OPTIMIZATION OF PROJECT DELIVERY IN ROAD

CONSTRUCTION THROUGH IDENTIFICATION AND

MITIGATION OF COST AND TIME OVERRUN (CTO)
FACTORS
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

JEYASHREE D (191001019)

SRI PACHAIYAPAN R K (191001048)

TANISHKA PRIYADARSHINI RAMESH (191001050)

VISHNU BALAJI M (191001054)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of
Civil Engineering

Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)

Rajiv Gandhi Salai (OMR), Kalavakkam - 603 110

MAY 2023
 ii

Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University)

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this report titled “OPTIMIZATION OF PROJECT DELIVERY IN

ROAD CONSTRUCTION THROUGH IDENTIFICATION AND MITIGATION
OF COST AND TIME OVERRUN (CTO) FACTORS” is the bonafide work of
“JEYASHREE D (191001019), SRI PACHAIYAPAN R K (191001048), TANISHKA
PRIYADARSHINI RAMESH (191001050), VISHNU BALAJI M (191001054)” who
carried out work under my supervision.

Certified further that to the best of my knowledge the work reported herein does not
from part of any thesis or dissertation based on which a degree or award was conferred on
an earlier occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. N. Sivakumar Dr. Aswin Sriram G.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Professor & Head of the Department Assistant professor

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

SSN College of Engineering SSN College of Engineering

Kalavakkam - 603110 Kalavakkam - 603110

Submitted for project viva-voce examination held on .........................

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank and extend our hearty gratitude to Dr. Aswin
Sriram , Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering Department, SSNCollege of
Engineering, Kalavakkam for giving us the opportunity to do this project under
his guide.

We also thank and express our heartfelt and sincere gratitude to Dr. R.
Rajkumar, Associate Professor of Civil Engineering & Department project
coordinator, SSN College of Engineering, Kalavakkam for his constant support
and guidance throughout the project.

We are highly indebted to and record our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. N.
Sivakumar, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, SSN College of
Engineering, Kalavakkam and our beloved principal Dr. Ve.Annamalai, SSN
College of Engineering, Kalavakkam for their benevolence in having the offered
and provided all the facilities and provisions to bring our project successful.
 iv

ABSTRACT

The Time and Cost overrun (CTOs) factors have a colossal consequence on the project.
We have identified the CTO factors for Road Construction projects and devised a
Standard operating procedure for similar projects. For better grasp of the severity of the
issue and listing the components, we have analyzed case studies. It is understandable
and very much likely that one loss factor can end up contributing to other loss factors.
We prepared an estimate on possible risk factors within the scope and location of our
project and allocated cost and time value. We have limited our scope Mahabalipuram-
Marakkanam Stretch for 63kms; however, this operating procedure can be referred for
all Road infrastructure projects. Allocating the time and cost value during the tender
process will increase the probability of profit and minimize the risk allocated with the
project. Formulated Risk Management matrix, which is a simple mechanism to increase
visibility of risks and assist management decision making. We validated our procedure
through GANTTPRO software which can be used as a substitute to MS Projectsoftware.
We created a timeline chart to have better knowledge on the track of project and time
management. Considering the cost implication on our scope of project, 40 crores is
taken as excess budget and can be quoted during the Tender phase.
 v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER. TITLE PAGE
NO NO
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.0 GENERAL 1
1.1 CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY AND ITS 1
NATURE
1.2 PROBLEMS IN SUPPLY AND DEMAND 3
1.3 ISSUES IN FINANCING A PROJECT 3
1.4 ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA 5
1.5 NEED FOR THE STUDY 6
1.6 OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENT STUDY 6
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.0 GENERAL 7
2.1 NATURE OF CONSTRUCTION AND 7
HOW THEMARKET DEPENDS?
2.2 INDIAN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR 9
AND THEIMPACT ON SOCIETY
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING 9
CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1 Uncertainity of demand 9
2.3.2 Input factors: Conventional Workmen vs 10
Mechanization
2.3.3 Resources 10
2.3.4 Inception of funds 10
2.3.5 Output factors: Keystone generation 11
2.3.6 Gross Revenue 11
2.3.7 Relaiablity during downturn 12
2.3.8 Regulatory Organisation 12
 vi

2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY 4.0 12

FROM THE
PRESPECTIVE OF INDIAN
CONSTRUCTIONSECTOR
2.5 CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA – A WAY 14
FORWARD
WITH AUTOMATION

2.6 INFORMATION INVESTMENT AND 15

CREDIT AGENCY RATING SYSTEM
FOR COST OVERRUN
PROJECTS
2.7 GANTTPRO – A TOOL FOR PROJECT 16
MANAGEMENT

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 19

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 21
5 CONCLUSIONS 41
6 REFERENCES 44
 vii

`
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG.NO TITLE PG.NO
1.1 PHASES OF CONSTRUCTION 2
4.1 ICRA REPORT- HALOL SHAMLAJI TOLL WAY 22
LIMITED
4.2 ICRA REPORT – TN DINDUGUL KARUR 23
EXPRESSWAY LIMITED
4.3 COMPONENTS FOR CONSIDERATION – BEFORE 24
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
4.4 COMPONENTS FOR CONSIDERATION – DURING 25
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
4.5 COMPONENTS FOR CONSIDERATION – AFTER 26
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
4.6 RISK MANAGEMENT MATRIX 30
4.7 GANTTPRO WORKBOOK (1) 32
4.8 GANTTPRO WORKBOOK (2) 33
4.9 DELAY SCHEDULE 34
4.10 TIMELINE OF CTOs 39
 viii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PG.NO

4.1 POTENTIAL ESTIMATE FOR RISKS (1) – 27

BEFORE CONSTRUCTION
4.2 POTENTIAL ESTIMATE FOR RISKS (2) – 28
DURING CONSTRUCTION
4.3 POTENTIAL ESTIMATE FOR RISKS (3) – 29
AFTER CONSTRUCTION
4.4 DETAILS ACCORDING TO IRC CODE FOR 38
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT FOR
NATIONAL HIGHWAY
 1

CHAPER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 GENERAL
Construction business in India is on the boom post covid era. The business which was
at a standstill, started to rise again with necessary precautions and disaster preparedness
for any future outbreaks. Construction projects as such can be categorised with respect
to cost of a project, type of construction, mechanisation involved during construction,
agency that awards the project, purpose of project and materials involved in the
construction. A contractor can design and choose as to which project, he can take up
and how much profit can be generated from the project. The contractor should possess
sufficient skill, technical knowledge, manpower and financial resources to take up and
complete the project with all due aspects thereby handing over it to the client without
any compromise. More often, it can be observed that most of the projects will either get
delayed due to unforeseen conditions while the cost of the project will get overrun
thereby diminishing the profits of the contractor. In these situations, the total cost
incurred will surpass the tender value thus making the project a financial loss for the
contractor.
1.1. CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY AND ITS NATURE
Construction can be described as incorporation of 3 prong activities namely,
production of building materials, presenting professional services and execution of
physical work on site. In general, the outcome of construction can be categorised into
housing, infrastructure, industrial and commercial buildings, and repair and
maintenance. Though the outcome of a construction work is distinctive, it is eventually
the integration of activities mentioned above irrespective of the nature of the project. In
Addition, Contribution of the construction field to the Nation's economy has been
clearly evident at present. Hence it becomes extremely crucial for a Government of a
Country to invest in these construction projects.
Demand for construction projects corresponds to the business activities of the
goods and services taken up after completion of the project. These demands are however
higher in developing countries like India than developed countries. Some of the issues
 2

are in hindsight but the contractor is oblivious and could not predict these issues. Every
project will have its own set of geographical constraints, demographic restraints,
contractual conditions and legislative restrictions.

Fig 1.1: Phases of Construction

The factors are unique and dependent on type of construction and the agency that
awards the contract. If the contractor is made aware of different issues that might arise
while executing the project, then the contingency and mitigation measures could be
prepared well in advance. For every issue cropping up during the execution of a project
there is a cost and time associated towards it. Moreover, certain issues like land
availability or location of land might be a legal or geographical issue thereby making it
difficult to even kickstart the project. Similarly, the disbursement of cash funds by the
contract awarding agency might get delayed or the investors and benefactors might back out
of the project at the last minute. This might put contractors at critical risk because
advance cash is required for mobilisation of manpower and equipment.
 3

1.2. PROBLEMS IN SUPPLY AND DEMAND

With the increase in demand comes the demand for more workmen. Even with
the increase in demand for workmen, the drawbacks of low job security and mobility
due to fluctuations is still unsorted. These workers are paid in terms of project rather
than permanent salaries. Outsourcing of workmen may result in temporary employment
and also cause insecurity. Although, it is profitable in contractors’ perspective if the
wages of imported Workmen with the transportation costs is lesser than the local
workers. Lack of skilled workmen is another major concern predominantly in
developing countries and may have a direct effect on the quality of construction. One
may opt for mechanising methods, minimising the use of workmen to some extent,
however implementing them in developing countries is still to be addressed. In such a
way reasonable time for an activity can be saved with a catch on cost.
Next comes the cost of resource materials, these resource materials depend on
various factors such as Market forces, Demand and Supply. As a result of these factors,
We are all familiar with the increase in prices of Equipment and Building materials to
a great degree Post Covid. Besides the Market forces, It is the responsibility of a well-
functioning Government to provide subsidies on these resources for the betterment of
the economy. The flow of cash for the procurement of these resources is from client to
contractors which is distributed by contractors to other sub-contractors. As a matter of
fact, for better functionality of the project Lump sum funds are needed at the initial
phase of the project while the funds required at the later phase are stable.

1.3. ISSUES IN FINANCING OF A PROJECT

Delay in payment is one complication that might have a serious effect on the
incorporation of any activities associated with the project. And it is evident that major
construction projects are highly capital intensive, and the government provides the
funding in developing countries. Apparently, these projects are essentially public but
often it is under private ownership or control. It is obvious that the construction,
especially at the early development stage, contributes to the Gross National Product
 4

(GNP) abundantly. It acts as an aid for a great deal of multitudinous industries by

purchase of several building materials and diverse equipment. All around the duration
of construction, policy regimes proposed by the government have an immense effect on
the construction process which consequently affects the economy. Along this,
Construction has an indirect effect on economic growth by reducing the costs and
increasing the productivity of other industries.
Having said all these, in some instances uncontrolled expansion and
misallocation of resources in the construction industry will have an adverse impact.
Employment in the construction industry increases during economic growth. Even
during the slack time and high unemployment rate, the Government uses Infrastructural
construction projects as a counter reaction. Another way to mitigate this is postponing
the projects during boom periods. However, these have their own difficulties. One of
the constraints is lag time between governmental decision and the actual application of
decision in the construction field. Another constraint involves the technical difficulties
in case of postponing a construction activity, which in turn increases the cost. These
may help only as a short-term benefit for an economy. These might need to integrate
with other development programs for long term benefit. Usually, the Government
creates a regulatory body for monitoring and managing activities and concerns
developed in the construction industry. These bodies often act as a medium between
professional bodies and government. Implementation of this body also results incredible
allocation of tenders to the desired firm which in turn improves the quality of
construction.
But, how do governments decide what projects to take up amidst the considerable
number of projects that end in loss? There are concerns to a great extent for every
characteristic involved in the process including the Government. Therefore, it is highly
imperative to understand and categorise the various issues that might originate in the
project that is to be quoted for tender and probable execution these factors are called are
cost and time overrun factors (CTOs). In this project, a road construction project istaken
up and analysed as to what might be the CTOs and how best to mitigate the threatsthat
might arise in various stages of the road project.
 5

1.4. ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA

Road infrastructure development has been a crucial factor in India's progress for
several years. The nation boasts the second-largest road network globally, with more
than 5.8 million kilometres of highways. The Indian government has introduced
numerous initiatives to maintain and improve the network to encourage social
development and economic growth. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
is responsible for the construction and maintenance of national highways. They have
been actively involved in extending and enhancing the existing highways and
constructing new ones to connect remote parts of the country. The Golden Quadrilateral
project, launched in 2001, aimed to create a four-lane highway connecting Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, spanning 5,846 kilometres. This project finished in
2012 and significantly improved travel time and connectivity. Besides NHAI, various
state government agencies and private businesses are also participating in road
construction in India. The Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) launched in
2000, connects all-weather road connectivity to unconnected rural habitations. The
program has been successful in connecting over 97% of eligible habitations and has
considerably improved accessibility to education, healthcare, and markets.

In recent times, the Indian government has emphasized the development of

expressways, which are high-speed highways that connect major cities. The Delhi-
Mumbai Expressway is one of the most ambitious projects and is expected to decrease
travel time between the two cities by half. The government has also declared plans to
establish a network of expressways, linking significant economic corridors throughout
the country. However, the road construction industry in India faces several obstacles,
such as insufficient funding, land acquisition problems, and delays in project
implementation. The government has implemented several steps to address these issues,
including increased budget allocation for road construction, streamlined land
acquisition processes, and faster project approvals.
 6

1.5. NEED FOR THE STUDY

Project delivery is a function of the following:

• Time taken to complete the project and,

• Cumulative cost incurred till final handing over.

For a theoretically successful project, the time taken will be either exactly on the day
planned for handing over or before the expected time of completion. Similarly, the cost
of the project shall be below the projected cost during the detailed engineering stage
and inclusive of the overhead profits. There are various factors both direct and direct,
affecting the delay in completion or increase in cost of the project. These are known as
Cost and Time Overrun (CTO) factors. These CTOs tend to erase the profits of the
project thereby bleeding cash while handing over the project. Before quoting for a
project, a contractor or a project management company must be aware of the tentative
CTOs that might be present. The knowledge of CTOs helps in creating a threat
assessment and mitigation plan. A surplus cash for emergency situations can be arranged
beforehand. Project’s tender value can be quoted accordingly while factoring in these
considerations.

1.6. OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

I. To determine the CTOs for a typical road construction project by reviewing
previous road construction projects.
II. To assess the criticality and impacts of these CTOs in various phases of
construction.
III. To incorporate these CTOs and derive at a tentative tender value that can be
quoted for a road construction project between Mahabalipuram and
Marakkanam.
IV. To validate the project timeline incorporating the CTOs through GANTTPRO
software and derive at the critical path for the project.
 7

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 GENERAL

The construction sector consistently encounters difficulties and obstacles. However, in

developing nations like India, these difficulties and difficulties coexist with a
generalised state of socioeconomic stress, persistent supply shortages, institutional
flaws, and a general inability to handle the major issues. Construction is a composite,
fragmented, and planning-driven industry, therefore it frequently faces obstacles that
limit its ability to succeed.

2.1. NATURE OF CONSTRUCTION AND HOW THE MARKET DEPENDS?

The size and complexity of projects in India's construction industry have changed
dramatically during the past fifty years. The typical objectives of construction projects
are to be completed on schedule, with customary quality, and within the designated
budget. Any nation's economy, commercial, infrastructure, and industrial expansion
depend heavily on the success of construction projects. There will almost always be
delays, and the severity of each delay relies on the project in question, among other
things, such as the project's importance and the nature and design of the building. In
order to complete the project on schedule after a delay, either the delivery date is
extended or the progress is greatly expedited. The former can result in arbitration,
litigation, fines, etc.; the latter can result in additional costs; both can result in financial
loss. In the worst situation, the project's speed will also affect the output standard, which
will jeopardise the client's satisfaction[2]. While there are many challenges with Indian
construction projects, one of the most significant ones is construction delay.

"The time overrun, either on the far side the completion date per a contract or on the
far side the date that the parties prescribed for delivery of a project."
 8

Compared to India's other industries, such as IT, textiles, and agriculture, the
construction sector is one of the largest leaders. The engineering construction sector is
one of the most hazardous sectors in the world. The rate of deadly accidents at
construction sites is horrifying, and it has been shown that falls of persons from heights
and openings are the main cause. The Indian industry is currently rather large and
complex, utilising both the most recent technology and labour. Construction projects
today are far more sophisticated. Construction is a method in which disputes are
essentially guaranteed due to the sophisticated, relative, and drawn-out planning,
designing, and building process. Conflicts between the stakeholders also result from the
diverse involvement in the construction process. It appears that conflict and
disagreements are inherent in the infrastructure sector in particular, and the majority of
building projects deal with a great deal of uncertainty. Construction conflicts that are
mostly related to issues with written agreements include discrepancies, payment delays,
technical requirement quality, information availability, administration and supervision,
and unrealistic client expectations and determination. Conflicts may arise as a result of
a lack of resources, such as money, labour, supplies, or equipment.

One of the main challenges in managing construction projects is coordination, which

significantly contributes to the achievement of project goals. In order to provide a
harmonious operating environment, coordination factors in construction projects will
be outlined as a body of procedures like detailed procurement set up, resource priorities
for crucial tasks, task dependencies identification, and elements like plans, meetings,
and reports. To advance the project with a high level of satisfaction, several of these
activities require the support of numerous stakeholders, such as coordination meetings.
The major elements, which were divided into five main teams, reflect the milestone of
the coordination framework and a strong foundation for the coordinating approach in
building projects. Planning and Scheduling, Resource Management and Contacts,
Records and Documentation, Contract Implementation, and Quality and Worth
Engineering are the teams.
 9

2.2. INDIAN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR AND THE IMPACT ON SOCIETY

The real work on the job site that turns materials and designs into finished buildings,
structures, and facilities doesn't begin until much later in the construction process. On
the other hand, construction is thought of as an industry that primarily concentrates on
the actual physical labour done on the construction site during the last stage of the
process. This viewpoint excludes all services, including those related to project
management, planning, and design, as well as the off-site production and provision of
building materials. Construction is sometimes described as an economic activity that
encompasses the full construction process, from the production of raw and
manufactured building materials and components to the provision of expert services like
project management and design to carrying out the actual physical work on the jobsite.
According to this theory, the economic activity of construction spans all three economic
sectors: the primary sector, which entails the extraction of natural resources; the
secondary sector, which entails the production of building materials and components and
the transformation of these materials into finished buildings; and the tertiary sector,
which entails the provision of consultancy services like project management, design,
and structural engineering (Gruneberg, 1997).

2.3. FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSTRUCTION

2.3.1. Uncertainty of demand

Demand for construction corresponds to the business activities of the goods and services
that helps in production of construction product. If there is instantaneous demand,
industry cannot respond to the instability swiftly. The demand for infrastructural
facilities is high in developing countries, as a result the spending at the initial stage will
be at a greater extend. In addition, the instability will be high on these developing
countries.
 10

2.3.2. Input Factors: Conventional Workmen force vs Mechanization

The need for Workers is directly proportional to the demand for construction.
However, fluctuations cause concerns for Workmen force namely low job security and
mobility. These workers are paid in terms of project rather than permanent salaries.
Outsourcing of workmen may result in temporary employment and also cause
insecurity. Although, it is profitable in contractors’ perspective if the wages of imported
Workmen with the transportation costs is lesser than the local workers. The Workmen
market is characterized by lack of skilled labours, predominantly in developing
countries. The productivity and quality of construction to a major extent is affected by
the inability of the industry to attract workers and to invest in training them. Improving
vocational training and mechanizing the methods are two solutions for the problem,
however implementation of these in developing countries is still a major concern.
Another approach is mechanization of methods. Intensity of equipment used depends
on the technology of construction. Using mechanized method, time is saved. Using
conventional manual workmen, cost is saved. Choice of approach is adapted based on
the prevailing prices of labour and equipment. Improvement in managerial and technical
aspects of labour-intensive method could easily compete with the mechanized method.

2.3.3. Resources
Cost of resource materials corresponds to the cost of construction product. In
addition, the cost of resource materials depends on market forces, demand and supply.
Besides the market forces, Government can fix the prices and provide subsidies for
materials used in public sectors.

2.3.4. Inception of Funds

The flow of cash in construction project is from client to contractors which is distributed
by contractors to other sub-contractors. Lump sum fund investments are required by the
contractors at the initial phase of construction. However, funds required at the later
phase are stable. Delayed payments and uncertainty of cash flow are common concerns
in construction industry ( World Bank 1984 ). Since major construction projects are
highly capital intensive, government provide the funding in developing countries.
 11

Apparently these projects are essentially public but often it is under private ownership
or control. In addition, for the effective performance of projects there are various types
of contractual agreements offered by the government.

2.3.5. Output factors: Keystone Generation

The productive capacity decides the overall outturn of an economy. If there is a
switch in the capital stock, the national output will alter accordingly. To increase
production the nation can consider investing in those capital stock. These investments
act as a keystone which in turn increases productivity and physical capital stock of the
nation. In addition, these investments are measured by GFCF ( Gross fixed capital
formation ).

2.3.6. Gross Revenue

Value added in construction includes salaries and wages of employees, interest
of borrowed capital, net rent and depreciation allowance. These Value added in
construction varies directly with the per capita GDP. Graph developed by Bon (
1992,2000 ) suggest that at early phase of development share of construction output in
GNP increases, but reduces at the late phase. Besides, demand for development in
infrastructure is more at developing countries than developed countries. All around the
duration, policy regimes proposed by the government have an immense effect on the
construction process which consequently affects the economy. The contribution of
construction industry to Nation’s income can be seen at numerous instances, there are
still drawbacks. Uncontrolled expansion and misallocation of resources in construction
industry will have a negative impact on economy.

Construction industry acts an aid for a great deal of multitudinous industries. Provision
of several building materials and diverse equipment are more than mandatory for
fruitful completion of project. It is certain that purchase of these will directly contribute
to the overall economy to a considerable amount. Although for better progress in
economy through direct contribution, importing the raw materials must be minimized.
The expanse of indirect contribution can be noteworthy since, the demand for
 12

construction is due to the demand for other economic sectors. These contributions can
result in reduction in costs and increase in productivity of resources. In addition, they
upswing international trade and foreign direct investments. However, overestimation of
demand might result in unproductive circumstances.

2.3.7. Reliability during downturn

Employment in construction industry increases during economic growth. Even
during the slack time and high unemployment rate, Government use Infrastructural
construction projects as a counter reaction. Another way to mitigate is postponing the
projects during boom periods. However, these have their own difficulties. One of the
constraints is lag time between governmental decision and the actual application of
decision in the construction field. Another constraint involves the technical difficulties
in case of postponing a construction activity, which in turn increases the cost. Having
said, these may help only as a short-term benefit for an economy. These might need to
integrate with other development programs for long term benefit.

2.3.8. Regulatory Organization:

Government creates a regulatory body for effective monitoring and management of
concerns developed in construction industry. These body often acts as a medium
between professional bodies and government. Implementation of this body also results
in credible allocation of tenders to the desired firm which in turn improve the quality of
construction.

2.4. DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRY 4.0 FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF

INDIAN CONSTRUCTION SECTOR

Every organisation aspires to have an advantage over its rivals in today's fiercely
competitive market in order to become established and successful (Dobni et al., 2022;
Sulistyo & Siyamtinah, 2016). The most popular strategy to establish a solid presence
in the corporate world is to integrate smart technology into the production process,
which boosts efficiency and productivity (Moradi et al., 2021). Smart technology can
 13

significantly reduce the inherent hazards linked to the production process (Lin &
Cheung, 2020).This not only boosts profits but also helps to monitor environmental
risks and produce more superior goods, both in terms of quality and quantity (Kim et
al., 2017; Kolberg & Zühlke, 2015). Industry 4.0 has demonstrated tremendous
potential in the development of a smart infrastructure that helps in establishing a
framework that addresses the three P's of the Triple Bottom Line (TBL) approach in
industries, i.e. people, profit, and the planet (Chen, 2022). This is due to the urgent need
to integrate automation and smart technology in the production process. As a result,
implementing Industry 4.0 in organisations can result in production processes that are
efficient, socially responsible, and environmentally friendly (Arpaci, 2019).
Industry 4.0 is a carefully planned step towards creating smart factories where
various technologies like robotics, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, internet of
things (IoT), communications technology, big data analytics, and virtual reality are
integrated to encourage interaction between people and equipment, thereby making the
system more efficient. Industry 4.0 was originally developed as part of a high-tech
project in Germany with a primary focus on computerization in manufacturing. The
term "industry 4.0" often refers to automation and data interchange in manufacturing
technologies. At the heart of its concepts are cyber-physical systems (CPS).
According to Forbes (2019; Yoon et al., 2020), a "smart factory" is a situation in
which the equipment is linked to the internet, which is then connected to a system that
can monitor the entire manufacturing process and make decisions on its own. The fourth
industrial revolution, also known as Industry 4.0, is the period of time when many new,
closely related technologies from every field—physical, digital, and biological—
appear. Every field, economy, and industry are impacted by this link between the
technologies. By regenerating natural resources through improved asset management,
Industry 4.0 has the capacity to stop and reverse the environmental calamities that the
last three revolutions inflicted.
 14

2.5. CONSTRUCTION IN INDIA – A WAY FORWARD WITH

AUTOMATION

India's construction industry is still expanding as a result of rising infrastructure and

real estate demand. Due to the fact that it creates and encourages investment
opportunities in other linked industries, it is a significant indicator of the development.
The current study will give senior management in the small-scale Indian construction
industry the opportunity to learn the causes of their organisations' incapacity to adopt
an Industry 4.0 enabled framework, especially small-scaled businesses with limited
resources. By 2030, it is anticipated that India would have a 15% GDP contribution,
making it the third-largest building market in the world. Additionally, it is predicted
that by 2022, the construction sector will employ more than 75 million people (Make in
India, 2019).
The Government of India (GoI) has invested heavily in the construction sector
because it recognises that the current levels of urban infrastructure cannot sufficiently
meet the ever-increasing demands of the urban population. In order to meet the demands
of the people and the movement from rural to urban regions, it is necessary to regenerate
urban areas in the existing cities and to build new smart cities. According to reports
released by the GoI, Gross Value Added (GVA) increased by 4.3% in comparison to
1.3% in the previous year. India has already started to explore the fourth industrial
revolution by leveraging its IT knowledge and big IT workforce. The Department of
Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP) Secretary recognises India's great potential and
the possibilities Industry 4.0 can open for the country. While automation has radically
changed the production landscape, the construction industry has not yet benefited from
automation and intelligent machines.
There is a lot of potential and possibility to incorporate clever ideas into the
building process, which would significantly increase the effectiveness and calibre of the
result or product. Three-dimensional (3D) printing, robotics, and artificial intelligence
(AI) have previously been used in numerous aspects of building activities to raise
production standards overall, reduce labour costs, and guarantee worker safety. By
enabling increased productivity through optimisation and automation, making real-time
 15

data available for use in real-time supply chains in the real-time economy, greater
business continuity through advanced maintenance and continuous monitoring, and
providing higher quality products as a result of real-time monitoring, IoT and IoS
enabled processes, and quality control, Industry 4.0 shows great potential for
revitalising the Indian Construction Industry. By using "smart city" ideas, Industry 4.0
has the potential to transform the way operations are conducted in the construction
industry. According to the concept of the "smart city," operations are optimised to spur
economic growth while enhancing quality of life (Yigitcanlar et al., 2021). The
foundation of smart cities is the acceptance and implementation of mobile computing
through data management networks including IoT, big data, and cloud computing
technologies (Kirimtat et al., 2020). The use of smart technology is frequently regarded
as the greatest way to address issues with waste management, transportation, and
environmental protection (Laufs et al., 2020). Industry 4.0 adoption is still viewed with
scepticism. The majority of this can be attributable to the significant financial outlay
required to create the framework and acquire the skills required for efficient and
effective operation.
2.6. INFORMATION INVESTMENT AND CREDIT AGENCY’S RATING
SYSTEM FOR COST OVERRUN PROJECTS

Leading financial/investment institutions, commercial banks, and financial services

firms founded ICRA Limited (formerly known as Investment Information and Credit
Rating Agency of India Limited) in 1991 to serve as an independent and qualified
investment information and credit rating agency. ICRA Limited (ICRA), one of the
country's most seasoned credit rating agencies, entered the credit rating industry early.
ICRA rates debt instruments issued in rupees by municipalities, public sector
organisations, commercial banks, non-banking financing organisations, manufacturing
firms, and other entities. ICRA also evaluates sector-specific debt obligations, such as
those issued by Power, Telecom, and Infrastructure corporations, as well as structured
obligations.
Some of the functions of ICRA are:
 16

• Provide information and guidance to institutional and individual

investors/creditors.
• Enhance the ability of borrowers/issuers to access the money market and the
capital market for tapping a larger volume of resources from a wider range of the
investing public.
• Assist the regulators in promoting transparency in the financial markets.
• Provide intermediaries with a tool to improve efficiency in the funds raising
process.
A Performance and Credit Rating Scheme for Small-Scale Enterprises in India has been
introduced by ICRA and National Small Industries Corporation Limited (NSIC). With
the use of the service, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) will be better able
to access institutional loans, become more competitive, and gain more market share.
The corporate and financial services sectors are covered by more than 30 segments of
ICRA's industry research service. The research studies offer in-depth analysis of
industry-specific concerns, changes in demand-supply relationships, the competitive
landscape, and medium- to long-term outlooks due to ICRA's excellent analytical
capabilities across industries. A wide range of players, including banks, mutual funds,
insurance firms, venture funds, and corporations, have their research needs catered for
in the research reports.

2.7. GANTTPRO – A tool for Project management

The major goal of GanttPRO is to deliver useful value by concentrating on the most
crucial functionality while keeping the interface simple. In addition, it is flexible and
adaptable, allowing anyone to get the most out of it regardless of the team's size, field,
or level of project management skill. Accurate planning will be possible thanks to the
ability to construct task lists with a work breakdown structure, establish dependencies
between jobs, and set milestones. While clearly defined project and personal schedules
will aid in accurately evaluating the allocation of effort. We may quickly and easily get
a clear picture of our project or collection of projects, including tasks, dates, deadlines,
dependencies, and assignees, with the help of a visually appealing Gantt chart.
 17

Everything we need to know about the assignment will be in a grid view with standard
and custom fields. Additionally, a board view will enable us to manage our tasks as
cards and instantly observe the status of each work in relation to the column it is placed
in. We will be able to monitor the project's status at all times and foresee obstacles and
poor choices thanks to tools like critical path, baselines, and historical changes, among
others. Numerous task configurations and automated processes have been planned for
by GanttPRO to assist us in accomplishing tasks on schedule and in accordance with
the project and plan.
Features of GANTTPRO:
Project management

• Baseline: to assess whether the project is developing as it has been planned.

• Critical path: to identify tasks that directly affect the project completion date.
• Project calendar: to set working schedule and exceptions.
• History of changes: to monitor changes in the project and undo them.

Task management

• Bulk change: to perform multiple changes at the same time, when it is

applicable.
• Filters: to find data within the wealth of all the project information easier and
quicker.
• Priorities: to define which tasks require immediate attention or can be
postponed.
• Statuses: to keep track of and manage the task progress.
• Dependencies: to connect tasks with the required type of dependency and set
lag or lead of tasks.
• Auto scheduling: to have automatic recalculation of task schedules when
changes are introduced to the dependent tasks.
• Milestones: to set visualized significant points in a project and check whether it
goes as it has been planned.
• Task hierarchy: to break down a project and get an easy-to-follow structure.
 18

• Custom fields: to track and measure as many crucial aspects of the plan as
possible.
• Custom colors: to differentiate tasks visually.

Time management

• Task time tracker: to register time spent on tasks.

• Time log report: to create time log reports.
• Deadlines: to keep track of the due dates of each task.
• Duration and estimation: to get precise control over tasks and their costs.

Team and resource management

• Assignees: to distribute tasks between team members and assign virtual

resources.
• Workload: to control and manage resources’ workload.
• Action log: to keep track of all the activity in the project.
• Virtual resources: to add material resources and external labor resources that
are engaged in the project but are not team members.
• Permissions: to manage rights of team members according to their roles and
responsibilities.
• Personal calendars: to set individual calendars for the resources and team
members.
 19

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

For a construction project, various parameters and factors influence the outcome of the
project. Predominantly, the governmental contracts carry a tag of non-uniform cash
flow and legal complications. After the incorporation of an environmental impact
assessment by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF) all the projects must
be analysed for their impact towards society and technology. The project must also be
assessed for their Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat (SWOT) which gives an
eagle eye perspective of how a project could shape up for both the client and the
contractor at every stage. These assessments carry a certain cost and time value. A
project can be quoted for its executional cost-plus overhead profits. Those are strengths
and opportunities (SO). If the project is getting delayed due to various conditions, then,
the project gets escalated by cost and time. These are weaknesses and threats (WT).
Typically, every contractor aspiring to be L1 in a tender quotation, quotes for
L1 Quote = Value |SO|

But the escalation due to various factors can be expressed as

CTO = Value |WT|

If the project must be successfully executed, it has to be quoted as below:

Tender Quote = Value |SO| + Value |WT|

It can be observed that a project might be affected due to various factors and these
factors even though look common for every construction project, it is, as a matter of
fact, different with respect to each and every project. To analyse the CTOs of the entire
 20

construction sector, credible information and data sets are required to pinpoint the cause
and effect.
In the present project, two previously constructed road projects are studied, and cost
overrun factors are delineated. These factors carry a cost and time value. They are
ranked based on their criticality and impact in presents to the contract. Subsequently, a
proposed road construction project is taken and estimated for all the civil quantities.
These CTOs are incorporated into this project and the escalation amount is derived.
GANTTPRO software is used for the critical path timeline computation.
 21

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. In order to understand the CTOs for a construction sector, few road projects are
taken up and studied. It can be understood from the case studies that cost
implication is most crucial factor contributing to time overrun and time overrun
is most crucial for cost implications. Besides, each project has its own
components that has to be considered prior to quoting of project.
Case 1: Halol Shamlaji Toll way Limited
The project was to construct a 173km road from Halol to Shamlaji in the state of
Gujarat, the total Project cost is around 1305 crores with 261 crores equity. L&T
was awarded the contract. The Cost overrun was found to be 61%
Major Reasons for failure:
o Inaccurate Prior Survey
o Economic recessions - Industrial Growth was less than projected due to
withdrawal of tax incentives
Case 2: TN Dindugul Karur Expressway Limited
The project was to construct 78 kms of road from Karur to Dindigul in the state of
Tamil Nadu. The Project cost was found to be 327.20 crores and Madhucon Infra
was awarded with the contract. The Cost overrun was found to be 25%
Major Reasons for failure:
o Continued delays in repayment of debt obligations
o Toll collections have been significantly below expectations on account of
continued weak traffic flow
o Toll rates were revised downwards due to negative WPI
o Maintenance reserve could not be created ( MM got delayed by 53months)
TNDK would be required to raise additional debt for major maintenance which
falls due in the current financial year.
 22
Fig 4.1 ICRA Report - Halol Shamlaji Toll way Limited
Fig 4.2. ICRA Report - TN Dindugul Karur Expressway Limited

23
 24

2. From the case studies it is very much evident that the Identification of
Components for consideration in road infrastructure projects is crucial and
different corresponding to uniqueness of the project. Hence it becomes
necessary to formulate a check list that is standard for similar projects. We have
created standard operating checklist that can be used for every road
construction project and sorted them into phases of construction.

Fig 4.3 : Components for consideration : Before Construction Phase

 25
Fig 4.4 : Components for consideration : During Construction Phase
 26

Fig 4.5 : Components for consideration : After Construction Phase

3. After sorting the components according to different phases of construction, To

be more precautious with the cost implications we tried allocating a cost value
considering the scope of our project and enumerated Potential estimate for the
components considered.
 27

Table 4.1 : Potential Estimate for Risks (1) – Before Construction

Land Acquisition and

Resettlement (PLF) 500crs

Extrapolation and Forecasting (PLF)

Accounted

To be
Finance
accounted

Loss of habitat
1cr

Before Construction Phase Local people support

2crs

Underground piping (PLF)

3crs

Requirement with respect to inflow

Optional

Location of Industries and Scope for Project in

development need

Saving in Time
2 hrs
 28

Table 4.2 : Potential Estimate for Risks (2) – During Construction

2% of Project
Inception of Funds (PLF)
Cost
2% of Project
Change in Ground conditions
Cost

Legal Dispute Risk, Arbitration 5crs

1% of Project
Uncertainty of Demand
Cost

Availability of Conventional Workmen

force and Advanced Mechanization 3crs
Accessibility and Transportation of
Resources 2crs
During Construction Phase
Alteration of Design Specifications and 3% of Project
Change of orders Cost

Bad Weather 2crs

Traffic Congestion 2crs

Dust, Noise and Waste generation 50 lakhs

Safety concerns of laborers

1cr

Maintenance (Blockages to prevent the

entry of Vehicles, Provision of Lights,
electricity and other factors) 50 lakhs
 29

Table 4.3 : Potential Estimate for Risk (2) – After Construction

Disaster and Repair

120lkhs/per year

Road Maintenance
80lkhs/per year

Market Shift
1cr

After Construction Phase Allotment of toll rates

To be accounted

Non intended usage

1cr

Local problem/ Miscreate

50lakhs

Exempted vehicles using toll

50lakhs

4. Formulated a Risk Management Matrix that helps us visualize the probability vs.
the severity of a potential risk. Land Acquisition and resettlement, Extrapolation
and Forecasting, Availability of Conventional Workmen force and Advanced
Mechanization, Alteration of design specifications and change of orders,
Inception of funds must be given at most priority as these factors may contribute
to the most loss. While, factors such as exempted vehicles usage, road
maintenance and Market shift may not affect a project severely.
 30
Fig 4.6 : Risk Management Matrix
 31

5. Validation of Critical Path through GANTTPRO. The mission of GanttPRO is to

help us quickly create a project plan, allocate material and human resources,
minimize risks and understand the critical events that are essential for project
completion. We have created a schedule for the scope of the Project considered.
6. We have Formulated a potential delay schedule for the risk components
considered. Total delay for threat areas is calculated at 44 days in total if the
potential delays occur in parallel sequence and it is expected to delay more than
7 years if the delays occur one after the other.
 32
Fig 4.7 : GANTTPRO Work Book (1)
 33
Fig 4.8 : GANTTPRO Work Book (2)
Fig 4.9 : Delay Schedule

34
 35

7. Road Estimation
Depending on the length of the finished roadway, building a road is a hard
process that could take many years to complete. It requires careful planning,
numerous assessments, and a range of assessments, including examinations of
the environment and the structure, as well as numerous construction teams and
plant machinery. Before a road may be used by vehicles, several steps must be
taken after construction has begun. The road estimated is a 63 km road , from
Mahabaligapurama to Markkanam.
• The estimation of the road was done in accordance with the IRC code for Design
of Flexible Pavement for National Highway.
• The road we are considering is a three-lane road .
• The things to be considered for the material estimation of roads are.

Tree Cutting, Clearing and Grubbing

removing and disposing of top organic soil not exceeding 150 mm in thickness if
necessary and in accordance with relevant Section-200 clauses, uprooting rank
vegetation, grass, bushes, shrubs, saplings, and trees with girths up to 300 mm,removing
the stumps of trees cut earlier, and stacking serviceable materials to be used or auctioned
up to a lead of 1000 metres.

Subgrade

Flexible pavement generally consists of three layers , Surface course , the Base course
and the Subbase course. Additionally, subgrade, which comes after subbase and is
significant, exists. Not always is subbase used. The entire structural component, which
includes the subbase, base, and surface course, is strongly incorporated into the design
of flexible pavement. The flexible pavement transfers and spreads the loading outward
 36

and downward as it is loaded. Because of this, the base course, subbase course, and
subgrade all need to be tightly compacted and able to support the added weight. All
layers, but especially the subgrade, are essential to the resilience of flexible pavement.

WMM(Wet Mixed Macadam)

Laying, spreading, and compacting clean, crushed, well-graded aggregate and granular
material on a prepared and authorised granular sub-base are the steps in the wet mix
macadam process. Water must be blended and thoroughly prepared with the materials
required for Wet Mix Macadam. The next step is to roll the wet mix macadam into a
thick mass.

• The cost of wet mix macadam per cubic metre in India is roughly 2800 Rupees.
The cost analysis varies from location to location because it depends on
numerous variables like labour cost, material cost, etc.

Prime Coat

To prepare a granular base for the application of an asphalt mixture, a prime coat is
often applied over it. A prime coat serves a number of crucial purposes. covers and fuses
stray material particles on the base's surface. toughens or hardens the base's surface.

• Specific Gravity of Prime Coat= 0.95. Calculate increase in Weight= (B-A)

kg. Rate of Spray in Kg = (Increase in Weight)/(Area of tray) Unit of Rate
of Spray in kg/sqm.

DBM(Dense Bituminous Macadam)

Dense Bituminous Macadam (DBM) is a close-graded premix material with a void

percentage of 5–10% that is used as a binder course for roads with a higher volume of
heavy commercial vehicles.The Bituminous layers in a road are -Dense Bituminous
Macadam (DBM) and Bituminous Concrete(BC).

• Considering a 3-lane road having carriageway width- 7.5 m , thickness of DBM-

125 mm, thickness of BC- 40 mm.
 37

• Considering approximate rate of DBM and BC as Rs.10000 and Rs. 11000

respectively per cum .
• Quantity of DBM required in Cum for a length of 1 Km - 1000x7.5x0.125= 937.5
cum
• Quantity of BC required in Cum for a length of 1 Km - 1000x7.5x0.04= 300 cum
• Hence, total cost for DBM and BC -Rs. 9375000 + Rs. 3300000 i.e 1.27 cr
approx.
• Toe Width= Carriageway+ shoulder+(total crust layer + horizontal layer)
= 17.425
• Provision of Culverts
– Construction cost of 1 Culvert= 5lakhs
– 13 culverts it is estimated to be around 65lakhs
• Provision of Manholes, Reflecting lights, Fire hydrant= 5crs
• Construction of toll= 5crs
• 30m lighting pole price per piece= 11,000 placed at 90m gap = 8 lakhs(700 lamp
posts)
• Provision of Shoulders = 63lakhs
• Provision of Median= 63lakhs

Land Acquisition and Resettlement

• Average price per Square feet in Mahabalipuram – 4129/Square feet

• Average price per Square feet in Kalpakkam – 4225/Square feet
• Average price per Square feet in Cheyyur – 3750/ Square feet
• Average price per Square feet in Thenpakkam – 3160/ Square feet
• Average price per Square feet in Marakkanam - ₹5,476/ Square feet
• Average price per square feet from Mahabalipuram to Marakkanam –
4148/Square feet
• Kms to Foot – 1km= 3281feet
• 20 Square feet on either side of road for 8.2 kms
• 40×4148×3281×8.2 = Rs. 446,39,44,864/-
 38

• It is estimated to be around 500crs.

• Moreover it is the responsibility of the Government to handover the lands to the
Private sector unit

Table 4.4 : Details according to IRC Code for Design of flexible pavement for
National Highway

Data L.H.S Middle R.H.S

Carriageway 3.75 3.5 3.75

Paved Shoulder 1.5 - 1.5

Earthern Shoulder 1 1

Bituminous
0.025 0.025 0.025
Concrete

D.B.M 0.05 0.05 0.05

WMM II 0.125 0.125 0.125

WMM I 0.125 0.125 0.125

GSB 0.15 0.15 0.15

Sub Grade 0.5 0.5 0.5

8. Worked out Timeline of the Cost and Time Overrun (CTOs) factors for better
understanding of the time of occurrence of a risk factor. The Risk factor starts
from Land acquisition and lasts till miscreants
Fig 4.10 : Time line of CTOs

39
 40

We have identified potential risk factors involved in construction of a 63-kms road

stretch in ECR between Mahabalipuram and Marakkanam. Here the risk factors carry a
certain financial implication and value towards the project.

• A total of Rs. 125 crores are taken as potential budget of road laying.
• A total of Rs 40 crores is potential loss factors involved towards the
project.
• So total cost to be quoted for the project is 165 crores.
 41

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

It is understood that there are various factors, both direct and indirect, affecting
the delay in completion or increase in cost of the project. These Time and Cost overrun
(CTOs) factors have a colossal consequence on the project. Every Contractor wants the
project to be wrapped up within the stipulated time and budget, But it is undeniable fact
that most infrastructure projects fail due to numerous factors. We have included couple
of case studies to disclose the seriousness of the issue. Halol Shamlaji Toll way Limited
is one of the case studies that is a classic example of failed infrastructure projects that
might never end in positive note even on increasing the toll rates to 200%.

Our Work is just a steppingstone to address the prevailing issue on the CTOs in
Construction Projects. We identified different components that should be considered for a
construction project. However, we observed that these components are exclusive for
different outcomes of the construction project. So we narrowed our research to road
infrastructure projects and shifted our focus to formulate a standard operating procedure
for road infrastructure projects.

The issue with addressing these risk factors is that we cannot define a particular
time and cost overrun for such an event occurrence. It may happen that some events
considered might not happen and some events considered may extend more than the
assumed time and cost overrun. Besides, it is very much likely that the event end up
contributing to other loss factors. One way to work out these issues is to prepare an
estimate on possible risk factors on the scope and location of project and allocating cost
and time value for it during tender period itself. In this way, we can mitigate the risk on
time and cost and our probability and the margin of profit increases.

We have prepared an estimate for the possible risk factors between

Mahabalipuram-Marakkanam Stretch which includes 63kms of Road. It must be noted
that some components considered may not affect the project cost or time to a
considerable extent in current scope of the project. Loss of Habitat is one such issue, it
will have substantial effect on the biodiversity if not given utmost focus. As a matter of
 42

fact, NHAI has planned to realign the road at Odaiyur wetland in Cheyyur taluk of
Chengalpattu district in ECR expansion project. Realigning the roads will result in utter
different scenarios for contractors to execute if the decision had been taken after the
tender issue.

One of the most critical issues with any development projects, especially in
developing countries like India is Land acquisition. Even if the Government bear
acquisition and resettlement costs, the delay in procuring and issuing the land will leave
the contractors in an unbearable situation as the industry cannot respond
instantaneously. Considering the financial implication, We have compiled all the issues
and associated a cost value towards it and it is found to be 40 crores. As a rough estimate, A
total of Rs. 125 crores are taken as potential budget of road laying between
Mahabalipuram-Marakkanam Stretch. Construction Industry is like a turtle that is on
the race, whatever might be the issue, it cannot respond instantaneously but eventually.
Hence, it is advised to be precautious to avoid the sudden occurrence of an issue and
smooth conduct of execution. If 165 crores are quoted instead of 125 crores the
contractor will be at a better place to decode the issues related to cost overrun.

The components considered might all contribute to the potential risk, to have an
idea on extent on contribution we included a severity analysis and criticality analysis
between those components. To define the level of risk by considering the category of
component, we formulated a risk management matrix. As mentioned above Land
acquisition and resettlement was found to be the almost certain issue that may end up a
catastrophic effect if not treated properly while there are events like Bad weather that is
probable and might have an minor effect on the project.

The critical path of our project is validated through GANTTPRO and we have
created a project plan, allocated material and human resources, minimized risks and
understanded the critical events that are essential for project completion. We have also
included the timeline of CTO factors in the order of their occurrence for reference and
better functionality. Delay schedule for the components considered is mentioned, these
delay for threat areas is calculated at 44 days in total if they occur in parallel sequence.
 43

If the delays occur in precedence factor and occur one after the other, it is very likely
that the project may even have a time overrun of 7 years.

Quoting a value more than the project budget looks very much over cautious and
it is a safe decision that will give up a high profit margin as every issue considered may
not happen. However, as the tender is allotted to the one with the minimum bid this
method may have its own restrictions. The entire paper to a great extent is restricted to
road construction projects. Investigating these methods to other outcomes of
construction is a topic to work on.
 44

REFERENCES

1. Acharya NK, Dai Lee Y, Man Im. Conflicting Factors In Construction Projects:
Korean Perspective. Eng Onstr Archit Manag 2006;13(6):543–566. Doi:
10.1108/09699980610712364.
2. Ahmad, S., Zulkurnain, N., & Khairushalimi, F. (2016). Assessing The Validity And
Reliability Of A Measurement Model In Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
British Journal Of Mathematics & Computer Science, 15(3), 1–8.
Https://Doi.Org/10.9734/Bjmcs/ 2016/25183
3. Aibinu AA, Jagboro GO. The Effects Of Construction Delays On Project Delivery
In Nigerian Construction Industry. Int J Proj Manage 2002;20(8):593–9. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/S0263-7863(02)00028-5.
4. Akmam, S., Zakaria, S., Kaur, A., & Singh, M. (2021). Impacts Of Covid-19
Outbreak On Civil Engineering Activities In The Malaysian Construction Industry.
A Review., 33(3), 477–75.
5. Alsehaimi A, Koskela L, Tzortzopoulos P. Need For Alternative Research
Approaches In Construction Management: Case Of Delay Studies. J Manage Eng
2013;29(4):407–13. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(Asce)Me.1943- 5479.0000148.
6. Alsharef, A., Banerjee, S., Uddin, S. M. J., Albert, A., & Jaselskis, E. (2021). Early
Impacts Of The COVID-19 Pandemic On The United States Construction Industry.
International Journal Of Environmental Research And Public Health, 18(4), 1–21.
Https://Doi. Org/10.3390/Ijerph18041559
7. Asia Pacific Management Review - Identification And Severity Assessment Of
Challenges In The Adoption Of Industry4.0 In Indian Construction Industry Arpit
Singh, Vimal Kumar, Pratima Verma , Jayakrishna Kandasamy
8. Assaf SA, Al-Hejji S. Causes Of Delay In Large Construction Projects. Int J. Proj
Manage 2006;24(4):349–357, Doi: 10.1016/J.Ijproman.2005.11.010.
9. Azhar S, Choudhry RM. Capacity Building In Construction Health And Safety
Research, Education, And Practice In Pakistan. Built Environ Proj Asset Manag
2016;6(1):92–105. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/BEPAM-09-2014-0044.
 45

10. Bajjou MS, Chafi A. Empirical Study Of Schedule Delay In Moroccan Construction
Projects. Int J Constr Manage 2020;20(7):783–800. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/15623599.2018.1484859.
11. Barthorpe S, Duncan R, Miller C. The Pluralistic Facets Of Culture And Its Impact
On Construction. Propert Manage 2000;18(5):335–51.
12. Benjamin Boahene Akomah1, Laud Kwamina Ahinaquah2, Zakari Mustapha3.
Skilled Labour Shortage In The Building Construction Industry Within The Central
Region. Baltic Journal Of Real Estate Economics And Construction Management ·
August 2020
13. Bertelsen S, Sacks R. Towards A New Understanding Of The Construction Industry
And The Nature Of Its Production, 2007.
14. Biswas, A., Ghosh, A., Kar, A., Mondal, T., Ghosh, B., & Bardhan, P. K. (2021). The
Impact Of COVID-19 In The Construction Sector And Its Remedial Measures.
Journal Of Physics: Conference Series. Https://Doi.Org/10.1088/1742-
6596/1797/1/012054
15. Bou Hatoum, M., Faisal, A., Nassereddine, H., & Sarvari, H. (2021). Analysis Of
COVID-19 Concerns Raised By The Construction Workforce And Development Of
Mitigation Practices. Frontiers In Built Environment, 7(May), 1–15.
Https://Doi.Org/10.3389/ Fbuil.2021.688495
16. Butt, A. S. (2021). Strategies To Mitigate The Impact Of COVID-19 On Supply
Chain Disruptions: A Multiple Case Analysis Of Buyers And Distributors.
International Journal Of Logistics Management, December.
Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/IJLM-11-2020-0455
17. Chapter 2 - The Economy And The Construction Industry By Low Sui Pheng And
Lau Shing Hou
18. Chen YQ, Zhang YB, Zhang SJ. Impacts Of Different Types Of Owner-Contractor
Conflict On Cost Performance In Construction Projects. J Constr Eng Manag
2014;140(6):04014017. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(Asce)Co.1943-
7862.0000852.
19. Cho, K. M., Hong, T. H., & Hyun, C. T. (2009). Efect Of Project Characteristics On
Project Performance In Construction Projects Based On Structural Equation Model.
 46

Expert Systems With Applications, 36(7), 10461–10470.

Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Eswa. 2009.01.032
20. Dadhich P, Genovese A, Kumar N, Acquaye A. Developing Sustainable Supply
Chains In The UK Construction Industry: A Case Study. Int J Prod Econ
2015;164:271–84. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Ijpe.2014.12.012.
21. Demissew, A. (2020). Assessment On Impact Of Covid-19 On Ethiopian
Construction Industry. Ijesc, 10(7), 26889–26894.
22. Dinesh Kumar R,Causes And Effects Of Delays In Indian Construction Projects ,
International Research Journal Of Engineering And Technology (IRJET) E-ISSN:
2395 -0056 Volume: 03 Issue: 04 Apr-2016
23. Dinesh Kumar R. Causes And Effects Of Delays In Indian Construction Projects.
International Research Journal Of Engineering And Technology (IRJET) E-ISSN:
2395 -0056 Volume: 03 Issue: 04 | Apr-2016
24. Doloi, H., Iyer, K. C., & Sawhney, A. (2011). Structural Equation Model For
Assessing Impacts Of Contractor’s Performance On Project Success. International
Journal Of Project Management, 29(6), 687–695.
Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Ijproman.2010.05.007
25. Elhusseiny HO, Nosair I, Ezeldin AS. Developing A User Plug-In To Assess Delay
Causes’ Impact On Construction Projects In Egypt. Ain Shams Eng J 2021;12
(4):3553–68. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Asej.2021.04.013.
26. Elhusseiny HO, Nosair I, Ezeldin AS. Systematic Processing Framework For
Analyzing The Factors Of Construction Projects’ Delays In Egypt. Ain Shams Eng
J 2021;12(2):1501–11. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Asej.2020.10.016.
27. Elziny AA, Mohamadien MA, Ibrahim HM, Abdel Fattah MK. An Expert System
To Manage Dispute Resolutions In Construction Projects In Egypt. Ain Shams Eng
J 2016;7(1):57–71. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Asej.2015.05.002.
28. ERKESİM, D. U. (2021). IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON SUPPLY CHAIN
MANAGEMENT Dilek ULUCAN ERKESİM International Journal Of Commerce
And Finance 2 Literature Review. International Journal Of Commerce And Finance,
7(1), 72–76.
 47

29. Esa, M. B., Ibrahim, F. S. B., & Kamal, E. B. M. (2020). Covid-19 Pandemic
Lockdown: The Consequences Towards Project Success In Malaysian Construction
Industry. Advances In Science, Technology And Engineering Systems, 5(5), 973–
983.
30. Faizul Azli Mohd-Rahim1, Nurul Safwah Mohd-Yusoff2, Wang Chen3, The
Challenge Of Labour Shortage For Sustainable Construction. Journal Of The
Malaysian Institute Of Planners. Special Issue V (2016)
31. Faridi AS, El-Sayegh SM. Significant Factors Causing Delay In The UAE
Construction Industry. Constr Manag Econ 2006;24(11):1167–76. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/01446190600827033.
32. Fellows, R., & Liu, A. (2008). Impact Of Participants’ Values On Construction
Sustainability. Proceedings Of The Institution Of Civil Engineers: Engineering
Sustainability, 161(4), 219–227. Https://Doi.Org/10.1680/Ensu.2008.161.4.219
33. Gamil, D. Y., & Alhagar, A. (2020). The Impact Of Pandemic Crisis On The Survival
Of Construction Industry : A Case Of COVID-19 Dr. Yaser Gamil Abdulsalam
Alhagar. Mediterranean Journal Of Social Sciences, 11(4), 122–128.
34. Ghanim A. Bekr, Factors Affecting Performance Of Construction Projects In
Unstable Political And Economic Situations, Arpn Journal Of Engineering And
Applied Sciences, Vol. 12, No. 19, October 2017 Issn 1819-6608
35. Ghanim A. Bekr. Challenges Affecting Performance Of Construction Projects In
Unstable Political And Economic Situations. Arpn Journal Of Engineering And
Applied Sciences Vol. 12, No. 19, October 2017
36. Hamza M, Shahid S, Bin Hainin MR, Nashwan MS. Construction Labour
Productivity: Review Of Factors Identified. Int J Constr Manage 2022;22 (3):413–
25. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/15623599.2019.1627503.
37. Hamzah N, Khoiry MA, Arshad I, Tawil NM, Che Ani AI. Cause Of Construction
Delay - Theoretical Framework. Procedia Eng 2011;20:490–5.
38. Hansen, S. (2020). Does The COVID-19 Outbreak Constitute A Force Majeure
Event? A Pandemic Impact On Construction Contracts. Journal Of The Civil
Engineering Forum., 6(1), 201.
 48

39. Horta IM, Camanho AS, Johnes J, Johnes G. Performance Trends In The
Construction Industry Worldwide: An Overview Of The Turn Of The Century. J
Product Anal 2013;39(1):89–99. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1007/S11123-012- 0276-
0.
40. Husien, I. A., Borisovich, Z., & Naji, A. A. (2021). COVID-19: Key Global Impacts
On The Construction Industry And Proposed Coping Strategies. E3S Web Of
Conferences, 263. Https://Doi.Org/10. 1051/E3sconf/202126305056
41. Impact Of Covid-19 On Supply Chain Management In Construction Industry In
Kashmir Sofi Adnan Farooq, B.Indhu, P. Jagannatha. Received: 19 May 2022 /
Accepted: 25 September 2022 The Author(S), Under Exclusive License To Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
42. Indhu, B., & Yogeswari, K. (2021). Structural Equation Modelling (Sem) Approach
On Inappropriate Construction Equipment Delay Factors. Civil Engineering Journal
(Iran), 7(7), 1156–1168.
43. Investment Information And Credit Agency (ICRA)
44. Jang, H., Kim, K., Kim, J., & Kim, J. (2011). Labour Productivity Model For
Reinforced Concrete Construction Projects. Construction Innovation, 11(1), 92–
113. Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/1471417111 1104655
45. JENKS GF. The Data Model Concept In Statistical Mapping. Int. Yearb. Cartogr
1967;7:186–190 [Accessed: Nov. 20, 2020]. [Online]. Available: Https://Ci.Nii.
Ac.Jp/Naid/10021899676.
46. Jonbi, A. Andreas, Arini RN, Yuze M. Analysis Of Delay Factors And Construction
Claims Of Apartments And Commercial Building. J Infrastruktur 2020;6(1):39– 45,
Doi: 10.35814/INFRASTRUKTUR.V6I1.1293.
47. Kikwasi G. Causes And Effects Of Delays And Disruptions In Construction Projects
In Tanzania. Australas. J Constr Econ Build - Conf Ser 2013;1(2):52. Doi:
10.5130/Ajceb-Cs.V1i2.3166.
48. Kraiem ZM, Diekmann JE. Concurrent Delays In Construction Projects. J Constr
Eng Manag 1987;113(4):591–602. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(Asce)0733-
9364(1987)113:4(591).
 49

49. M M Rahman1, Y H Yap1, N R Ramli1, M A Dullah1 And M S W Shamsuddin1

Causes Of Shortage And Delay In Material Supply: A Preliminary Study. IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science And Engineering
50. M M Rahman1, Y H Yap1, N R Ramli1, M A Dullah1 And M S W Shamsuddin1.
Causes Of Shortage And Delay In Material Supply: A Preliminary Study. IOP
Conference Series: Materials Science And Engineering. Oct 2017
51. Mahamid I, Bruland A, Dmaidi N. Causes Of Delay In Road Construction Projects.
J Manag Eng 2012;28(3):300–10. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/ (ASCE)ME.1943-
5479.0000096
52. Memon AH, Bdul Rahman I, Abdullah, M.R., Abdul Aziz AA. Time Overrun In
Construction Projects From The Perspective Of Project Management Consultant
(PMC). J Surv Constr Prop 2011;2(1):1–13, Doi: 10.22452/Jscp.Vol2no1.4.
53. Methodological Consistency For Quantitative Analysis And Reporting In Project
Delivery System Performance Research Bryan Franz, A.M.ASCE1; Robert Leicht,
A.M.ASCE2; Mounir El Asmar, A.M.ASCE3; And Keith Molenaar, M.ASCE4
54. Mitkus S, Mitkus T. Causes Of Conflicts In A Construction Industry: A
Communicational Approach. Procedia - Soc Behav Sci Jan. 2014;110:777–86. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Sbspro.2013.12.922. [21] Ng HS, Peña-Mora F, Tamaki
T. Dynamic Conflict Management In Large-Scale Design And Construction
Projects. J Manag Eng 2007;23(2):52–66. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(Asce)0742-597x(2007)23:2(52).
55. Mughees Aslam A, B*, Edmund Baffoe-Twum A, C, Farhan Saleem A Design
Changes In Construction Projects – Causes And Impact On The Cost. Civil
Engineering Journal Vol. 5, No. 7, July, 2019
56. N. Jaffar*, A. H. Abdul Tharim, M. N. Shuib Factors Of Conflict In Construction
Industry: A Literature Review. Procedia Engineering 20 (2011) 193 – 202
57. N. Jaffar*, A. H. Abdul Tharim, M. N. Shuib. Challenges Of Conflict In
Construction Industry: A Literature Review. Procedia Engineering Journal 20 (2011)
193 – 202
58. Obi R. Stress And Conflict In Organisation. Ind Sociol Ibadan, Spectr. Books Ltd,
2012.
 50

59. Ogunnusi, M., Hamma-Adama, M., Salman, H., & Kouider, T. (2020). COVID-19
Pandemic : The Efects And Prospects In The Construction Industry. International
Journal Of Real Estate Studies, 2(2), 120–128.
60. Ongori H. Organisational Conflict And Its Effects On Organisational Performance;
2009, Accessed: Nov. 20, 2020. [Online]. Available: Https://
Ubrisa.Ub.Bw/Handle/10311/1084.
61. Osuizugbo, I. C. (2020). Disruptions And Responses Within Nigeria Construction
Industry Amid COVID-19 Threat. Covenant Journal In Research & Built
Environment (CJRBE), 8(2), 37–48.
62. Pamidimukkala, A., & Kermanshachi, S. (2021). Impact Of Covid-19 On Feld And
Ofce Workforce In Construction Industry. Project Leadership And Society, 2,
100018. Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Plas. 2021.100018
63. Paul, S. K., Chowdhury, P., Moktadir, M. A., & Lau, K. H. (2021). Supply Chain
Recovery Challenges In The Wake Of COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal Of Business
Research, 136(August), 316–329. Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Jbusres.2021.07.056
64. S. Kanchana,1 P. Sivaprakash,2 And Sebastian Joseph3. Studies On Labour Safety
In Construction Sites. Scientific World Journal. 6 Dec 2015.
65. Sambasivan M, Soon YW. Causes And Effects Of Delays In Malaysian Construction
Industry. Int J Proj Manage 2007;25(5):517–26. Doi: Https://
Doi.Org/10.1016/J.Ijproman.2006.11.007.
66. Sanni-Anibire MO, Mohamad Zin R, Olatunji SO. Causes Of Delay In The Global
Construction Industry: A Meta Analytical Review. Int J Constr Manage 2020:1–13.
Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1080/15623599.2020.1716132.
67. Semple C, Hartman FT, Jergeas G. Construction Claims And Disputes: Causes And
Cost/Time Overruns. J Constr Eng Manage 1994;120(4):785–95. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(Asce)0733-9364(1994)120:4(785).
68. Shumank Deep, Deepak Singh, Syed Aqeel Ahmad. A Review Of Contract Awards
To Lowest Bidder In Indian Construction Projects Via Case Based Approach. Open
Journal Of Business And Management,17 Jan 2017, 5, 159-168
 51

69. Sierra, F. (2021). COVID-19: Main Challenges During Construction Stage.

Engineering, Construction And Architectural Management.
Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/ECAM-09-2020-0719
70. Study The Delays And Conflicts For Construction Projects And Their Mutual
Relationship: A Review Junaid Tariq , S. Shujaa Safdar Gardezi Department Of Civil
Engineering, Capital University Of Science And Technology (CUST),Islamabad
Expressway,Kahuta Road, Zone- V, 44000 Islamabad, Pakistan
71. Sunjka BP, Jacob U. Significant Causes And Effects Of Project Delays In The Niger
Delta Region, NIGERIA 641-2; 2013.
72. Tilaoui, N. (2021). The Impact Of COVID-19 Pandemic On The Civil Engineering
Sector VS The Various Economic And Fnancial Measures : Moroccan Case. 29–32
73. Timilsina, S. P., Ojha, S. K., & Dhungana, B. R. (2021). Impact Of Covid-19 On
Construction Industry Of Nepal. Modern Economy, 12(08), 1232–1244.
Https://Doi.Org/10.4236/Me.2021.128064
74. Trauner TJ. Construction Delays: Understanding Them Clearly, Analyzing Them
Correctly. Butterworth-Heinemann; 2009.
75. Tumi SAH, Omran A, Pakir AHK. Causes Of Delay In Construction Industry In
Libya. In: The International Conference On Economics And Administration. P. 265–
72.
76. Turkish Online Journal Of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI)Volume 12, Issue 6, June
2021:539-552 Research Article Identifying Challenges Of Construction Industry In
India Michal Choudhary, Abhinav Singh, Mayank Yadav, Dr. Senthilpandian Prof.
Karthikeyan
77. Uchehara, I., Hamma-Adama, M., Obiri, K. A., Jafarifar, N., & Moore, D. (2020).
Impacts And Risk Management Of COVID-19 Pandemic On Real Estate Supply
Chain. International Journal Of Real Estate Studies, 14, 41–53.
78. Vasantha Raju N.1and N.S.Harinarayana2. Online Survey Tools: A Case Study Of
Google Forms1. Paper Presented At The National Conference On "Scientific,
Computational & Information Research Trends In Engineering, GSSS-IETW,
Mysore. 2016 January
 52

79. Veselovská, L. (2020). Supply Chain Disruptions In The Context Of Early Stages
Of The Global COVID-19 Outbreak. Problems And Perspectives In Management,
18(2), 490–500.
80. Vilventhan A, Kalidindi SN. Interrelationships Of Factors Causing Delays In The
Relocation Of Utilities A Cognitive Mapping Approach. Eng Constr Archit Manag
2016;23(3):349–68. Doi: Https://Doi.Org/10.1108/ECAM-10-2014-0127. [19]
Chandu A, Sheetal P, Bhalerao NV. A Methodology For Ranking Of Causes Of
Delay For Residential Projects. Int Res J Eng Technol 2016;03(06):224–31.
81. Wang J, Wu P, Wang X, Shou W. The Outlook Of Blockchain Technology For
Construction Engineering Management. Front Eng Manage 2017;4(1):67. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.15302/J-Fem-2017006.
82. Wesam Salah Alaloul *, Mohd Shahir Liew, Noor Amila Wan Abdullah Zawawi,
Identification Of Coordination Factors Affecting Building Projects Performance,
Alexandria Engineering Journal (2016) 55, 2689–2698
83. Wesam Salah Alaloul, Mohd Shahir Liew, Noor Amila Wan Abdullah Zawawi.
Identification Of Coordination Challenges Affecting Building Projects Performance.
Alexandria Engineering Journal. 25 June 2016
84. Yang J-B, Wei P-R. Causes Of Delay In The Planning And Design Phases For
Construction Projects. J Archit Eng 2010;16(2):80–83, Doi: 10.1061/(Asce) 1076-
0431(2010)16:2(80).
85. Yates JK, Epstein A. Avoiding And Minimizing Construction Delay Claim Disputes
In Relational Contracting. J Prof Issues Eng Educ Pract 2006;132 (2):168–79. Doi:
Https://Doi.Org/10.1061/(ASCE)1052-3928(2006)132:2(168).