Chapter 4-1

HYDRAULICS

Fluid Dynamics
FLUID DYNAMICS
Hydrostatics
 forces (pressure forces)
which are acting on an
object for a liquid at rest
Hydro kinematics
 fluid flow phenomena
related with space time
variation (velocity and
acceleration) without
considering the effect of
force

But in dealing with dynamics of fluid flow, all forces

that affect the phenomenon, the resulting
acceleration and energy changes are considered.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
 Just as in mechanics of solids, the mechanics of fluids is
also governed by Newton's Second Law of motion. i.e.
Force = Mass x acceleration
 Thus, in the x-direction, for example, Newton's Equation
of motion will be:

F x  max
 Since liquids do not possess rigidity, their mass center
changes unlike that of solids. Therefore, for fluids mass
per unit volume is more important than the total mass.

F x  ax
FORCES INFLUENCING FLUID MOTION

 Gravity force (Fg)

 Pressure force (Fp)

 Viscous force (Fv)

 Surface tension (Fs)

 Force due to compressibility (Fe)

 Force due to turbulence (Ft)

For example, in x-direction, the summation of the forces,

Fgx  Fpx  Fvx  Ftx  Fex  Fsx  ax

FORCES INFLUENCING FLUID MOTION

 In most of the problems of the fluids in motion the surface tension

forces and the compressibility forces are not significant
Fgx  Fpx  Fvx  Ftx  ax
 Reynold’s equations of motion
 For laminar or viscous flows the turbulent forces also become less
significant and hence these may be neglected.
Fgx  Fpx  Fvx  ax
 Navier - Stokes’ equations of motion
 If the viscous forces are also of little significance in the problems of
fluid flows, then these forces may also be neglected.
Fgx  Fpx  ax
 Euler’s equations of motion
FORCES INFLUENCING FLUID MOTION
 Gravity force: The gravity force per unit volume is expressed
as:
Fg= g

 Pressure force: To determine the magnitude of the pressure

force per unit volume,
 EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
 A simplifying approach to a fluid problem is usually made by
assuming the fluid to be ideal or perfect. i.e. Euler’s Equation is
mostly used.

 Thus, introducing to replace Fp, we will have:

Euler’s Equation for one
dimensional flow

 Thus, the general three dimensional form of Euler‘s Equation:

X, Y, and Z = unit weight

per unit mass in the
respective directions.
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 The integration of Euler's Equation along a streamline results
in an important equation in fluid mechanics known as
Bernoulli's Equation.
 Consider the forces acting on a fluid element of cross-
sectional area dA and length ds along a stream line
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 Thus:
 Gravity force in the direction of motion =

 Pressure force in the direction of motion =

 If v = velocity in the direction of motion, then Euler's equation:

 Dividing by dA.ds , one gets:

 But,
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 Considering for steady flow, and substituting

 Integrating along a stream line:

 Thus,
Bernoulli’s Equation for
compressible and
incompressible flow
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 For incompressible fluid,  = constant,

Energy per unit mass

 It can also be written as:

Energy per unit weight

 Or

Energy per unit volume

---- Velocity head or kinetic energy per unit weight

---- pressure head or pressure energy per unit weight

--- elevation or potential head

 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
 Bernoulli's Equation states that in a steady flow of an ideal
fluid, the sum of velocity head, pressure head and potential
head along a stream line is constant.
Or
 Bernoulli's Equation can also be stated as: The total energy
per unit weight for a steady flow of an ideal fluid remains
constant along a stream line.

 Applying it between two sections,

H= constant =

 H = the total head or total Energy head

 REMEMBER - ENERGY AND HEAD
Potential energy /elevation /positional energy/ = mgh  W Z
Potential energy per unit weight = Z (meters) = Potential head

Pressure energy:
Force due to pressure P on stream of fluid with cross- section area A is PA.
If a weight W of liquid passes through the cross section,
W
Volume passing in cross section = g
W
Distance moved by liquid = gA
W Wp
pA * 
Work done = F* S = gA g
p p
Pressure energy per unit weight = =g = pressure
 head
Kinetic energy
If a mass of fluid (m) moves at some velocity (v),
Kinetic energy = ½ mV2 = ½ W/g v2 =
Kinetic energy per unit weight = V 2= kinetic
2g

Total head = potential head + pressure head + velocity head =

PRESSURE HEAD, VELOCITY HEAD, POTENTIAL HEAD AND
TOTAL HEAD

When the pipe is closed

PRESSURE HEAD, VELOCITY HEAD, POTENTIAL HEAD AND TOTAL
HEAD

 When the pipe is opened

PRESSURE HEAD, VELOCITY HEAD, POTENTIAL HEAD AND TOTAL
HEAD

When the pipe does not have constant diameter

EXCHANGE BETWEEN PRESSURE HEAD AND VELOCITY
HEAD
EXCHANGE BETWEEN PRESSURE HEAD AND VELOCITY
HEAD
 THE ENERGY EQUATION
 For real fluids, some energy is converted into heat due to
viscous shear and consequently there is a certain amount of
energy loss.
 In other words, H decreases due to friction losses hf and other
losses caused by sudden changes in section or alignment.
 Thus, for real fluids, Bernoulli's equation becomes:

Where,
subscripts (1) and (2) = the two sections under consideration
hL1-2 = the energy loss per unit weight of fluid between the two
sections.
THE ENERGY EQUATION
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE

Pipe discharging water

from a reservoir freely
to the atmosphere

Reservoirs connected
by varying diameter
pipes
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE

HGL and EGL in open

channel flow

Note: The free surface is the hydraulic grade line

 THE ENERGY EQUATION
Example 1: A closed tank of a fire engine is partly filled with water, the
air space above the water being under pressure. A 5cm diameter hose
connected to the tank discharges on the roof of a building 4.0 m above the
level of water in the tank. The frictional head loss in the hose is equivalent
to 40 cm head of water. What air pressure must be maintained in the air in
the tank to deliver 12l/s on the roof?
THE ENERGY EQUATION
THE ENERGY EQUATION
 THE ENERGY EQUATION
 Example 2: A pipeline carrying a discharge of 0.12 m3/s changes from
150mm diameter to 300mm diameter and rises through 7m. Calculate
the pressure in the 300mm pipe when the pressure in the 150mm pipe is
350 kN/m2.
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

A) Pitot Tube

 Dynamic pressure =
Converting this to head

 Dynamic head =
 The total pressure is known as
the stagnation pressure.

Stagnation pressure =
 Stagnation head =
PITOT TUBE
PITOT TUBE

If h2-h1 =h,

The real velocity is

Where, C = pitot tube coefficient, usually 0.95-1.00

B) VENTURI METER
VENTURI METER

Note: For horizontal venturi, z1=z2

VENTURI METER
 
2 gh man  1
Qactual  Cd A1    where, m 
A1
m 1
2
A2

2 gH
Qactual  Cd A1
m2 1
 
where, H  h man  1
  
C) ORIFICE AND MOUTH PIECES
SMALL ORIFICE
Neglecting air resistance and horizontal velocity, v assumed constant,
the distance the fluid traveled in time t is:
The vertical distance y,
From the two,
SMALL ORIFICE
SMALL ORIFICE

Hydraulic coefficients for typical orifices and mouthpieces

ORIFICE METER
 Large Orifice: when the vertical height of the orifice is large so that
the head producing the flow is substantially less at the top of the
opening than at the bottom.
 The discharge calculated using the formula of small orifice, where the
head H is measured to the centre of the orifice, will not be the true
value since the velocity will vary substantially from top to bottom of
the opening.
 In this case theoretical discharge is calculated by integrating from top
to bottom the flow.
 Consider a large rectangular orifice of width B and depth D
 As shown in the figure, the top and bottom of the orifice opening are at
depth H1 and H2 respectively below the free surf ace.
 Consider a horizontal strip across the opening of height dh at a depth h
below the free surface.
 Area of the strip = Bdh

 Velocity of flow through the strip =

 Discharge through the strip,

 To obtain the discharge through the whole opening, integrate dQ from h =

H1 to h = H2

 Threfore, discharge

 The actual discharge

Example 1. Water flows from a reservoir through a rectangular opening
2m high and
1.2 m wide in the vertical face of a dam. Calculate the discharge in m3/s
when the free
surface in the reservoir is 0.5 m above the top of the opening assuming
coefficient of
discharge of 0.64.
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
 Problem of discharge through an orifice under varying head
strictly fall under unsteady flow.

 But if the rate of fall of the head is very small compared to the
velocity of efflux, Bernoulli's equation may be conveniently
applied without appreciable error.

 Two practical cases of unsteady flow through small

orifice are:
 i) Time required for a desired fall of liquid level in a tank due
to efflux from an orifice.
 ii) Flow from one tank to another.
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
1) Time required to empty a tank of uniform cross-section:
 Consider a tank of uniform cross-sectional area A discharging liquid
through an orifice of cross-sectional area a installed at its bottom.
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
Time required to empty a tank of uniform cross-section:
 Let the height of the liquid be at h above the vena contracta at some
instant.
 The theoretical outflow velocity at that instant will be:

 Let the liquid level fall by an amount dh during a time interval dt.
 The volume of liquid that has flown out in time dt will be:

 Volume of liquid that has passed through the orifice in the same time
interval dt will be:

 Thus:
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
Time required to empty a tank of uniform cross-section:
 The time T required for the liquid level to drop from H1 to H2 may be
found by integrating the above equation between the limits H1 and H2.

 Since H1 > H2 , the term in brackets is negative, thus T will be positive.

Taking the minus sign out of the bracket:

Note: The tank will be fully emptied when H2 = 0.

UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
2) Flow from one tank to another through an orifice:
 Consider two adjacent tanks of uniform cross-sectional area A1 and A2
connected by an orifice of cross-sectional area a.

Let,
H1 = initial difference between the liquid levels in the two tanks

H2 = final difference in level between the liquid levels in the two tanks
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
2) Flow from one tank to another through an orifice:
 At any instant, let the difference in levels be H. The theoretical velocity of
the liquid through the orifice at this instant is:

 After a small time interval dt, let the fall in head in tank A1 be dh.
 The volume that has gone out of tank A1 will be dh A1.

 If y is the change in level of tank A2, then the volume entering tank A2 in
time dt will be yA2.
 From continuity,
 UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
2) Flow from one tank to another through an orifice:
 Then the total change in head difference between A1 and A2 will be:

 Equating the flow through the orifice for the time dt to the volume of
displacement:

 Integrating the above between H1 and H2, the time T required for the
level difference in the two tanks to drop from H1 to H2 is:

Note: The time required for the level between the two tanks to equalize is
obtained when H2 = 0.
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
Example. A rectangular tank 10 m x 6 m has an orifice with 10 cm
diameter fitted at its
bottom. It water stands initially at a height of 5m above the orifice, what
time is required
for the level to drop to 1 m above the orifice. Take the orifice coefficient to be
0.64.
Solution:
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
d) Notches and Weirs : hydraulic structures for measuring discharge.
Rectangular Weir

Q  1.84BH 3/ 2  no contraction

Q 1.84 B 0.2H H 3/ 2 oneend contracted

 

Trapezoidal Weir

Q  1.86LH 3/ 2  for sideslope 1H :4V 

 

Triangular Weir

Triangular Weir

5/ 2
Q  1.38H 
 for   90
 
Application of Bernoulli’s Equation
Example1. Determine the discharge over a sharp-crested rectangular weir
with 8 m
crest length and a head of 2.4 m. The width of the approach channel is 10 m.
Take Cd= 0.622.
UNSTEADY FLOW THROUGH SMALL ORIFICE
Example 2. A 90o V-notch has a discharge coefficient of 0.60. Calculate the
discharge
when the observed head is 0.65m.
THANK YOU