1. The in tellecrual virrues.
-
about method. I conredc: the crc:at difficultY
COlllIJlUIUClDD!! the kmd o:· eJuaoon I fu,-or ro
. of ho" e,·er, are good in the1nselves and good a!.
mean~ to happine s. By the intellectual Yirrue~ I
- -
those "-ho are -unable or unwilhn1r ro tree their mean 1.too<l inrellecrual habits. The ancients dis-
~
edocaaon from boc:b:s. I ins1'>--r. ho" e\ er, that the tingu1 h five inrellecrual virrues: the three spt:e-
edncarion I sMll outline b the lcind that e' ery- ulao' e ,;rrues of inruitivc knowledge, which is
bodv should bare. that cbe ans'' er ro 1r is not the habit of induction; of scientific knowledge.
tba~ .,ome people should noc ha\ e it. but that \\'e "'hich is the habit of den1onstration; and of
-
should find ouc bow ro gn-e n to those whom we philosophical \visdom, which is scienafic
do not Imo"' bow ro reach ac present. You can- kno\\·ledge, combined ,vith intuitive reason, of
nm sr.·. my. coorenc is 'll-rong- bccilbe .\-Ou do not things highest by nature, first principles and
know cbe method of cransmimng it. Let us first causes. To rhese they add the nvo ,;rrue., of
agree upon content if we an and lu\·e f.ricb that
the P~ctical intellect: art, the capacity to make
the tedmologlcal genim of Amcnc:a \\ill soh·e
the problem of communic:aaon. according to a true course of reasoning. and
Econoouc conditions reqwre us t0 pro- acoon. P~dence, which is right reason with respect ro
\ide q)ffie kind of ednc:arion for cbe )'Oun1.t. and
for all the young. up ro about therr ru;·~tieth In short the intellectual virrues are habiei
year. Probably one-third of them cannot learn resulting from the training of the intellecrual
from books. This is no reason ,. hy ,.-e should po\\·e~. ..\n intellect properly disciplined. an
not cry to ,. ork OIJ1 a better co~ of StUdv for mtellect property habituated, 1s an intellect able
the other t\\-o-tbirds. .-\t the ~e time
we to operate "·ell in all fields. An education ch:tt
should connnue our cffuns and erpenmcnts tO consists of the cultivation of the incellectt131
\'lrtucs, therefore, is the most useful educanon.
tl l \Pl l'R ~E\1:..\IT.E\
1•1 kl '''\I"''
ther the ,1u<lent I!> de,aned for 1 lit . 289
" hc e . • l o 1l on
rcniplJn<ln or J lue of. JLtton. . )'.1r1l~ lru111 rnrtllctt
(Int' purpo' e ol e<lucauon " 10 Ir
. l .I\\ 11111
lru111 C\fll'tlcncc llut~upcrauon, and panh
c•
~· den1enr- ot our i:on1n1on hun110 n
• .1111 re
II " V•trcun~s· 111 th lhrcf rcqu1rc:tTl<n1 tor
' ·• tnl.:m ..,
11ie-'' de111<'nl' .ire_ the:: "111\c 1n an 1 ~.11111111 duphLatc 1 ll mcc: cduaunn
11111e 01
plJ<'<'· lne no11on ot wucaang •1 111an 10 ln e den1 \\ill h.1vc ~ ~:,~t~lt.'TtenlC\ 11.h ch the •1U-
10 dc1 <rte ll\t:J f lll d . J C b'1'1d ICS 11 ~h1mJJ
All' p.irtll'Ul.tr nn1e or pl~ce, to ad1u,1 h 1111 to anv
init a' a C\c "Jtmg ~1orrcL1ncn Ht th nk
rim,1il;1r ennron~1ent, IS therefore foreign to~ intcll. me-Jn' ur praL11c~J Wl\d11rn, that is ta
tfllt' ,11ncepnon of e<lucaaon. agent aL11nn. '
EJuct1non in1plies teachmg. Tl!achin, . As An~totle pu1ir1n chc f;r}i1,1 , • "h•lc
unphe> kno\\ ledge. Kno,vle<lge is 01lth. Th~ ) oung nit~n hecome geomctncian' •nd rr~1thc
[!'11th 1~ e1·en-..1 here the saine. Hence educaoon niat1cians and lli\c in rnancr' hkc these, 11 L~
,boulJ be e1 e11-..rhere the same. I do not oi·er- thought that a young 1nan ot prai:nal 111sdom
Jool; the pos,1b1hoes of differences in organiza- cannot be found. The cau,e I) that ,ut:h vn'ldom
i~ concerned not only with unlleNJ,, but ,.,th
oon 1n adm1nismition. in local hab1'~ and
paroculars, but a young man ha) no cxpenence.
CU><O!TlS. These are details. I suggest chat the
for it is lengtli of ame that gi1 c' experience."
hem of an} course of srndy designed for the Since practical \\1Sdon1 1s "a true and rt::t'iOned
11hole people 11ill be, if education is nghtl} capacity to act with regard 10 the tlunir. that are
understood, the same at any time, in onr place, good or bad for man," it would 'eem thac educa-
under any poltacal, social, or economic condition can make irs best contnbuoon co the devel-
tions. E\'en the administrative details are likely opment of practical wisdom by concentraong
ro be sin1ilar because all societies have generic on the reasoning essential to i1.
simila n ry. A 1uodem heresv is that al l educaoon is
'
II education is rightly understood, ir wil l formal education and that fom1al education
be understood as the cultivation of the intellect. 1nust asswue the coral respon,ihility for the full
The cuJ01'1ltion of the intellect is che same good development of the individual. The Greek
for all men in all societies. I c is, moreo,·er, the notion that the city educates the man has been
good for which all otlier goods are only 1ne~ns. forgonen. E1·erything that educated the llW1 m
the city bas to be imponed into our ~ools.
.\larerial prosperity. peace and ci,Tjl order, JUS-
colleges, and universities. \ \ 'e are beginning ro
nce and che moral virtues are means to ~e behave 35 though the home, the church. the
culo\"lltion of tile intellect. So Aristotle .says 10 wspaper the radio, the IDO\,es, the
the Ao1·ttlrs.
. . " 1 ow, 1n
•
men reason and n11nd ti areth State, the ne ' d J'd
, bborhood club, and the b<>}' nex1 oor i
the end towards which narure strives, so ~~c e neig . • 'l the eynerience thn1 1s Jailr and
not exJSt. "' ..,.. ·
.,.
o-nernoon · and monl disop . · 1·1ne of the c1ozcns,, A .. d from these source; '' over-
ought to be ordered with a vie\v ro them. 11 hourl~ ac~u~; set out to supply imitations of it
cducaoon . which served the means rat.her ' than looke
. d caDoaa •~ • • a'ons . The e\-i>erience onceb
1mson1 .,.
tn e _u ome of these agencie> n1a) e
their end would be 1rusguideci l provided by s b . ·ould he 8 bold man who
l agree, of course, chat an}' Plan of genera d now· at 1t \\ d
ch sro- anenuate ~t the roung per>tin roday h,·e a
educanon must be such as co educate e, e would assert thf ence th·1n the routh of ro-
~ , I usr there1or • . I · fullo ~iien · '
nt •Or intelligent action. t m . ' wisdo111. hfe ess ' as resterdar we mar lea' e expen-
1
\tan him on the road to\\·ard pracoca . for edu- certlay. Toda} . · ·tuaO~> and influences and
811t the quesoon 1s what is the best wa) hll11 cnce to other dU15° n the contribution -'-- uiat 1c·
ca0 fa CllJ1 it ca rr: · · 1 · 0 e uoiao . II ecntl I
on to start tum and how r the 1neans emphasize . d co male, che tnte
i; supremely bne
Prudence or practical 'l\isdom selelctS., ·icqui red
toWard the ends that we desire. . [ ·~ •
290 l'IRI Ill llll•(ll{ll·SOI I Ill'< II IC>'-
tr:11n1ng Of the )'OUllg. rhc IJic they k'oitJ II hl'fl c'1 cd ;llld plca,ed and would he <h "'ell t:duuittd
·" if thty had pur\ucd ,1 prtl>tnhtd tr1ur~ ,,f
they arc our of our hands will !!"' c 1hc1n t·~pcn
, uly I hi\ overlook.~ the falt 1ha1 the aim ,,f
ence enough. \ \ c ,,1nnot ti") to !{II c 11 to 1hc1n 11
cdrllJllUll I\ 10 <.:onnt:<.t 111an \l.'llh n1an, t•J u 1n-
and ar the \Jlllc tunc perliinn chc ''"" 1h;H "
our~ :ind our' ;1Jonc.
l1C(t the pre,cnt wnh the pa ~• , and t<• arh~nc:t
Yc.iung people do not spcnd nil their 11111c the thinking of rhe rat:c. If this " the arrn t.Jf
in school. Their cl<lcrs co1n1nonly ~pend none of ethication, it cannot he ltft t<1 the ~pt.rad 1 c,
ic therc. Yet their t:lders are, \Ve hope, con~rnndy ,pontaneous 1nrert:~I\ of ch1klren 11r e·1en 1,t
gro11•111g in practical wisdoin. They are, at l c~~L, undergraduate~.
ho,'ing experience. If \Ve can reach rhe1n while ...
the} are being educated how to reason, they By insisting on the ptnnanent \tudies ao;
may be able to coinprehen<l and assimilate their the hcart of a general educaa()n I do n<Jt m1:2n
experience. It is a good principle of educational to in!:iisr that they are tht: whole of it. \\·e do nr,·
admmii.tTJtion that a college or university should know enough co know whether certain technrr
do nothing that another agency can do as well. logical work, for example, may not ha\e a tc~
This is a good principle because a college or ta1n subsidiary value in general education ior
university has a vast and complicated job if it ~ome students. Nor do I overlook the fact tha;:
does Ylhat only it can do. In general education, since by hypothesis general education ma} Gt:
therefore, we may wisely leave experience to life tenninal for most srudencs, it mw.t connect
and sec about our job of intellectual training. the1n with the present and furore as "'·ell ~"1th
If there are pem1anent studies which the past. It is as important for them to kno"· th.at
every person who wishes to call himself edu- thin.king is still going on as it is for them to
cated should master; if those studies constirute know what has been thought before.
our intellecrual inheritance, then those studies The question whether cen:ain ttchnical
should be the center of a general education. work shall be allowed to be a pan of gtnt:ral
They cannot be ignored because they are diffi- education is rather a quesoon of method than CJi
cult, or unpleasant, or because they are almost content, a question how to teach ratht:r than
totally missing from our curriculum today. The whac. Technology as such has no place m gt:n·
child-centered school may be attractive to the eral education. If it can be justified at aU. Jt cai:
child, and no doubt is useful as a place in which only be because we discover that certaln pnn·
rhe lictle ones 1nay release their inhibitions and ciples can best be communicated through tech·
hence behave better at home. But educators nical work. The question of present th~ughr L'
cannot pern1it the students to dictate the course largely answered by saying that it 1s 1mposs1ble
of scudy unless they are prepared to confess that
to think of a teacher who contenred h.umelf
rhey are nothing but chaperons, supervising an
aimless, crial-and-error process which is chiefly ~th el~cidating the thought of the iruc ",tbouc
valuable because it keeps young people from mttmaong that these ideas have a luscon run-
ning to the present day. ·
doing something worse. The free elective sys- . ..
tem as Mr. Eliot mcroduced it at Harvard and as
Progressive Education adapted it co lower age They are in rhe first place tho~ booL
levels amounted co a denial that there was con- "'h.ic~ have t:hrough the cenrunes anained tO
the dimens.ions
· of classics. ~1an\· such book>· l
tent co education. Since there was no content co
education, we might as well let scudencs follow am afraid ' are m · the ancient• and me<li~.,, -'
thetr own bent. They would at least be inter- penod.
. . But even these are contemporary · ·~
CIasstc IS a boo'- th
ll ac ·ts concempora.!) 111 c:\ er)
( 1IAI'11 R ~I Vl• .!'"11· I'! l'l· ll.I .'\~I \I 1\\1
291
age. rh~t .'' Wh) It 1' 3 das\IC. 'J'hc Conversa experimenter. of the n1neu:enth century. If any-
111,n, nl So<.ratc' r.11,e que,11on' 1ha1 are a~ th ing pnor i\ 1nen11oned, 111~ only as a reminder
urgent today ns they were when Plato wrote. Jn I hat our recent great ach1eve1nents 1n these
foct 1he)' arc more \O, hcc:111,t 1he society 111 held' mu\t, of course, have hat.I wn1e prim1uve
"hich Plato ll\·td did not need 10 have 1he111 hcginn1nbrs 111 the dark earlier centurie\. 1 he
rai~cd a' 1nuch as \Ve Jo. \Ve h:1ve forgotten ho\\ classic~, if presented at all, are offered in
important they are. excerp~ our of context, and for the most pan
Such hook., are then a pan, and a large for the sake of showing the ~rudent how far
pan, of the pcm1anent '>l1tdie'>. They are \O in we haYc progressed beyond our pnm1nve
rhe fir'l>t place because they are the bc>t hook.~ beginnings.
"e know. Ho" can we call a n1an educated who
ha; never reatl any of the great books in the .. , Every educated person should knov.
we~tem world? Yet today it i~ ennrely pos~ible the colos;al triumph of the Greeks and Romans
for a sru<lent to graduate from the fine;t A1neri- nnd the great thinkers of the Middle Ages. If
can colleges without having read any of them, every man were educated~d why should he
except possihly Shake~peare. ()f course, the stu- not be?-our people would not f:all so easil>· a
dent 1nay have heart.I of these books, or al least prey to the larestnoscrums in economics, in pol-
of their authors. But this knO\\'le<lge is gained in itic;, and, I may add, in education.
general through textbooks, anti Lextboob have You will observe chat the great books of
probably <lone a~ much to degrade the A1neri- the western worlt.I cover every department of
can intelligence as any single force. If the sru- knowledge. The Republic of Plato is basic to an
c.lent shou le.I know ab<)Ut Cicero, i'v1ilton, undersmnding of the law; it is equally important
(~lileo, or Adam Smith, why should he not a; education for what 1s known as citizenship.
read what they wrote? Ordinarily what he The Physics of Aristotle, which deals 'vith
knows about them he learns rro1n texts which change and motion in nature, is fundamental to
must be ac hest second-hand versions of t:heir the narural sciences and medicine, and is equally
important to all those wbo confront change and
thought.
In the second place these books arc_ an n1otion in nature, thar is, to everybody. Four
essential part of general education be<..-ause 1c is year> spent partly in reading, discussing, and
<lige!>ting books of sucb importance would,
impossible co understand any sub1ect or to com-
therefore, contribute equally to preparation for
prehend the contemporary world without thern.
specialized study and to general educauon of a
[f we read Newton'b Principin, we see a great
terminal variety. Certainly four )'ears is none
genius in acnon; \ve make cbe acquaintance of a coo long for this experience. It is an experience
work of unexan1pled simplicity and elegance. which will, as I have said, serve as preparation
\Ve undersmnd, coo, the basis of modem .sci- for advanced srudy and as general educaoon
ence. The fulse stares, the backing and filhngf designed to help the srudenc understand the
the \\il<lness, the hysteria, the confusion ~ world. It will also develop hab1~ of reading and
modem chought and the modem world resu J ~tan
<lards of raste and criticism that will enable
al d
From the loss of "hat has been chougbt ~ . .
the adult, after his form e ucaaon 1s over, to
done by earlier. ages. Th e Indus tr1' al Revoluoon · tbink and act intc:lhgently about the thought
• d the SOCJ31 5C1- d movements of contemporary life. Ir "'ill
hegins our srudr of hisrory an ·canes and
ences. Philosophy begins '"·Jth Des d \.\'illiam ~~Ip b.im to !>hare m the incellecrual acovn:y of
Locke and psy~olo"''
· e-: "';th
. .\Vun<lc an
th the great his time.
James. Narural science originates wi
--
•Q>
u.
It........ . .
or ct:
-
10:-; Qttsno::--.--
1 Da ~ .;.,u tt, ,'-,xi"\ ,.- P,renni.1hsn1 t•' l~ 111eJn1n!!'ful in t:tinteniporaJ") cJucn-
oon: £xr J.L"l '~'w- m •"cr .
~ .\lrl- r- l E ;;e"t .i. .<t> .1.noJ Pcrt>nni.1h>c< JL.'Tet' . ,,n rn.1ny points, ''hue ,\re the 1na1or
~4:."'~"""'' ~t\\ \._"'\.:"th~(\\\) rh ..."'"\:' . .
3. Do· "11 :hlnl.. _\tl'. ,.,,-.i.n •.Ju,·.1t1<1n i- ,wcr- ,,r 1mdt'r-specia Ii 11:d?
-l 5!1 -iwJ \."ll~:-i.::.n , ..~.:inon h..1' e J ,."'l:ner.1.I kno" l,·dge md '.ilue con: that is chc :.ame
ioo .1. J srodents: \ \ ll\:
IXQLl:R\" ..\...'-"D RESE..\RCH PROJECTS

l . Re-,e'"'
. \OW- pt""!!T'.l.IIl ,,f re.1.cher <-dUCUJon D,1 you find an\ e,-idcncc of Perennial-
I.SID.
~ - R~d mct r-~ew .i boul. b~ a Percnni.ih;.t theorist such as ·\llan Bloo111, .\ lortimcr
.\&cr Robert Hutclun,. or\ \illilID Bennett.
3. Prepare an omhne of "hat should he incluJed 111 J Pcrcnnialist core curriculu1n for
elmienun. ;>econchn. or hif:hcr eJuciaon.
~ I t:R...'\.TT RESOl"RCf.S
For the educaaon.i.1 theon·afRobcn Hu1cluns, consult

...-..w.ncwfound.i.tions.collllGALLE.Rl"IHurchins.hunJ
For a bacgnph,, essays. and bibhognph\ of \lammer .\dler, consuh the \tortiincr J.
..\dl~r :\rdm-es at the R.i.dial Ac:idcrn,- at
hnpd/nuiioahe1demy.com/adJcrdirectory.lum
Sl."GGESTIO=""S FOR FL"RTHE.R RE..\.DIXG -

U.cr \lammer J P"""'"' p,... . _ ...., Po.mi...
Pr.;< ..... ~~ \'0..1... \Ltcnull.m. I , 3. '0¢ A Casidn-.nv11 OJ Qurrr1uT1J Ral:ir.I try 1/!r Pi1iMU
Cfll.PTER SF.\'Th rFI''-: Pl'Rf''""'I
' ' " \Ll\\1
293
\dler, \ 1ortimerJ I ht l'a1Jt,., f'rogrm 1 /'
\Jlcr, \ 1ornn1crJ I 7•r l'111Jr111 Pro""x i7. ~ /1"1 ' 1 '' 111011•1/ \yl/Jh111 'c"' \1or k \\•<null an l'll>4
111
"' more, H \\IT) . •S. L'n1r11ro11a/>lr .r·
'-·h 1 • ·' ll11111u11uf .\f
Ji-t11b1 '/1 I .
1· ,. •
""' r110. 'c"' \orl \1;0111llan, 1'~2
Jnd Co., 1991. ·· ·'' ifr of No/•1•1 1 .i111ymirJ //1111liin 1 ll"""n 1.rnlt Uru\\n
Bennett, \\illiam .I. 'f'br Ot-l'f1/111·1·go·"i1
• ~ 11,,.,.,..,,. 1.1' /'/ I 1·11 ( ' '
Si1non and Schuotcr, 1992. · .r 'Jl.U ' )ur<.'11'1u1t11J1ti()u11·1i1/Jrnr '~"" \nr\..
llloon1, Allan. Thr Closing of the American ir111 J N
Dzuback. •\ \ary Ann. Rohm ,\J. flutchin . ~ · C\\ York: Simon anti \d1u,tcr, I11!<"
1991. s. ortrau oj ttn Edum111r. Ch teal(<>: l nl\tr>H) nl Chtca!l'> I~.
1lutchins, Robert \.1 . The l l1ghtr Lt · · A •
arn1ng 111 menra. ;-.;cw I-Laven, Cl Yale L'n"""'t} l'l'C'o-. 1'161
I. For Ilucchin5 nc the Universiry of Chicago, see \V'illiam I-l. 1\'lcNcill, llutthm.r~ L'nrrtmll .-1
Jlm1oir af the University of Chicago, 1929- 1950 (Chicago: Univeroity of Chicago Press. 1991)
2. i\1ortimcr] ..Adler, The Paidtia Proposal: An £durational ,\,faniftsto (Ne" York: \lacrnill~n. I1»-1
3. Allan Bloon1, The Closrng oftbt A111triran i\lind (!'\cw York: Simon and Schusrer, I08/.
4. \ \ "illiam J. Bennett, Tht De-Valuing ofAmtr1Ca: Tbt Figbi for Our Culr11rr and OurCbrldmt ('\c,.
York: Simon and Schuster, 1992).
5. Robert M. Hutchins, Tbt Higbrr Lt11rning in A111mct1 (New l laycn, Cl': Yale Univemt) ~rt."'
1936), p 63. Also see 1lutcbios, A Conversnrio11 on Education (Santa Barbnra, CA: Center for the Stuil)
of Democratic Instirutions, 1963).
IIAPTER EIGHTEEN
• • • • •
•
PROGRESSIVISM
heorY that has had rami ficaoon~ for

1
In th , ,h.iprer "e \\tll ~unune Pro!-"tt'' ' ' • ' r
1 111 1
•. such vn necies of P rogre~-
"' , , , x,eo. mJ NU•'\lOl'"· 1n pJm culJr we
· cl
examine
. . _ Inclined to 1nno,·aoon and
' ' , ., ., tt<' ..hi'd-.."ellte~ .ind ,,x:1Jlh· on:nce ~s1oboonth:;. ::\merican socierv and edu-
... 1.. ... th~{)f\
,h.;.r ~ Pro ~'' \ "1l nob l~n J '
ol reform in · •· . .
·.
1·d~nufy· Its ko>t·
..~oon• \ \ •e \\111
· u.-nne
· · Pnh.~-1'1'111. ' 1nute 1·c b" 1
cracm",,
1cs o ngtnl>, .. ~1
pnr.C'lp e• .mJ e, 1m1ne 1i:s CJu,-aoon.il in1phcarions.
D£fL'""I::'G PROGRESSI\'IS.\l
To aeline ,,e n1u,t go to 1rs root, progress, a word that pro~laims the
P rQ!!rc.>S:.<l\<IDl.
re -1bilio 01' ~Upr'O\'UJ\[ wmetlung. For Progress-ives, it is the hun1an siruaoon-SOCl-
Ct\ , polio me econoii:i) . .10d e<lut'\la on-that can be im~roved . •'\s a v~rb, to progress
re'•el'- ro ;1coon~ th.it .ire ong\\lng or on\\arcl. For ProgresStves, such acoons should be
000 ,io!enr :inu fullo" known and fo1r procedures in order to bring about gradual.
related, <en :i.. m cl cumul.iove refi.ntru.. Progrrss1on means to mo,·e fonvard by a senes
o: reb ted >tt:p•. l s.enes oi enili.-Ul-\1e" rather than utopian leaps into the furn re.
~'~~. "·luch ha:. been shaped by Liberalism, is con11Ilitted to using pub-
lic. nthe; chm~~. procedures. ( 'ee Chapter 11 on Liberalisn1.) Fairness res11ltl>
rrom ~mg- :i~-upon processe~ ro identify and solve problen1s and to adjudicate
lkput-e. All parnop.uus Ill the process share n commitment to respecting and using
the "'1!Tle rolc!S: To achieve this conunionent, Progressives, like Liberals, eniphasize the
1moonance of ere-Jong J broad. general consensus or agreement on the niles. Educa-
oon u -.ctn as a corL<e.n ;us bwlder in \\'hich people learn procedures, practice them.
-
and bet..--ome committed to usuig them.
The Linoh of reforms or impro,emeni:' envisioned by P rogressives are proxi-
mate, ~t '~e~ begin "'t_h where ·we are nghc no"· and arise from existing condi-
oon' h-.choo. llre robe reformed, the process of reform stan:s "rith exisong problems
an~ '1tuJoon-. rather_than \\1th utopian proposal> such as that advllnced by l\'3.11 Ulich
to dC'oChool !>OOe~: uch refonn bet.'Omes pan of a related series of reforms rhat
295
PROGRESS1''E REFOR,\IS:
• \re nnn1111lcnt
• I nl1011 lno11 n and ;lcccptcd procedure'
• Begin 111th cxjsting ~irunuuns
• \re gra<lu.11, serial. and cuniuhitil·e
leads to .stiU 111ore refonns · Th e anac1pnte

· · <l re~ult ·1s that tht:se reforms will have the
cumuh1t1\·e eff~ct of generally unproving ~ociety.
Pr~gre~s11•es beli~ve in the ~~ssibility of°graduaUy in1proving or refon11ing the
human siruat1~n over time. In pohacs, Progressives advocate social, econom1c, poho-
cal. or educaoonal change by gradual inrernal reforn1s that rake place within the
system.
In education, P rogressives advocate allowing children to express themselve)
fre~Ir and creatively and they also endorse general social refonns discussed above.
This dual advocacy has sornerimes produced ten~ion a1nong edncational Progressives,
especia lly when they unite to organize reform organizations or movements. 1'v!any
educational Progressives prefer using infonnal, les~ srrucrured, and open methods of
instruction that they believe allow children to follow their interests and use their cre-
ativity. They stress encouraging children's self-expression in inforn1al classroom en1'i-
ronments that satisfy individual interesb and needs, and also resulc in collaborative
group learning. While recognizing the importance of children's individual needs, Pro-
gressives inclined to use schools for social reform e111phasize that schools and teacllers
have a role in introducing controversial issues; in examining imporranc social, political,
and econon1ic problems; and in seeking to solve them.
At times, the emphasis on children's interest.~ and needs and on social issues and
reforms have generated tension within the :anksof ~rogressi~e.educators. Some child-
centered Progressives fear that the empha~1s on ~oc1al and pohncal problems ca~ res~t
· l'o' · · g the educational process by 1mposmg goals thar are outside of childrens
Ill po J CIZ!Il . • b I' th at 10
c 11 ·
· e es"' Social-refom1 Progressives, 1n contrast, e 1eve O\\wg
needs an d mt r ...,. . 1 d · · ·
, · s the sole criterion of cumcu um an 1nsrrucoon retreats into
childr ens interests a . .
· c · · · n which reinforces the sratt~~ quo rather than reforming 1t.
Iaissez-1a1re romant1c1s1 ,
SITUATING PROGRESSIVISM
. . be rraced back co the Eighteenth-Cenrury Enlighten-
Progressivism's beginnings carfl R The Enlightenment philosophers rejected the
the Age o eason. be'
ment, also kn own as di l d Reformaaon periods, that human mgs are.
belief inherited from the ~ie e'-a. :1° lly depri"ed. In conrrast, French philosophes
innately ethically depraved or d~~ntu:eau conjectured char hunlaD beings are inher-
such as Condillac, Diderot, an o~~us possjbiliaes for improving their siruaaon on
endy noble beings who have rremen
296 11 \KJ Ill I J II ol{JI 'UI 1111 C \I Ill°"
'" J' 111 u\e ,c.;rcnt.c 111 d1,cc1vc:r

\lllLlllCIn •
earth. I hl·1r ,,r.ll<'b" tor 1111pr11' 111µI c h11\\ Ill' 1101\C·r'c tun1.11onc1,I ,Jn <l 10 rt:!onn
' I
11 . h11111.1JJ .
1
rhc 1n11h' 11r g<'nt.'r.11 prt11l 1pl<' .1I "'111 1111,111111111 n' 111 i;onforrn to tho,e narural
'"' 1.11, p11h11<.1l, ,., 1111111111, , .1111 I '' 11' ' 11111111
' I • al of protrrcs~ .1~ a b'lllthng pnn-
. IH1tll 1 1
lltllC 0
l.1"'· 1he1 nhgh1c11111,·n1 1hl', 1111 " ' •' " ' uld' ,,. 11c11cr thJrl the pa~t ii 1hc hurnan po11.er
" •
I th< 111111rc 111 1

1:1pl.- l'h"' r,a,1111<·<111at J ·r 'iir th'''" ot.t·ur, the pti\\t:r 10
'l I I 11 fl 'l' rc1n 1n or< c "
111 fl'.h1111 ''·" un,h.K" i:1 Jn< g rn ' · . an<l ali,ohlll\I c.:••ntrr1ls t.1 tht
I I rv 1111hor11anan, ·
r.-.1,1111 h.1d 111 h<: trcclI rc1111 ;Jr r.i . ' '
111 h <l h 3 n etlucat1on that \I.a' lia~e<l 11n
d1urd1 .ind the ,tJte. It alv1 h;td 1c1 ht• '11cng1 cne Y
n.1n1rl' ;1nd ,,·1cnc.:c . . . .
I 1) 1 ., 1 ,,n:~s1v1>1n we
re J"an-Jacquc\
.... Rc1u,,cau ,
In Euro11e . ' note<l. torc11.11111c1\ o . I ." · · ,· hiltlren accorcl1ng 10 th c: pnnc1p It\
'' ho't: rcununnc narurah.,111 cn1pha\11cJ ct uc.:aung c d d h
·• · I · 1 · intS an e ucat1ng t t:rn 1n an
of nanirt: hht:rJang r.hc:m fron1 art1hcta 'nc1n restra • I . A d
'
opt:n, un~trucn1red informal c:nv1ron1nt:nt. CJ ann er J h· H nrich Pe!ita ozz1, 1n ut:nct: In
. p •
' Rousseau., 'h 1
Rou-,.,eau, redefined met od into · scho ol - based 1nstrocaon. t:sta ozz1
cmpha\lzt:<l · simultaneous
· ·
1nscrucaon · 1n · group sero·ngs • graduated learning E through -
· -L J · orunen t. 1These u ropean edu-
the U>t: of obieets and field rnps into u1e narura env1r .
. '
caaonal ideas 1nAuenced Amencan Progre>s1ves SU as · ch Colonel F ranets Parker• who
introduced chem inro reacher educaaon programs in cbe l7n.ited States ..
Progressive educaoon converged w1r.h the more general ~ro~ess1v: movement
that cook place m cbe United States fro 1n I 900 co 1920. Progressives in polao.c.-., s.uch as
Theodore Roosevelt, V\Toodrow Wil5on, and Robert LaFollette, although d1ffenng on
many issues, agreed on the need to reforrn the American political system. Poliri~al
Progressives sought to regulate business corporations so they could not monopolize
che economy, free government frorn the control of corrupt politicians, and conserve
environmental resources. Political Progressives also sought to reform the system by
enacting regulatory legislation to curb monopolies, create more di recr political
processes, ensure the safety of food and drugs, and safeguard namral resources. Pro-
gressives believed these reforms could take place \\'ithin the Constirutional framework
by using established electoral and legislative processes. Generally, the Progrc:ssn·e
reform process involved: ( 1) identifying che problem and investigating it 1n a public
and scientific way; (2) infonning and educating the public, often through in,·estigaoYe
journal!sm; (3) dis~sing :ind _structuring possible "'ays to resolve the problem; (-l)
propos'.ng and enacong legislao.on to re.medy and reform the siruation; (5) esrabhshing
regulauons to ensure the reforms were implemented and followed.
Although they had multiple goals, Progressive educators follO\ved a three-
pron~ed ~genda: (1) remove the ~or111ali~m, routine, and bureaucracy that c.Je,icalized
learning 1n many schools; (2) devise and implement innovative methods of 1nstn1ction
that .f~us ~n children's ~eeds and interests; (3) professionalize teaching and ~chool
adm1n1.srraaon. Proress1~e educators pioneered the development of new mechods of
educaaon, such as l~arrung by doing," activicy-based learning, group proiea:.. and
problem sol~g. MaJ:ietta.John.s~n (1864-1938), the founder of the Organic Philoso-
phy of Educaaon, ep1tom1zed child-centered Progressive ed · A h s hool of
0 rgantc · Ed · · F . b ucanon. t er c
ucaaon 10 a.tr ope, ;\Jabama Johnson shaped th · I und
· • d · ' e cumcu wn aro
children~ nee s, interests, and experiences. Creative acti\ities s ch ti · dra,~·-
. · · d · u as anc1ng,
1ng, singing, an weaving took center st.age wlule reading d d 1 ·ed
·1 r.h h'ld ·
uno e c 1 was rune or ten years old. 2 ' an wno.ng ,,·ere ea>•
til \Pl 1R1· 1G111 l· l ' PROt,Rl•\\I\ l\\1
297
Th<' Pr.1g111;111,t phil""'Phcr J I
Pl">''l"C~'1\
:-
C l•l111l·a1111n.1 I thl·on !) · 11111 D c \\c\ \\ ·" 11•t \ funirc in ihr . 1 ·l -
( 'I . c11e1, u 1 h 0 · " <Jt • 1<lpmcnt o 1
" £\ II f . l ll ;1gll, tes ted 1111111 · " 11t1 1•.1IMor 11 1,n. \t.h I L , .
• . • '-''Pl·t1111l·nialal1 ., •••ut t11e .. n11cr·
1111p11rtJlll' C 111 l'\Jll'l lt~lll'C 111 e I ' !"," ·' 11011 1 cil111:a11on J-.m iiha th
. . ' llt::1t111n, Oc11c1 \\ ' " mg c
h,1, t'1I 1n,tnt1u11n and the ' " C uf II , ·" .1 p11111 ccr in dcvct.,11111., actl\ lt)·
1111101:n11 e llIC;h 11ere e1nhr;it:eil h pro ' et11 . 'Hl\lnir" t1} tne L "
'ol1c n111i~ 111cthnd D c 11> c\ \
Pr11grc~s11 c education gaini 1';;:111> Progrc~<;1ve cdurJu 1r,, ·
111g ot the Progrc~s11 c F<l ttt:'llt,<>t' ~. e .'P<>tlight in the l:nneu States \\1th the found-
• . ' ' ' " ·''Ol.'1aoon tn I <J 19 fh .
t11e 11ublic and 1>n1ate schiJol »·' · e '~'oc1at1r.n 1omc<l 111no1J-
~u11cators at u f · .
uuo one larire org:iniz·iuon Th ·'. . ·. 1 re onn-1111nucd prolc"<>r> <>I cd ul-.iuon
~
nated ~rucles " about •
educational · n:.sociauon
erefor . . I1JurnaI• pro~tnii·r £-;du(IJt1&n, d1s'>CT?l1·
John Dewe, serl'ed as the , .. .. . :n' and innovanvc progmm~ acro,s the: count'}
· " h • h . · n.>SOciat100 s honorarv Pre:.1dent.
"'t oug uruted 1n opposin , . <l' · aJ ·ch .
b <l' ·d d · · g era ttion· 'i ooling, Progrcs:.1ve educitor- came:
t~ e l\dl e into ~~o groups: Child-Centered an d Soc.ial-Recon'itr0crion1sL Chtld·
( ,entere Progress1vtsn1
. looked to th e ..un L"Jd as edUCtlnon ·s 1·1ta I \Ource. They bd1e1 ed
chat the curriculum grew out of the indi~;dual child's interc:sc. and needs rather than
bein~ impo,ed a_s the prescribed, preestablished skills and ~ubjeets of th~ trad1aonal
curn culum so pnzed by Essentialim, Perenn iahsrs, and Conservaaves. Child-Centered
Progressive~ believed that children should be ac liberty co pun.ue their own inrere\t5,
without arbitrary rules. Through their own self-initiated acti,ity, children, gwded by
pem1 is:sive and encouraging cenchers, were to explore lheir en,'1ronmenc and thereby
enlarge thei r h orizons. \\'orking together in cooperncive and collabor:iove group>.
children 1vould learn how co participate as members of a democraoc \OC1ecy. If chil-
dren 1vere free to learn without the unposition of adulr-i.Jnposed external aim,, they
would beco1ne the builders of a new and better world.
Like the Child-Pentered Progressives, the Social Reconsrroroon1srs oppo, ed
· 1 hoolin"1s authoricarianism and formali~m. However. the ReconStTUcnon-
tra dioona sc c .. h d • In
· · elm ' ed •o see education as a poltucallv c arge proces>. some
1sts 1vere mo re in · ' · · 11 ch ls
· · ccd the Critical Theorises, who see educaaon, e'pec1a y s oo . '11>
\vays, they. anactp~ nffict between competing groups anJ d asse!o. '''hile many
places of ideological co d Liberals and anri-Commun1sts, o;ome were
. I R tionists ivere mo em , lib
Soaa econsrruc . b J'eved thaL education should be used as a de er-
. Th R onstrocciontstS e i h
Marxists. e ec . . ·cal and economic refonn. Reconscrucnorusi:s sue . as
ate agency of social, polio ' d Theodore Brameld argued that educa.aon 1s a
George Counts, Harold Rug_g: a~ activi 'V'hile not neglecting children\ .•ntereo;ts.
highly charged social and polior d ~al with important concen1poral) issues, no
schools and teachers needed to a~e;n ed that schools and ceacbers should work ro
h nrroversial. Counts gu . . s
ma_ner ow co d more equitable soc1~cy. . resqives disagree on the degree
btuld a ne,v, better, an d and Reconscrucoon1st Prog direct soc11ll and political
The Child-Center~ 'rs should deliberately orr~npt t:n.etionlSt agenda was so
to 'l\·hich schools aod tea e d educacors feared the, . ~ntrinarion The Reconstruc-
change. Son1e child-cenrere ould lead to sruden~ u1 ~de on the ~a1or political nnd
. d that 1t w b t r:tk1ng 11 SJ cal · ·
politicall>' n1oovare d that school>. )'no Although their theoret~ ongins
rionists in contrast, argue_ c cing the sea~ quod. e many of the ~ame idea~ about
'. . . re re1n1or . . Th rJSD en ors . .
economic issues, we ra.ry Cnocal ~ Sociol Recon\rrucoonisi:s.
are different, concemPoocl ·med by rhe earlier
,, pr at .
eduarionalreiorm ~~~--~~~~~~--~~-~~-
298 l'\IU Ill lllf0Rff~OFFl1l.L\11<''
- ROGRES l\lS \\
1"'FLUE;\'CES O:\' TIIE DE\ '£LOP.\ tl:"' r ()f P
• Fi~h<eenth-Cenrun £nl11!'htcnm<nl' I• th n !""'!='°<''
' · · R u JnJ Pc, tll•'·•
• 1·uropcan educational refonnLI' •1 1>~-··' ·
• Progrc'-~JYe mo,-ement m the L n11cJ -.,u1c'
---== • • j ohn De"")··s Pnignuoc F~nmcnr.ih,111

Progressive F.ducauon .\!.>oc1a"'u•o•n_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
PROGRESSfVISM'S PHJLOSOPIIICAL \..°'TI

IDEOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
•
l'll11C Ill ''ii I\ 11
l'l'I
• l'r.1~11,,,, 1 , 111
• , ,lt\tr,1!1'111
• 1 1lwr.11"111
\\'ffi' STL'DYPROGRESSI\'ISAf?
Progressi11,111 hu.; hecn ;1ncJ cunnnucs 10 lw :111 1111ponr1111 rcf1J111t icnc.Jcnc}' 111 Am •
t'3n education. The do1nin11n1 trend~ 111 cu rrkult1u1 hn ve 11J1c111:ncd heLween ncn_
Essenna ' lism (B11s1c' ELI11couon
' )w111
' I 'ns 1!111p1111~1.;
· on nc:1de1111c ,ki11, anc.J , 11 bJeCtS, anc.J
t-o
Progressi1'i~-in 11 ith its e111phnsis on 01wn cdul':1tiwn, 1n411iry-b11,ccl lca1r1ing,1.:ollabora-
01·e learning, project'" process le:1rn1n){, ;1u1hcnt1c.: :1"e'srncnt, and t:Ull\lrut'tlv1"n. lt u
useful for conretnponu') ecJuc:ituf\ tel rcc.:oi,'1111c ho11 the\e 1111101;1111111' in educ11.1"n
are both reacuons .1g:1111st Lhe sranl\ quo :rnd nl,n a''cruon' of nc11 approJ<.:ht.'> to edu-
canon. Progre~ 111 s 1 n, as n theory of cduc1111on, J\ directly linked 111 <.:urnn1lar reform
and inno11ition. Ho 11 ever, 1r :1lso h:1s bro:alcr 1111phc:111on' bcc:Hl\l' of us "'~un1puons
about children'> growth :ind c.levdnp1nc11t und hccnuse or Ii' 1dc::1 thu1 sd1ooh can he
inscrument.s of ~ocin I, polidcnl, nod cduc:ll i<m:il c.: hiln!l'c.
PROGRESSIVE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCA'rlON

·h r.ic:tt:ntcd h) 'Jnct} r:11hcr th.in 11n1fc1n1111y, 11 i~ c.J1f-
S1nce Progress1' e ecJul"Jtlt•n is c.: ·' · Pr i•rrc''" c' uh en tine.I 11 t'J\ler tCJ agree: on ~h2t
ficuJt to generoce 11 I •~r 0 ( Jlnnt:1p, e,.
. Pr' 1".,rc"ivc' gcnernlly oppo;e:
1
they are ag1unsr ch:111 11 h •ir the!'' "1' or. ' "
HIO 1'111 1 Ill ll lllllCl l \ 111 llH 'I \I lll"I
I I , 11111• 101111111· over •punfllllCllY '

I 1,1111 rnl11p1•,11l11"111111111111rn 11 11
ph 11\lll'' "I 1IJl' l-1 111.111
c 1 ovcrd11IJrc:n,1nu:resl~
. I I
.l. \ 111 i·,111hnl '11111111 11111 I 1111 I 111
11111111 ..,..1, 1 1111" c.id1 u1hcr.
I , ( 111tll'lllltH' '1111,llllllh drnl pll 1ht 11
I 11·11 • l(•
4. 111,111111111111(1..111·1l 1111r,1 1'11'1'·11 •111 '

111 hrt1clll\ ihat arc cxtnn\lc; rather
1111
1 1 1111
~. I• \11•111111 11111·111111'' • "" h I" 11•w,r I'11
P " '
1h.111 11111111\ll "' k111 111111(
1'1 111111'''" l' 1·1h11•111111·, µ1·111•1olly l11vor:

dirouith activ11ic\ rhat encour-
1. Stl11111l1111n1< t'hiltl1•t•11 '!. 14row1 h 111111dcvc 1.0111ncr1 1
"" ini11111ivc, cn·1111vlty• nnd s1· 11.·cxprC~'1 • ~ ·:irure~ acuviue,,
11111
11"1' • • •
pr<>ce!>s Iearning,
·
2. An c~pcricni.:c- rcfcrcnccd c11rric11 111111 l 1:1c c. ·
1nq111ry, nnll prohlc111 ~l)lv1n!(. .
3. ( :ull11hon11ivc lc;trlltll!( 1hn1 rcnn1rc' gr<> up cooperation.
4 lc~chcn. who net u~ focih1:11or' of learning rather than as tahk ~asters. . all
s: Educuuon that 1s 1nul11f11nctional and geared co the wh?le child~~ooon y,
phr,1cally, sociully, and intcllccrunlly-r.ithcr than exclusively aca emic.
PROGRESSIVlSM AS A TJ-rEORY O F EDUCATION

Bnscd nn the principles enu1ncrated ahove, it is possible ~o comn1e?t on ~arious fea~es
of Progrcssivisn1 as a theory of education. Like Pragmatism and Liberalism from which
it draws, Progressivism is noc concen1ed with metaphysics, with ultimate questions of
being. It wkes for grnnced that we live inn narural world that can be explained scientifi-
cally. Though we can never rc:ally have certain knowledge, science has generated a long
list of probabilities and tentative assertions about knowledge that provide reliable but
revisable guides to practice. It is up to the individua.l to work out socia.l, poUtical, eco-
nomic, and culrura.l relationships in ways that are most satisfying for growth and devel-
op1nent. Indeed, social knowledge and values are relational-arrived at by participating
in satisfying interactions-rather than based on immutable universal beliefs.
. ~ince ~ey r~gard metap~ysi cal questions as unanswerable in terms of public and
sc1enofic venficaoon, Progressives ~re more concerned with epistemological questions
sue~ a~: How do we know?. What is ~e most accurate way of knowing? True to the
behef 1n Progress asserted 1n the Enlightenment, P rogressives rurn to science-the
inve~tigarion and verification. of natural phenomena-and our experience with it co
provide an~ers to o~ quesoons. The Progressive version of knowing was reshaped
by Praginaost emphasJS on th~ theory ~f relativity. The scientific method provides the
most accurate .way of. knowing; . . findtngs ' however• are al ways su b'1ect to funh er
research , e.xpenmentaoon, re~s1on , and reinterpretation.
In terms of values-ethics. and. aesthetics-ProgresSJVes · d'ISCOunt clauns
· of uru- ·
versa lly based Standards as be1ng without a real-life basis in b .
of accepting moral absolutes associated wi' th b . wnan expenence. Instead
' metap ys1cally '---- _.. h'I h' th
look to human interactions and relationships Tb . ITdKQ P 1 osop 1es, ey
relational-those interactions that work bes.t . ~tr appmach to ethics and morals is
1n mte""'..,~nal
-,,_.,,_, · .
situations. " Woraung
,_,
301
bc,r'" '' not ;\n en,1 tl'l 111 111 dchii 1 1
t or 'r1 ""CS 1 1111 i.
Je111~rJnc 'oc1c1,, 11 hl·rc in tin id ii ,... " l'\, r•1n11 hl"'l tJlCU1, 111 ~fret ,1nJ
.JUJ ireu. 1 on 11 11u1 thl'\
· ninti ihutc "'•'fl' 1 11ce101 ·l11
111 I• c · c '"eat h flt her RelJ11011sh1p' ~re
non ()hen, 1he.,c rcl.11 · .11n1.111!(1t1111h 1I· I
1011 , 1111 " ar,c J.ffOllll(1Cl 111 •1hlllI ••111111·111,
I
1uhurc, tnd 'Jll•LK -
oon~-11e 1 rune .111J 1>l.1ce in iihicl 1 ' 111 11<11 ar e1111r11111nen1al snua-
1 peop1c 11vc 1111t I h
111 rhe'e pan11:ul:1r cultu r•i l ~iru·itioi 1 h' tire ll' a11 11 c ro" JI 1\ uk1n~ pl 1tc
• • ,, l " JI I ,, JI< I3 (
1,r, an<l Perenn1·1l1·s .. ~cc:u·e p. uni t 1 1 .1111scf'\"lllt1'C.\, f s,c1111.1l-
. • • '""' .. ' 1 ugre.,.,1ve 0 f • . .
that holds t.h:lt nghr and wron , oo<l . ' cncour.ti..ri_ni: eth1t.1I rcl~t111sn1-2 thcof'\
yer.alh. These critic~ of p g.' g,. . .ind bad, are tleh 11 td cuhurally rnrher rh.1n un1-
·h d rogi essin,111 charge th.11 ethical rdarMsm ha\ 11e.1L:cncd
moral c ar-acter . an created a code o 1·eth It\ 1n 11h1Ch ·anyth1n!{goc\."
Th e Iog1c t 11at Progressil'eS
. · ten <l co use" 1ndUCll\C The' hel1t!"e rhat lo"'c 1s a
wa\ f ak·1ng sense of exi>enenc h ·
.fi· o m th d . · . . , e, l e tnreracnons with · the environment
· The""'l"lc:n-
.
o c ~e o 15 pn~ed for its adherence to inducti1e logic Pro~e''"·~ fa\"or leamm~
that is process~onented and allows children 10 crt:ate their own belief~ anJ 1~111~;
through reHecoon on their interacuons \nth the ennron1nent.
Progressives take a large 1'ie'~ of education that extends hevond 1ntdlccrual
de1 elopment defined in academic terms. Their 1·ers1un of the \chool is thnt of a mulu-
functional institution that serves a hroad range of ind111dual and \OC!al need•. Coo-
cemed \\'ith the education of the whole person, the school's aims are LDtellecruaJ.
psychologi<..-al, n1oral, social, civic, and econon1ic. Progre~~'e.' wnm against tht "four
walls" philosophy of education that sepan1tes schools frorn i:heir society and the com-
munity the)' serve. Conservatives, Essenoalisb, and PerennialistS, tn concrast, 53) that
the Progressive proclivity to try to do everything weaken~ the school'.s prunary func-
tion as an acade1nic institution.
.Based on its multiple goals, Progressive cnrriculu1n and instrucnon reiect the
more traditional Essr::ndalist and Perenninlist reliance on predetemnned discrete skills
and subjectS. Rather, Progressives contend that the curriculum ;hould co1ne from chil-
dren's interests and need~ and their exploration of the environ1nent. For Child-
Centered Progressives, the exploration of ~e env,ronmenc leads to oppa~nitie> co
stiinulate creativity through expressi~e ac~Vlties. It also pres~nts ?Ccas1ons JJ1 which
children can encounter prohle1n-solv1ng s1ruat1ons, work our soluoons, and construcr
their conceptS al 5 f the Progressive school are 1nul11·runcoonn1, -L
thof reality. - •
u 1e inStrucno11ou
J~st as ego ~e teachers n~·eds co be versarile. They need to ha'-e informed
repeno1re of Progress .. d einotiomtl growth and developn1ent; they need co
.ms1g
. h t ·tnto cbild ren's coo·111 ave an . L.
_,,. d b" ct knowledge as a background for teauung; an
d
have a wide range of skill ~ ~o~e dyna mics for cooperative lea ming.
they need to be skilled 111 usmg g p
cENTERED
MARIETTA JOHNSON, cHILD-
PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION . . .
ch I of Orgonic Edue11ao11 m F:11rhope,
the founder of the S ~carion chat emphasized chc principles of
0
,
~1anetta J ohnso11' d the theory<lfOrgnn1c"Ecl . ., came from her idl!ll that the child
Afabaina , develope . ·sm The term orgonic
Child-Centered Progress", ·
. t •ctlcun tc• n1er<1ll \\llh the cn\iron-
11 1
\\'D' J li\lnj! Ol){Jn1,m \\ho ll':lrncil h) h.ii 111 !l le r~ h , I . J the \I. hole 1:h1ld-
h JI] hKll'l'tJ 'lhuol' I ,ll Cl UlollC
n1ent .IClhn"'" l ..l II"'I t<•f c.: I • lt:fllll'\IVC Cll\!rC)1111H.:nt. ,\, vou
111entalh l'h\ ,1calh '<>e1alh. and ~11111111111.111} - 111 .1 I .
.• ·• · I I t0 llo"in•' to1:u,1ng q11c\t111n\.
reaJ thi: ,eli:.:non. \OU nu~ht \\l'h to (CHI'" er 111: "
I. li<l\\ Joc,John,on Jc:tine "or~1111t· cduc.:a11011"~ Do you agree or d"agrec \\Ith
her appn1:ich co educanon? \ \ 11y?

l. \\nae 1;, Johnson's view of !(ft1uping children fo r instrucuon? Do you a~rrt:t: or
J1~agree? \ \'hy?
· Johnson wou I·'u react torhe coo ce mporary standard' and con-
3. HO\\ do •\'OU think
'truCO\'lSt rnovemencs in education?
4. ln "hat \\'3Y is Johnson's educational theory an example of Child-Centc:red

Progress1,'ism?
... is either good or ill for the entire organism

The aim of the school is to srudv, to know always!
and meet the needs of the growing organis1n; No one kno,vs exactly the needs of child-
that IS, ro conduct a school program 'vhich will hood, or just ho\v to supply these, but even
preserve the smcerity and unself-consciousoess tllough the ideal may not be realized at once it is
oi the emotional life-provide for the finest, still tile high privilege and duty of the adult to
keenest inrellecrual acovit:y, and minister ro the uy to know. The way has not yet been found-
all-round de\'elopmenr of the nervous system . the last \vord has not been spoken. Skeptics
.\linbrenng to gro'-"tlt. meeting the needs of the ~ometimes ask, "\,Vill it fit my child?" There is
organism. IS tile sole function of the educational no "it"-but an effon to furnish the best condi-
p~eoce the renn "organic." The child tion!> for every child. What those needs are and
IS a reaching organism and tile test of the ho\v they are co be met may never be agreed
e.n'-uonmeot is bis reaction ../Joi. bad child may upon, but we must continue to "reason
nor come from a good home. Ho\vever good together" and to study witll an open niind. l\Te
the home is, it is bad for him or he would be do not present our program as final. The
good~ ParentS and teachers often protest that youngest teacher may find a better way. But \Ve
they rreat the children "all alike!" rbinking that offer the following program as the best \Ve huve
this i~ tmp:in:iaL The only way to be truly at this tirne.
impartial 15 to secure the right reaction! \Ve \Ve group the children according co
must conStandy bear in mind that we are chronological age; this is really the only age of
dealing ~'Ith a untt orgarusm. As Henderson which we may be certain. \\'e think this pre-
sa\-S. it 1s impo~ible to have good health in one vents self-consciousness and we believe tile first
~of tile organ1~m and ill health in another! It condition of gro"'th 1s unself-consciousness.
From \ltnem Johnson, Thirty Yun ··•Ith an fdtt1 ·n I .
s2-ss, 62-63, 86-87. 95 .•\12ricmJohruon ,\tuse~m~sca oosn, AL: Umversicy of 1\Jabama Pre~s. 197~. PP·
CJIAl'T ER FJG lll f"-' l'RO(,JU \\J\ l\\l
303
Grouping chil~en accorc.ltn!I' 10 ntuiin1ticnt t1r
~chie,•ement g ives a wrong' concc p11on o l ccl In •h~ I.liter he J t
11 ' '' ten 'II l.:r\ \lr1un "hich 0°
c:it1on. Ir gi1·es the ch1lc.l tJ1c 1c.lea thuc educntoon C~jl~l'IJ ll
II r ooncI~'° 1 ilbl. for tht icr11w1ng
'
child
'
i;0n.siscs in meenng 1.he c.len1und~ of th e aJul1. lri;~ \J~~l~rwh11" Juti y 1hc Q!(C uf ho~ group or~
Thi> elf-con"c1ou"ness 1nay arre~t Jcvclop- ge1' 1111ore 0111 nf h" eKpencncc-1'
ment. Children ~oulc.l grow 1nentally as th ey Maying you ng-whole 1he tliild grouped \\ltl't
do phy'>1callr~111t;11ou t efforr or scrai n. (]railing older ch1ldr~n o~ u1111blc '" nenefit a~ fully from
make> the i.:hold think that an educated person is Lh e experience and i~ p;nrw1nK old'
one "ho l'TIOWS a great deal, or has tu1 usua l skill, ~\/hen the adolescent penod o\ rCllched
or one who has 1net the requirernentS of the ~)'S there _is Jange r of forcing of tht ~ex and soCJal
iem and perhaps has received honors. Isn't it consciousness. As sooery becon1e~ more com-
scrange that 1ve sboul<l feel it right and proper to plex, the period of childhood should be pro-
reward people for learning? Some of the leaders longed to preserve the power co ad1ust. The
111 the progressive schools still contend that an
prolonging of childhood is the hope of the
race-the longer the time from birth to maru-
e.uernal standard is necessary. Even in religion
rity, the rugher the organisn1. This IS true 1nch-
we constantly hear of a "cro1vn" as the reward of
vidua1Jy as welJ as biologically. No parent
faith or a good ljfe, never realizing that the should be proud of a precocious child. Incellec-
thought of the reward weakens the faith a.nd clis- ruaJ "brilliance'' in the very young may nor be
6gures the good life! the promise of the finest marurity. Henderson
Leaming is merely satisfying mental says, "Children should be ignorant." This muse
hunger. If society ever has rewards to offer they be a great conifort co parents and teachers!
should be in recognj tion of a real contribution Chi ldren should not strive co get into a
in acrual service! And thj5 is unnecessary, how- higher grade. Why should we subject the mental
ever, for 1vhole-heaned, disinterested service is power of tbe child to measuremenrs and exter-
alwavs itS own rewar d! T herefore, it seen1s per- nal stimulation n1ore than the physical or spiri-
fectly logical to eliminate the "reward" idea rual powers? If the body were subjected to the
entirely. We shall never know how much real same conscious striving to meet external ends as
happiness and joy- yes, power- in the presen~ those for wruch the mjnd is stimulated, all real
has been Jost, by thjs subtle fear of ?ie fu~~e. physical vigor would be desuoyed and such a
This preparation idea!! Adults may fail co nun1s- process for the spi ri t would develop the mo~'t
ter to grov.rt.b but a child cannot fail. Even the objectionable hypocrisy. When one sees chil-
idea of "measuring progress" may develop self- dren trying co "show off' their knowledge or
consciousness and be inhibiting-and further- skill, or insisting that certain children do nor
belong in their class, the elders are to be
more, we all know that the essential in all
blamed, not the children. Sometimes children
progress is immeasurable! and even parents have complained because oth-
The child should never feel that he must who do not know as u1uch or who have nor
"keep up" with others mentally, any more 30 0 er.s as fine work are promoted w1'th th. em.1 Wie
don e
he should be stimulated to "keep up" in heigh; hoping co forget the word "promoted."
or weight. "When young children are group~o ~lucation is the process of 1neeting the needs of
With older children they often feel supenor .
children. 'd .·
those of their own age and th e chlld who · y
1s The reacher endeavors to proV1 e acavt-
grouped with children much you_n~e~,:~ .
nesan
d exercises which are adapted ro the stage
·· ·1
acquire an inferiority complex. Still, \~ a lirtle
1 f development of the group, giv~g. sp~a
0
. ro any individual child. This 1ndiV1d-
better for a child to be a little older th case he 0
actenno . should never be of the kind that
th former •
~ounger than his group. In . e d confidence. ual artenaon
•s tnore relaxed and gains poise an
HH 11\1\1 Ill "" •ll<ll ,clf 1 l>l I "'"'
I .. , 11111 ifd Ill' w11rl 111v r 11.111vi1~ "'

11r,w11:11111~
I I '
'11111Ul,1rl'' .1 duld lU '\';11.!1 11p" Ill "kl'l'P llJI " I , rlll'I~ N'lany 1111 d1111 1.,.,,,111 ,
pf.1\lllg Wll I I
111th thi: d.1,, nor 111 "!!<'I .1h1·.11I" 111 "kll·p . I I 10 l1vt· "11h •1th1·1 I .1 r~... lth 1,f
tjllllC 111111
.1h(.1J" 11f .1n111nt~h11t 1111·td) t11 "''' th.11 111· .,, f,,.111 , 111 .1 lo.rd l1gl11, 11.111 J1<1'i1111, 11
d1•Jr II 111ul1•1't.111d' 1111.11 hi' " d111n!(. '-ot ' 11 '1111111-( f• 1111Y. l f1 1c'
p:l"IVL' I/
v l•t'lll"
• r cn1111.11111 rl l1y ·' li
111111 h II h.11 11111' doc,, ,I\ 1h1• l'ifl'l'I ol dw WOI k 111 ,1µµ111 µ, lto"Y• 11rr1;il1h',1111l1:rppy, ~··ll t•·111•·•t•I
1•n tl11' pupil
d11ld '' q11t1L' apt '" lw llu 'hrltl "'"'' "~d
\ L~•llq:<· prote'"'r ti:ll' the ""'11 ol .1 .,tu CXLC'"vcly \VL h;1vr h.11l tl11ldrcn \'.l111 1· I,. hav
dent •onun~ u1 h1111 one d.1) ,111J .. ay1ng, "I knn11
uir wa' po,11 1vcly '111111• 11111;11 1.;111\1 ti liy lr>'1 l•1n
l 11111 not J11111µ 1 Cl) 11nu.:h L111s cl:iss und I know
,l:lnl \l~C of hoCJk.,_. Ul lcrly ifH k111g lit :1lul11y 111
thJt you knu11 I Jill nut ,1 1-•oou \ludcrll; but I
11 ~nt 1ou 10 kno11 I an1 grtt111g n10r~ out of th1.,
111ecl '111l3111H1\ ",\/ly d11l<I r:1nllflt "" .1nyil11n~
11 ork than I c1 er d1J before."
\\Ith ht~ hand\, and he cnJ"Y' hc1n~ ""h ~<lulu
All zc~t 1n le:1mini.; depends upo11 1nenrnl 111 uch rnorc lh:tn play111!{ wrth c:hilrlrcn," ~~pi •
1-rr.1.,p. lf t.hc wnrk secure., 1.he be;t 111cntal atLiv- perplexed 1nothcr.
111. u ts t!<l111."allOnal. The obset'\1ng eye of the \Vh1l e rnfonna11on " not I he a1111 m
teacher 1s nec~ary to d1..co1 er 1vhen children nature ~tudy, at th1' age children arc 1n1crt...1cd
nre llStng their tnenral endowment to highest to know rnany thtn!{' th~t tlll!{ht C\Capc thr
ndq111rnge. This is e1ridenccd by eager and sus- not.ice uf yolJnger children. ~n~rkes and l()atl.,
t:uned interc;r and re;ultJng satJsfuctions. It and all anin1al., are aur;1<.:11ve to chrldrcn if the
requll'eS no test or exanunation co di'iCover ob~crvation " not prc,\ed upon thcrn. ·rhe lt\-
11 hen children do their best at play. Neither ing creature i\ ,tutlicd through acnral c;ontatl,
should it be difficult to know when they are rather than lesso ns about then1. (;:. r<lcn' art
doing their best m school work. very intere\ting and 1;xc111 .. ion\ and walb and
•
all-day picnu.:\ are popular. ()ur hay i\ a ntver-
The child who reads early learn; to rely cxhausi:ed attracuon. l lere they n1ay drg 1n the
upon the printed page for anthorit:y and may fail sanu to their hearts contc nt, waue anu sail dictr
lan1encably to undersmnd the meaning of his little boat~, build dam,, 111ake lake,, watcrfalh,
experiences! The encire race seems quite unable 1\lands, and all formi. of land and water. The
to learn from experience! Isn't it strange that so ~llie~ ar~ always sti1nulat1ng to dramatic or
many people feel there is little or no learning r11v~st1gat:1ng impulses. "Let's play tht: god\! T'rn
except from books? In fuct, they often ~peak of Ju1_irter-J'rn Juno-1'111 Minerva!" .,hout rhe
the "lools of learning," meaning symbols. When children as they troop to the gully. i\1any happy
one considers the immen~e amount of learning
hours have hcen spent 1n the gully drd1naazmg
that takes place before the child reaches school
the old (~reek n1ytb~ and other \tortes, while tht
age, il is surprising that such emphasis is placed tcncher lazily sits on a log in the \Un.
upon books as tools of lean1ing!
Reading should be postponed uncil ten Handwork hold., a very prominent place
years of age. If children were allowed to think on the program, being almo\r wholl} ..elf-
through experience, a tendency to wail for daca prompted and self-directed. Work in color i\
to search for O'Uth and use it for authority' ~cry fuscinating for th ese children. Thc:y love 10
illustrate po em~ or ~tones, using . large ~heets o (
mJght be developed. Children tend to act 0~
dunking. This is intelligence. Excessive or too papehr, large h~hes and ~1vid water cofot'\.
M ucwok 111 I ·
early use of books may interfere. The use of r cay is also done quire rndepenJ·
ent Iy, thou"h the h ' .
hooks too early often develops an unsocial atti- \Olic' d a" tenc t:rs help 1 ~ so1neome\
tude. Children are enterutined by reading sto-
age IS .•re ~ ... out the great Joy of c:h1ldren of t.ll1s
Wvuu W
- ork'tng. They never urt of the 111(-
305
'·'''· pl•inc, h.11111ner and 11;111,, and \ometirnc,
tht' l;nht:, ;1nd rnan} happ) and profitahlc hours nienl'i, than could po~s1hly be done under pre'-
are ,pcnr 11'1ng rools antl \Oft wood. \\ bai do 'Urc- and we believe that the ah\ence of pres-
rhc) 111:1kc ;ind hou• \Vt'IJ 1~ the work done? They \llrc 1\ ah.,olutely e~scnual to growth. ~"e do not
iuakc 1nany ob1ecrs for u.~c :ind ><Hne things are ~ncournge children 10 1111~a.,ure them\elves. Th1\
well done, hut che \VOrk is succcssiul if the chil- '~ llpl ro develop self-con.,ciou\ne\s which must
ilrcn cnjo} the activity and experience real satb- du ll the edge of rea l lt:arnrng. "I often talk over
fot"t1on. "J 11\r chink, ,\1.other," cxclai1ns 3 ne\\ the work with the children helping them to
h<i\, "You l~ln rnake \vhat you \\':Int, and you can cornpare today's resul~ with former work." said
t.rLl' rt horne!" The} sornetirne\ need help to an earnest though mistaken teacher. \\'hen one
JlCf'1't unul an object is finished, and occasion- •~ thinking of his rate of rntelle<.'tUal progress or
increase in skill, his rnind is divided. He should
al!\ arucle' hegun may be abandoned....
be able co concentrate utterly upon the aCt:Ivity.
· 1t:acher~ often take thern~clves too seri-
Learning is satisfying rnental hunger as eating is
ously, they take the \vork too seriously, they are
satisfying physical hunger. If we were obliged to
too consciC1us of stantlards of work and behav- keep crack of their learning, nausea and indiges-
ior. "1'hey've JUSt got to do a rnonch's work in a
tion would certainly resulc. I wonder if chil-
month," exclaimed an irritable teacher who dren\ 1vithdra\vaJ from the learning program of
found 1t drfficulc to hold anenrion \1.jthout pres- the schoob may not be due co this mental indi-
~ure. It i\ m:re that an 1nd1fferent teacher is gestion which may follow the conscious effon
alway~ deplorable, bur a teacher may be jolly of learning.
nncl free and hun1an-and should really enjoy his Tf they have enjoyed facts and have
work. "l li ke Miss I( out~ide school," cried a thought through cause and effect 1vitb concen-
child. "She is fun at a parry-but oh, ho\v si:rict trJtion and with resulting satisfaction- they are
nnd .,ober she is in school!!" gro"'ing, being educated, and co measure that
()f course, many children are weak in experience would be to weaken it.
power of concencrarion, and ass1\tance ma>: be ••
needed at times to prevent tnfling and foohn~ There are no special methods of discipline
but grven 1vork suited to thci r developrnent an throughout the school. The children must do 3!t
an earnest teacher understanding children, as they are cold because of their unformed condi-
well as the suhject, we find that they ~o co.ucen- tion, but the school is careful what it tells.
lrtHe and ncqurre . tn. fo rmatron
· and
· ski IJ wubout Throughout the years we have been a~~ed .of
conducting a "do as you please school m spree
recour'ie to e\'.temal goals of accornplishment-
of the face that I have repeatedly denied this.
pa'"ng-or threats of failure! d Children do not know what is best for them.
The \1ruaoon is sufficient to s~e ;:_ They have 00 basis for iudgmenr. They need
work and the satisfucrion lil the acovny 15 chool rdance, concrol, but this must reall~ be for
c:rent reward! A little girl fron1 ano~t::d her guth . ood not merely for the convenience of
err g • h ch'
constantly called attention .to hersearin false- 1 1 Every effort 1s nlade ro ave 1s
the adu r. b di
work, and son1erimes 1vas guilty of gl th gfavor- fi . erge into and hecome o e ence.
hoods, so anxious '"as she ro secure . ~t could ~ o~:g~t the child'~ will to ace in harmony
able anennon of the adults! Such 3 sptnal stan- acthis, dul will The fundamental condition
th ea c ·
the cooperation of the child is to
ne1er have developed w'l tb ou t the extern
ni
d ii' for secunng ... cbe child The teacher, chere-
dard in the minds of both reacher;;m~':!'h~d in race -·1w •
coope . ~ _,,, granf\ e,·en· request chat the
\ \ 'e belie\'e e\'en more rs ah enJ·ovinl1.' ic fo re, msoncov~ / · ·
ak if ic is wholesome and possible m
th c :.<>-called subject matter w en·-
ou rht of require- cJuldren m e
wr
f'r.1111 to day without an} th g
\\llltCncc ..J, of the ,htld\ narure; that " ' It
do \O. Children 'houlJ !·11rr.:. th.11 tht'1r ",,he' I h
111111' ,., .lntl(.111ate h1' c.Je,1re' h\. prcl\1d1nl!
- al'tll -
are respected h~ the adult'
Xot onh " 1h1, (oopcra1111n "uh the Hit' .llHI ... ~·
crll'C' w h1ch arc 1n h:tnnon\• "1th
hi' , 1agc 11 f tJe,elopment and 'll.h1th 'II.Ill \tc.Ure
expres:.eJ Je,irc ul the: l·h1IJ 11nportJnt, hut the
the \llllcrc't rc,pon\c.
school endeJ\ ur- l\1 t11<>pcrJtc 1n J deeper '' J)
CONCLlrSION
Progress1\ 1·sn1 has often asserted and rea,s«::rtt!

· d 1•<elf
..., tn' American educauon. Dra"' .n..~
1n•piraoon from the European refonner~ 'uch as ~ousseau and Pe~calozzi, Amtncan
Progress1,·es fuhioned their 0 , ,11 ,·anery of educaoonal mnovaoon. Ac omes, tht Pro-
gre,S1\ e smnce re1ecred the fonnahsm, routine, and bureaucracy found in rradiaonal
schools. It re1ecred convenaonal subject matter, textbooks, memonzaaon, and compc:-
ooon for grades. \Yith thetr rejecoon of traditional schooling, Progre5sives became:
proactive agentS of educational change.
Progressives see schools as educational laboratories for the testing of new idea~.
En.,.;s1oning the curriculwn as open-ended rather than closed, they see 1t evohmg con-
jointly fro m the interests of children and from the guidance of teachers. Rather than
relying on prescribed subject nlaner, they see learning flowing out of expe riences and
activities. The contemporary innovations of process learning, projects, collaboraa \·e
learning, and authentic assessmenr all resonate weU \vith Pro!!I'essives. Ivlanv Progres-
sives see schooling as a process with broad cultural, social,t>political, and· economic
implications.
1. Do you .believe thar mosr Americans believe in the concept of Pro ess; that the
future will be better than the past? gr
2. £dentify the philosophies and ideologies that have shaped p · h' ki
3. ldcoo 'fy th · ·1 · · d d'« rogress1ve t 1n ng.
· · p e s1rm anaes
· · an D 1rrercnces bet\veen Child-C d d
cnrerc an ocrn S · J Recon-
strucaoru~tr?gresSJVJSm. o you believe that these differenc . b . lved and
co1nprom1sed rn one theory of education? es can e reso
4. Co~pare and co~trasr ho\v Progressives, Essentialists and p · 1· , d •6 edu-
caaon and conceive of the rolc an d fun coon
. of schools• erenn1a 1sts . c ne
5. ~~ti~tio~ee with the broad Progressive view of th~ school as a inultifuncuonal
6. Do you think that the ethical relatiVJ~ . d . .
compatible with che curr I . m ;issooate u,th Progressive educauon IS
ent mora c1imate in the United Stares?
INQUIRY AND RESFARCH PROJECTS •
I . l)o you see evidence of Progres~iv1 ~ 111 in cl . . d

as part of your professional clinical c r~r~m s1rua.aons that you ha\C! obsen e
those examples of Progressivism. ~ ence. II so, tn a log, record and an~Jyz<!
< 11\l•fl kl f<,11111' l•IH>l,MI ~\l\I M
307
l . \\n<t .1 1•"111011 lt.lfl<:r 111 "lu h'/ uu •I n IJC h,,.. rr•• lf(ra~rva -L, to
h I I
I l' ,11111 JI•' llln\c111c111 ... I 11 r ... ...
' •u 11 • '1anu;irw1cd ~rs 1 rrica•s::Jr,C - "" raa
"'-
.t1.. Illl"\ f.'lltt 1\1 "ilKJCJlt
l. I),., "t .1 It''"" Pl tr1111 \\h1tl1 )•>111.,1!1111~ a ltarnrno \JI ~°''" lr.1 on the Prn. cs-
"" rhc•H) 111 u lutdllltn "
4. \\n1c i1 pr1-.111111paper111 "h1th }'Ill ·k~nlie h•1l4 l'r•11lri:'l<iln"'m ht ra • iocon
'1ru1..u1 "'" uncl 111 ponlol111 .1'~'1nc111
5. ()r11ant11: •1 tlli1Jtt •m the \ul11cu \uu:nuin puLht 'ldw,..Jl wru d frr_"'l...
pnnupl1:\ ol turratulurn and tn\lrut1111n Pr • essn-e
For recent .dcvcl< ' 11111cnt\

• an d an ""'cc ft,r Pr•Jgrc<>~wi.: cducaacm CCAlUct :t.cjohr.
acuvc
l)cwcy Pro1cc1 1111 l'rngrcs\1ve £ducaur,n at the L n11·cr.11Y r1f \ermon1 ll
" '""v.uvm.cdu/dcwey/
For a biography of Jane Addams, contat1\\l,mcn1n H1st.0r}" at
www.Lkwdpl.org/wihohio/adda-jan.hcm
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUR'n iER READING

Carlson, Dennis. 1vft1kmg Progress: Educotum and Culrurt m .\'r.· Tm1t. ~c-o )ork: Teachers ~e
Press, 1996.
Cremin, Lawrence A. "fht 7ramformottfJ11 ofcht xh{)I)( PrO¥;rtISWl1111 m Ammun F..J:iantlf! I §-6-19;-
New York: A.lfred A. Knopf, 1961.
Dennis, Lawrence)., and Eaton, \.\"tlliam E Gt01'gtS. Counu. Ed1JU111rfor•.\"r;:,~( ~emd
Edwardsville: Southern Ulioo>S (;ruver\tt) Preu, 1980.
Dewey, John. F.xpmnut imd F.d=ntm· Tbr 6Q1h Annntr111ry &hl'l()n. \\'~t Lafayette. I:-.: IUppa Dclt2
Pi, 1998.
Graham, Patricia A. Progrtmut J!;JU<arwn: Frvm Arc1dy t•Aaulnnt: A HJrUlrJefltt Prog1au.t f.br«n-
Arrotiatton, 1919- 1!155 New York: Teachers College Press, 196~.
KJiebard, I ferbcrt M. Thr Srrugglt for tht Ammcan Cumt'U/um, 1891-195d Boston: Routicd~ .'.'<:
Kega n Paul , 1986. .
Reese, WilJlam J. Pqwtr and Pmntst ofSrhoof Rrfomr· Gram'Oflu .\frn:emmu Dunng 1J:.r Pros• tiSl.t En
Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1986. . •
Tanner, Dwiel. Crusndt for DemtxTary: Prvgremvt EdU<1111on ar thr CIWmllds \lbany Sa~ Cnh~
of New York Press, I 991. . • .
Zilversmit, Arthur. Cbimgrng Schools: Prvgmni~ F..JIJ(JIUl1fl Tl:ttlTJ 1114 Pr«rJ«, /9,~lJ/60. cmc.~
UniversiryofChicago Press, 1993.
NOTES
I. Gerald L, G lltC k• Pw •'ll
··~ Iozzi and &11ir11tio11 (Pro5peet Heighis, IL: \\"11dand PttSS. 1999), pp
ix-xiv, 165-170. .,..,,. Y,an-llh an (JrJ ( JU>C:lloosa: L"ru\'tt'YI)" of \labama Pres.s. 19--H.
2. Mariem Johnson, '' rny ' ~
pp. 52-55, 62-63, 86-95. fthe Progres>o•e f:ducaoon \ssocllaoo,. II) Pama• \lbiu!I Gnlum.
3. The defin10,·c h1~tof)' ~rra'9' to ACJ1.ln>r~ Htsm'J. oft.Ct ~., ~ .-la:J,r,..,
Progrtrsiw &iUUJUOn· f:,.,,.
ch College: p..-, Col11111bu Com:ml), 196.).
1919-1955\,'JewYork: lea ers
308 l'\lfl Ill 1111 OIUf·\Of ff)LC. \lfl>'
4 For the h"'"" ur "'"'·'' f<t 111r"tr 11 " " " ' ' " , \lichad f James, !itJa4/ llucn~
C'"""'""
Fh1Y111~'1 l'.J111,111on 11;, l'hilt1111rl•r /111rury. 1lfld (, 11111. 11/11 of 11 HoJr, 1J/ /J,11/ ,._ I ,, ·
' c;cor!<" '> C .,11111,, """ 1 ~. \.I• ,/ /1111/J 11 \ \,.1,1/ (J~J,r' (~1:1> '1,rl: )<, " I).. 'IJ2i ,,..
1·- 1 ~ ....
6 .John I),." c1, / rpmr11 1r 111uJ h/111111ta11 J br ~Ot/I 1/111111 rrwry l'Jl111f1f1 (\\'Cl.1 I •f•) t:ltc, f • KapPa
Ddo 1'1. I IJ<l!I)
- . lllls l" t of f'ro!l'rc"" c ctluca111u1al principle•'' dcH-.cy rhc auth(1r It f;,rru .." frClf?I the
nf pnnnpJc, 'lJlcJ h) the Pru~~'"·c Educaoon '\!.~oc1Jt1r1n l·11r' d11.cu•\1t1n r,f Prr,lll'esmc pr:~
c1ple.~. 'cc ~a1nc1J \ lh1erg (;raham, l'rogrrn11:r [:Juta11011 I rum ArCildJ "' A.-:zdmt~-A I l1~zry q r1;,
l"rog>rwtt~ &lum11011. /rsoiin11on, 1919 1955 ('Jew York: "fc:ichers College Pres\, (,t,Jwnbia L lllt'C1J:i1
196"').
rl • • • •
CRITICAL THEORY
In this chapre~ \Ve w1!lexan11ne Crit1l':ll Then!), one of the leading con temporal'} edu-
canonal theories. CnacaJ Theo!) co111n1;1nds a posiuon an1ong nlanr educ::nor., 1n the
Foundaaons of Education, espec1;1ll) in the social and philosoph1cal area ... As a theory,
It is opposed co the trend to neo-Const!rvatisn1 and the resurgence ofE.,.,entialism.
DEFINING CRITICAL THEORY
C ritical Theory can be defined as a co1nplex set of working asswnpuons about soci-
ety, education, and schooling that question and analyze educational aims, institutions,
curriculu1n, instruction, and relationships in order co raise consciousness and bring
about cransformarive change in sociecy and education. Critical Theory assumptions.
derived from Poscmodernisn1 and Liberaaon Pedagogy, argue char society, education.
and schooling are arenas in \11hich groups conrend for pon•er and control. In particular.
Critical Tbeorisrs see schools as place~ of concestation bern•een d,·aJ ideologies. Cnti-
cal Theorises are nor neutral in this struggle bur are committed advocares of advancing
the cause of disempowered and subordina.ce gr~ups: T _hey use these a..~un1pnons ro
r.use questions about who controls educaaon.al 1nsaruoons and de tenrunes tht co n- /
cent of the curriculum and Lht: n1tthods by which su1dentS are mstruc:rt!<l: T heir goaJ 1S)
tO raise the consciousness of teachers and d1e ~ppressed meo1bers of society about the) •
d. · f io·tarion
1 and how they ca n liberate and en1power the111selves to cake
con iu onfs oh ~xp u"eS and shape thei r own future. Transfonnative change refer; to.
conrro1o t eirown • '. d -L II I ·
. ,.
sweep1ng reronns to e th entirt social
· S[flJCture as oppose co u1e )Ina -sea e, 1ncre-
mental refonns advocated by Liberals. . . . b .
, .. ry's prions and working generalizaoons are ased on a ph1lo-
ti r.. J
. Cnacal Theo
. assum
·cal • p od ·
orientation ;haped by osan ern1•t an ..xistenaa 1sc
so~h1cal and i~eologi .d 1 gy feininist theory, and muloculruralisn1. The word
ph1losoplues, L1bera~on ~ :~;,r~u~ probing and analrtical 1nvesogaaon social andof
mtu:al refers to ~~fi scllools ind iociet) that anns m un<."On!r exploiaun:.J>ml"Pr
educa~ oaodi 3
bout rt!fomis that will produce eqwcy, fa1mess, and iusnce.
relauonsh1ps and bnng
309
3 10 1·11111tf 111111~11~"'"' t ''"
,,f )Ill"" 1)111<111•, 1:. ._
, 11 ,, 111
I hr'"'"'['"'~ lc"""'I IC'lllr" '

I 111• ~I •'Y'" ..~"I )r!•"''"'"'('
'
f11111rn 111311
111111~111• "'" ,, I> ""'
"lly ,,.,1111< ~1. "•1n•111u1-,
t
...., ..
lilrlt I )(''''~II Ill I IiAI 11t.._.1 Lr. 01 Jr1• "' '"" '''"" ''
ftttJttJll'Jll•,
L-•
-i· r
•
( Ill :al l l1c11r1U1 l>rl C\r tl!Jll llVlll} I
,,,,J,Rr 111r 11• 111~!.)1 4111) r •plt11fl1l lH 1•1111l11J11111
l I
an Jc """JI""~ 111.11111J1t1I •t• I rrl' 11111 '"'"'rtJ111•" ~t••lll"' •II• c.. •)'IC:!
I '" 1111111111 "'''.I
th.at'''"' •inc gr ..up "'ti•"•'•~ 'he •II •I• I• rr11it" ,J, ,,, '"'l"'"'crt:u, r•• er t i.n l.1c
.I h I
rh('\ hchc-c JlC'•I''' luu; 1ht nl(h• 1" 11 f ~.. u d• II r111111•ll••fl I\, ....., t.le1f
cun1r.,IJr•I h, rho'IC '""'' h,,hI l""'r' 111 """"'""ll;j I Ith•• ~;111•c 1h1·1r l'•JII•11t;it1•1n
'I I I
I w I II llll t'll
,,... '"'"' '""" 1>111r l"n•o• '"' ..r111 11~r" ' '
J
Tl-fl:. C. Rrl ICAL ' l ll t()RJ.S'J S'I RA' l J· C,Y

h , the: prohlc1t1\ 11f c:du1.:a111,n ~nd
11
1n undcr\land 1h1: C.nutal I hc 11 n\t :ipprllal f J pnn<..iplc\ or 3\\u1rrpu•in
i.ch11trlrn"" we w1ll l1)()lc at II\ II ) thcorcu~-alJ1. 1rc
1 11
ing h , •
, J !(Ul
11l>c:rate c; ange 1Jr rer11nn
(Z) cnuque rif cx1,un!( 1n,utUUfJn\, {!J agtn a 111r e
Theoretical Guiding Principles or As~um ptions

C.nual Theonsts approa1.h eduaiuon, t\pt:c:ially sc.hools, as agen<.1es 1n need of far-
rcach1ng reforms. They begin with an allc:giance to !>e:Veral important theoreocal pnn-
o ple<. or assumpoons. ln\utuuons, 1ndud1ng ..chools, are controlled by the dominant
clas<>1:s and gr-ou ps and arc: center~ of conflict between compeong cl~ses and groups.
An 1nd1vidual's social sta ruo;, 1nduding educational and economic t:xpe<.- urions and
opporrunioes, are largely condiuoned by how a sociecy construet.S tht: meaning of race,
ethniocy, gender, and class. The: dominant., higher socioeconomic class controls social,
polrcical, economic, and educational institutions, including schools. The dominant
class uses their control to rnainuiin, or reproduce, their favored position and to subor-
dinate socially and economically disadvanuiged classes. Schools, through both the offi-
cial and hidden curriculum, are used by the dominant class to reproduce the rurus quo
that ensures their dominance.
Critical Theorists believe that it 1s possible, through a critical education for the
subo:di~ated classes and gr-oups to become conscious of their exploitation, ~o resist
dominaoon, to ove:rurn the pattern of domination, and ro determine their own
· 1· through cherr self-empowerment. In the United 5...
furores ..... teS , th e h'1stonca
· IIy mar-
gina 1zed gr-oops are the urban and. rural poor• African • Hispan·1c1 an d N aove · Am en- ·
cans,
·
women,· and
r
gays and lesbians.
ed , The conditions of margin · a1·1ty 1n
· th e Iarger
society are re1nrorc by the school s organization an d curr·cul 1 um. 1Ed ucaoona . 1 1·
· · r .1 b C · ·
and pracoce, 1n1ormeu y ntrca 1Theory can become a fi
ginalized groups and to secure greater ~quity fairness
United States and ocher countries. ' •
:c:
~o e~pothwer thhese
}UStrce roug out e
po icy
m:-
The Critique
~u~h ~f the Critical Theorist approach is devoted to d . .. . .
IDStJtuoons. The critique is conducted both at th . evelop~g a cn nque of exisong
operating internally within schools and at th b e md icro leve~ mvestigaring the forces
· 1, po11ocal,
·· ' . er. macro tcve.., which me
" Id
h.m onca
· I, sooa e roa 1
and economic cond· u es .1..
u1e
iooos m the larger society. 2 Guided by
( ll \P'I I R ,,,, II I·' ( Rr11c \I. 1111 OR\
311
d 1c1r ·wnrkinl!-i '11111pt1<1n\, < r111c I llic11n' t' ,~ !Ith <JI1

• lt\t11111\ ~~.
''"
11 CO ro I\ L l
,lll1111l~ .ind 11 h.11 lie 1hu1 111C1t111' IT111\ 111 1·11111 11 • 11 J II d .1 h
• · •" .1 rt:vnirc.:e' a oc.:an: anu " o
hc nclit~ ln1111 th s ll11LJt11n1 \. • , 1 I I
' 1 11 ,,, 0fJft\i !lfJ
l>t·nl'll ·' lr"'111 1h 'l .1 cxpt:c:ta11cin\ IJ f \C h oo l '~'
p11hu1' \ \ 1111 dcter1111ne', 1J1 ..~ gc '""I•, ..1nu
\ \ 1ui C\l:lbli\ht:\ tht! curru.:11lu1n'· \\'hat '' thu~ nature 1' f thu~ lllrncu Ium 1n ttrms o f
race, ethnicil:), language, da''• and gender? \\'hat powt:r do tcac.:hers rtally have over
the educauon~I process? I low anti 1vhy are srudenc. grouped~ Ho" 1, \tudenr aca-
dt!mJC ach1even1ent 3\\essed and measured?
C~~ocal Theon\tS an\wer these que~tion\ by refl:!rr1ng to their theoretical
a~sumpuons and ~en exan11njng schools in specific commun1r11:~. They begin their
cna~ue at tht: micro level-in tht: parucular school-by assembling ~caosucs, ca\e
srud1e,, and the stories of those who teach in, and attend, chem. This exam1naoon
leads to the follo\1ing findings. Schoob in econollllcally disadvantaged urban and
declining rural areas are attended predominately by the poor, by African Americans
and Hispanic Americans, and are typically old, deterioraong, under-financed and lack-
ing adequatt: rl:!sources.
Still using microanalysis, the Critical Theorist rums to an examination of condi-
aons within the school. They are likely to find that rhe typical inner-Ctt) school is
enmeshed in a large educational bureaucracy that operates in a hierarchical, cop-down
style. \Vith orders coming do11'11 fro1n the higher levels, there 1s little opporrunity for
local governance or teacher decision making. The curriculum, too, is determined by
and banded down from higher-level adm1nisrrators, wirh lirrle room for local inicia-
tives that could relate to the life experiences of srudenrs in the school or people tn the
cormuunity. Teachers within the school rend to be isolated fron1 each other, reaching
in self-contained. insulated classrooms. They rend to have little o r no po\1•er in sening
goals or in making decisions abour curricul~ and ~s~ctio~. Further, par~nts and
others in the local community are kept at a d1sCllJlce, with ltrtle mvolvement or unerac-
tion allowed ";th the school. . . .. .
After the microanalysi~, the Cnocal Theorist cnoque broadens its scope and
communities the schools serve. The inner cicy or isolated rural commu-
moves to th e is beleaguered by en d em1c
. socia · 1, econollllc, · an d po 110• 'cal pro b-
ntt}', like ·th e f5 Choo! ' · · lated from th e beaI t h, recreaoona · I, an d
Iems. I t ts o ten physically and socially iso
. · ft high I
-·1-·-I of the larger sOCtety. There 1s o en a unemp oyment rare
1,;uu.w.. resources
· th communicy. The commun1cy · t' 1 ·el y co be ine
· l'k · ffiecove
· ty organize • d
among a d u Its 1n e . ·· I representacion. T bere is '"· Iy to be a bigh 1nc1
· W<e · 'd ence o f
to secure greater po ioca I b
d drug and alcobo1a use.
street gangs, an . . . e is connected co che larger social, political, and economic
Next, the nuc;r? c~ri~orisc theoretical perspective. 'fh:e immediate. problems
analysis of the Crioca . ch se faced in the larger state, regional, and national con-
faced by l~l ~chools ~o: rJ:eaffluent, who exercise enonnou; influence on pol1ti-
textS. Society is contra e Y ITT-in in gated res1Jenaal areas 1n the large ciaes or
cians and the media. O~n ch agffiuent have isolated chernseh·ei. from the problems
comforrable wealthy suburcl~·. e rural areas. Nevertheless, they control institutions.
1n the inner ciaes and de intnJ councrv. FoUo\\ 1ng a neo-.\1arxist mode of analysis.
including schools. chrougho~t ~ powe'r of the affluent governing class comes from
Critical Theorisrs contend t nt e race econorny. 1 (See the chapter on .\tarnsm for a
..L CllpicaliSt corpo
their concrol of we
•
THE CRl"TIC \L TI ITt1R\ '-1 ·R \ 1 l t. \
f h favored clas> use schoob to ma1nca1n their

further d1-..:u...,.1on The mwibel"'> 0 r e ch are chem for entr\
rvm-er b\ c-Ju1..lnn'" their children 1n \1 dl-hnJnced schools ac prep th h •
r - ·· . =- , f importance 111 1n t e cor-
ro prt'n !!Ou- 1.."Qlleo-es and un11 el"'>ioe' and 1or po-ioons 0 ch ch
=- =- d '· · a chin!!S as ev are, e\ lbe
po.ate .rnJ !!Q1ernment srrucrure,. ln,e•te in ..eepm=- 0 • Ch · d
- th ch !ri1-es them con ffitro1. 11 ren
their po\\ er and mi!uence to reproduce e ~-stem ar"'
1
of the I~- e\.-Ono!lllcalh- f.ivored cla~e . in docmnate d ·in th e ap pro1·ed o . cia cumcu-
!um con,micred b~- th~ powerful clas' . are conditioned to accept subordinate roles at
- -
the mannn- oi the eUSnn!! soc1en .
.
Education for Empowerment
for Cnacal Theonsts. their critique of society and schools is not n1erely an ac;1den1ic
e:rerose but is an anempr ro create a real agenda for deliberate rransformative change.
lnduenced b1· Freire's Llberaoon Pedagogy, they argue ch.at the genuine role of educa-
000 b co rlL~ the collSClonsnes. of d1spos~es.sed, marginalized groups. As they learn
4
about the real causes of their subordinate situation. the marginaliz.ed 11•ill find the
couraS?e co \\ Ork co11-ard their own empowennent.
C nacal Theorists. USing a Freirean mode of dialogue, urge teachers ro begui
ratSUlg the consciousness of the srudencs 1n their classes "ith an examinatio n of the
conditions 1n their communities. (Freire is discussed in Chapter 14.) Each student has
her o r h!S o wn life scory to share; these aurobiographies can form a collective srorv chac
descnbcs v;hac_they n.i:e experiencing in schoo.1, in their homes, and in their neighbor-
hood. These hfe scones can be connected \\1t:h the larger histories of the econon11c
classe. and the raci~, e~c, and langu~ge groups of which they nre inenlbl!rs. After
exploring their OVi"ll 1denooes and m:nn1ngs, srudenrs, guided by teachers, cnn work ro
de- elop ways co recogruz.e scereocyptng and misrepresentation and co resist indoctri-
naoon both m and out of school. '!'he_y can learn ho11• co take control of their oii't1 li1·es
and hape their ov;11 furores. This kind of micro-level change can be the ba~e fro1n
v; h1ch larger ffillcro reforms can mke place.
SITt:ATC"G CRITICAL 'fHEORY
Cnocal Theory gamed a maior foothold during the 1960

change marked by the cinl nghcs moiement d s. 3 penod of intense ~oc1al
' a concene effort by African, l lhpan1c,
1 11I I' I I II ' I ' I I I I ' < Ill I I< \I I 111 cI 11\
313
.11111 N.11111· \ 1111•111.111, hi 111g.111111· l111llll l«l\l'd1111l11

· 1t·1l .
• , clono1 111l, anu. I 1:u11c.;111ona
.I I
1<'1111''1'111.11 11111 .1111 I 11ppn11 11111111•\, 1)11111111 th" J!J~(1 ) · I • h
n ' '• I 1l' WOll lt: ll \ rt !{ I\ ll10Ve111ent
hq~.1 11 .1 11·111·11 1•d 1·111111 lo 'I'\ un• l'llll ii n 11lii• .. 1111 ,1, y .1
· " " ' • n1c111 11pp11nunJt1e\ anu com-
pt•n,.1111111 t.11 11111111·11 I 1111111111111•111al"t g 1u 11 p, l'.llllJl•Hl{ncil ,111,11 n,1 the tle~radaonn
111 tl11 n.11111.111•1111111111111111 ;11111 f.11 "I c 11c1 • Cll1'l·n .1111 ,n < f 11 1
"' • ' • I
I
a 111";1 rc\OUTtt:\, ra\\ an
( d
Jr,h1.111' 111·111p11hlil'11 1th 1hc11 d1·111 ·111d, 101 1""1111 •• " 11111·111, 111·ih c11 ng ht to an 3 I1ema11ve •
lil1·,11 k .ind ·'f\·1111'1 d1sc~·1111111;1u11 y pr:ii: lltl!\ 111 cduca ttclli ,111d cmpl1>ynicnt The
p1·111 1d " ·" ,tl,o •I 111nc 111 prutt'\l\, 111.11nly hy d":tffecrcd ,tudtnt\ and 1ntt:lltcruals
.l!(.1111'1 tl11· \ 1111·n1·;111 l'11rpt11 ;1tc ' I nu:rurc .1nu "' pohri1:al all1c\. The Aa'h point tha~
ir.1h .11111t:d 11111ch of 1he protc'" 11;l\ chc l lnncd ~tatc,' role and involvement 1n the war
111\ 1l'l l1•1111. 1
\ \ 'lule thl'~l' event~ wen~ taking place n:itionally and glohafly, American educa-
11cu1 w11' responding to tJ1c ch:1llc11g"c of ending raci al segn :gation and ach1cv1ng racial
1111t'g"r.111011. ,\_, p;trt of P re.,iden1 Lrndon John'ions \Var on Po,·ercy, schools wer.:
cnll\tt•d .1, ' oc1oeducanonal agcncu:' co devc:lop programs to educate the urban and
n1r.1l poor. John~on\ etTon s were largely undone, however, by his leadership role in
1nvulvin!{ th e United Sm res in tht.: 1norass in Victna111.
In 1•dul'at1on:il philo,oph} and thcor) , , cl'cr.11 tn:nJ., c.:onvergcd 111 me l.ne I '160s
th.11 p.11 l'tl the 11 .I) tor (~nt11:;1I l hcor; to 1:.1111:re;< '•Ile of the k.1d1ng: theo11 · ll-
c1111on. Liberals were under attack a' major conrnbucors to the control of the Unaed
St:itc~ by \1•h:it wn' called the " 1n ilirary-indu~tr1al complex" and Liberal ideology was
incrensingly cha llcngcd hy 111ore radical theorist.~. At the san1e ti1ne, PhiJosophical or
L:1nb'lmge Analy~i' was beginning to weaken a' the dominant philosophy an1ong eda-
c:iuonal theoris~ ,'v!ore radical theorists were attracred to the Frankfurt School of
soc.:1olob')' and ph1(0, oph y associated wi_ch ~urgen Haber1:"3s and 1\; th the Liberati~n
Pedagogy of Ivan Illich and Paulo .Freire. Posonodem1s~ came on _the scene \11th
work by the 1,r0 1ninenr French phdosophers_ J~cques .Derrida and Miche l Foucault.
(See the chapter on Poscrnoder.ni'~ ror more_1nlonnaaon.) . _
\\'hile certain ~trong voices 111 educaoonal theo'1'. were niovtng to the left: m
soc1a · I an d pol 1· n·~1
.... thinlcinu .,.. a ven.·
., strong
. neo-Conservaave movement came to power .
· h h I · n of Ronald Reag:in 111 1980. Margaret Thatcher was also leading a
w1L l e e ecoo .
. e reiiaissance rn the Un1te
. d K.1ngd01n. Tlle •sOVlet · uruon · an d its
stronrt Conservn l 1v ' , ,
~ d 1· eastern Europe and the Cold War ended arter more than fifty
satellites,, col~ps~ .n U ion's demise, state socialism, or Marxism-Leninis1n, was dis-
year). \\ 1th e 0~et n l}' led by the l;nited States, began to follow the pnnciples
1
credited. The ivor econ~a ;d overnrneat coni.rols, and economic deregulaaon. In
of fre~-1narket th_eory, r: :~o-tonservative political ascendancy was marked b} rhe
A.111ericnn education, th . . citlled Basic Education, the emergence of the ;r:in-
w Essenoa 1
ism, · · · d
resurgence o f a ne ociation of schooling,,~~ economic traLDJDg, an man-
dard' 1novement, :1 grea~er ~ss(See Chapter 12 for a d1£CUSs1on of Consen'lltl)m and
dated ach1eveinent cesn~g.
Chapter 16 for Es,enaahsm.) . b ·bing to Poscmodem1srn and Llberaaon Peda-
Critical Theorists. al~~ad) :: ~':1neo-Conserv:itive and neo-Essentialist ascen-
gogy, voiced sn·ong opposio ~~n red what they considered to be the srrarage1ns of the
3
dant-v 1n ed
ocauon. They ch tet'llttacgk 1edbY. Hen"' • / Girou:c .and Peter .\.lcLaren.
• Their
· I · ht ",ch a coon fr .\.larxism but ,.,thour .\larx) meranamame
po I101..-a ng ficanr elementS om•
theory contll1 11 ~ "gt''
114 1•1111111 111111111[ 1i<ll l i l l l \Jill'
I '11·\ inti 1 lcrhcn ( rlO\IS for
11·dlf' 'l.lllllll I IJfl\ • •
""1lth11·\• ,1111 I tit 1t·1111111""' ( 1 11111" ' 1
lljlllll'''tllll 1 y (I or ,1 d1,c.11 ""n •if
.
I
liil'll \I 1111\I lllll' ljlll' l 1111111 1111 •1111;1J1tlll Ill ,1 ' '
\1.1!~1'11 )
10
llu1111·, .111tl ( 111111,, '"' ' ( h.1p11 1 11111 1
( "Ill J'I{' \I 1'1 ll'()ll\'' \ PlllL()SC)PlllC:ALAND

ll)F(ll ()(;l( ' \I llFI ·\rl()1'JSllJPS
. ·h 11fwh"h c..-arne hy way ,,f 1he11-
M
( r111c.1l lhcnrv · h•1' hccn 1111luc11cc<l I iv· a1I Xl\111, I f 1nuc· le g"' 1n ( ermany e~pe<:ially the
IC\lll.in'· ''''llll:llCU II 1111 1hc l·r:1nkl11n
· ' ·l 'le 100 () ·\OCll) l1ch
) ,, J
a' the central'
role: c1f eco-
" Ie•t' ot .J nrlo(cn I l~hcn11;1.,. (,cna1n J v a1x1\l concept\ ~ ·
nu111K' 1n ,octal c;hJnge, etas) .,m1gglt: for concrul of i.lit n1c:an., and mode' of produc-
uon, .ind alicn;111on ha\C 1nAucnc:ed c:nric:al Theorist.,. (,nacal Theorists ha\·t
modified .ind rc\ 1sed th..,se ,\/1arx1\t concepts 1n order to reduce their .ideological rigid-
iry. 1naking then1 n1ure tlexible tools for social and educational analysis. Thty use the:~
c:ont:epl) a~ analyut:al tool' in studying sociery, education, and school~. rather than as
'pcc:1lic d1:1let:ut:al re<.;pes for creating a revolutionary society. For example, Cnocal
Theorist~, hke Marx, arbrue Lhat social institutions, including schools, are strongly
1nAuenced by econon1ic forces, cspecia lly hy Uiose who control the 1neans and 1nodes
of production. For Marx, however, this control was determined by inexorable dialeco-
cal forces. \ Vh1le ,\llarxist revolutionaries could idenufy and join these forces, the
cour~c of hisconcal events that would lead co the overthro\V of capitalism was h1srori-
cally destined to occur. Revising the Marxist view of historical inevitability, Criocal
Theorists believe that education can play a much larger role in bringing about social,
political, and econo1nic change.
Critical Theorists have also been influenced by the Marxist concept that hiscorv
is the record of the stn1ggle for ownership and control of the 1neans and modes of pr~
ducrion. Marx believed that the inevitable struggle was between the ol · (the
. k. I . ) d th . 1· Th . . pr etanar
"'or 1ng c ass an e capita
. tSts. e proletanat
. • predicted Marx , was d esone · d co cn- ·
umph
. and would escabltsh a classless sOCJero .,. Critical Theon'sts agree w1'th Marx on the
1mporrance of class . struggle and control. . Focusing on schools· as soc1a · I Ulsoruaons.
· ·
they argue th at m contemporary· I Amenca ' educational 1'nsn· runons · are coocro ued by
th e powe rfu l economic · c asses-the wealthy who are 1·n veste d 1n · th e corporate econ-
omy. Th e educaoona 1 needs of less-favored economic ou . ·
those of the rich and powerful · The Su'llgg1e rror control gr in h I
ps are subordmaced
k ~
tO
f
domination of the curriculum · It 1·s· th rough th e control of sc oo s ta ·esf che 1orrn I od
the curriculum . .that the upper classes subo rd'1nate the lower governance classes o schoo s an
Th e Cnaca1Theorists also make use of th M . ·
capitalist society, the workers are exploited b thoe anost concept of alienation. In a
of produc:uon-the industries bus'ines Yd se who control the means and modes
' se.~ an corpora · Th
benefits of their labor; instead, the valu th th . aons. ey do not receive the
priated by the capicahsts as profics As e alt ey crea~e through their work is expro-
. . · a resu t, workers m 3 · ali .
an d psych oIogical alienation fronl thei· k fr capn St society face sooal
.1.: C .. wor .and om the prod ucts or co1nmod1tie~
u, r th
they are m;;uung. nncal Theo'"·ts ·"' se e concept of a1·ienanon · 1n . broader term~ to
3 15
rc:h:r 111 lhc: ".IClal and ~<liolo cal .
pc:nphc:nc:" of 'JOCltn-th · h gil 'late OI pdlple \\ho ha,·e been dn\C!n to the
c ome "''' and tho,e "ho h»e in
rua po'e~.• I n add1uon to th e
.
c:c11n111nu.-all\ d~nru: 0th
,r • ,_ ' • tr.. 'c: bcc:n al1c:natt'd or mar1?1nahz.ed 1n mtxlem -;oa-
tl~- -vnc:an -""utncans }ill"tY.Jn 1 ~
• · d 1· ·
r - " .....,. " omc:n. an g:I\ and e~b1aru.. for e'l.~mple The
t d uu1111na 1~tru!!'e1t. according Cn I Th - · · · ·
• to oca eonsn.. rakes place in the 1nune<l1are s1c-
uau1,n an d c;1,n d 1aon of ~hool h th h
' · " c:re c:r are n!? 1 no". The ·rru~le t::1kes the fom1
1,f ral\1n11 the: c11nsoousne of th I
,..
J th. .L •
c: a 1enace so al uu!Y can ernpo\\ er then1seh·es nn<l
ukc: 1htir n)!hlful place 1n SOCJer.. ·
<.n uc:al Thtol') ha~ a1!>0 ~en 1nAuenced b~· L1herarion Pednit0!-'!'· ei.peci~ llr by
the: idea' ,,f l~an llhch and Paulo Frc:1rc:. t'\\O e<lucncon. "·ho worked 1n Larin ArnenL"ll.
('ltc C.haptc:r 14 fur a d1scus'>l on of L1beraoon Pedairol!'-.) Both of the~e educators.
"'hilt t:1>nc:c:mc:d "-1th c:ducaoon "orld" 1de. dc:,elupecl ~anr of their ideas b\ '' ork1ng
"uh c:c:11nom1call} d1\achoanu~c:<l people: in le'' tcchnolo~cally de, eloped. ~oc1ene<;.
lll1c:h "-llrled mo'tl} 1n .\lct1co and Freire 1n Bran! W1ch, 1n Drs<bool1n,I( So.:u(},
arf(\Jc:<l lhal \ \ t,lcm schoohn1r "2' an 1n,trumenr o t ncocolon1ahs1 explo1r:anon and
rc:prc:\\1on of die people rn J...,, tet:hnf1lo\.'1c.'alh J<'\ clupcJ >OClc:ocs 1n :\s1a. :\fnc:i, and
'louth .\mcnc:i 'lt:hoohn1r had becornc:' a \,'Teat ·~1e, puch ·in that it unpo~ed e:tp1ral-
l\I, C:t1n\wnc:n't ideas un llle ch1IJren ol the "orL1n~ cla,, and pca'>anU}. oond1non1ng
the m to "anl produ~ that die\ 'houldn t lu'e and J1dn't nec:<l. It al o cond1noned
people to hclic:\C tliat all leam1n!! had tn 12Le pb..c 1n 1n oruoom. nither than 1n \Ol-
unu1ry tl\$><:r:iuon~.· <..nucal f'heon''' tcnJ 111 re1ect llhch\ oil for 1he el11n1nauun of
\~hool\. Rather, tlic:\ beh<'\e di.u 11 "pr•--1l'lle to chanire and reform chool~ '>0 th:tt
lhcy ore nol age nae~ d~1imt'd to create a irrcH m:t,, ol hLe-rrunded people, dn' c:n h)
the: appecne to con)ume Illich\ wor , ho\\<'\er, h.1.> 1nt1ucnccJ Cnocal Theon~u to
th1nl uf lhe )tru~le to empmocr the Jhpt•'-.e'>~ 1n i;lobal terms, 1n "h1ch che rnar
l(lnahzcd group 1n die L. n1tcJ '-.al<" arc c.-onnco.."lc:<l to the opp~ rn II:$ tc:chno-
log11.:..ilh de' eloptd "°°coc:-
P•ulo Freire h~ b«n an m'p1ranon lur man~ Cnocal Theon\u ln Tbr Ptt/J-
~ •f rl>r ()pp1TSStd.. Fmre allc:<l tor c:<luC2oon r.Mt \\ ould ruse pcopln' con\Clou~
ne"' ahout die rc:sl1t\ of lJlCir tcononuc ind 'Ocial rond1oon and encountre lllen1 to
uale the nKe-..;Jr\ seeps for cherr O\l.TI cmpo"enncnt Fmrc \\"IS C)peciall) cuncemc:d
\\ ilh helping the j,oor.1.andl<"" f.anncl"\ and the urban ~!um di' elJen to become literate
Ml lh.at die\ could becrer understand thCir '1tw1non and llle ausn ot their expln1u-
oon. Fn:irt., him.-clf, borro"c:<l ....1mc \lamsl cuncc:po., QICh as economic cond1aon
and cl'"' ronStct, as Jo the Cnoal Thtt1n\t HO'lliie\'U, he adamantl} rt"Jc:ctcd .\~ n
tSt and other ronns o( Jcttnrun•'"' He 1n•i.h~d that w humsn pro)l"Ct '"n not fin·
IShed anJ that ac:b person. espeoall) the di~ nttded w be empo'"e"'d to
undenake tMiT a--n self~ pn>J«t..• Fran· SUtJl1' admamllOll that edua-
aon should ~ ro ~ ranm' md tdi~oaa bne bttn themet
anbnced bv man' Cnocal "lbeorisG.
r-...:...:..:1 ~also incWcs i(MIW cruc:ial di- " KS fiuw Poun•ldem phbipti,
fl 1 2" ' ; ;. p>J •1 WWWWA.filli 1 • f pi pp- j ! ] IS . . . .
·b! !I.: R•Mm. It awe- J dw modemiM • ••-. ar••ay &am die Eahptaunent,
. . . . _, rb?i to me to"'!Nr IDli dw _....1 ..omces IU jCUCiW o.,,ecnw ~
d1l I ,';.. Pwift'Od ..... Cnncal Tbieoe1111 se ·"P"N• ol' me•MUTlb'U that
mda Foucault, and ocher Posoni>d-
the al'C' \Illh De '
... - - -• -• ...
.... "e"" '"' wn ' .\, I '
J h the t:nacal anah·,1,, or d econ!ltrucuon.
, ._ Th ·e C(lnleme \\It •
....... ·" ~.nca1 ~_~ -Cl-" ed ro cen.-!'2hz.e a1,.1u1 L. th e human ,oc1al tA")Jenence. Tht\.
tt:e '"'n. an~ u..J :-:Jc• .._, the donunaaon. or hegemony. of powerful
-e.. ,1.""' ..,.,. ~ • :::1tt>l"c:"L' 1u.- n!),n!! I h' I An I L
, h1'"tnn Th~. Plu osop 1ca a ) '"· or an-
~ .,., "1'u ..........,.n Jt a \:l\CD a 1c 10 • I I. fl
:'.
~ :e .\..,~,-· , • c i,. U>= -.na~-a '· .....,, ~
I -~" h~ a u,efuJ rool. Cnaca ana }'1' oh anguagc:, ~
~-=- . cl ann
;.,n,. tan•!Ua""e )tatemenrs. but rather crac1ng td e1rdongm
uuu t!Yl'f _, 11 t mpl\ .. "' ;.
a.nd cunurung ho...- dtfferen'r ift>up,, at W.fferenr rimes. have constructc: an used
111 ""-"a.:- 1n<mimenis of po" er. . . .
Cf1ncaJ Theory h:b 3 renuou.' and \Otnetimes )muned relaaonsh1 p \Ytth Pragma-
n-~ .&nu p~~-m. Cnacal Theons~ ,·alue the Pragmacist contenoon that fJUr
ooncepo.. r.< ~i social re:iliry 3 re con~trucaons ari ing from che relaaonships we ha,:e
'll'lti:i other mdn,du.als m a shared en,,ronment. H o\\·e\•er, they quesaon the t:mpha)tS
t.ll2t Dc" e\' and other Pra!?lllan '~ l?l\ e to the use of the scientific mechod a) a com-
plete act o.i tbou..<Tht. For diem. th~ -.oena6c method. as an extension of moderrus<
Enlitllren.men;: 1Jeo1<X!'· m educanon, 1~ JUSt another historicaJJy generated con)cruc-
- -·
Dl"'!l l"a\ .; red ~ a Ce.l31Il group.
Some Cnocal Tbeon.stS might find a relationship ro Progressh,i.m's emphasis on
ref.,,.. H oue-e.. they would quesnon the Child-Centered Progressi,·es' antagonism
to Ol>OUilll!; parncuhr pohaail, social, and economic goals as a fa ilure co recognize
the ueological nature of educ.anon. They ,.,..ouJd .find more con1patibility with Social
Reconsuucuonisi:s who argue that school should be agencies for creating a oe11· sociaJ
m:der
"IHE CH..\I 1.£ ::'\GE OF EDL'C..\TIO~AL THEORY
For Cnoal Theorms. the: challenge of eduaiaonaJ theory is co redefine the purpo'>c
and me:i:ung of ednc:aaon. schooling. cumculurn. and inst:rucrion m term that accu-
rat~ d".:5°1be SOC13I r~t) To do tht reqwres an exposure to the bod\ of ide:h
dern-cd ttom met:1pbYS1CS and metanarrati1-es especially those th - - · d che
Enlirbttn!Jknt and espo.use modcnu~m Cnn.cal Th . rha~ onginare in
- . . · · eonsts see e1r challenge a' nor
cn~l!!Ill!
._.::,_'; _._~ m mere academic exeroses. but usmg th eon•
·, ro effiect a program o f proIiounu·'
""°"' CT12~-~nge.
-
CRTllC..\L THEORY A.."'\lJ EDL"C..\TION AJ.'ID
SCHOO~G
..\ims of Education
al and econwruc goals of

aa',i.r, educarion '5houJd
bli5h
00
=
Cnaal Theorms belte\"e chat the auns of edu ·
canon are related co larger sooal, poho·
~~!greater equalicy and eqwry for people. In par-
comlped to ks.set. margiml. anJ subo the COilSClousness of tho e " ·ho ha1e beert
bcnbip ma puticubr racial. ethnic, Ian rdinate posiaons m society due co their mcm-
aess f'IKID[t JS necewuy as a first ste guagc, class. or gender group. Such con~1011>-
• P t0 empowerment.
t tl \1' 11 R '\ l'\ I 11 1 '\ I Ri l l\ \I
1111111\\
Schools
The (. 'ntil.'..11 rhe1>11' 1 \It'\\ 11! I I
JS p I.1Ct'' Ill \\ h ll'h g°lllll\h \ I" l
'' 11111' '' •dn•l11),,,1 ' 1I ltllI I'"I1111,) 111 llUI th \ Ill ,A ll
• ' 111 111 1\1111ndnn Ill '
conc:1I per-pet:tl\l' .1nd I' 111111. 11I I ' "" ''' i1nd1"'' "sch11ul•1111h1•
1ntt.'rpret.1t1on' fro1n 11.' , "111111 · ' 1'"''111111 ' I111 I111111 A11 I 1h1n11 .. ,11 t lftr.n rchtn 1111
' 111"1111-.. l 111 11 1I 1111 1
bt.'en 1·ontrollt'<l .ind \l' t'd h\ ti , . · ' '" "t' 111111cnd 1hat ••h•H•l• h ,
· lt: 1'l11111111111 .1lh Jlt1l 1t 1 1II 1 I
c IJ'~e' tor purpo' t.'' of "l<.l•ll Ill .11nten.1n1·e ind · • I t '- • •"" ''11.1Jlh 1lu1111nan1
allo" ' rhe111 co kt.'t.'Jl thelr ~i 1 I · 1' 1111 rii "111.11ntln1 thc ,tatu• quo that
are pro11ded 111 t:h th . • l. .t 11n.1n1 1ng • Jll''ll111 n. t h1 1·h111
1 ren 111 the d111n1nant clJ• ,
and colleg-es thac 11,11 '"'1o.1e11tK'lnon
c "p h · . ch·11<•n.t I1Ic' t hen1 r. 1 >1111·11.t pr..,111:11111, ..._h ,.,(,
g-01·emn1ent - ('h Id rep.ire
f L-
t e111 tor h1nh le I - h
t- - ie t:Jreel"\ in "''"'"· 1ndu,tn and
m"t ren.I . o ' u11ord1n 'ltt' ~'T<lUfh Jn d CIJ ' 't:' .Ire 1n1l11<.1011Alt'd to .t11cpt '
- • 1
the COndJOOnS
rize and ~n· d
t:hu1se111po\\
d er theni Th e rurnt:u , Iurn•~ u,,e <l 1111·11nhn11or11.'"'tllll~
.
u .. omit e 01111nant cl •
ideolomcall,· nu I '. .i-,' co1bcn1cuon ot. reihn ~chr1ul,. thu,, ... .ir•· 11.,1
poi\'er ,,..
others. . ... urra 1n,t1n1non'· hut ra th er are 11'e<l r11 e1111)(l11 er '11111e ~nd d1't'lll
. d\\nilebthe Ii powerful
. cla..
· sses h a1.e don11nared ~chool. h1~1onc:1lh. (. 'nn1 •11 Thl·o
nsts and
ti.fies o nor .e eve. this d onuna
· uon· 1·s 1ne\ltable
· ·
..T hey challen!re rhe 1Jt'ol111-" th,11 111,
t:h cl raoonal.1zes. control of schools hy the f.11 ored cl:1~St'> :ind rhe\ ~eek to hre.1k
e C): e of don11naaon. The) helie1•e it is possible co n1ise the consc;ousnr:s' 111 thc
e.A'Plo1t~d, t? deconstruct the texts thnr support don1inarion. ro ex1>ose the cond1tH>1t'
of do1UJnaoon, and to organize and empo,ver the dispossessed. Schools c1111 beco111c
truly democratic public spheres in which young people learn to ln·c tt hfc of cqu.1 ht)
Valu es
Unlike the Idealists, Realists, Thomists, and Perenninlisrs, 11·ho see 1-alues a~ •1n, 1ng-
from universal rational or spiritual principles, Cririctl Theorisrs set.' 1'll.lues-cth11:,
and aesthetics-as resulting from infom1ed public discourse and fron1 puron1r equif\
and equality into practice. U ing their 0\111 li1·es as an initial point of discus<1o.n. e' e~
person can enter into the discourse about what is right or 11 rong. be:1unful or u~h
Genuine values, say Critical Theorists, are not imposed by those in ~'IQ\\'er but result
from the communal interface and sharing by indh;duals whose 1·01ce~ ha1e an cqu.11
right tO be heard.
Teachers should encourage students ro 1·oice their behefs and con1't'm' J ht1111
what they hold to be correct conduct and what they prize. This helps ~tuden~ under
stand how their peers feel about 1vhat is right and \\Tong. Heanng the d11feren1 11•1l~'
raJSed in the shared discourse, they 1vill come to value the idea that there 1s .1 plurJh,111
of values, not just the officially impo!>ed set ~f ,-:iJues. .uch ethical d1.:a.1ul"'e ;11111' 111
help students find their voice, learn ho1v to arnculare their behefi. and feel11~ir-· le.1m Cll
value t:he opinion!> of ot:he~, and become a1,-:ire of th?~e ,,·ho 1~·ould interfere w11h 111
close off the dialogue. Beginning with. the 1nd1v1duals lone ' cnce, the 1-roal 1~ huiltl
the volume of voice!>, like a chorus, to 1nco.rpornre niany a1elod1es :1nd tone~. Jeachcr.
:o
should guide the ethical discussion so th:n 11 gradual!): enlarges so th.it ~tudenL' ~ce tht•
injustice of t:he siJencing of those ,vho are at the n1.1rgiru..
Jl P\IIT -'
< ll\l 'll ll'\11' 1 l f f '\ ( l< l ll< \I
lllHtR\
319
,i.111, and the \UhJcli--thc p h
kh .LI " I rt=\lll ,.,1 ·•Pll1!t\t•1l 111 11" I
1uucn curnl·u u111 l"l'lcr' 111 lh . I ,.r.1111 HllJl<"''' 1111 'llldcnt,. ·r he
ll\t \ .1 lit•\ lid1 I\ 111 I I
1111pO\C!lI on \lHd1·11i- 1hro111 ,11 th I • · r', ant .11111111 I!.\'""'<:} cd 111 and
co11\urner-oncn1cd \Ol:tc t• "'B·>lh c1h1111 It'll. ' 111cl 111 •tl I llt:\ ..
"
t I
r H· "1111111 111 ;1 t.1p11.ill\I
1
the: Lno\\ l cd~c: dn 111 1' 'lntl"i··il tt"
' c. o ht1 '1l '111tl th c• "h 11 I1t·11
1
J •
1111nt-.1h1111 rq1rt~c111
• · • ~ pre erent:c' ot ti · I
1ruh. the ~c hoo l ~} \le.: 111 . · lt 'oi11111;1n1µrc 111p 01 du" 1hat um-
The d11111111a111 c: l a ,se~ u~e th IT .• 1 . . .
~'1\C' them pc!\\ er,\\ cnll11 nn<l s en l<.:1.1 t11rrru1lu1n lo n.:1nlortt· ihc ,1,1111' •JU<> that
\ .1lues a~ the: leg1nn1ate ,. '• ta~. They ll\t:U tu prcsenl lhe1r pan rc:11l.1r liclitf, Jn cl
con,trucce d a ,·er.ion oft:r\1on hi t of knowledge lor all \tudt:nl\
· th· · For cx.11n11lc ' lhc\· ha\e
Eurupcan Am encan . ~ 01) ath porrra}'
\t!ne~ of · · Lhc Amencan
. cxpcncnc:c a' a lar"d' "' '
. th.
heroes m 1s \ e r~1on of J1 s. tnu1 np s 1n Sttl 1ing and 1ndu'>tnal111ng the nation. -rhc
· .
• • • 1. tory are typ1ca 11 v wh ite n1ale> of nonhcrn ~.uropean elh-
111c1rv. African I-l1spanic a d N · A · · ·
. · . • • ••n aa ve n1enc:1ns are relegated to th e rnargt n\ ol hl\tor-
rcal narra~ves. Indu~trial capitalism is favon1bly presented, \\'1th lntl e discu~s1on about
ll1e .e..~p!oitaaon of workers or environ1ne11rnl pollution. T he Alneric:1n role 111 foreign
affairs is generally presented as altruistic. Bilingua l and multiculrural education 1s
viewed " rith suspicion as a chaJJenge ro the domu1ance of English as the \em1offic1al
nauonal language.
The favored method of insrruction is using texthoob ro rransrnit 1nfonnation to
students. This process of transmission, instead of encou.ragi ng critica l thinking and
analysis, tends to reproduce the approved rext-tl1e officially con,rructed version of
knowledge.
A key element in social c:ontrol via the school is lodged in the hidden curriculum. It
is called hidden because it does not appear in published srnte mandates or local school
policies; however, it permeates che ideology and rnilieu of the public school. The early
emphasis on uth is is mine and that is yours" de,·eloped ID earl)-Childhood education
begins to build an actirude supportive of the capitalist consumer-driven menmlit}' The
sexist attitude that males are better in mathematics and science cour~es than females
builds a gender-specific attitude that affecrs subsequent education an~ c:1reer~.
The \Vay students are arranged, scheduled, an~ grouped 1n .sch.ool ~ends co
SU' 1 similar students together. Homogeneous grouping, although JUStJfied 1n teru1s
f
enn
d ·c ability actually reproduces an d perpetuates soc1oecono1n1c · · Strati' fi caaon
·
o aca erm ' I . . d . f th I .
· ch I I ends to reproduce the c ass1sm, rac1s111, an sexis1n o e arger society.
m s oo s. t t I th . 1 d ch I
After exposing ho'v the dominant c ass ~e~ e curncu wn an ~ oo s~ctu re
to reprod uce 1tse · If., Cri' ocal Theorists rum to stn1cegies thac can change · d the soc1oedu-
d
· al · · . that it empowers chose who are currently d1sa vantage by the
caaon situaoon 50 · d~ · I kn I d
. the metanarratives purporang to scan 1or un1versn · ow e ge are
~tatus quo. Just as th textS that support the traditional curriculum. The subject
deconstructe?,fiso ar~ ~eliefs of the dorninant group can be scrutinized, dissected,
areas that rein orce e d \¥bile these fields were conscructed by t.he dominant
analyred, and deco~srructe ·cred by chose who are disempowered. This analysis can
group, they can be et.'Onsriboth teachers and srudents about claims to legitimace
raise the consaousn_ess ~ artificially consuucted boundaries between suh1cct:..
1
lmo"·led~~ and can di~o~~ieve that the know ledge and \'lllues thac are.truly legitimate
Criocal Theoris~ rise in the local conte.tt and the tmme<l1atc situation rn
in schools and curricu::;;. ~e school they anend. The Critical Theomt curriculum
which srudents Jive, an
320 l'\Kl 111 llllllllll•'Cll l lll'C \1111'
\\t111ltl hc1t1n \\llh 1hc ,1111lt•111' · 11\lfl Ilit \llllll''• 11 tlll·h th•\ t:_
tell to c:ich_ other. In the
11n1lnl·11itu1.1I L ..., , 11l tt'll. iht 11• 111111hl ht 111.111) 1 t r,11111' ol 1he ''11 1) ot i.hc \Jnencan
·
t!\pt:ncn1.:c, 1c11ht•1 1h.1n .1"11glt'.11 1·lit i.1 II ~ .1pp1n1l•1I 1111c• 1~h:n1h1.:r' 111 each_ race, t:thn1c•
of life \tC>nt:~ 1•
und 1.ini.,'1H1g't: g11111p would µ11t• vo>Ct' 10 1I1c11. own'1o ry: ' \ l'Ol1VCl'llt:nce ,.. '
like]\ to 1.1kt• pl.1t't' ,1, \11111l111111c' .ind dillt•tt'lll't'' arc lo11nd It "fro1n rhc't: autr1h1CJ-
1-ri·:ip0h1t.1l ht•g111n111g-' rh.11 .I hl\10111..11 11Hl'<11l or I he L n11cd ... t.11 l'' '1' a mul11c:uhural
'tll:lt:t\ cnultl .1n'e
( 'nt11..il I 'heon,1, cuiph.1, 1ze that life " li\·cd 1n a contcAl •Ind rhat the con1mu-
n111 111 "h1ch the school 1~ locutt'd 1~ a n11t.:roco'1n of lht: larger '"<.:1ety. Thc place ro
begin lhc \ t11 tly of scit'ncc, ~ocrn l ~tudies, the working 111orld, and the en'v1ronment 1s
\1·ith the t.:ontt:\1111 which ~tudcnts live. The issue' and i.he prohle1ns of the co1nmun1ry
are those th.n can be exa1n111ed in term~ of who holds po\1·er ;1n<l who does not, in
renn~ of 1\ ho 1~ at the center of Aniencan poliocal, econo1n1c, and \Ocial ~fe and" ho is
ar the mar1t1n'. Based on an ethics of eqwcy and equal1t)', che a11n of a cnocal edu~non
is to identify the causes of n1arginalicy, to challenge them, and to bnng the marglnal-
ized into conu·ol of thei r own destinies.
Critical Theorists assen tha t the purpose of instruction through dialogue 1s to
create, rather than crans1nit or force-feed, k.110\vledge. Sruclents' autob1ograph1e5.
images, reflecuons, and inten1cuons create their O\vn kno\1•ledge and 1·alues rather
than impo,1ng other-constn1cted versions through the official <.."Urriculum.
Given the ki nd of fo r-ranging dialogue that Criticil Theorists advocate, the
boundaries that separate one subject from another are deliberately dissolved. The)
regard subject 1na tter boundaries as human constructions, often defi ned by academic
elites. Thi\ approach to curriculuin orga11iz.1tion is diamerrically opposed to the Ans-
totelian idea that the concepr:s found in different subjecrs are narurally related. Rather
than being subject-specific, as advocated by Essentialists and Perennialists, the cur-
riculum is interdisciplina ry and transdi~c.ipltnary. Critical T heorists also reiect the
concept of a ~erarchy_ of kn~w~edge that. 1udgcs some subjeers co be more inipomint
than others. Dialogue is not lt1111tecl by being located in literature science and hbcon
for example, but uses a~l these disciplines and_rnoves from one t~ anoth~, dependin·~
on what ~eeds ro be said and exanuned. Moving from one discipline ro another leach
to educaaon that cut:S across them all and becomes transdisciplinary.
• ••
HENRY A. GIROUX, SCHOOLING AND
CULTURAL POLITICS
In thi~ selection, Henry A. Giroux' a lead1

' ng""ti vocate of Cr't' I T h
schools 1nust be seen as plnces of conflict hecwe d . 1
ica eory, argue:. th at
He call\ for teache rs to be studentS of the c 1 enl 0 ~• ~ ant and ~ubordinace groups.
that shape schools, curriculu111, and instructi u tu~ P~ acs, especially the discour,es,
pattern~ of donlinatioo and ~ubordinaoon fion e~ er:co agencie~ of reproducing the
liberaaon. A!> you read the selection, you m~u:i ;:' e la~ger Society, or as place' of
questions: Y s to consider the follo~'ing focusing
I I 11111'1 JI' 1... 1 I 1 1 , 1•11 ' I II t 11!
321
4. \,\'hy I\ the .1n.1ly\1~ ,,11~lll{1J~g·· Ml llllJY1ll4nt "" ( tlr<1UA:
S. ~l•iw d11 rc;i 1 htrr. anrl 'lluit:flu 1.11m1IUU d:tfc:rc:nt ftJnm ofkno"led1!'e:
'TI1 vrcw \<..h1111llng a\ ~ fr1rr11 111 u1hural !>dJ1,..,Js are hJ\tr,nc;al and 1.llltural 1ruoruoon~
pol1uc' \Uj(!(C ~ that rt,ac:hi:rs c:<1n ~>'1th c:la~y, that al"a~-s emL<..od) 1dc<Jlogical and pohocal
r.ne and 11nplerncn1 tmJY1w1.:nn1t f>':d.ag•1g1c.:il 1n1trtiU and that ~lJOllf\'' real11v. 1n w a\>
pracucc\, and It I\ 111 1111~ 1~\111: rh.at J will nr1w
. that art
11fttn acnn:lv '
namtd and conte~t..-d by . vanons
tum. The \carch f11r a rarl1c:1I ped.ai:••~'} 1n- 1nd1vidual~ and fll''>Ups. Scho<Jb 1n th~ !.Cnse are
ronned hy a c;ulnJral r111litiC'> 1nvr1 iolt:\ rht 13\!£ ,,f tdt:tJlozical and pt1hoal •;pher1:5 1n which more
crcalln!{ thc<1rct1cal m11del\ th.at pr<JV1dc: a cno- 11frtn than n•Jt the cJ1,11lJnant culture atttmpc. ro
cal d1'oef>Ur\c ft1r analyzing \<:h11<1h a\ ~J(.ially pr•Kiuc:t lcnrJwledge and \1.lbJeconrie.. COIDJ\tenr
crin~truct1:cl site\ nf c11nu:\l.a111,n atll\'tly 1n- wnh iu ''"n nter~~. but It IS 1mponan1 ro
VtJlved 1n the pro<l11ct1r1n ,,f lcnr1wlt:d1!1:, ~lc11l\. \Ut:<J~ that sch<JO!s cannot be reduced ro a rur-
and lived experience\. (,entral 11, th1\ appnr.ich rr1r IITlage c,f the dominant S<>Cten-. •
Thev• are
1\ the need to undcr\tand hr1w pcdagr>frical alY> plac~ where d<>rrunant and subordinate
pracnce repre!>Cnl\ a particular politio r,f txpc- ;!Toups define and et1nstrain each other through
nence, 11r, 1n more exaet term\, a udtural field an <1ngo1n~ banlt and exchange tn respono,e m
where knr1wledge d1\cotir\C, and pr1wer in- tht o;QCt<Jh1s1orical conditions "earned• m chc
k~ SCJ a\ 10 pr<J<luce h1\toncally ,pecific 1n~ututional. textual, and lived pracoces that
lllt>d~ of auth,,rity and form~ of m<Jral and dtfine sch()QI culrure and teacher and ~rodent
St>Cial regulation. expenence w1dun a pamcular ~cit) of
Such an apprr1ac:h ma lce4 ccn r.ral the net:d ume, spact, and place. In other words, "Choob
t11 anal}7.e how hurnan expcntn~ are pro-
art anythlllj! but ideologically mnoceni:; nor are
duu:d, c11ntc<tted, and l1:git1mated within the they S1JJ1pl} reproduc:m·e of dominant social
rt:laaons and 1nn:res~ At the same ome, 23 pre-
dynam"" ,,f tvtryday clas\r<J<•m hf1:. The thee:
retJCal 1mportanu: 1,( this typt of analysis is vi'1usly mtnuoned, ~ools do exercise form~ of
poln:ical and moral regulation inomarely oon-
l111ked directly 10 the need fQr 1eachen tlJ faUi-
necu::d with u:chnologics of power that ~pro
ltJft a language 1n wh1c;h a c;ompr1:hen~1ve poh-
h - . r•n be duct asymmc:mes 1n the abilioC) of mdi,iduab
""" of culrurc voice ancl expenencc .... and grou~ ICJ define and reahze therr needs."
.I- > that
unclopecl. Ar iHUC hert " the rtGOgll 1"''"
I
I'1 \kl.vcn. ..i.., r.n~ PtMpg,, tk 511tt, 111J l'fllntrlll s,,.,,~

From lfcnty A. ( ,.,,,.,. and. ~,,k-Pr<M. J'JH'/, pp 14 1-1-!ll, ISO. Rrpnnt.,l by pttnuU1on from Cntwl
Ali.n, Stai. Uiuttrlil}'•I ~...,.SMraft bf ll<tll}'A. CntOUl and P. - I. \!cl.area <ed..). tbr SQ~ L'nwn-
.......,.* S-. #flll/ (,'rJnU/ Suuo L'1dtcull)' al~~ 'lOtl. All n,t>a racrved.
. , of New Yorli ,._. " '*.
322 l'\lll ll\ 111t l lllll'l l111lltll ltl'-
, µµc''' ,1 1.llUCJI pedag-o~•y 1n 1~h1ch there 15 a

.\l11re 'llt"l.'1hl'lllh , ,..-hool, 1·,1.1hh'h th1· 1't.•nlh 11
non' under " h11·h >ll11lt' 1nd1' 1d11.1I' 11nd 1tr1111p' t' nllt ,11 1 111 crro~r:i11on of the "lencc\ and ten
Ut'hne tht• renn~ b\ '' h1..-h 111h1•r, h' '" rl''l>t, ""11 ' tlrnt cXl\t he1'lvccn the 111:1\ter narrative~
ltflin11, !llld pitnlt'll;,lle 111 tilt' l'lll l~t r\\l'llOll t11' nnd hcµt· 11H1111c u1scour'>c'> that rnake up tile
tht'ir 01111 iden1111es and ~11h1ci:ti 11tic, , ( ;cntrul oftichil 1:11rrk11lurn of tht: \Chool and Lhe self-
to l'«'\1J..'n111nir rhe 1n~iirh1 thut ~i:hool~ ure ng-en- rcprc~cnrntion$ of subordinate groups as they
cie~ 11f 111or.tl and pol1111'lll rl'!-'ltlunon 1s the 111 iµht appear in "forgortcn" hl\tories, l~~l!>.
nonon th.tr po" er is pro<lucn' e uf knowle<lg-l', 1neinorics, c.qJeriences, and co1nmu111ty narra-
1nemtnj.r. .1n<l \'lllues. Bnt. its Teresa de L:1uretis th·es. A pedagogy f()I' difference not only seelc.s
pomcs out, "\ \ 'e h:I\ e to n1.1kt' <l1snnctions to understand ho1v difference is constructed in
ben1~n the positi1·e etl"ects and ~he oppressive the intersection of the official curriculum of the
effet'tS of suc.h production." In pedagogical school and die various voices of srudencs from
ten us, this rnenns being 11ble to idenri~· the wuys subordinate groups; it also brings into play all of
in which the complex nssoci:1tion~ of h:1hics, rhe contradictions \vithin the 1nultiple subject
relations, tneanings, desires, represenmtions, positions that characterize the subjectivities of
and self-in1ages are onzanized nround the con- the srudents t:hemselves. The voices that char-
~ ~
strucoon of gender, race, c1:1ss, ethnicity, and acterize various groups of srudencs are not of
age consider:irions in the production of differ- one piece, reducible 1nerely to the cacegories of
ent fonns of subjecri1;iy and \\':l)'S of life.•\,oain, class, race, or gender; they are produced within
as Laureris argues, it is in1perurive that educa- culrurul forinations that create historically con-
rorS and others come to undersrond how subjec- stin1ted subject-positions which are often shift-
tivity, experience, and desire interrelate within ing and n1ultiple. These subject-positions are
specific technologies of power that nu1ne and constructed withln horizons of meaning, habit,
legitimate differences chat both enable and limit and practice that are available in ways both
or punish differentially empowered groups in determined and limited by the discourse, cul-
this society. tunil context, and historic-.tlly specific relations
La~ris's work suggescs the need to that constitute the conditions and parameters of
de1·elop what I will call a pedagogy of differo1ct student voice. Tot only do these historically
and a pedagogy for differrnct. In the first instance, specific associations and positions construct
it is i1nportant that educators come to under- students in gendered, racial, and class-speci6c
stand theoretically how difference is constructed tenns, but they also provide the basjs for
through various representations and practices making the practices of subjectification prob-
that name, legitimate, marginalize, and exclude lernatic and the object of political and theoreti-
the cultural capital and voices of various groups cal reBecrion.
in American society; similarly, a pedagogy ofdif- A pedagogy of and for difference does not
ference needs to address the important question merely illuminate the "'elter of conflicting ide-
of how the representations and practices of dif- ologies and social relations that operate within
ference are acrively learned, internaljzed, chal- the public and private spheres of studencs' Lives;
lenged, or transformed. For it is only through it also attempcs to have srudencs engage their
such an understanding that teachers can experiences through "political, theoretical, self
develop a pedagogyfor difference, one which is analyzing practice by which the relations of the
characterized by "an ongoing effort co create subject in social reality can be rearriculaced
new spaces of discourse, to rewrite cultural nar- &om the historical experience of \\'omen (~r
ratives, and to define the tennS of another per- from the historical experiences of blacks, La~
spective 1 view &om 'elsewhere.'" This nos, poor working-class males, etc.}." Tius
C 11 \l'TFI{ '11,l·'lFF' C RI I lt \I 1111 OR\
323
npprouch LO the related i'Stlt:> of~11h1cct1v1t > .ind
•lnal):z1ng- p1..-Kl1U!'> we c.:an rearaculate... (the)
Jifference further ~itgj.fests thin the is.\11Cs of lan-
n1a 1nx ol hab11'>, pr~tttce\, and d1~colll"S<!s" chat
guage Anti experkncc n~ed to hi;:co111c eeninil c.:on'>tilute nur '>11h11:c.:uv11y. [n th1., t'3\e, language
or
C'J tcgor.ies in ll theol") schooling ni. :1 fon11 or 111u/ practice pruvule the 1nter\ecnng construc-
culrural politics. lt i~ to these issues that 1 will tion., that make the nouon of 'choice' an ele-
now rum. rnenc of lived experience chat both co~otutt:)
By defining schools as sites of conrestation the husis for theoni1ng a nooon of subiecn,11y
and culrurnl production, it becornes possible to and sin1ultaneously makes it the ob1ea of peda-
engage fonns of self- and social representacions, gogica l inquuy. As part of a v.1der pedagogical
along ,1,ith the pr~ctices and interest.~ they artic- task, this suggests making the notion of sub11:c-
ulate, as historicall y specific culrural practices tivity not merely problematic but also cbe pomr
chat consa11cc as weU as block the exercise of of a political inquiry regarding how the particu-
human agency among srudencs. T his becomes lars of human will, identity formation, mvesr-
clearer by recognizing that one of the 1nost ments of meaning, and desire are implicaced and
important elements at work in tbe construction constructed regarding hO\V people learn to con-
of experience and subjectivity in schools is lan- sent, resist, negotiate, and live out their lives
guage. In th.is case, language intersects with with in a wide range of signifying practices and
power in the \vay particular linguistic forms meanings.
sLT1Jcrure and legitimate the ideologies of spe- As a form of culcural politics, a radical
cific groups. Intimately related to power, lan- pedagogy niusr insist upon analyzing language
guage functions co both position and constitu te as a central force in carrying the historical
the way that ceachers and srudencs define, n1edi- weight of already constiruted meanings as well
ate, and understand their relation to each other, as a major force in the production of meanings
school knowledge, the i11stirution of schooling, that are constantly being generated as part of
aad tbe larger society. The notion that mean ing the discourse of opposition and affirmation.
is constituted in language is a crucial insight, but Discourse in ch is sense is nor merely a meaning
it is equally important to recogni2le that what is system over which one srruggles, that is, nor
acruaUy chosen as meaningful with}n a rang7 of simply a system of signification whose rea I
historicaUy constiruced meanings 1s what giv:s meanings need co be uncovered and demysti-
culrural and polltical substance to the pedag~gi fied. Such an approach to language is importllllt
cal practice of agency and identity formaoon. but insufficient for a radical pedagogy. Foucault
Students make choices, not as autonomous, illununates a broader approach in his claim tbac
"discourse in not simply that which expresses
free-Boating "subjecrs" in rbe n1a11Der ar~ed b.y
struggles or systems of domination, but cbar for
liberal humanism but within a range ofhiston-
,vhich, and by which one srruggles; it is the
cally constituted' conditions and di scursi ve
power whicb one is striving to seize." In this
boundaries. However, it needs to be .stress~d
. . d LUCO sense, the relationship between language and
that srudents are not merely pos1oone · dJS- po,ver is not reduced solely to its oppressive,
covering meanings; rbey also actively c?nsrrucr
hegemonic functions. On the contrary, lan-
meaning by analyzing the "real prac?ces and guage is viewed more dialectically to include it:S
•
events" that consotute -L •
a1eir everyday hves. The productive, positive moments as part of the
main point here is that although languaffge c?n- wider issue of voice, as a discourse tliat produces
. . . Linda A]co points
sorutes meaning, it is not, as . land] and con 6 nns particular \vays of life. This posi-
out, "the sole sonrce and locus of meaning,
•aJ to the con- tion represenrs one of the moSt important peda-
that habits and practices are cnici th ugh self- gogical tenets of a cul rural politics: the necessity
stnlt."tion of meaning, and that ro
hi• hro,ider 1,,ue of ho11 'uh1ecthinc,
I I"l\<I\\ \•I"<'
1<'11.'ht'f' l\1 \\tltl, \\ti h I\< (\ ~
th.II hnkt•d t11 l I J 1.1\..t'n up "1th1n cultural
ftll re 111,,.·nhc1 .111 . h .1 I
'111dt•n1' .\c:tu.llh "'" h• ~"'' "" 1111ni: 11• th< •1 11 \ t'r rl'h111on'> t ;lt ue1e op 11, 1th
ll'lll't'''l'' .111111
1 1
t 1 1J
IOlth \If tht'll \lltt'I\ d1tti1.·;1lt ii\<''• Ill t\lll'\l ll\I ~ ~ 0 , 1 . 1 1 ;1nJ L'll tura )T1a1n1t,
. Ill 11th1•1 rei.:.in I 111 l I1~ . J
llll'.IOlnl: <'Ill \II I Ilt'lr •"'II 11.111.\111 l ' . l11t llOll tr.1n,forinaoon, an "tnl!!l?lc,
\\\in.I' ln1.I\\ lt'\li:t• 1'1.11 1, ,,11,·11 ,k•11\ ,J \\ 11h n
1 ,, I 111111 • J r· -
l ndcr,1011d in thc't ttrn1,. a pe 31.!ogy o cul-
th<" t\:l\~\I tlf •tht' llllt'f't'\'11\111 ,1f 111,I'' .1t1tl ., ,rc:,ent' ,1 cv•ofolJ ta'k for tt'.'Jch-
ru1~1 l pn I1l 1l 1 h
l'''l'ul.11 1.·nllur<''· 111·1!!hh1wh1>11d hit'. fa1111 II c:rs. Fii , 1, dlt'}' need ro nn~lyle O\\ culrurat
t'\pt'l1t'l11.~1-. .111J t ht• ht>{l1\'lt'.I I 11 \t'l\lllrtt'< ,\\111
. . 1 1 in i~ oqf1n1zeJ, \11th1n <l\\mmetncal
c1.1n1-.1JK't1•n 11.1rr.1tn<'' th.it,It'hllt' 11nt'' '<'11'' pnlit UC 11 ii· now~r through the kno\llcd·'e
ot 1.lcontit\ .mJ pl.11.'t' re Juon' < a·- ' • '
coJe.,, coinpett:ncie•.. 1·alu~, and .,oc1al relaaon ..
\ \ ith the .1lxl\ t' tht'<.1rt'11t-.1l .1..,.u111p1a1n' 1n
that consunire the comhry of schooling a\ a
nund. 11\ant to .1r!-"l1e 1n n1t1rt• ~pec1tic tc:nn~ fllr
tht de1elop1nent ,,f 1:urn1.·ulJ thJt ernhod1 11 lii·e<l e\perience. SeconJ, teachers need to con-
t\1n11 c.>f 1.-ulrur.11 \l\lhac;.. ln t'ffet:t. I ".int tll struct pohocnl strategies fo~ paroc1p:iang ~th
pre,ent the c:.i-e tc.>r 1.'l.1nstruct1n!! .1 pt'dJ!-'l.1!-" tif 1n Jnd our of schoob in social stru~ii:>
culrurol polinl':> around a cntK'.tlly :iffinn.1n' e designed m tight for schools as deinocratic pub-
l.mixi1~1ge that al101\'S reacher.; to undersmnJ ho11 lic spheres, thac is, :is places \\'here :.rudenrs are
• •
subjectiY1nes .1re produced 1\ 1th1n those ~oci:1l educnte<l robe active, critical citizens 1,illing co
fonns m 11 hich 1icoplc: tno1·e but which are often suu~te for the: imper.1tiYes and pnnc1ples oi J
onl~ partially unJersroo<l. Such J peJagoro mea'ningful and subsranti1·e democracy.
make · problen1Jac hO\\' re:.1c:hers and snulenrs In order ro make these t'Jsks realizable. 1c
SU!>tain, r~-isr. or 11cconlffiodute those la11gunges, is necessary ro understand classroo111 social rda·
ideologies, social processe~. Jnd myths that tions as historicallr constructed culmral foml!>
po~1tion them 111th1n c.llinng relations of po11 er that produce and leginn1ate parocular expen·
and dependency. \loreo1·er, u po1nrs to the need ences th.u should be the objecc of 1nqwrr rather
to de»elop a theory of pohacs and culrure thtu than merely the st".irting poinrs for n theory of
anal\7.es discourse and voice •IS :t continu;1lly schooling. For e,\11n1ple, teachers need to be
shifung balance of resources and pr:ictices 1n the able ro examine critically ho\1· subjecn1icies aft'
uuggle for pn11legmg specific wars of naming, schooled and 1vhat the codes are that !!Q\t'm
organizing. and experiencing '-OClal reality. Dis- and gn e n1eaning to specific fonn~ of nio~ and
course m this case can be recogn1ted as a fom1 of politic..-al regulation. But teachers need ro Jo
culrural production, linking "agency'' and n1ore thttn provide n critical reading of the cul·
~structure'' through the w11ys in "'hich public rural forms rhac strucrure classroom life: the1
and pnvare representations are concretely also need co adnut social relanon-. an<l cla,,.
organited and mediared 11ith1n schools. Fur- room practices in 11 hich needs and 1deolo!!'e'
t:hermore, discourse can be ack:no11·ledged •
as a can.~ exi>erienced and subjective!) felr and thJt
diverse and fractured set of experiences that ore legiarnace progressive values and Jemocn1nc
lived. enioyed, and suffered by individuals and fomis of sociali~. In this ca'>e, L:.no,1·kJge.
groups widun speofic conre.ttS and sertings. In J>011·er, and desire pro,1de cencral caregones ior
thtS perspecove, the relarion~h1p between lan- undcm.tanding ho11 experiences are consrructe<l
guage and expenence is governed by ~ocial pr11c- and reconstn1cc:ed across ocial relaoon!> that
rices and power relations operaong \lrithin
htStorically ~-pecitic cont~.... embody 11111~g fom1s of inequ:1lt11. JepenJ-
ence, and res1 t:ance...\!, mennoned prenou-h · I
In this \ 1e\\' the concept of experience ~
take .IS a Stan:ing point here a 11e11 of cutniral
pobacs t:har first confirms the h\ ed ~-pe.neriCt'
~nil 1.'llitur:il 1.'3p1LJI 111\rudtn" ''' 1h.11 thr· IJ11.-r 1li,1t1Oil l •lllr~·_.., tl11· 1i,11111l1·, l1i•tr 1111•,1111• It •I"
cin chcn be analrzc<l rru,rc: 1.r1111..dly a•""" ••I • •1111 1r•1w1t•111 ,., ilr.11 111 .•~. llf' 1111 il1v11 •• vr111 r•
1111Jcr ...:t ,,f culrural pr•K.c:\\c\ In t111., 1 J\r., .,111
11i~t Utll•lllU I \ltulr ill •tll111·1 I 1••1•11 1t or1' I li t• I•
Jent eqlenc:nc:c: ha' 111 fir.t lw 11nd1:r\trr"d .ind 11111 ll11•11·ly :i tf 1 •11 1111 ~f· r,I 11fi11 ,11i•111 1 11 ,_ 11 di•
rCCCJ1?111U:d a.. chc 3Llllm111<11111n t;I uillc111\w U111r,r 111 ltit1(rltr1ff, 1111r tlt,11 1•1,.111·• lt1•1111 y
m1:mnc.. 1nd ..cone' that prr1v1dc \n11li-11t. wuh JV,.1ln•1 1111· v.• .1111 l1y 1liJll1·11v,111Jl tl11,_, fr11 <r•
1 ...:rue of f.uruhanl), 1dtnt11}'1 Jncl pr;1L111 JI w11 l1111 1·i1•1111v. I •111lt1-11u.11 l111i• ,,, 1111w1·1 1lir11
kno~lcdgc:. Fun.ht:nnnrt:, IL " 1111pcn111vc: Lei •t1'9~ 1 11 d11·1tl\rlVr• t.y ~ •11111 11.,,. 11ppi·r1I 111
cxn:nd the pos">Jbtl1uc:' of \L11.h 1.·ulrur.11 l'aJHtal 11lij1:tt1\111y, •ttr·1t< 1·, 11 11111, 11111vr ...1l11y, .11111 1l1 r
both b) 1T12l.Jng 1t the ob11:1.t 11( c:na<.:JI 1n41ury 'lllfll'lc\\llHt c.1d1f lr·1r1u ,- 1lw d.-1 1111r"r 111 "'II
1nd b) apprupruang 1n a sun tlarly c.r11 1<::il fa ..h dt·nr t xpr11rntr • ~ 11111 1 r~ jl•'l d11 I 111 1il1 ..11 :ic 1,
1Qn the c11<le\ and lcnowltdgt: rhat <.;11n,onitt un1v1:r•al d:.111 1\ I•• tl11· 11 111h
brmdcr and less fam1ltar hl\toncal and 1.ulrural 'The dl\t1111r..1· of \1t11l1·111 rxpr111·1111· ~up
md1aoru To empower srudcn t~ 1ncan' nH1rt: p111 " o v11:w 11f p1·1bi.c11izy rind 1:111p11w1·1111r111
th;t n simply affi rm ing and analyzing tht: \t1ir1c:,, 11101 a llow~ ~ 111clc n1 ~ 111 d1aw 11p11n 1hc11 riwn
hutones, and expent:net:<; that art 1n pla<.:t 1n cxptncntt:\ :incl <:11li 11ral rc,ourc.c' oncl 1hn1nl \l1
chctr ne1ghborhoo<ls, that prov1dt: an orl{anl(; enabl e:~ 1hc:111 111 ploy a ~tlf t 1tn•c11111~l y :1c11vc
ronnecuon to the web o f r1:laur111' tha t 1111rr1cd1- role o~ p 111duc.:1:r~ 11f k11owlctl1(t.: wi thin the:
ately shape thetr live,; 1r al'" mean\ 1naktnl{ 1cac.h1ng and lc:~rn1nj{ prf1<.c''· 'I h" •~ n 1>cdo
chem oo:u:ns of a much wider con11nun11y. A i.:oizy 1n wh1c.h ' nult:nl\ l(CI th t knowlcclgc nnd
cnoal pedagogy 1n th1~ ca~c: addrc:\Se\, affinn,, ,kills th.11 :ill11w 1hc111 111 a'ce111tln how 1ht: 111111
and cnacally analyze'> the expcn t:nce~, h l\toric:~, 11ple 1ntcrc\I' 1hr1t con, 1i111tc their indivldunl
and c:atq:ones of meaning that shape the 1mn1t: anc.J 1.:ullcc.11ve 11011.c\ ore 11npl1caccd, produc.:cd,
duce reahty of srudt nts' lives, but 11 doc:' nut Jffi nncd, or rna rh'lnal11.ed w1th1n 1hc 1 cx1~, 111\1 1
hma 1cself to these cacegones. ruuonn l prncticc\, rind soclnl ' 1 n1 ct11 rc~ th:it
•
hnrh shape and give 1neaning to their live,. ~ 11ch
wcral to this view is the need to develop a pcdagog1c:il prat11cc would draw attcntton 10
an anal}"1S of how reacher~ :ind srudent~ g1.ve 1he proces1,e\ through which knowledge 1 ~ pro
mearung co their hvcs th rough the complex h1 ~ duced wi thi n the ongoing re la tion ~ in which
tonal, culrur.al, and political fonm they both teachel"'I , \tudeno., and texts and knowledge
embody and produce. This ~~gests the need interact. Within thc~e rt:la uon\ teachers and
for 1ncorpon1ting 1nro a cna cal theory. of ~ruden r.tJ produce knowledge through their own
khoolmg an an.a l}~IS of those social pracoces particular readings of che co<le~ that ~tn1crure
that both o rgan1zc systcm5 of inequality and :ind give meaning to tens.
that w1gn meaning co individuals through the The rype of pedagogy for which J 11111 argu-
ing is not concerned i.1mply with creating cla~\
telf- and sooal represencaoons that defi ne the
dominant caregones for o rden ng SOCJal hfe in room knowledge produced through 1nd1vidual
opposioonal readings of a tUt, but also w11h a
my pen society. Deve.lop1ng a theory of recogr11uon of the 1mpon.ance of unde~tand1ng
ICbooling as a fonn of cultural polices mea~s the \.vlOLI.\ ~-ays 1n which teachers and srudent\
_......_ bow social power organizes the basic
_ , .....g ... _ d eduuctty as produce different fonns of lc:nowledge throu~
. . p!l1el of d••, race, gen""'r, an . the romplex paaems of uchange they have: 1n
I -of .d
ICllJWiOI*
-~
·'· . and ... ---~
that consaone
d politics. their interaC1JClOI with each other <Ner what <.'On-
lf«M coa6pntiCJnt of pawer an deft)op a somrc:s dialogue. mearung, ..W leammg u~lf In
'niar b ••lhea11d for~ ccrcbers
--en co -'--
n ......
ocher worcli, ~ nself repttsenis an 11Ct of
# Ill u w:ciwe pi• Dl'.C - w .......
326 l'\R I Ill I HFORIES O~ EDVC.\'J10;\
of social identities th:n \tudent<, may
pro<lucoon. For example, both teacher. an<l sru- rhe range h 3 edagogy aruculaces not only a
dent:s produce knowledge 1n their 1nterJction become. Jeer for a ul\ e
!'
Sue _,. rsit)' of student voices; it al'i<!
i: I
w'lth a text b) ane1npnng to under.rJnd and res1 fu damenral referent ror egium1l.lng
reproduce the co<l~ an<l assumprioni. thal inforni Pro\'1des a n I
. . 1 of deniocrauc to erance as an
an author\ pan1cular \\TIUn~ knowledge c. also
the pnnc1p e f I .
. 1 00 ndicion for forms o so 1danty
produced 1n an 1nlerprernri,·e pracoce that. reads essenaa. the virtue of rrusc, ~ ha ring, an cl a com-
teXtS as pan of a \1i<ler set of culmral and hislon- rooted in 1· fh 1·r
. ro ·improving the qua 1ry o uman 11e.
cal experience!> anJ thus produces knowledge Schools m1m1enc .1.. d'
need to incorporate u re iver\: and
that goes beyond lhe said, stated, and obvious. · · · . tory stories that construct the 1nter-
d
Al issue here is the development of a concra 1c ience idenory, . an d pos~1'b'I' th at
I o f e, xper 1 1ty
pedagogy that provides the foundation for pay ' F
. bring to the classroom. or too many
developing curriculum models that replace the sru den rs f "cl cl . ,, th
authoritative language of recitation and impo5i- sru cl ents , schools are places o . ea ame, th at
tion with an approach that allow'S srudenrs to .IS,. h0 !ding centers that have littleth or no 1ng to
. d
speak from their O\\n histories and ''oices while do with either their lives or e1r reatlb
sirnulraneously challenging the very grounds on Reversing that experience for s.n1dents must be
which kno,,·ledge and po"'er are constructed a cenrral issue in reconsrrucang a theol} of
and legitin1ated. Such a pedagogy makes pos- )Chool.ingas a form ofcuJrural politic.s.
sible a variety of human capaciries \1•h.ich expand . ..
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we examined Criric:al Theory, one of the leading contemporary posirion~
in educational foundations. \Ve emphasized that Critical Theorists have used themes
and terms from Marxism, Posonodem1sm, and Liberation Pedagogy. Part of Criat-al
Theory involves a critical anal}'l!IS of existing educational instiruaon~ and proce,~o
Based on their crirical analyses, Cnacal Theorists allege that dominant groups concrul
schools.and use them t0 ~tam and reproduce the conditions th.al keep then11n power.
Subordinate groups are clisempowered by the consouctions and bamers created b~
those in conrro~. Critical Theorists seek to raise the consciousness of the marginalized
groups and to give them the tools needed for their own empowemienc.
I. Refle~on ~~nc:t of "marginality." I-lave you ever felt that you were Jt the 1nar·
~7 "".
er ~o ali eedcenter of }'Our school experiences? ldcntif\· group' char ~ ou
ie'.~ are
margin l m exisong school ituatioos .
2. ldena1~ the key knov.ledite areas d -al tha · . . In
teachers in your school exJ>.;nence ~ ' ues . t v.·ere con~1dcre<l 1mporrant J
,,.Jues were genuine),· llllportan · . 0 } ou behev~ that these lo;no-.. lcd!(C area' .in
. t to} ou as a person:
3. Co mpare and contrast the Criocal Th th
that of f.ssenoahsti; and Perenniahsl:) eonst ,,e\> of the Plll'flO'-C of the •chuol " 1
4. Reflect on the concepts of ~ein · .
schools agencies of empov. erment flOd\\ ~nnenc' and "disempo" enncnt." I111\• 2 ' '
an u1sen1powennenc?
32i
5. \\n~ doCnac;ilTheorms~ahi_b~.--~
·~ . .ind genJ~ r :ire COru.tnlCled m ~c:w a
i>QLiRY :\..."TI RESE..\RC H PROJECTS

l. £?<>an anal>~~' of }'Our te:idier edu:aaon pro'Z!'2:n f.001 a C:-=-:al ~ pe..~
O\e, Do you find an} e-.1den::r oi d;i,. or z_-dc· 1u;:
2. In a dialogue oth~r ,rucfe::;is,
"''th r."ee - bow-'roi::I ea.-neC :.:>:.h.:-. • ._ - n-
cl~. edmioc; and gender. •
3. In tCr\1cw ~\·eral expenenced reacne~ :iboot uie t::';ilia.ooru 0: :xe <iii&. e-~
and eender for ceadung and lear"..u:; m scl:.ool.. Re;io.~ \'ti':~ ~ -;s ;:;:i wx dus.
4. fn your clru.sro>om expenc"ID:. a., ou ::r.d t't"ldc:::ce 0: ::.e a:s;e-..cr C.: ! -._xldrn
ricuJum-: \\"nte a paper t:har g;i ~a personal :iccoar.; oi i.-:= -.-t:Ac: a~ · -;e ....
=-
~
curriculum.~
INTERNET RESOURCES
For an O\-er\1e·w and 1dennficar-nn o.: Icade~ 1.=i Cr.oal T~] en ..• cr ~ Z..C Hope
C ritical Theory at
WWW. perfect:fi.t.org/CTrmdex.2 .html
An es5a), "Ethics and the Cnaal Theo""' rof Edua::i=-- b>· Ber;; -r 1-::. J. Fr..r!~ can be
accessed at
,vww.ed. uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-rearbook/9- -<iocslcndres..bcmJ
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER R.E.-illl:'G

..
. ...
~
-~
.,_ _., Jl>:mjm T't~o nuJ ,r., l'oh:1a oJ <.u T11T11/ '"'"~'
A?e"- "~ I
rt:i.ainil tfffrfWT l>i.=W " Rtg1mn•f / "'• ' c \ -l
'"°~"'""' /~rr t lla/!n"nUJ. Bcrldq l: nt\ c ~l) • <.ahfu:.
Tbcmu~ ~ rNon (htnni. l i;: ffladc,."Cll, 1r194
N=or 1ia.~ Thmtm;;. \t11rrm11. 1r1 l'omno.Jrrn \\ ~rpor. Ci
•
• \\ilium \I • ed< ln.ri.Jr 'Out Contmt("1r11') <.n~I Prr, •
'·. \lamn, Pr•"''· JQQ-l,
• Ms=:! .£>d ~ ind.a Perm: •\la.'T!n:. oiExdUSlon. \h~ of 1ran,fonn~oon: The

flla.': \\:;wa-:, ::n • 6 ;:::s :xm.• m Rchoru. \. \1~rt'IL~,a .md \ Yillum Reynolds. cd• lnndL/O;·
Ui~eoo'l:!r'I Or;.;;..-;;J ~ 1% rn."A~- """ Yorl. 'r. .:\tarnns Pre:.s. 1994). pp. 151-1 ;.=
• ~ '- ~~~ arul \\lllum Reynolds, eds. blSJJUOur· Contmtpqri1ry Cnt1<.11/ Pm; -
i::::.:r.a: !Eb'"·"•· X...-\3.'"'A: !-t. .:\Wtui·, Pre,.,.. JQQ.l), p.'"'
T~ ~:-o:'$f.:;> oo.._ \b.Nsm 11.nd Cnocal Theory is discm.sed 1n Dougla~ J...ellner,
Cr.:=:l ~ l!.tt:cox m .'11~ fBalomnrc, ~ID, Johns Hopkins Press, 1989).
- 1::-::..-: • me-st .. "uc;;;aJ ra=eDt of Liberation Pedagogy can be found in Paulo Frcll'C.
•• ~ rf'di: ~ "C"• \Cl"I.. Cooonuum. 19 4); ius mosr recent boo!., Ptdagog:t of Frrrlmt
......,_
£:;;. ~,., _ . L:.-= Cirr1r:r """' 'orlc Rowman & Littlefield, 2001) \\;h pubJi,heJ afrer h.:-
O-.><' •D -
• ••••
\h•ulutc IJc,1li,111, 18 I 1>. .!O ll1t!(lc~. \ \ dlt.1111 c:1ta11dlcr

\b1trJCUOl1, 'i 8 2frl 26'i,l71 • .. I lit r 1, ltlt<1I r.I \1•n•
u.r1
\caJcnul ,rnnJJrJ,, 11, !08, ll;1nk,,JJ1nc.,, 161 (\1.r11•m), t.J (,.f
!6~ !68 Barn;1rcl, 1lcnr}. 149 C.hn· 11111 1l1c•1l••!!)', S4, fS St
\et:JJent3 I ~'t111J1CtOt1', .I 9 Ba\1c eJucauon, 16.l 264 ~r. \7
\Jlcr. \ \oni111cr, 54, 56, 57, llcll, lerrcl, 167 Churd1 and \Ultc, 1ep~r•t1ur of.
! '0-!81 Bennett, \ \~lliam J., 208-209,
I 7H, I H-!
\c,chcoc.. 4, 6, 7 ·8. Stt 11/so Cu11cn\h1p. IfiO
209-2 12, 180-281
\.XJOIO~') Cid\\ c<mA1u, ZIX 220, 222,
Bcntha1n, Jert:rny, 179-180 226-227
\k\ander the Great, 36 llcrkcley, George, 19 Cl~\\lc.Oll l Jumanl\111, Sfi
"\llegory of the Cave" (Plato), Bcscor, Arthur F.,Jr., 265-266
16,22,27-28,28-32 Classical l.1lwral1un, I-7 I ~O
Bin Laden, Osama, 142 St•r g/so l.1hcral1'm
\llport, Gordon, 89 Black, C. E., 122- 123 ClasstLal Rcaft,m, j(j .\rr I/fro
\mcrican Exceptionalism, Block, Allan, 217 Reah\m
164-165 Bloom, Allan, 280-281 Class struggle, 215
.\mericanization, 160- 161 13osanquet, Bcn1ard, l 9 Collcccive 1ncmory, 1-15 1-M
• \nalysis of the Complete Acl of Bowles, Sa.n1ucl, 217, 227, Columhia University'~ fcalhcn
1'hought." See "Co1nplctc 227- 233, 3 J4 College, 264
Act of' l'hought" Bra1ncld, Theodore, 297 Co lLLmbine H1gl1s,hool,15H
Analytical scatc111cnts, 111 Broudy, I [arry S., 45-46, 46-47, Comcnius,John Amos, l6, lll
Aristotelian Realism, 54, 55- 56, 47- 50 Conunon school~. 149, 165
57, 58, 135 BL1bcr, Ma run, 88 Communism, 216- 217, 141
Anstotle, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39-40, Burkc, Edn1und, 198-199 The Co111111u11in Altmif<'.rro (;\,Ian
54,55,59, 125-126, 130, Bush, George W., I I 2, 268 and Engels).115, 217
"Complete l\ct of l"hought"
134,253,279,280,282 (Dewey), 7-1, 78, 78-82, J IU1,
~sinulation, 160-161 CanJbridgc Placonists, 19_
Canons, and Posanodern1sm, 298
Augu.~tine, Saint, 17, 55 Comte, .\ugusce, 109
\utltoricanan stacis1n, 217 J23- 124
Conclillac, £aennc, l ";, 19> !'16
\x1ology, 3-4, 6-8. See also Capitalism,~ 19! 225-226, 227
ConBict resoluaon , J68
Aesthetics; Ethics Cartesian pnnople, 17
"The Conquest of lncem1l
and Critical Theory, 317 Castro Fidel, 216 . Freedom" (,\lanta1n), 6-1-65
' . 1subJC
Cacegonca · ctS ' curnculu1n . ,,6 i1-
and F.lOstentialism, 92 Consetousness r.atl\1ng, -~ ' - ,
and Ideali~m. 22 of, 42 Consen'lltism, 177, 197-19!1,
and Libel"lltion Pedagogy, Catholicism, 53, 54, ~6 hil sophy 208-209
242-243 Cacholic choology, an p o ' ·
and culrural hcntatfC. •1 0'• --'IH
and ·rhomism, 54 ) n L 10"
and curr1l'Uiun1, .vv-- /
and Pcrcnnialism, 285 Chain of being, 22 and education, purpo'c of, 206,
and Philosophical Analy~i~, 113
Character, 6-8 . cl 207
and Postmodemism, 131-132 Character cdu~dtion, an cducat1onaJ 1mplicauon~ of,
•nd P1"11gmatis1n, 75 Idealism, -6 . · 111 206-208
and Progressivism, 300-301 Child-Centered Progrcs!>Jv•s ' and hierarch)', 201 -102
•nd Realism, 39-40 296.297,301-302
•nd 'fhcistic Realism, S8-S9
329
l.~0 1 ' Il 1 \
t lu• ( /•if,/u •I I IJ, 111u ll J
c,..1,," ~""" """'"'""I! /1't t l ltf H
il,•1111, Ill
f f\ 11, fl ,;/ /,' "II ,,,., 1/ f
atl\{ 11\Jll\ 11\ l1\,tll\111t\I\\• II 1., ). 1"1111 , Ill I/ 11 4H 11
1,,,,,,n.. 1111, \,,),1t••''' ,,, :•ll /I-f l" lfll / I' rr /,' 11 11 11 11111, 1 I 1, 4, 7 7H N N
ii11\J l111t1111\ 1\At\llt , \ll ' ' ' ' '• 'tl•l IS 1111, IHI , IHI , IMt, Ill 141
tt11,l 11111.\t,1,11,\t\ _:,, ... .. ,,~ I 111>1" d11 , I II""'"! I', 1••11 Ii.I '4'1 ' All 1A/ 1~1 172 1~
~n,l I 1\•,.-11111<"1l\,l11'"' .,, : II ( 11l1111.1l 1h1< .. II I I,,, •
''IH •11•1
ta11J 11\it l\' ,.,.,,,,,,,,,1 .. ,., I '1111111 11111 Ill 'll' 111111 1
~lM ~tl' { •'''''1' ,,1 . .11,1 ~11' 'llf , ,,, / 1111/ ~ ••/ i 'I\
'"'" ' ' " " " 1
1>11111111,llt•ll• 174,i 14 ~ ·11, 1
l>t1!(111"'1, I Ill\ I VO \ 1111111111 N11111•1111l" 111, I r1'I

l )t•.111111., , 111111,11 7, 1111 I J'I
An.I 1h1· p.I\\, 1 ~'P•'l"I h". \ 11h1111tl 1'h111111<111, I Ill\
:ikl , 111 l 11hw.1l 11•l,111' 1''"· I \ I ) j\ I ""I· ll1H
I )I\ 1111 lt1 VI l.1111111, \H
pnnt'1pk' 1>1, ! IJO '!l~ \ uh'"', ,1111l l\11111111.1 l1 •11 •, I ril
1)111 111 1111111111, l ' I, 111 Ill, 114
an.I l'n>!fT<:"" 1,n1, 'VO
rea"'"' h•r '1111h n1tz. 1<I~
( '1111II111J1 1111 I .11111\, (111
l1111h11h1111,I 1,S I ll," II
,.,,
I >11.111.111, IH, loll
anJ n:h1'"'"'· :1\\ "''''1 ( •''''"''-'''''''' ~t,(• •t•.
•nJ , ,h,,.,1,, n•lc ••I. :o:.
:1)(>, an.I\ 11tllJI I hn111, llS I 'II
:o- a1,,f t ''f1t11.il1,111. !t• i ~''I. /-,/11..11111, 1>0 ,\rr '""' l'lul""'l'hv
Con,tntCll\ 1,t curr1culu111. <I 'tt . \ . I \ ' tJf t·tl11& .llttttl
Coruu111cn, 111. ~O. ~I 1111.I I· "'1t·n1 rnh,111, •I I 'I I I du• .1111111, 1. r,n
Conl'l"~ct r hc<lrl, l -(\ l - - •nil hl1.,1 l" 111, ' I 'I• 1111,I \ 111 t: 11t .1•• I•'\t rJ>t111t1.1J1,111 1
Cos111olo~, I 1111'1 I 1lwr.1li '111, 11111 l(,'i

Counrs, (;ct1r~e S.~ 1~1 ~ ~ ... ~' ~q ... 011J 1'1•r1•11n111l t'111, lll I !II f, ~111 tl c:t11 1 tri1t'f\'1i l l ~lll, 111111ltt.1ltf11r1\
"Cntcrin of \ h1r.1l F<lucJuon ll Ud 2N" JH" 111 , 201, lOH
De' clop1ncnt" (Brtl\11h ), .111d l'hllu,11pld1•11 l 1\n11 l)''I', 11 ~ 11 lld fl' t hII Ulllll 111111111 SI II,
-t'i- 46, .r; to .ind l'n~1111111 krn lM 11 , I I> I 111 l111plk.11 1111" 111, lf>fi lf1 ?
Cn titol T'tJA,fl,11,(fl'. tl•r St.1tr.•n1il and l'r,11!111111 1,111, 7? ~ 11d li'"' l' lllllllis111,
Cultur11/ Str11,c1,.~lt (G1ro11, ), ~11d l'rollrt•"h " 111, 2Vtl, 111 1 l111pllt.1ll1111 s 111, 112 11\
l l O, lll )16 ~n.J Rc11h"11, ·11, 11 ·Vi .111d ltl1..1l l,111, 1111 p h1Jtll11i. "' ·
Critial l'hcof), 89, l 'i0-151. a11J I hc"111 R··~h'l n, 110 2 I 17
~·- .269,309 110.120-12 1 ~nJ Ulll\ ~1,JI,, }111 !114
~nd I .1hc1'""111, 1111phl.1111111'
.and axiolo~, ' l ; "Thi· CurrKulum ol ,, Free uf, 11111 190
and cnoquc, Jc, clopn1cnc of. l'\l\IClll" ( \ltnn'). 111> 117,
1111<1 I .1hcr,111un l'cd.1~111().
1 1 0-~ll 9 Y9
11npl1t'.llllUl\ o f, ~·I I l-li
and curnculwn, j ll!-120
1111J i\h11 1\111, 1111 p li"1111111' 111,
and cducauon, purpose of. l 11. O.u /\,1p1r.t/ (1\111 n ), ! I ~, l l 7 i2· f Zl7
316 Ucc111ht r11~1111n, I l ~ I l 7, I 17
11ntl P c rt•11111,il " 111 , t· 11 111111l' ol,
and insrruction, 118- 320 Dcducti vc lul(i1" 4. Srr 11/1<1 I ,o!(ic 2 !l ~ 2H(,
and l.ihcration f>cda!(tl!!Y• 312 017m1n"")' 111 • lmrrlrn
origin• of, 312 l 14 1111d l'h ilo, nphk.111\ 11.11) '"•
( l1><:1111cvillc), I(14
and Pcrcnm11i~111, 2S2 1111phl..ll ll U1' ul, I I i 11 ~
Dcmucnnlc 1'111·li11111t•n1ar)'
ph1losoph1cal ~11d 1Jl'Olol(ical 1111d Po,t111111 k r111'111,
Soda1IM11, l 1~
11111111 ~.1111 111•111 , I Ii I If>
rclaaonsh11l'O of, '14 -3 I(\ Dcn1ocr1111c Sc>1:1alism, ~ 17
pnnopl« of. II 0 and l'r~~111111 1\111, 1111pl1t •t1"1''
Dcn''llllOll, tlwury .,, l ~I• 2~7
and 'Choo!,, role of, 3 l 7 ot. -fl 77
DcrndJ ,)•c•111c,, 12 ~ 127, I 17
stn~!lY of, 310-312 ltl,11() • J nJ l'n111r~"" l\lll,
and student., role of, \ l i l 1rl IOO
Dc'Canc•, Rene, I i 1H
111111 RcJlt , 111, 111111h1•111111•111,
and teachers, role of, 11 7, \ 18 n,,, hoolm11 .'\.• ,,,.,. ( lllid1) 11 ~
41 .. ~
Criuquc, development of. and f'br lJ~- I ;,1~"'11 •iJ . 1.,,m,; /'/Ir
Cntic:al 1ncory. l 10-l 12 J111l I he""' Rt..111\11 1,
l·•J(btfor f >ur f '11/turr 1111,/
1mpl1r11111111' 11f, ~ 1 1 fl!
33 1
1'li11u111011,1''" l""l' 11t I•'-• ·111 l,111"11. Jri I Jri•I
I ( 'tlll\Cl\lt\1•111, ltl<1, iO l ~ltltl ~!II t 1, 11 111111 , .1 111
~Ill
1J(fllll~l
ltt
lhl't11\, 11~. ll(1
t .. ,
u<l F~'c11t1~l"1n. • • •
.,, , l
,,
1
t
I
,,,,J,.1, •1111 \ lrnh1111, rol1· uf, 'JS 'I(,
•1111 ti •I(., r., 111lr ,,( 'IS
1111d 1•tl11t u1 I; 111, 11111111 ,.1. , d, J?] i1111I v.1h11 ludu1 >id11~1 u, •11d
~n<l 1: "'tc111111h,111, vi ''I '111 d 11 "111111 l.111, J1, I, ! 71 !7! .. 'l·IJ rrllru1011 , •11 'JS
111J IJc~h,111.lI t1tttcl1t'••t , iti I it,K 1\11 I· il•1t mioli.1 l'ttl•1111gy•
- ud I 1hcrAh"11, 1HI! il1t1l I \ ·1\'1111 hol1N11I, JH I iHJ I (M1111 I•), ~'I I fill
~ml I 1bc:rJt1011 l'cdllj{tlfl\'. 2•11 phll 11" 11'l1l1 11I u111l 1d1·11l111111.11 '~'"' 1111111!\1 l'hcm1111t1111l11/(}I
HH, llS '
•nJ ,\hr"''"· l!<1
111 J Philo,uph1~~1 i\1rnl} '''·
l\''"''"'""•t" 111, i1.•1 l 70
i1111l pn·p111111 h111, tl11r11 l11,, ,.j I· kl\1t111i.h" l'•yd111•n•ly.11 HIJ
l•:xlN1c1111ul P•yd1r1lugy, H'i '
Ill "" l7 i ' I•k(ICI lClllt, 7J
, 11 J Po,u11t1<lcr111"n• 111 I 14 1
.11ul l n111rc"" '""· ll1~, l7 I, l 1J'J l i 1prrtnflr /11 l'.du1n111rn (Dewey),
and Prt!(fl1ill1'tn, 76 I Cl1'1111' lor M 111ly1 11g, l70 is•J, 260 261
und Pro1:1rc"il·1~1 n, I0 I .11111 sd11111I~. rule 111, 170 27 1, F•pcr1111c111nli"11 , 70, 71. Su a/Jo
and Rc~lb1n, 4 1 l 71 l'r•((m~li"11
and 'l"hc1~111.: Rcall\111, ~·> (1() 1111111c.1l'i1cr,, rule 11t, l71
Edul~11ion, theory of 11' tl1c11ry ol c1luc11 !1011, Fnlso idcoln((y, and M:1rli1111, 22)
and Fsscntiuli""· 270 l7 I 170 171 F"'"'"· I H7
and Pcrcnn1"li,111, 21!2 !I!~ F1l11t,, I 'I, 6 7 ,\rr 11/ro 1\x10lol!Y l•c111111"1 1hcory, 124
and Progrcs~ivis1n, 100 10 I F1 h1 111~c 1tll'""' • I Ml Form of 1he Good, 16- 17
l~ducatlon Act of 200 I , 2<i-1. 2ti!! (l1lt1101rntlo11nli•111, 166 F1111cauh,Michcl, 125, 127- 129,
Fducational sntte!Sn1cn, 149 cdul~lum•l 1111ph~•oon' 11r, !IJ, 316
"Fducarion as n Furin of 1611 167 l•runkl, Vikwr, 89
o• i<lcolo!I)'. t 66 167 Free murker competition, 178
lntcr"cntion in the \Vurl<l"
and Naaon•li,m. 166 Freire, Paulo, 152, 152-155, 217,
(Freire), IS2, 15:? 155 216 245,245,245-250,312,
"An 1-' ducation for 1\111cncans" pr11hlc1n of, IMl
rcviv.11of, 167 IMI 313, J IS
(\Vclistcr), 169, 169 171 Frlcdtn3n, Milton, 219
Fducatlon Law of 200 I, l 12 1: uruccntris111, 124, I J-1
I :x._11,11 uah>111. K6 87. 96 llrQCbcl, l•nedrich, 19, 21
Fn1erwn, Ralph \Valdo. 20 "Function• of the School"
Fmotive st111cn1orus, l 12 I 13 and axiology, 92 (Broudy}, 45- 46, 46- 47
ond cu rriculum, 93- 94
Em1l0werment, 236. J 12, 3 18 " l'hc Furure of Philosophy"
and c:ducauon. purpose of. (Dewey}, I 0, I I I J
EngtlJ, Friedrich, 2 IS, 217.
92 9J
220 educadonnl u11plic1nio11~ of,
Fpicurca11is1n, SS Ga ndhi, Mahoonu, 94
92 93 c:corgc Ill, 177
Epis1cmolog)', .l, 5-6 and epistemology, 91 Gmcis. 1lcrben;, 217, 227 •
1nd Existcnoalis111, 9 I und F. scnoa lism, 269 227-2JJ,314
and Idealism, 22 and clhks, 92 Giroux, 1lcnry A., 313-J 14•
1nd Liberation Pedagogy, and1nscrucuon,9J-94 32().-321, J2/- J26
242 and I ibcnaon Pcd•So!!Y• Givens, 93-94
and Pcrcnni1lism. 283 2.io-241 Colden mean, 36
and Phil010plucal Analysis, tnd logic. 92 89-91 Goodlad, John, 11 S
(,ovcrnmcnt control, freedom
111d mcmphf~•CS.
111- llJ
and Posanodcmism. 13(}-13 I ns of, 87-89 from, 178
and Pragmatism, 73-75 :'8'hllOSoPhl of educauon, Grcu Depression, 18 1
-~. 300 ~92 Green. T. II .. 19
Group idcnoiy, 142, 143-144,
for JtUd)'lll!• 89
IDd Realitm. J8-39 rc:aJOft5 Is. orpu..oon of, 93 145- 148, 160
and Theitac Realilm. 58 111 sch~" 111Ctanent. 96
.ndd ,,.._..r 11
.., 0.• PW Haurt 116
Un ii IF f: W(Locke).
332 I~ nI X
I laho 1111<, Jur(I< n, 11 I •• ••,••,,,,,,,.1,y ,,, t''''' .. ,,,,,,, ,.,,... ~~1lli. 11 •

, • • , jf j L- ._ , , , , ...
/ Cj /I I
1. •lj
11
11 l\.tfll1 .....
I lam•, \ \ 1lh11n lc•rTC\, l0 l I 1I ,,, J...,

111,J 1 111 , IJtl• ,,r p• 11• r 1lt 1y, l
I le~. (~·r11\\1 lhclm ,, t
I• H• , "" 11,.,.,.. , 111, I ~ 1••1
I na.lnth, I!<, ' ' 'f•, rt•to•n• l"1 _..,,(y111 v Jl l l I J• .~If ,, 1ye •i• ltr1 1 1•:~
~,, ~16 111J ti 111!1" " / II ,,,J,,,..,,. lot11•l•"' II I
I fC1fd 11n IJ c1l"1n, ! O, l 1ft ai1J •• 1,,,,,Jc., ,,,J. ,,fj L t
• '"''""' "' -.i•tl• •l• J'/r, II/ llJr,
I fcp!d11n"m• •<• 111d •1u1ll ""· ' "'' .,r, 1 • 1 '
I /1• / 111111,/1 l 'rl"' 1.,, J, I Ml
I 1c1Jc11JlCr. \ bn1n, liH, 12 ' 1 11iJ I L&• 11• 1', , .,ll 111, l 4 l !
I h cnrch). 1nJ Con\cn au~rn, arid v1l11t•. h1• 1111• l11 y ,,r, Jri
l'••l·I· f, ,•••• I) 11
~ 01 202 ldc•1l11!(I L1l 111c"~I'.~•· J4l
lll(:rtrchy of gcncrahry, 26 ldcol11y,y, 142 I'•"'·'"'"'"'"'' I
J'• rlil1ff•1 , l 1•.J I~ li•I
111
l"M 11111,btr f,/'11rnmf( 111ilmrnca LUrnp1111l Hl4 11f, I " J Iii
,,,,.,.J,
ll' t, , ~ , ' 1• 1~ 1 11 M/ k~
(l lutc:huu), 287, 187 29/ I· 1l1n1111~11.,t1>li•11 1 a•, I f1f1 I r,1
Homer, 14 1 and y.r11up 11lc1111r y, ltlf1 147, J' 1ip••1 1• ~ W1ll1•11• 11 JI I
I l unun llSOC!aoon, 11npon.ancc 147 14H l<•11ff, M· 1•lt1 I ''""I 'I I
of, and l.1bcralrsin, HIS 186 unpluru nt.1!11111 uf, I IH Y.11• ll• ' • c •""I'' I 11'1 I I r,
I luman 1nsuruuon\, h1stonal and I rlJCr111•111 l'l•J.y<•Y,Y• /ff, 11 1
~"Oluoon of, and 21 H 2411,241 K,,,,_.,,,.,, l ''
Conscr.-10~. 201 ongi1H of, 141 144 K11•1wl• •ly• , 4 ,, f ' '· IJ
1-lwnarust psychology, 119 inti pl11l11,.111hy, I ll
H uman narurc, ,, cw of rci1\01n f11r 11 ucJy11111, J 44 J 4 ~ I • l'•1ll• II• I lt 11l1• 1• , IHI , l 'll1
and Conscl"\llosm, 200 anJ thc11ry, 2Sft 2~7 ' '"ll"'I'''. 1117, I 1'1, ll ti 111,
ind L1bcrah~m. 182- 183 llhd1, Jvan, 21 7 2 IH, 111, 11~ 11) 1 lt1i , i HI
I luman rclation~h1ps. and lnd1v1dua l, 11rlrnlL")' of, 1111J l,.i11-1c•JY,! i\11.1ly•I• Srr
Pragnuosm, 72 L1bc:raJ11111, I H~ I Hfi Pl rr l•1••1JJl11t ~1 A11• IY"'
IIumc, D1V1d, 18 lnd1V1dW1 I frccdorn, J 'JO l ,~J fll lfl/'I il 11 •11 y. H'J
H unter. James, 161 lnd1V1du1 J,.m, I7H l .i'jtll11tlr( lt4v111 lc),J71 1·/'/ / fi
I h wcrl. Edmund, 8S-S9 lnduc:uvc IO!fc~, 4 \rt "/Jo l.og1L Lt j!11111u r•t1•111, 117
Hutduns. Ro bert .\1., 54, 56, 57, lnC\1u l11lay, hruonlal, anJ Lc"111, Vl•d111111 , l I f1
280-281 , 287, 287-29/ \1arxitm, 22 1 l.rbcr•l,.111 , I SI , l 74, l t1'I
lnsoruuonal rncrnc1ry, I J7 111d ~urn~11hu11 , I H'J
/ ..J .,.,_ (Buber), 88 lnnrucuon, 6, H I 0 trrd Wu••111111, purp• i" ul, llcli
Idealism, I S- 16 and ConKl"YIU'ln, 207 2011 c;duu1111nill 1111pl11 "''"" ul,
and U10log)-. 22 and C.nucal ' I hcory, J I8 320 11!1! I'J()
and character education, 26 and i'Menualnrn, 264, 271 272 1 1111 hu rn1n a•Yx.11111111,
and cumculum, 24- 26 and Eacncnualrtm, IJ) -'>4 11111'41n1 11~c cif, I HS lllfi
and educaoon, purpose of, 23 and ldcali,m, 26-27 111tl hurnan 11~ 1 11rc, vitw of,
educatioNll implicauons of, and L1bcrah,m , 1119 I112 IHJ
2J-27 and Plulosophu:al Analy,11, I IS
and 111d1vrdu1 '· Jllll " " r ••1'
aad . . . . ....qy. 22 and Pomnodcm111111, J 3S J J6 I IJJ lllfi
IDll Fnenaalitm. 269 and Pngmau1m, 74 -7S and lhlt l'IK.U •1n, 1H'J
aad F.;...ntiabtm, 87 and Progra.m.m, 296, }01 i nd Lrbcr1111111 Jlctlapol!)', 141
---~26-27 and Rnlll9D, 4 )
and ro<>elcn11<1n, I 117
... b.~.22-lJ and TbellOc: llalitm. 6 1~2 angina •1£. I 7 S I Hl
..... - .... 26-27 Lwu w4n•eliarD, 10, 71. Stt .J.
... • I (' 71· m, 21-22 Pn.ei•wcan and pnY11tc P"'fi<n)o
1lf4 - 1llS
"I!'''''"
1o26-l7
. . . . . . .' I ....... H· U'P ... 62~} and pruc.:an, I H(, 1117
........ . 6-20 Ing . . . Pali .. S6
i nd prognw. I HH
-'J1114' dsz2' J=e'li1 I r C IL?lo... 2J9
and Prurr-,.1.in, l'IH
3J.\
rc2.onstor~tLld)inp:, l-4 17~
and ~I\, nJc of, ' ""
tnd ~nsn1, l ~
viii wcnl 1ntdti~nce,
I '-1
uudcn~ rok o{ ''" I '>IJ
,ocbm n le ot, I "h l 'IJ
'
;
.
l ohtananJIDl, l -•1 l SO
Ubcn'tlOtl PcdigoE} .,9. ~
1<G-I; I , :!I-,:! <6-:! i-, and etJn\Cluu•ncs< n ng 226 :codrlluur.1 •
~.t.
and ( noC"ill I heol"I, l 14 \ l idcn t> • •:id I 1ba1t..:"::.
CJdmolog]. :?4:? - ~4\ d1x.1nnc,ot, 21- ~!4 \lodem1uuun 122 121
and Cnocal l'hcol"), 31 :! , l 15 and c:duc-.iuon, purpo<c "'• !!fi \lodcm I bcn b<
and cdaooon, purpo'4: of, :!4 l cduc-.aunal unpucaoons ol, 121 Sn
.,,4 .,,_
'"3___
-~
,.- ,
cduaooml tmpbcaoon5 ot, -- --
and I- '-COOall>IJl, !t19
\I t n \bna IQ 21
\loon: (, F I I 111
cd cpismnolog), :!42 and fal,c 1deolo~. 22 ! \lul nrult: :a sm, 124, 161 lb!!
n 1deolo~, 23ll-24-0 and h1)toncal inev1ral11l10, 11 I \hth 141 l.!fi
and matcnal rondioons,
01• 1r1naoon of, ~39-240
.
and L1heraoon Pedagu1r,'. ~4()
'- ., l
and matter 1n diak-cocal
.. ''u ~ \s~ntot
I duao01UI f'n>!Trn rest.
on~ oi, :! 3- -:! 3ti
mouon, 218 112
philo.opbical and 1deological
'-.JllOll.iil'm, l<I, I\• l 19, 16<1
relanonslup> of, 240- 24 1 origins of, 215-2 17
reasons for srudymg, 2 I i ~nd culrurc. 16'
philosophical 1mphcaoon> of, •n.! I rhnon.ioooslr.m. 166
and schools, role of, 225 -126
2.!1-2-13 •ndl>.ngui~.161 162
and >OCICI), marenal cond1non>
:~ns for )tud},ng. 238 ungin ot, I '9-1 61
and =dents. r ole: of. 24-1-245 of,! 18-220
and ~oc•ety. supersrrucrurc of, .nJ rnr111oc ongu~•. l 62
and ceacherr., role of, 24-0, problem uf, I 6h
244-24 5
222-223 anJ n:lurion, 16.:- 11>1
and !tie! ,alue, 223-224
lm~cAnaly •> 10- ,trut-rur~ oi, 160
and the ,,.niroard. 210-111 anJ •".,_tcchn.r." I (9,
1.iteracr, 42 \~m-Lenirusm.116 •
locU,John, 135. l i6-l 77 161- 16\
.\1atenal cond1oons, e.«u111111oon 1'•uunal "hool S\·,rcn" 160.
Loiric, 4, 8-1 O of, and L1benicion Pe1Ja110!().
and Eiistcntialbm, 92 I f!N
2l9-240 . I \ ~11,11 ar RU* (l '>
and ldeilisni, 22-23 \ bccnalism. 20 Conunl>ilon o•' I ".l.cn•-c
and Philowphical Analysis, 113 :\Uncr 111 dialecoal mouon. 218 1n I· Juaol)n :'·~. 21>
and P~odc:m1sm, 133 ,\1a )o, Rollo, 89 i' at1l>ll·, r•tc-, t ' ~ 1\\J 16\, '°''
and Pragnuusm, 76 McLaren, Perer, 313 J\ J Jl\C \ mcnC'n,, 11 ~
•nd Progrc:\JJIVJSm, 301 M entoring, and Jdeolis111. 26 1· NJtll r.11 1..111, ;anl11•r\'~''J' ,.. 11\,
and Reah~rn, 4()- 41 \1etanarrauves, 130, I I I !US
and "fne1suc Rc:ahsm, 59, 6 I :\1etaph) 'IC'• J, +.' ' •tunil I•"" •4
' nd I .i\lcnn•h•Jll, l\'I 'I I ' Jtural Rah,,,,, lt1, '"'
I l I ,,
Maced!., Dona ldo, 244 •nd ldcal11111, - •• , 81 ' !l l \lntl ... tll'Jrit~l\, \ l't\
l.iandcla, !'clwn, 94 und l'cn•uniah••"• 2H I • • • ~l'\:l'"i"JI' l.."UllJ1tlC)ll"'i1 i 9
l.iann, I loracc, 149 lHl l HI t\c~~u, c'trecdun", l ·~

\1ao 7.-cDong, 2 16 anti l'h•l"'orh"·'' \11,11 1
_ '"' '/co (:11no;cr\'•0'ttl' 16'l Stt J/fti
110 111 ( .:Cl n.,e:n "Insrn
M&rccl, <Abncl, 88
~nta1n,JacquQ. 56, 62-'>3, and plulo•oph)'. I 0
6J- 67
ttt 1 111\
1•j.,1111u1, 17
i I <I I I l ~ 11 .. 11111•11]111 .1 '""" 11 ~ll l'lui •ll•HI 17 §
I Ill Ill lllH
l '•1lf1rtlillt1111 11ta, 11f11l1,.. ,,.1,•••1
\I ,, 111 1 ,. 11111111 111
....1 ,.1 ... 1..~11 · '· .... 1
" .,. 1,1
II
, , ,,\t11l.t
·••111, 111111 11111111 , , ,
.11111 \.\1111.1111111 11111 litl._i '''·

Ill Ill
l'hil .. .,p1111 .I \1o•lf"'• 11 I
1•..11111 11 .... ··'"""""· 11•11
• ,,,
1•,,,11.-1i111, I ll'J
I
,I .,,
.~1.1111.i.111.I
""
.
-'··~·I I
,,.,
'
\ 11
I .ilh ,11 llllloil
111111
llllji lh ,11i11li. 111,
.i 111 1, 111, 1111111ln11h 111 11 1

.111.I 111-11111111111, 11 1
l'u•il""'"IJ111o11•ll"11 111 111
1,11, 1111udr i 11 i.111 , ' '•, li'I, I JI 111
1111d u•111l11fly. 111 1 IJ
.111111111111 , 111 111 11 t 1 u 11 1111 ~, I JI 11 1
,. 11.i 1111 1,iplti •h ~. I 111 111 "'"I ( r1111 .11 ll11111y, 115 llf,
""lll lil 111, 1llll I Ill trtll<•Hl , l \11 117
\\I I ·"1tl l'uu111IJh•111, l>il uud <lllll1 t1l11111 , 11 ~ I If,
I\ ... ,, i ',l11l11.,1ph1 1•1 •• i•hilu•••pl 11 11l ul111Jil1111 , anil nluiJI 11111, purp<h< •11,
t 11 ...... , .. 111 ~\'11 1111111 I 11 I 14
I 11-' \1•111 'II ,111d puhl) •l<lll lllUll>, i·ilu<lllUllJI 1111pl1lJll111i>111
pl11l11>11philJI J1ul 11 1116
' "' • ,, I ........ 11·~"· h •w. 1du1l11l(l1.1 I, 11-1 gnd cpi.1c11111lu!fY, 110 I 11
I'""''''"" 1"11 i ld•1111s 1111 • I 111lyl nr., 110 1111<1 · ·····1111.llt'llll, lfi')
• t ' '• p ,•. , ..,.., ,11111•dliilll•, r11ll<II " 11 -1 11 5 n11d 111•1n11..111111, 11 ~ I 111
I\, ',I\
\ l \ 11\1 \ I ' I (~ It\ l'hi l1i.11ph)' aud IOfl'IC.', I 11
1\ 111 , , t hodi.:\ , '(I 11(1 ~I , .11111C111h1111.. 1hc11l111n' •111u und 1n1l11111hy~•c.•,
I HJ
l\111•!11111, 01101~1•11, 11 ~, 1-llj, IHV I hnmiom, ~·I or111i11. or, 114 121>
I\ 111\1\loilhlll, ~llN .!Ull, ~ 'V ~HO, d111I ml111•u111111, I 2. ,,.,, 11/10 n• philo~uphy uf ctl11c..111011,
'N l'hll11•11phy of cduc.:~1 Ion 121) l jj
*'"'111H1h11l11111, .!lll .!II-I,
,.11 1
"""l.·~11 !Ill a111l i1lt·11l11K)I, I •II
• ntl l.1hcr11in11 Pcdagof!Y,
and Po~1rounda111JnJl1~111,
IJl 134
~~(\ !~ 1111pllrdrto11• of, 241 24J rca~n~ for \lt1U)'lll!(, 111>
•llil "" oil h•ll, I rlllllll<' Ill, an1l 111~1Jflh)'•k\, I 0 nnd 'K:hc>ol,, role of, 11-1
~ s' ~~" •uh11ivl•lo11\ of, I 'I Po,rs1rucrural"111, 125
.iii.I "l'''"'"'"'''IO• !ll1 I ind 1h~nr)', 2~6
Power, and truth, 127, IZll l !V
a1111l '" 1111o1ll.i11, it. > Phllo\Ophy of cd111:.-.1lon Practi ce. Str ·1 ht:ol') und p rullllC
a11 1l 111~1o11•l11•ll•, .!HI 1H!, F.11i•t«nliall-.n u~. H') 1)2 Pruginati,111, I0, 7()
~ tt: ~ .. , ld1•all•n1 UN, 21 l l
and axiology, 7S
11111111• 1•1, ~11\l ~II I Phll11so1)hlcal Analysis aK,
1>111lt1111111hl1 o1I 11111l lil~nl0Klu1I I l(l-- 11 ,I and Critical ' I hclll')'. l 1fl
and curricuhun , 77
r.t.111 ..1111111111111', lHI lll2 P11~11noddrnls111 a1, 129-13 3
ontl ed ucadon, p1111x1\c of, 'fl
anJ '"""''"'Olll,
111' 111t.
•nJ l't,...... ulv\1111, 211'.1
Prag1n11l111111, 72 76
c:ducadon1l 1r11pl1c.11111111' ol,
Rc1ll1111111, Ill 41
rwatn1 lur •uJyln11. JHI 76 77
'I hci1uc Rc1li11n 11, 56 59
and rtt1,....,, J.... ind CJl1H.:1nolol<). 7 I '~
1H PIJllompby of1linory (I lc~I),
and 1pectebMnon, J116 111 and f\~nu1h\111, 261J
• JIU.JI•
••ury nl ad-d-. A Pl.1 ( ii/JM .4'<boo/: l'rtupr. t1 for
ind F.x1ttcn111 h•n1, 11'
ind hun1an rtla11011•h1p•. '!
,._ ,...,,,,. ({:oodlad), 11 S
. . . . 11 .... wl
........,....... Hlhlriah, J6,
••••lllm. l6 Pl110, 16-17, 20, ZI, ll , 23, ind 1nttl'U4.·t1on, ' " '~
and l.1licrt1non Pc.IA!!'•~ · !-W
l6--l1,21-lll,11- 12, SS,
JJ, JI. 40, IM, JM 125- 126, I 10, I )4, 200, 253 and k>81C, 1ft
Pltr r•1lrp M 19 279,210 • and mmphy..l~. 'l
ungina of, 70 71
I \I I) I \
!JS
;1111 Pcrc11111ah\ln, !l<l - !8.! R.1111,,1111.1111.,1 'I
l ' ph1lo'o<1ph) of cJuL-aUon, H.1111111.1l p1111t :pl, I~'' I'"
...,,,
""'l ""'A
Ra\111h, l>1111, '"I ,
I . '• ./ '7r.
JnJ prolilc111 '<1l\11111. ~\, ~-1 ~, R1111,1l.J '<
{'•'!(·'"·
R I .•• ,.,7 I III
1()1
and Progrc,,1\ 1\111, .!'18 29'1 C,l hlll, l'i \i·r t( ('( '
rcJ,1111' for 'tud) ing. ~I 71 ' Il\11'
l\.Cit I "' . ''"''·'l
anJ "luiol'>, role of, 76- -.~ .1111l .1\111le11t)', 111 •HI
PrcpJnt11111. Joctnnc of, an<l h•hll' prc111i.,c,. nl, \'i
J\,cnnaJi,111, Z7 2
, t•1 ilu111' ·~l ' +I ...
n11d c111T1 '1'.I ~.ari rc,Jc1111 l',1111, HH
i>rc,cnusm, a1u.I Pcrcnnrnlisn1 l ILI.I 11,111111, IH
!~5 286 ' and cd uc.11i1111, p1 11·po'c of, 4 I
Schhtk, Monli, 10,1
S.!1m1/111~ 111 ( .'11p1111/111 lmrn. a
Principle of generality, and cd11t·.11IC111.1 I i111p Iic.111011\' r (IJ.,wlc• ancl (; 111 u,1 , 1 ,
IJcaJi,n1, 21 41 4'i >, )l"' , ...... '
·- ZJJ
l'n,atc propcrt)', right to, and and c!1"rc111olnj(). I!! l<J 'lchool of ( lrl(Jl1lt F<lucauon
I ibcralis1n, 18-1- 185 JnJ I· \\cnt1Jh,m. 269 2'16, IOI '
Pn":itc o;chools, IS I dllll (• '1\tCllllAi1'111, li7 '>chool,
Prt1blcn1auc .,1ruanon, 73 Jnd 1n'tn1u11111, 41 Jntl Cl('UJll\111, llS 22'1
I Problem solving, and
Prngrnati,n1, 7 3, 7-1-75
and lu!(lc.-10 41
J11J 111c1.1phy"c', IH
.111<1d•" .......1z•
cn11fli··t ,,_1
1r...
an<l C()lt\<.:l<>ll't1C~\ rn1i;1ng, 226

Prciccs.,, m11.1 Libera lis1n Orl!(lll\ of, 16 17 ,111d na11m1-1tatc, 160-161
186 187 ' •" ph ilo,uph} 11f cJuc.11ion, ur!(l111i13tion uf, und
Progrcs,, and Libcrn lis111, J 88 18 41 1: <i,tcnti.1l1<m, <) J
Progressive curricu lum, 9 rcu"111' for stullpng. l 7- 38, 56 as 1oci11l ag'cncy, 76 77
l'ro/i'·•·ssh•e FJ/11rntio11, 297 n11d ,..i1oul\, rule or, 4 1 School,, role of
Progrcs~ivc Educntion and ",hu\\ and tell," aCtl\'lll' of. nntl Co111crv;1t1s111, 202, 206,
41 . 207
l\ssociation, 297
p rogrcss1vc . 1novc1ncnr, 180-1 ll I .1nJ tc~chcr,, role o(, 41 .111J Critical l'hcory. 117
JnJ thcol') And prac11cc, 44-4> und F1,cn11ali1m, 270-271, 273
Progre>'>I\ i'>m, 294-295
Rccun\Ln1Ct1Un1't l'rogrcs''""'°• anc.l lJcahsm. l 1
and axiology, 300-301 Jnd l.1hcrah1111, Ill~
1c1..
and Cr1t1cal 1'hcory, J 16 and \!Jn11111. l2S 226
.i.nd curriculum, 296, 301 Rrflr• 11u11r u11 tl•r Rrt olu11011 111
/-i.111.r {Burke). i <18 and Ph1lo">phn:il \nal}~•<,
and cducnnon, principles of, 114 115
2'>9 .J()() Rc!(lntC' ot truth, 12", 128- 119
Rch111011, 6 7, 20, 162- 163, 205. an•I l'<1>tmodcrn1'm, 114
and cdut-.1tio11, purpose of, 301 anc.l l'ra!(lll·ltlllll, 76 7-
and epistemology, 300 ZH4
and l'ru11rc"'v"111, 10 I
and Essc11cia h~n1, 265, 273
Rcli!(iou' hlcJli.111, 16 Jnd ({en lism, 4 1
9 nd i nstrucrici n, 296, JO I
Rcllgioll\ ~chool~. 151, 160 :inti 'I hct<(IC RcJl1<111. S<I 60
'/11r Rrpu/llk (Pin to), 16, 27, 110,
and .\1ctaphysiq;, 300 School voucher\, 111
nri~111' of, 29S 298
200, l!!O ,<;. trllfl//, (ii. 61
Rc,pon,c, thcory a~. 257 258 ~c1enufic 11h1t-cl1'1t)" 110
phi lo'o<1phical ~nd 1deologic-a l
rclauol\slups of, 11)8-199 Rc,"10111,1 h"tonaru" 149 Sc1cn11tic R..lh1" 16--1:'
rti"'1n' fur •tud)'tng. 299
Right rc•'o<>n, 'iY "-.c1c1111ti~ Sc~11J1\tO, ~I~
Rul>e'Jl'crrc, \ i.~nn1hcn- "-~'tu" John Oun,, Ii
anJ ><:huol•, role of, lO I l rAn~oh·\lane-l"Jon: Jc.
1 ' thcol") of cJucauon, \<:culAr I lu1nJ11L"11. 1114
lOO.lO I IW <,e1,-ul1n""• JnJ I 11'<.nhun, llH
R., tY1Tu.s 11 :i.1,, io< 'ide1.'f1•<' colln~""' in<111on, 16;
l'•ychothcra\>), K'I
Rogt'f'• (:,,rl. HY 'cll·1lc1cnnln/lt1<•n, 4;, -!<1. 47-4~
Puhl..: cJUL..tton, m11nu1nin[{ R11111•11 C).uhol1L C:hun:h, 'I, '6 Sclt~t1•n1t.tf1,111"• '>\
and 1mpn>V1n~. I SO- I 'i I Roo-c•ch, I r•nkhn, l!l ~
'~ ' ntc.:b'T1lUun, 4' , 46, '0 ' " l'Jlh 1n Id rnan.I, 111• 11 l" t I ·~ and prwru
t <11hiauon, 4•, 46, '' ' O \1111hrt1< >Ill 111 OI\ 11 2 1s 1 ~\I
' ' · "Cli•<ttnu, and \111Ut""U•l•n I be l lurd \l1..:11nccpt.1ut
•uh'"' and I ' 't nua •In, I1rlK'1l. hb . 1~u I~ 1 l'r1ptU!'""'•
114 9' w l hr I ,1 11 t larihc:1111111" • t he llu rd l<
,, , , Real '"lll- 't1 l"n• 11.r), 116 I/ I h1 rtccn1h Ar ndtn=.
. , , '"' and re ,,,.,•fl ol, 4 I lcAdll r pr11lc"11111~l1 tJf111n, I /.1'1] )r11r1 uh.,, flt•
' .I (JohnS<•ll , 102 J 16
' ' "'' 11r, l p1• 1 l ' 11 ·' I hon>A' \•1111 111• !(I I"
'\nut~. \.:bu,, l ' : JIJ lc~d1cf'\, c111p•1" c1111c111 11f. 11 H
, ,,.,, •~"'' '<h1x•I •'· ·11 -- lcAlhcr-, n1k ul SI If,, 17 S ~ . ~·1 ~
•
~ . C1111:ra.-i tRuu<"au\, !),0 anJC'nttc~l 1 hcur1, ll•, 118 ( Ill, 114 17'1, 2 2
'ou .. • mtdlifc"''· ,;nJ inJ l'"cnu~ft,m , 173 -r ho1n1~1u, 111, SI 54 \tr.,
l 1~~t"m 1 ~ 1 1~4 anJ 1·u,1cnnah"n• 9> l hu,uc Rcah$1ll
'·..: ,,m :1t>-: 1· anJ IJcal1>m, ! I 24 and I 'scnnaltsm, 269
_. 1&..1tl~ ln l 6~ anJ Ltbcnlhm, l l\ I S9 anJ E'(J,t .. nn.i.lnm, ' -
"'T'lc 'v<.:111 l'otc">r a •OC> oi the anJ ubcnnon Pcda!!O~· .'40, a.nJ plufo,uph\ , and (..i•::nouc
Person" (.\\anra1n), 66-6- 244- 141 theolo!-" ;4
:wcra.I Rccun,uucooru,ts. 19- and R.:ahsm. 4 3 Thoreau. l lcnf"\ !).i.nd, :o
::.«:Jct). nutcnal conUiooru of, anJ Thc1\-UC Rc~l1~m. 61-61 Tocqut!' 1llc, \le"' J c, 164 ! -
and \ lMXt\lll, ! I !20 reaching, theor; of, 255 Tolstoy, Leo, ! !'\Cl, ~~-I
Sooen, supcl"itructure of. and Thatcher, .\1argarct, 313 1'rn,Tn rus / ,g~ i.1rph1l0Jripf.1t11J
\lan1,n1, !!! !21 Theism, 53, 54 (\\.'i1tgcn,tc1nl, 10'1
ocnre~. 16, !!, 13, 24, 26-2 7 1"hcistic Rea lism, 36, 37, 53-54. "franscendcnc.tl1,m, lU
Socraoc \1cchod, 16 Su also· l'hornism Truth, l 27-1.?9
Sodcrqw~t, I larold, 89 and axiology, 58-59 Two Trenrurs uf(,'ot·rrnmmr
Stmr.t Tbcugbu Cvn.:mllnf{ and curriculu1n, 60 (Locke), I 'ti - 1' i
F.iJUJr11m (Locke), I i 6 duali<in of, 60
Sopb.tsis, 16 ~nd eduaaon. purpose of, Unit; of kno" lctlgc. 'I
Spcoahuoon, and Pen:nniahsm, 59-60 Universal~. 2l\3- 2S4
!86 cducaoon 1mphcaaoru of,
·n , , UniYersat truth, 1!', 1:o
S~r. Herbcn, 219 )-.-u.
Unl\'ersal \\ orlJ \ hnJ. l'
Salin, Joseph, 216 and epistemology, 58 Uni, emf) of Ch1C'J.!(tl
Srandard11cd t<:~t>. 1211-129 and inscruction, 61-62 Laboratof"\ ~chool, • 1, : o·
SrandJ.rd Oil Corupan>o 180-181 and logic, 59, 61 U.S. Co111n11ss1'i111 on l·\cdlcP•"
~Ute ..chool S) >terns, 160 and mctaphy't~, 56-58 ' ll, ..'6'"T1 •'fl"
.In I'•. dUt"Ut10
Sw1o•m. SS ongins of, 54-56 U.S. Depnrtment uf FllUl\11" 1" ·
Srudcnt a\\e\•n1tnl, and as philosophy of c.lucation, l58- 2'ill
f.JDstcnuah•m, 96 56-59 Use value, and ,\ l~f"\f\111. :: I ::~
Srudcnu, role of and school~, role of, 59-60 Urilitarian.-m • .i.nd I dwr.111,111.
and ( .nn<-al I hcory, 3 17 and srudent, role of, 61-62 17\l- llW
and E1utecnuah•m, 'JS 96 . and !cache.... , role of, 61-62 Urop1.i.u Soc1ah,111.: 1'
ind Ide.alum, 2 J 24 I11cori1.1ng, 15S
and 1.ihcnhun, lllk-lllY ·n1eory, 25l lSS
and 1.sbcnuon Pcdasogy, a1dcnvanon, lS6 2S7 \'alu~-laJcn "'"'"""· .111J
self rdh..•:non. ,nJ
244-2..S and 1Jcolol!), lS6 2S7 F~l\tcnnal"m. •N O\
and ' fhcllOC llcahGn, 61 ~2 and ph1lo..1ph)·· 2S6 \ ·alucs. m c:tll•t.."' .111ll ilc:"'tl1L"l•l'·
St mu 1l•lofw (11'orN1 rt'&•Oll\ fur \tudyu1g, 2 SS
Aqulnu). SS, I JO 6 -8. Srr 11b•• \ ""''>tQ
r"por~ a1, l S7 2Sii
\'andcnburg, OonJIJ, ~'I
I' Of I
))7
\ a. ....!n:l ~c •
• ' ._ ..641 ef ff.r.lo , ••
•
~ !11 ~ 11· I tJ I t
\ ~ l I l.r:ur! \\ \\
.,,,., .....
II.~
a i \\
- U#CMjl l
""" ,.,.",,•I'
,
iii
er
·"' i \ :& {41•4cr ll!:Ki
....
'fl
~· [
A
v. I • ., I
Philosophical and ldtt0log1cal Vo1c1tts 1n Edvcatron ,·,,nta 11 1s (lea I\ " 1Ue11 111 11, ""• \!'
the maior philosophies ,,1e,)Jog PS ari,1 t11e,)nes ,,, t>du.:at1 ''' illld i. hide< 1 l'lltne 1,
source selection representatt\e of Pach '-'r1,· treated In thl' l,,,' 111 till"< h•\t <1~ 11 11 eni
recent events, mo"enients an<1 '<1tuat1,1ns lsu,·h as the II' ' <t att:i,·i.." 1'11 u 11 •!Iii lhl!
nse of ethnonationahsm) den1on::;trate the re e\a 11.-e vf ! hrlos,,rh\ a11d 1de1•l1•u\ h• 11111 ~ 111
situations The boo~ s d1\.1ded into th1ee n1a1or rarts l 1) pl• 0"<'1''1 "~ ,,, 11duc1t ll'n l«l
ideologies and education, (31 theones of edu.:-at on Each cha~·te e\;1.111nl!c: the 11,11ure
principles and appllcat1ons of each phtlosol."h\ 1.1eo •'9' and the' ' h' t-'<h•c •t k•11
schooling and curnculum and 1nstruct1on.
Features:
• Each chapter begins with clea1 easy to-follo'' de'ri tons of the ph1los1•ph' 1de •luy~
or theory to aid the student 1n estab sh1ng a bas c 'ocabulan at the b('\]lnn11111 ~I
the unit.
• Provides numerous examples and cases related to eoucat1on schoohn9 curri. 11lu1n
and instruction.
• The text builds connections bet\'1.een ph1losooh\ 1deolog\ . and th eon 111 rh,1ptt>r.1s 111
perspective
• A primary source selection 1n each chapter pro\.~des a range of ,,e"
~·o·nts thJt rrt11llt
a perspective from classical ideas to postmodern theories" th Focusing Oue~11 '"~
for each primary source selection to guide students through the selection
• D1scuss1on Questions and Research and Inquiry Pro ects 1n each chapter c:ontr 1b11lll ll'
further thinking, discussion about, debate. and nqu I) about each topic
• Suggested web sites d ealing w ith ph, iosophy deo ogy and theol) enable stude11t<
to find add1t1onal view points through the wor1d\'lllOe \'l.8b
Related titles ·
Philosophical and Ideologica l Perspectives
on Education, Second Edition
PKno n lus jOllWd 'i
Gerald L Gutelc
Order No 0-205-26106-X (Change
the world
Jumpstart
-~ooc
Education and Schooling in America
Third Edition •
one child ta..:W:.'
Gttrald L Gutttl:
....... ,
at a time ...
,,
~
Order No 0-205- l320J-O

I ·--
.._ ..I"
---
·--- www.jstart.ors

Philosophical and Idealogical Voices in Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Philosophical and Idealogical Voices in Education

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Philosophical and Idealogical Voices in Education

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1)1 I ()S )])HI( '. \ 1 .

l · 11) c ~. \' "' f()

7lr w., SdJoe/s UW*: A SotiologiClll A1111/ysis of&Jucation, Thud Ediru

,.,,,,.,, II ProfossitnuU 1i11Cbing Portfolio: A Guidt for F.ducators

l .o_)'o/.1 L·,, i1:~rsit)1 Cl1 ic11go

• • '-. \('lrl: • ' , "r.in l'l'O

1·, ,,11u, c l \i1t"1 ' • I I''"

"'• ,,,,r \l,11 \...~'Ill\~ \\.111.l~r..'I~ If

\ l 11 t-lctun11~ Hin ('r

( l• tc .... c· r.:i J l l'l

Ph o_, oph11.<1 Jnd 1dc..,lln~1cJI ' 111\.'r..''\ 1n cJuc\lth\I\ ~ ;, 1;1t,l 1

11~cluJc.:. h1blt\l!ZT.IJ1htl'.ll rclc·rcn..:c' Jn.I llhlC\

For ,ny grandson, Charier 1\Jilford Jordan ill, ",\ttills,"

J>AR' l I PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION

IXQLl:RY A.."TI RESEARCH PROJECTS 13

,, ,,,, 1 '11\1"\'lt>lt \ l l i llll Hill \l>l "'I •

c. t l \l' rr~ rt llil·'l '

'\ll' , l ' l ' ll\ Rl'\1 lS\l?

~~~~~il~~~~.~~~>l~~·~~l ~~~·.~-~~~~~--~~~ ~~ ~l~~~l~·;~~T-

Df.FL'\"L"\G THEISTIC RE.-\LIS.\1 53

SUCGESTtONS FOR FURTHEB READING 69

<. ( l , l I l , l l ) ' 104

DEFL'\~G PHILOSOPJilC..\L Ai'lALYSIS 107

INQUIRY AND RESEARCH PROJECTS 1 18

CllAPTER J:o:IG Jf' I'

[)J I•TNlt\G POS'fMO J>.ERNlSM 12 1

J .\ CQt,"ES DERRID \, POS r\10D£R'\ Pllll l) ' l 'll'll\

G\'Ql'IR\' A."\I) RESE.-\R.Cll PRl)JECl~ 14{1

PAR'"l~ II ID EOLOC; tl·~S ~~l) l' l)l'C \ l l(.l'

() J J l'\l'\C.. llll UL(}{,\ 14.!

P \ l l () I Rl I Rl , 1 l>l C. \Ill>' \\ \ 1 ll~\t,l>I

( (.)'\( 1 l ... tl>' 1' '

l'\Ql IR\ \'l> RI \l \RC tl l'Rllll l \"

01-:FINI:s'G NATIONAi J<;M 158

INTER.'IBT RESOlJRC.J~S 172

DEFINING LJBERALIS.\1 J74

DISCl:SSIO~ Qlt:STIO!\S 194

l..'GGESTIO°'\S FOR FL RTH:ER REAnl'\G

011 l'\l'\(, (()'\\IR\ \11'1\1 197

DEFL'\"!XG .\l.\RXIS'1 215

C I l \l' 11 I{ I< >l I{ lII '°

DI 'I'< BIR\ll'l'\1111)\l,tX.\ 236

P.\LJ..0 FREIRE PED.\GOG\. OF THE OPPRES ED 245

PA.RT III THEORIES OF EDL"C..\TIO:\'

01.IT\~G TIIEOR\' 253

\.\'ICY S' fL'D\ fl II OR\ >\.:-0..1) \\'H\"Tffi' ()Rl"l'? ., -~

'lllEOH\ \~AHRll>C,r BI l\\f.l,PIIllO >

DEFCNlNG ESSENTIALISM 263

OEFINCNG PE.R.ENNlALJSi\.1 279

I< >N'tl 111'\

( ( l'\( I l ~I<)'\ l')l

lll\C l \SI<)'\ <) l ' I \I !()'\I.I

I'\ 11 H'\l I Rt \()L RC I c.; 292

<:J1,\IYlf< R f'J(;J J 'l' l~ J·:N

or 1 f'\1'\(, PROC.R.ESSMSM 294

PRC>GRFSSIVE PRD;CIPLES OF EDUCATION 299

I>t\< 1 \\IC)'\! Qti1_s·r1o"c; 306

1'-<.>l IRY A'\L) RF.\EAR(. II PROJECTS

SLC,(,J \ 11()"\~ l·C)R l L:Rl l IF. Jl IU>.nt'.;G

~~~il.~>l·l ~~~·.~-~~~--~ ~~ ~l~~~l~·;~~T-