Chapter No 4

Wireless Communication (BTEC-601-18)
Unit 4: Wireless Systems & Standards:
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
All the changes AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) invented by Bell Labs and first installed in the
United States in 1982. In all mobile phone system, a geographic region divides up into cells, which is why the
devices are sometimes called cell phones.
In AMPS cells they are typically 10 to 20 km across in digital systems the cells are smaller. Each cell uses
some set of frequencies not used by any neighbors. The key idea that gives cellular systems for more capacity
than previous systems is the use of relatively small cells and the reuse of transmission frequencies in nearby
cells. Thus, the cellular design increases the system capacity by at least an order of magnitude, more than
cells get smaller. Smaller cells mean that the less power is needed, which leads to smaller and cheaper
transmitters and handsets.
The uniformity of the analogue AMPS system throughout the US highly contributed to its success of
capturing 2/3 of the analog cellular subscribers worldwide. Around 1995, AMPS had an estimated 13 Million
subscribers in the U.S.. US manufacturers and operators have been divided about the operational merits of
various technologically advanced options for radio channel access and digital modulation, in particular the
choice between Code Division Multiple Access ( CDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access ( TDMA )
transmission formats for cellular telephony. For the migration towards all-digital operation, the objective of
the Federal Communication Commission ( FCC) has been to introduce a digital system that was fully
compatible with the existing analog AMPS system, i.e., the FCC was looking for a new system that uses the
same radio spectrum as the old analog system, but at least ten times more efficient in spectrum use. By 1988,
the Cellular Telecommunications Industry Association (CTIA) defined a full set of User Performance
Requirements (UPR).
Two different solutions have come up. US cellular network operators are implementing a narrowband TDMA
version of AMPS, known as IS-54. Meanwhile, the Californian company Qualcomm promotes
a CDMA concept, presenting scientific and experimental evidence to academic for a about the technical
superiority of CDMA over TDMA. Experimental CDMA systems are in operation in several cities, based on
the IS-95 standard. Expectations are that AMPS product shipments reached its top in 1996 with
Motorola, Nokia, NEC and Ericsson dominating the market. Digital systems including PCS are expected to
become cost effective with analog AMPS in the time frame 1997-2000.
Working of AMPS:
 In an area where the number of users has grown to point that the system is overloaded, the power can
be reduced and the overloaded, the power can be reduced and the overloaded cells split to small micro
cells to permit more frequency reuse. At the center of each cell is base station to which all telephones in
the cell transmit.
 The base station consists of computer and transmitter/receiver connected to antenna. In small system
all the base station are connected to a single device called MSC (Mobile Switching Center) or
MTSO(Mobile Telephone Switching Office).
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 1

 The MSCs are essential to ending offices as in telephonic systems and are in fact connected to at least
one telephone system end office.
 At any instant mobile telephone is logically in one specified cell and under the control of that cell base
station. The telephone is then informed of its new boss and if a call is in progress, it is asked to switch to
new channel.
 This process called handoff takes about 300 msec. Channel assignment is done by the MSC, the nerve
center of system. The base stations it is really just dumb radio relays.
Features
 It is an analog system based on the initial electromagnetic spectrum allocation for cellular service by
the Federal Communications Commission.
 It uses frequency division multiple access (FDMA) for multiple simultaneous conversations.
 Frequency ranges within the 800 and 900 MHz are allocated for cellular telephones in AMPS. Half of
the signal is used for sending signals and half is used for receiving signals.
 It has a high bandwidth requirement particularly when the number of conversations is very high.
 It was the first system to use hexagonal cells. So, the pioneers of AMPS had coined the term coined
cellular.
 The cells in AMPS are 10km to 20 km across.
 Since, it was an analog technology, it suffered from noise and eavesdropping.

ETACS
ETACS: The first cellular systems were not called 1G, it’s a moniker which has been attached by history. The
first generation of cellular phones in the UK used a technology called ETACS, with TACS standing for Total
Access Control System, and ETACS being Extended Total Access Control System when more frequencies
were added. The radio developments which made ETACS better than the Pre-G was that instead of all the
phones speaking to a central tower it was cellular. Phones only spoke to a nearby tower, and looked out for a
nearer one the whole time as the mobile customer moved, hopping onto it when appropriate. As it hopped the
phone had to change frequency while seamlessly holding the call. The evolution of microprocessors meant
that building the necessary frequency hopping technology was possible. The history of why the UK got
TACS when Scandinavia was using NMT (Nordic Mobile Telecom) and America was using AMPS
(Advanced Mobile Phone System) is tied up with politics. The history of mobile has been built on
technopolitics. Just as the debate rages on 5G today, the same was true when Margaret Thatcher wanted
Britain to be a leader in mobile phones. The incumbent was BT which thought it strange that anyone else
might serve the British public with telephones. BT wanted to use STD codes and for mobile phone users to
pay for incoming calls. It was envisaged that the two mobile networks – Securicor Cellnet and Racal
Vodafone – would never be able to cover the whole of the UK, and so terms for network roaming were
written into the proposal, by Stephen Temple who explained to the group that the idea only lasted weeks.
One of the issues the industry had to contend with in his planning the UK cellular service was that BT held
the cards on what could be connected to its network. BT was still pretty much analogue with the System X
digital exchanges still being quite new, BT was paranoid about phone phreaks, people using tones to hack the
system and get free call and denied that there was any way for a digital interconnect, but Rob Morland, a
consultant working on the launch of mobile was quietly tipped the wink on a System X exchange which was
working with the interconnect BT had failed to mention in a number of meetings and that led the way to
integrate mobiles with the BT network.
Morland investigated using the US AMPS system but AT&T was using a 24 Channel solution and BT wanted
a 30 channel solution, this is why the UK went ETACS, principally using Ericsson hardware.
The politics around which companies should provide the service, with the government tipping the playing
field in favour of Racal over Ferranti, is what led to the creation of Vodafone.
Phones were analogue and could be listened to with a cheap scanner bought in Tandy. You could do this
because Tandy still existed then. Initially phones were super expensive, The dominant manufacturers were
NEC and Motorola. The Phones cost over £1000 and had a battery life of about a day ETACS brought the
mass market. It might help if you think of this as vinyl records, music for the masses, while pre-G was wax
cylinders. Tomorrow we’ll look at the birth of digital, with GSM.

Features of ETACS System:
ETACS uses 890 MHz to 915 MHz for the reverse link and 935 MHz to 960 MHz for the forward link.
 For ETACS, the maximum deviation of the FM modulator is ± 10 kHz

 The control channel transmissions and blank-and burst data streams are transmitted at 8 kbps for ETACS
 These wideband data streams have a maximum frequency deviation ±6.4 kHz for ETACS,
 ETACS cellular radio systems generally have tall towers which support several receiving antennas and
have transmitting antennas which typically radiate a few hundred watts of effective radiated power
 Each base station typically has one control channel transmitter, one control channel receiver, and eight
or more FM duplex voice channels.
 ETACS supports forty-two control channels for a single provider.
 Thus any cellular telephone in the system only needs to scan a limited number of control channels to
find the best serving base station
 For ETACS, area identification numbers (AID) are used instead of SID, and ETACS subscriber units are
able to access any control or voice channel in the standard.

United States digital cellular:

IS-54
IS-54 and IS-136 are second-generation (2G) mobile phone systems, known as Digital AMPS (D-AMPS),
and a further development of the North American 1G mobile system Advanced Mobile Phone
System (AMPS). It was once prevalent throughout the Americas, particularly in the United
States and Canada since the first commercial network was deployed in 1993. D-AMPS is considered end-of-
life, and existing networks have mostly been replaced by GSM/GPRS or CDMA2000 technologies.
This system is most often referred to as TDMA. That name is based on the abbreviation for time division
multiple access, a common multiple access technique which is used in most 2G standards, including GSM, as
well as in IS-54 and IS-136. D-AMPS competed against GSM and systems based on code division multiple
access (CDMA).
D-AMPS uses existing AMPS channels and allows for smooth transition between digital and analog systems
in the same area. Capacity was increased over the preceding analog design by dividing each 30 kHz channel
pair into three time slots (hence time division) and digitally compressing the voice data, yielding three times
the call capacity in a single cell. A digital system also made calls more secure in the beginning, as analogue
scanners could not access digital signals. Calls were encrypted, using CMEA, which was later found to be
weak.
IS-136 added a number of features to the original IS-54 specification, including text messaging, circuit
switched data (CSD), and an improved compression protocol. SMS and CSD were both available as part of
the GSM protocol, and IS-136 implemented them in a nearly identical fashion.
Former large IS-136 networks, including AT&T in the United States, and Rogers Wireless in Canada, have
upgraded their existing IS-136 networks to GSM/GPRS. Rogers Wireless removed all 1900 MHz IS-136 in
2003, and has done the same with its 800 MHz spectrum as the equipment failed. Rogers deactivated its IS-
136 network (along with AMPS) on May 31, 2007. AT&T soon followed in February 2008, shutting down
both TDMA and AMPS.
Alltel, who primarily uses CDMA2000 technology but acquired a TDMA network from Western Wireless,
shut down its TDMA and AMPS networks in September 2008. US Cellular, which now also primarily
uses CDMA2000 technology, shut down its TDMA network in February 2009.
IS-54 is the first mobile communication system which had provision for security, and the first to employ
TDMA technology.
AMPS also had many disadvantages, as well. Primarily, it did not have the ability to support the ever-
increasing demand for mobile communication usage. Each cell site did not have much capacity for carrying
higher numbers of calls. AMPS also had a poor security system which allowed people to steal a phone's serial
code to use for making illegal calls. All of these triggered the search for a more capable system.
The quest resulted in IS-54, the first American 2G standard. In March 1990, the North American cellular
network incorporated the IS-54B standard, the first North American dual mode digital cellular standard. This
standard won over Motorola's Narrowband AMPS or N-AMPS, an analog scheme which increased capacity,
by cutting down voice channels from 30 kHz to 10 kHz. IS-54, on the other hand, increased capacity by
digital means using TDMA protocols. This method separates calls by time, placing parts of individual
conversations on the same frequency, one after the next. TDMA tripled call capacity.
Using IS-54, a cellular carrier could convert any of its system's analog voice channels to digital. A dual mode
phone uses digital channels where available, and defaults to regular AMPS where they are not. IS-54
was backward compatible with analogue cellular and indeed co-existed on the same radio channels as AMPS.
No analogue customers were left behind; they simply could not access IS-54's new features. IS-54 also
supported authentication, a help in preventing fraud.


IS-136
IS-136 is an evolution of the IS-54 standard. Both are known as Digital AMPS (D-AMPS), a 2G technology
used particularly in the United States and Canada. IS-136 – often also referred to as TDMA – was originally
an important mobile radio Communications standard in the Americas, but it has meanwhile been replaced by
GSM/GPRS and CDMA2000 technologies.
D-AMPS transmits in the same 30 kHz frequency bands as analog AMPS, which results in a smooth
transition from an analog to a digital system. Voice data is compressed, allowing partitioning into three
timeslots. The voice capacity per channel is thus tripled.
Technology Overview
A pragmatic effort was launched to improve IS-54 that eventually added an extra channel to the IS-54 hybrid
design. Unlike IS-54, IS-136 utilizes time division multiplexing for both voice and control channel
transmissions. Digital control channel allows residential and in-building coverage, dramatically increased
battery standby time, several messaging applications, over the air activation and expanded data applications.
IS-136 systems needed to support millions of AMPS phones, most of which were designed and manufactured
before IS-54 and IS-136 were considered. IS-136 added a number of features to the original IS-54
specification, including text messaging, circuit switched data (CSD), and an improved compression protocol.
IS-136 TDMA traffic channels use π/4-DQPSK modulation at a 24.3-kilobaud channel rate and gives an
effective 48.6 kbit/s data rate across the six time slots comprising one frame in the 30 kHz channel.
Similarities between IS-136 and IS-95

Both are second generation cellular systems for mobile to mobile communication. Both are introduced in 19th
century and use the same spectrum 869 MHz to 894 MHz for downlink and 824 MHz to 849MHz for uplink.
Downlink refers to transmission from base station to mobile station. Uplink refers to transmission from
mobile station to base station.
Difference between IS-136 and IS-95

IS-136 uses TDMA multiple access, while IS-95 uses CDMA multiple access techniques.
IS-136 channel bandwidth is about 30 KHz and IS-95 channel bandwidth is about 1250 KHz.
IS-136 uses pi/4(DQPSK) and IS-95 uses QPSK modulation techniques in physical layer.
IS-136 uses speech coding technique VSELP and IS-95 uses QCELP.
IS-136 frame duration is about 40ms and IS-95 frame duration is about 20ms.
IS-136 supports 832 duplex channels and IS-95 supports 20 channels.

IEEE Standards Association:

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association (IEEE SA) is an Operating Unit
within IEEE that develops global standards in a broad range of industries,
including: power and energy, artificial intelligence systems, internet of things, consumer
technology and consumer electronics, biomedical and health care, learning technology, information
technology and robotics, telecommunication and home automation, automotive, transportation, home
automation, nanotechnology, information assurance, emerging technologies, and many more.
IEEE SA has developed standards for over a century, through a program that offers balance, openness, fair
procedures, and consensus. Technical experts from all over the world participate in the development
of IEEE standards.
IEEE SA provides a neutral platform that unites communities for standards development and techno logical
innovation and is independent of any government oversight. IEEE SA develops standards that are consensus-
based and has two types of standards development participation models. These are individual and entity.
IEEE SA is not a body formally authorized by any government, but rather a
community. ISO, IEC and ITU are recognized international standards organizations. ISO members are
national standards bodies such as American ANSI, German DIN or Japanese JISC. IEC members are so
called National Committees, some of which are hosted by national standards bodies. These are not identical
to ISO members. Both IEC and ISO develop International Standards that are consensus-based and follow the
"one country one vote principle", representing broad industry needs. Their standards cannot be sponsored by
individual companies or organizations.
Notable IEEE Standards committees and formats[edit]
IEEE P80 Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
IEEE 255 Standard Letter Symbols for Semiconductor Devices, IEEE-255-1963
Standard Letter Symbols for Units of Measurement, IEEE-260-1978 (now 260.1-

IEEE 260
2004
Standard Digital Interface for Programmable Instrumentation, IEEE-488-1978 (now

IEEE 488
488.1)
Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power

IEEE 519
Systems

IEEE 603 Standard Criteria for Safety Systems for Nuclear Power Generating Stations
IEEE 610 Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology
IEEE 754 Floating point arithmetic specifications
IEEE 802 LAN/MAN
Standards for LAN/MAN bridging and management and remote media access
IEEE 802.1
control (MAC) bridging
IEEE 802.2 Standards for Logical Link Control (LLC) standards for connectivity
Ethernet Standards for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
IEEE 802.3
(CSMA/CD)
IEEE 802.4 Standards for token passing bus access
IEEE 802.5 Standards for token ring access and for communications between LANs and MANs
IEEE 802.6 Standards for information exchange between systems
IEEE 802.7 Standards for broadband LAN cabling
IEEE 802.8 Fiber-optic connection
IEEE 802.9 Standards for integrated services, like voice.

IEEE 802.10 Standards for LAN/MAN security implementations
IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking – "WiFi"
IEEE 802.12 Standards for demand priority access method
IEEE 802.14 Standards for cable television broadband communications
IEEE 802.15.2 Bluetooth and Wi-Fi coexistence mechanism
IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor/Control Networks – "ZigBee"
IEEE 802.15.6 Wireless Body Area Network[17] (BAN) – (e.g. Bluetooth low energy)
IEEE 802.16 Wireless Networking – "WiMAX"
IEEE 802.24 Standards for Logical Link Control (LLC) standards for connectivity
IEEE 828 Configuration Management in Systems and Software Engineering
IEEE 829 Software Test Documentation
IEEE 830 Software Requirements Specifications
Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic, IEEE-854-1987

IEEE 854
(replaced by IEEE-754-2008 and newer)
IEEE 896 Futurebus

IEEE P1003.1 Portable Operating System Interface – – POSIX
IEEE 1016 Software Design Description
IEEE 1028 Standard for Software Reviews and Audits
IEEE 1044.1 Standard Classification for Software Anomalies
IEEE 1059 Software Verification And Validation Plan
IEEE 1073 Point of Care Medical Device Communication Standards
IEEE 1074 Software Development Life Cycle
IEEE 1076 VHDL – VHSIC Hardware Description Language
IEEE 1149.1 JTAG
IEEE 1149.6 AC-JTAG
IEEE 1180 Discrete cosine transform accuracy
IEEE 1233 System Requirements Specification
IEEE 1275 Open Firmware
IEEE 1284 Parallel port

IEEE P1363 Public key cryptography
IEEE 1364 Verilog
IEEE 1394 Serial bus – "FireWire", "i.Link"
IEEE 1471 software architecture / system architecture
IEEE 1541 Prefixes for Binary Multiples
Standard for Interconnection and Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources

IEEE 1547
with Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces
IEEE 1584 Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations
IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol
IEEE 1609 Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE)
IEEE P1619 Security in Storage Working Group (SISWG)
IEEE 1625 Standard for Rechargeable Batteries for Multi-Cell Mobile Computing Devices
IEEE 1666 IEEE Standard for Standard SystemC Language Reference Manual
Standard Protocol for Authentication in Host Attachments of Transient Storage

IEEE 1667
Devices

Optical Port Communication Protocol to Complement the Utility Industry End

IEEE 1701
Device Data Tables
IEEE 1800 SystemVerilog
IEEE 1801 Unified Power Format
IEEE Standard for eXtensible Event Stream (XES) for Achieving Interoperability in
IEEE 1849
Event Logs and Event Streams
IEEE 1855 IEEE Standard for Fuzzy Markup Language
IEEE 1901 Broadband over Power Line Networks
IEEE 1906.1 Recommended Practice for Nanoscale and Molecular Communication Framework
IEEE 1914 Next Generation Fronthaul Interface Working Group
IEEE 1914.1 Standard for Packet-based Fronthaul Transport Networks
IEEE 1914.3 Standard for Radio Over Ethernet Encapsulations and Mappings
IEEE 1906.1 Recommended Practice for Nanoscale and Molecular Communication Framework
Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy Technology and Information

IEEE 2030 Technology Operation with the Electric Power System (EPS), End-Use Applications,
and Loads
IEEE 2030.5 Standard for Smart Energy Profile Application Protocol

IEEE 2050 RTOS for embedded systems standard
IEEE 2143.1 Standard for General Process of Cryptocurrency Payment
IEEE 2413 Standard for an Architectural Framework for the Internet of Things (IoT)
IEEE 2418.2 Approved Draft Standard Data Format for Blockchain Systems
Hardcopy Device and System Security (and related ISO/IEC 15408 Protection
IEEE 2600
Profiles)
Recommended Practice for Estimating the Costs of Industrial and Commercial

IEEE 3001.4
Power Systems
Recommended Practice for Assessing the Impact of Autonomous and Intelligent

IEEE 7010
Systems on Human Well-Being
IEEE 12207 Information Technology – Software life-cycle processes
Standard Cybersecurity Requirements for Substation Automation, Protection, and

IEEE C37.2040
Control Systems
IEEE Switchgear
C37 series of standards for Low and High voltage equipment
Committee
IEEE Transformers C57 series of standards for the design, testing, repair, installation and operation and
Committee maintenance of transformers

GSM:
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular technology used for
transmitting mobile voice and data services. Important facts about the GSM are given below −
 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell Laboratories in the early
1970s.
 GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile
telephone standard.
 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is implemented globally.
 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25 kHz time-slots.
GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and 1800 MHz in most parts of the
world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850 MHz and 1900 MHz.
 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular subscribers.
 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique for transmitting
signals.
 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to 120 Mbps of data
rates.
 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210 countries
throughout the world.
 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service. Roaming is the
ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other streams of user
data, each in its own timeslot.
Why GSM?
Listed below are the features of GSM that account for its popularity and wide acceptance.
 Improved spectrum efficiency
 International roaming
 Low-cost mobile sets and base stations (BSs)
 High-quality speech
 Compatibility with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other telephone company
services
 Support for new services

GSM History
The following table shows some of the important events in the rollout of the GSM system.
Years Events
1982 Conference of European Posts and Telegraph (CEPT) establishes a GSM group to widen
the standards for a pan-European cellular mobile system.
1985 A list of recommendations to be generated by the group is accepted.
1986 Executed field tests to check the different radio techniques recommended for the air
interface.
1987 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is chosen as the access method (with Frequency
Division Multiple Access [FDMA]). The initial Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is
signed by telecommunication operators representing 12 countries.
1988 GSM system is validated.
1989 The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was given the
responsibility of the GSM specifications.
1990 Phase 1 of the GSM specifications is delivered.
1991 Commercial launch of the GSM service occurs. The DCS1800 specifications are finalized.
1992 The addition of the countries that signed the GSM MoU takes place. Coverage spreads to
larger cities and airports.
1993 Coverage of main roads GSM services starts outside Europe.

1994 Data transmission capabilities launched. The number of networks rises to 69 in 43

countries by the end of 1994.
1995 Phase 2 of the GSM specifications occurs. Coverage is extended to rural areas.
1996 June− 133 network in 81 countries operational.
1997 July− 200 network in 109 countries operational, around 44 million subscribers worldwide.
1999 Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) came into existence and became operational in 130
countries with 260 million subscribers.
2000 General Packet Radio Service(GPRS) came into existence.
2001 As of May 2001, over 550 million people were subscribers to mobile telecommunications.
A GSM network comprises of many functional units. These functions and interfaces are explained in this
chapter. The GSM network can be broadly divided into −
 The Mobile Station (MS)
 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
 The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
GSM - The Mobile Station
The MS consists of the physical equipment, such as the radio transceiver, display and digital signal
processors, and the SIM card. It provides the air interface to the user in GSM networks. As such, other
services are also provided, which include −
 Voice teleservices
 Data bearer services
 The features' supplementary services

The MS also provides the receptor for SMS messages, enabling the user to toggle between the voice and data
use. Moreover, the mobile facilitates access to voice messaging systems. The MS also provides access to the
various data services available in a GSM network. These data services include −
 X.25 packet switching through a synchronous or asynchronous dial-up connection to the PAD at
speeds typically at 9.6 Kbps.
 General Packet Radio Services (GPRSs) using either an X.25 or IP based data transfer method at the
speed up to 115 Kbps.
 High speed, circuit switched data at speeds up to 64 Kbps.
We will discuss more about GMS services in GSM - User Services.
What is SIM?
The SIM provides personal mobility so that the user can have access to all subscribed services irrespective of
both the location of the terminal and the use of a specific terminal. You need to insert the SIM card into
another GSM cellular phone to receive calls at that phone, make calls from that phone, or receive other
subscribed services.
GSM - The Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
The BSS is composed of two parts −

 The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)
 The Base Station Controller (BSC)
The BTS and the BSC communicate across the specified Abis interface, enabling operations between
components that are made by different suppliers. The radio components of a BSS may consist of four to
seven or nine cells. A BSS may have one or more base stations. The BSS uses the Abis interface between the
BTS and the BSC. A separate high-speed line (T1 or E1) is then connected from the BSS to the Mobile
MSC.

The Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS houses the radio transceivers that define a cell and handles the radio link protocols with the MS. In
a large urban area, a large number of BTSs may be deployed.
The BTS corresponds to the transceivers and antennas used in each cell of the network. A BTS is usually
placed in the center of a cell. Its transmitting power defines the size of a cell. Each BTS has between 1 and
16 transceivers, depending on the density of users in the cell. Each BTS serves as a single cell. It also
includes the following functions −
 Encoding, encrypting, multiplexing, modulating, and feeding the RF signals to the antenna
 Transcoding and rate adaptation
 Time and frequency synchronizing
 Voice through full- or half-rate services
 Decoding, decrypting, and equalizing received signals

 Random access detection

 Timing advances
 Uplink channel measurements
The Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC manages the radio resources for one or more BTSs. It handles radio channel setup, frequency
hopping, and handovers. The BSC is the connection between the mobile and the MSC. The BSC also
translates the 13 Kbps voice channel used over the radio link to the standard 64 Kbps channel used by the
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSDN) or ISDN.
It assigns and releases frequencies and time slots for the MS. The BSC also handles intercell handover. It
controls the power transmission of the BSS and MS in its area. The function of the BSC is to allocate the
necessary time slots between the BTS and the MSC. It is a switching device that handles the radio resources.
The additional functions include−
 Control of frequency hopping
 Performing traffic concentration to reduce the number of lines from the MSC
 Providing an interface to the Operations and Maintenance Center for the BSS
 Reallocation of frequencies among BTSs
 Time and frequency synchronization
 Power management
 Time-delay measurements of received signals from the MS
GSM - The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The Network switching system (NSS), the main part of which is the Mobile Switching Center (MSC),
performs the switching of calls between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the
management of mobile services such as authentication.

The switching system includes the following functional elements −
Home Location Register (HLR)

The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most
important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile,
location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a subscription in the form of SIM, then all
the information about this subscription is registered in the HLR of that operator.
Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC)

The central component of the Network Subsystem is the MSC. The MSC performs the switching of calls
between the mobile and other fixed or mobile network users, as well as the management of mobile services
such as registration, authentication, location updating, handovers, and call routing to a roaming subscriber. It
also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.
Every MSC is identified by a unique ID.
Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in
order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station
roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mo bile station from
the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup
without having to interrogate the HLR each time.
Authentication Center (AUC)

The Authentication Center is a protected database that stores a copy of the secret key stored in each
subscriber's SIM card, which is used for authentication and ciphering of the radio channel. The AUC
protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The Equipment Identity Register (EIR) is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile equipment on the
network, where its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) identifies each MS. An IMEI is marked
as invalid if it has been reported stolen or is not type approved.
GSM - The Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)
The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system and to
the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system (OSS).
Here are some of the OMC functions−
 Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging, and statistics).
 Security Management.
 Network configuration, Operation, and Performance Management.
 Maintenance Tasks.
The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the Telecommunication Management
Network (TMN), which is standardized in the ITU-T series M.30.
Following is the figure, which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements.
The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The
purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional, and local operational
and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide
a network overview and support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance
organizations.
A simple pictorial view of the GSM architecture is given below −

The additional components of the GSM architecture comprise of databases and messaging systems functions
−
 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AuC)
 SMS Serving Center (SMS SC)
 Gateway MSC (GMSC)
 Chargeback Center (CBC)
 Transcoder and Adaptation Unit (TRAU)

The following diagram shows the GSM network along with the added elements −
The MS and the BSS communicate across the Um interface. It is also known as the air interface or the radio
link. The BSS communicates with the Network Service Switching (NSS) center across the A interface.
GSM network areas
In a GSM network, the following areas are defined −

 Cell − Cell is the basic service area; one BTS covers one cell. Each cell is given a Cell Global Identity
(CGI), a number that uniquely identifies the cell.
 Location Area − A group of cells form a Location Area (LA). This is the area that is paged when a
subscriber gets an incoming call. Each LA is assigned a Location Area Identity (LAI). Each LA is
served by one or more BSCs.
 MSC/VLR Service Area − The area covered by one MSC is called the MSC/VLR service area.
 PLMN − The area covered by one network operator is called the Public Land Mobile Network
(PLMN). A PLMN can contain one or more MSCs.
GSM - Specification
The requirements for different Personal Communication Services (PCS) systems differ for each PCS
network. Vital characteristics of the GSM specification are listed below−
Modulation

Modulation is the process of transforming the input data into a suitable format for the transmission medium.
The transmitted data is demodulated back to its original form at the receiving end. The GSM uses Gaussian
Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) modulation method.
Access Methods
Radio spectrum being a limited resource that is consumed and divided among all the users, GSM devised a
combination of TDMA/FDMA as the method to divide the bandwidth among the users. In this process, the
FDMA part divides the frequency of the total 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies of 200 kHz
bandwidth.
Each BS is assigned with one or multiple frequencies, and each of this frequency is divided into eight
timeslots using a TDMA scheme. Each of these slots are used for both transmission as well as reception of
data. These slots are separated by time so that a mobile unit doesn’t transmit and receive data at the same
time.
Transmission Rate
The total symbol rate for GSM at 1 bit per symbol in GMSK produces 270.833 K symbols/second. The gross
transmission rate of a timeslot is 22.8 Kbps.
GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.
Frequency Band
The uplink frequency range specified for GSM is 933 - 960 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only). The downlink
frequency band 890 - 915 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only).
Channel Spacing
Channel spacing indicates the spacing between adjacent carrier frequencies. For GSM, it is 200 kHz.
Speech Coding
For speech coding or processing, GSM uses Linear Predictive Coding (LPC). This tool compresses the bit
rate and gives an estimate of the speech parameters. When the audio signal passes through a filter, it mimics
the vocal tract. Here, the speech is encoded at 13 kbps.
Duplex Distance
Duplex distance is the space between the uplink and downlink frequencies. The duplex distance for GSM is
80 MHz, where each channel has two frequencies that are 80 MHz apart.
Misc

 Frame duration − 4.615 mS

 Duplex Technique − Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD) access mode previously known as
WCDMA.
 Speech channels per RF channel − 8.
GSM - Addresses and Identifiers

GSM treats the users and the equipment in different ways. Phone numbers, subscribers, and equipment
identifiers are some of the known ones. There are many other identifiers that have been well-defined, which
are required for the subscriber’s mobility management and for addressing the remaining network elements.
Vital addresses and identifiers that are used in GSM are addressed below.
International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) looks more like a serial number which
distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally. This is allocated by the equipment manufacturer and
registered by the network operator, who stores it in the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). By means of
IMEI, one recognizes obsolete, stolen, or non-functional equipment.
Following are the parts of IMEI −
 Type Approval Code (TAC) − 6 decimal places, centrally assigned.
 Final Assembly Code (FAC) − 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Serial Number (SNR) − 6 decimal places, assigned by the manufacturer.
 Spare (SP) − 1 decimal place.
Thus, IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + SP. It uniquely characterizes a mobile station and gives clues about the
manufacturer and the date of manufacturing.
International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
Every registered user has an original International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) with a valid IMEI
stored in their Subscriber Identity Module (SIM).
IMSI comprises of the following parts−
 Mobile Country Code (MCC) − 3 decimal places, internationally standardized.
 Mobile Network Code (MNC) − 2 decimal places, for unique identification of mobile network within
the country.
 Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN) − Maximum 10 decimal places, identification
number of the subscriber in the home mobile network.

Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)
The authentic telephone number of a mobile station is the Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN).
Based on the SIM, a mobile station can have many MSISDNs, as each subscriber is assigned with a separate
MSISDN to their SIM respectively.
Listed below is the structure followed by MSISDN categories, as they are defined based on international
ISDN number plan −
 Country Code (CC) − Up to 3 decimal places.
 National Destination Code (NDC) − Typically 2-3 decimal places.
 Subscriber Number (SN) − Maximum 10 decimal places.
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)
Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an interim location dependent ISDN number, assigned to a
mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register (VLA). Using MSRN, the incoming
calls are channelled to the MS.
The MSRN has the same structure as the MSISDN.
 Country Code (CC) − of the visited network.
 National Destination Code (NDC) − of the visited network.

 Subscriber Number (SN) − in the current mobile network.
Location Area Identity (LAI)
Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area Identity (LAI). The LAI
hierarchy is based on international standard and structured in a unique format as mentioned below −
 Country Code (CC) − 3 decimal places.
 Mobile Network Code (MNC) − 2 decimal places.
 Location Area Code (LAC) − maximum 5 decimal places or maximum twice 8 bits coded in
hexadecimal (LAC < FFFF).
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) can be assigned by the VLR, which is responsible for the
current location of a subscriber. The TMSI needs to have only local significance in the area handled by the
VLR. This is stored on the network side only in the VLR and is not passed to the Home Location Register
(HLR).
Together with the current location area, the TMSI identifies a subscriber uniquely. It can contain up to 4 × 8
bits.
Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI)
Each mobile station can be assigned with a Local Mobile Subscriber Identity (LMSI), which is an original
key, by the VLR. This key can be used as the auxiliary searching key for each mobile station within its
region. It can also help accelerate the database access. An LMSI is assigned if the mobile station is
registered with the VLR and sent to the HLR. LMSI comprises of four octets (4x8 bits).
Cell Identifier (CI)
Using a Cell Identifier (CI) (maximum 2 × 8) bits, the individual cells that are within an LA can be
recognized. When the Global Cell Identity (LAI + CI) calls are combined, then it is uniquely defined.

GSM Channels:
GSM Channel are divided into two types:
Traffic channels (TCHs):
 The traffic channes are intended to carry encoded speech or user data.
 Traffic channels are intended to carry encoded speech and user data.
 Full rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 22.8 Kb/s (TCH/F)
 Half rate traffic channels at a net bit rate of 11.4 Kb/s (TCH/H)
 Speech channels are defined for both full rate and half rate traffic channels.
 Data channels support a variety of data rates (2.4, 4.8 and 9.6 Kb/s) on both half and full rate traffic
channels. The 9.6 Kb/s data rate is only for full rate
application.
 The traffic channels(TCH) support two types of information rates Full rate (TCH/F) and Half
rate (TCH/H)
 When transmitted as full rate, the user data is occupied within TS per frame. When transmitted as half
rate, the user data is occupied into the same time slot but sent in alternate frames.

 The 26th frame contains idle bits if full rate TCHs are used and contains SACCH data if half rate
TCHS are used
- Full Rate TCH for data and speech channels:-
A. Full - rate Speech Channel )TCH/Fs): At 16 kbps the full rate speech channel is digitized. The
full rate speech channel caries 55.8kbps after adding the GSM channel coding to the digitized speech.
B. Full-rate Data Channel for 9600 bps (TCH/F9.6): The full rate traffic data channel contains raw
data that is transmitted at 9.6 kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding
with the GSM standards, 9600 kbps is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
C. Full-rate Data Channel for 4500 bps(TCH/F4.8): The full rate traffic date channel contains data
that is transmitted at 4.8 Kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding with
GSM standards, the 4.8 kbps is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
D. Full Rate Data Channel for 2400 bps (TCH/F2.4): The full rate traffic data channel contains raw
data that is transmitted at 2.4 kbps. After the application of additional forward error correction coding
with GSM standards, the 2.4 kbps data is transferred at 22.8 kbps.
Half Rate TCH for data and speech channels:
A. Half Rate Speech Channels (TCH/HS): The half tate speech channel can carry digitized speech
that is sampled at a rate half that of full rate channel. GSM anticipates the availibility of speech
coders. It can digitize speech at about 6.5 kbps. After adding GSM channel coding to the digitized
speech, the half rate Speech channel will carry 11.4 kbps.
B. Half Rate Data Channel for 4800 bps (TCH/H4.8): The half rate traffic data channel carries raw
data that is sentat 4800 bps. After the application of forward error correction using GSM standards,
4800 bps data is sent at 11.4 kbps.
C Half Rate Data Channe for 2400 kbps (TCH/H 2.4): The half rate traffic data channel carries raw
user data that is sent at 2400 bps. After application of additional forward error corretion using GSM
standards, 2400 bps data is sent to 11.4 bps.
Control Channel (CCH):
.Control channels carry signaling information between an MS and a BTS.
a) Broadcast control channel:
Broadcast control channels are transmitted in downlink direction only i.e. only transmitted by BTS.
The broadcast channels are used to broadcast synchronization and general network information to all the MSs
within a cell.
.It has three types:
a. FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL (FCCH):
Used for the frequency correction / synchronization of a mobile station.
The repeated (every 10 sec) transmission of Frequency Bursts is called FCCH.

b. SYNCHRONISATION CHANNEL (SCH):
Allows the mobile station to synchronize time wise with the BTS.
Repeated broadcast (every 10 frames) of Synchronization Bursts is called (SCH).
c. BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL (BCH):
The BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL (BCCH) is used to broadcast control information
to every MS within a cell.
This information includes details of the control channel configuration used at the BTS, a list of
the BCCH carrier frequencies used at the neighboring BTSs and a number of parameters that
are used by the MS when accessing the BTS.
b) Common Control Channel:
The common control channels are used by an MS during the paging and access procedures. Common control
channels are of three types.
1 (PCH) PAGING CHANNEL:
 Within certain time intervals the MS will listen to the Paging channel, PCH, to see if the
network wants to get in contact with the MS.
 The reason could be an incoming call or an incoming Short Message.
2. (RACH) RANDOM ACCESS CHANNEL:
 If listening to the PCH, the MS will realize it is being paged.

 The MS answers, requesting a signalling channel, on the Random Access channel, RACH.
 RACH can also be used if the MS wants to get in contact with the network, e/g. when setting
up a mobile originated call.
3. (AGCH) ACCESS GRANTED CHANNEL:
 The access grant channel (AGCH) is carried data which instructs the mobile to operate in a
particular physical channel (Time slot or ARFCN).
 It uses normal burst.
C) Dedicated Control Channels (DCCHs):
 Signaling information is carried between an MS and a BTS using associated and dedicated control
channels during or not during a call, They are of three types:
A. (SDCCH STAND ALONE DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNEL:

 Non-urgent information, e.g. transmitter power control, is transmitted using the slow
associated control channel (SACCH).
 On the uplink MS sends averaged measurements on own base station (signal strength and
quality) and neighboring base stations (signal strength).
 On the downlink the MS receives system information, which transmitting power and what
timing advance to use. It is transmitted at 13thFrame of TCH. As seen, SACCH is transmitted
on both up-and downlink, point-to-point.
 It uses normal burst.
B. (SAACH) SLOW ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL:
 In some situations, signaling information must flow between a network and an MS when a call
is not in progress, e.g. during a location update.
 This could be accommodated by allocating either a full-rate or half-rate TCH and by using
either the SACCH or FACCH to carry the information.
C. (FACCH) FAST ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL:
 More urgent information, e.g. a handover command, is sent using time slots that are 'stolen'
from the traffic channel.
 If, suddenly, during the conversation a handover must be performed the Fast Associated
Control channel, FACCH, is used.
 FACCH works in stealing mode, meaning that one 2. ms segment of speech is exchanged for
signaling information necessary for the handover.
Frame Structure for GSM

Frame structure is the division of defined length of digital information into different fields (information
parts). A GSM frame is 4.615 msec and it is composed of 8 time slots (numbered 0 through 7). During voice
communication, one user is typically assigned to each time slot within a frame. The GSM system also
combines frames to form Multiframes.
Multiframes are frames that are grouped or linked together to perform specific functions. Multiframes on the
GSM system use established schedules for specific purposes, such as coordinating with frequency hopping
patterns. Multiframes used in the GSM system include the 26 traffic multiframe, 51 control multiframe,
superframe, and hyperframe.
Traffic Multiframe Structures - The 26 traffic multiframe structure is used to send information on the
traffic channel. The 26 traffic multiframe structure is used to combine user data (traffic), slow control
signaling (SACCH), and idle time period. The idle time period allows a mobile device to perform other
necessary operations such as monitoring the radio signal strength level of a beacon channel from other cells.
The time interval of a 26 frame traffic multiframe is 6 blocks of speech coder data (120 msec).
Control Multiframe Structures - The 51 control multiframe structure is used to send information on the
control channel. The 51 frame control multiframe is sub divided into logical channels that include the
frequency correction burst, the synchronization burst, the broadcast channel (BCCH), the paging and access
grant channel (PAGCH), and the stand-alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH). The PAGCH is logically
sub divided into PCH and AGCH.

Superframe - A superframe is a multiframe sequence that combines the period of a 51 multiframe with 26
multiframes (6.12 seconds). The use of the superframe time period allows all mobile devices to scan all the
different time frame types at least once.
Hyperframe - A hyperframe is a multiframe sequence that is composed of 2048 superframes, and is the
largest time interval in the GSM system (3 hours, 28 minutes, 53 seconds). Every time slot during a
hyperframe has a sequential number (represented by an 11 bit counter) that is composed of a frame number
and a time slot number. This counter allows the hyperframe to synchronize frequency hopping sequence,
encryption processes for voice privacy of subscribers' conversations.
This figure shows the different types of GSM frame and multiframe structures. This diagram shows that a
single GSM frame is composed of 8 time slots. When a radio channel is used to provide a control channel,
time slot 0 and the other time slots are used for traffic channels. 51 frames are grouped together to form
control multiframes (for the control channel). 26 frames are grouped together to form traffic multiframes (for
the traffic channels). Superframes are the composition of 26 control multiframes or 51 traffic multiframes to
provide a common time period of 6.12 seconds. 2,048 superframes are grouped together to form a
hyperframe. A hyperframe has the longest time period in the GSM system of 3 hours, 28 minutes, and 53
seconds.

GSM Speech Signal Processing
During a call speech signal has to be digitized, coded, formatted , modulated and then transmitted on wireless
media. The entire signal processing flow is discussed as follows:
Figure: GSM speech processing
i) Speech Coding: The users voice signal is fed to a speech coder. The GSM speech coder is based on the
Residually Excited Linear Predictive Coder (RELP), which is enhanced by including a Long-Term Predictor
(LTP). The coder provides 260 bits for each 20 ms blocks of speech, which yields a bit rate of 13Kbps. Scope
for using half-rate coders are included in the specifications. The GSM speech coder takes advantage of the
fact that in a normal conversation, each person speaks on average for less than 40%% of the time, By
incorporating a voice activity detector (VAD) in the speech coder, GSM systems operate in a Discontinuous
Transmission mode (DTX) which provides a longer subscriber battery life and reduces instantaneous radio
interference since the GSM transmitter is not active during silent periods. A comfort noise subsystem (CNS)
at the receiving end introduces a background acoustic noise to compensate for the annoying switched muting
which occurs due to DTX.
ii)TCH/FS, SACCH, and FACCH Channel Coding: The output bits of the speech coder are ordered into
groups for error protection, based upon their significance in contributing to speech quality. Out of the total
260 bits in a frame, the most important 50 bits, called type 1a bits, have 3 parity check (CRC) bits added to
them. This facilitates the detection of non-correctable errors at the receiver. The next 132 bits along with the
first 53 (50 type 1a bits + 3 parity bits) are reordered and appended by 4 trailing zero bits, thus providing a
data block of 189 bits. This block is then encoded for error protection using a rate 1/2 convolutional encoder

with constraint length K = 5, thus providing a sequence of 378 bits. The least important 78 bits do not have
any error protection and are concatenated to the existing sequence to form a block of 456 bits in a 20 ms
frame (Readers should note that this frame consists of data emerging from one user). The error protection
coding scheme increases the gross data rate of the GSM speech with channel coding, to 22.8 kbps. This error
protection scheme is shown in Figure 11.
Figure : Channel coding process of GSM speech signals

iii) Interleaving: Interleaving is done to ensure that successive and continuous data is not sent on consecutive
time slots, in order to minimize the effect of sudden fades on the received data. Diagonal interleaving is used to
send GSM speech signals. In this process, the total of 456 encoded bits within each 20 ms speech frame or are
broken into eight 57 bit sub-blocks. These eight sub-blocks which make up a single speech frame are spread
over eight consecutive eight consecutive frames for a specific TS).
Figure : Diagonal interleaving for GSM speech signal

The 57 bits sub-blocks made out of 1 speech frame are termed as ‘even’ and ‘odd’ parts. Suppose TS 5 has been
allotted to the user, then the even parts of the sub-blocks are mapped to the TS5 of first 4 frames.Thus the even
parts of the same speech frame are transmitted first. The odd parts are then mapped to TS5 of the next 4 frames
and transmitted. In a TS structure, there are two fields for payload. The first field contains even part of current

speech frame (57 bits) and second field contains odd part of previous speech frame Thus, if a burst is lost due to
interference or fading, channel coding ensures that enough bits will still be received correctly to allow the error
correction to work.
iv) Burst Formatting: After interleaving, the midamble bits, staeling bits, head and tail bits have to be mapped
to the TS . This is called as burst formatting. Burst formatting adds binary data to the ciphered blocks, in order
to help synchronization and equalization of the received signal.
v) Ciphering: Ciphering modifies the contents of the eight interleaved blocks through the use of encryption
techniques known only to the particular mobile station and BTS. Security is further enhanced by the fact that
the encryption algorithm is changed from call to call. Two types of ciphering algorithms, called A3 and A5, are
used in GSM to prevent unauthorized network access and privacy for the radio transmission respectively. The
A3 algorithm is used to authenticate each mobile by verifying the users passcode within the SIM with the
cryptographic key at the MSC. The A5 algorithm provides the scrambling for the 114 coded data bits sent in
each time slot.
vi) Modulation: GSM uses GMSK as a modulation format. GMSK is a variant of Minimum Shift Keying
(MSK);the difference is that the data sequence is passed through a filter with a Gaussian impulse response(time
bandwidth product BT = 0.3). GMSK was chosen for the original GSM system for a variety of reasons:
 It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation.

 Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying.
 It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the
handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.
The GMSK modulation format is used for the lower data rate transfers. The advantages mean that it is well
suited for situations where lower data rates can be tolerated.It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as
well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power
amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. It gains its
name from the fact it is filtered using a Gaussian filter.
This filtering is rather hard. Therefore, the spectrum is rather narrow, but there is a significant amount of Inter
Symbol Interference (ISI). On the other hand, the ISI due to delay dispersion of the wireless channel is usually
much more severe. Thus, some kind of equalization has to be used anyway.
Frequency Hopping: Under normal conditions, each data burst belonging to a particular physical channel is
transmitted using the same carrier frequency.However, if users in a particular cell have severe multipath
problems,the cell may be defined as a hopping cell by the network operator, in which case slow frequency
hopping may be implemented to combat the multipath or interference effects in that cell. Frequency hopping is
carried out on a frame-by-frame basis, thus hopping occurs at a maximum rate of 217.6 hops per second. As
many as 64 different channels may be used before a hopping sequence is repeated. Frequency hopping is
completely specified by the service provider.

Equalization: Equalization is performed at the receiver with the help of the training sequences transmitted in
the midamble of every time slot. The type of equalizer for GSM is not specified and is left up to the
manufacturer.
Demodulation: The portion of the transmitted forward channel signal which is of interest to a particular user is
determined by the assigned TS and ARFCN. The appropriate TS is demodulated with the aid of synchronization
data provided by the burst formatting. After demodulation, the binary information is deciphered, de-interleaved,
channel decoded, and speech decoded.

GPRS:
General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward internet access.
GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile Communications Internet Protocol as it keeps
the users of this system online, allows to make voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio access.
GPRS also permits the network operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP) based core architecture for
integrated voice and data applications that will continue to be used and expanded for 3G services.
GPRS supersedes the wired connections, as this system has simplified access to the packet data networks like
the internet. The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to transport user data packets in a structure way
between GSM mobile stations and external packet data networks. These packets can be directly routed to the
packet switched networks from the GPRS mobile stations.
In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) like the global internet or
private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are supported.
Who owns GPRS ?
The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI), the
European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).
Key Features
Following three key features describe wireless packet data:

 The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only one click away.
 An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment; rather, GPRS is
added on top of the existing infrastructure.
 An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for 3G systems EDGE
and WCDMA.
Goals of GPRS
GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following goals:
 Open architecture
 Consistent IP services
 Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
 Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure
 Leverage industry investment in IP
 Service innovation independent of infrastructure
Benefits of GPRS
Higher Data Rate

GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data rates in turn of shorter access
times. In the typical GSM mobile, setup alone is a lengthy process and equally, rates for data
permission are restrained to 9.6 kbit/s. The session establishment time offered while GPRS is in
practice is lower than one second and ISDN-line data rates are up to many 10 kbit/s.
Easy Billing
GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by circuit es. In
circuit switched services, billing is based on the duration of the connection. This is unsuitable for
applications with bursty traffic. The user must pay for the entire airtime, even for idle periods
when no packets are sent (e.g., when the user reads a Web page).
In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the amount of transmitted data. The
advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online" over a long period of time but will be billed based on
the transmitted data volume.
GPRS – Applications:
GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber. Some of the
characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced value services to the users. Below are some of the
characteristics:
 Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on the move.
 Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of location and
without a lengthy login session.
 Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current location.
Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being developed to offer to the mobile
subscribers. These applications, in general, can be divided into two high-level categories:
 Corporation
 Consumer
These two levels further include:
 Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.
 Value-added services - Information services and games, etc.
 E-commerce - Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading, etc.
 Location-based applications - Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules and location finder,
etc.

 Vertical applications - Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force automation.

 Advertising - Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a mall can receive
advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and voice calls are also possible with
GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term used after GPRS is in the market, in addition, it is
planned to implement supplementary services, such as Call Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call
Forwarding on Mobile subscriber Not Reachable (CFNRc), and closed user group (CUG).
GPRS - Architecture
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional entities that allow
packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation GSM network providing packet data
transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with the packet data transport the GSM network
accommodates multiple users to share the same air interface resources concurrently.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:
GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to effectively build a
packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements, interfaces, and protocols for handling
packet traffic are required.
Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as summarized below:
GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.
Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. These
new terminals will be backward compatible with GSM for voice

calls.
BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base Transceiver

Station(BTS).
BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software upgrade

and the installation of new hardware called the packet control unit
(PCU). The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and
can be a separate hardware element associated with the BSC.
GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new core
network elements called the serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).
Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will require software
upgrades to handle the new call models and functions introduced
by GPRS.
GPRS Mobile Stations
New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones do not handle the
enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including a high-speed version of current
phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for
laptop computers. These mobile stations are backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.
GPRS Base Station Subsystem
Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a software upgrade. The
PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic.
The BTS can also require a software upgrade but typically does not require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over the air interface to
the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard GSM call. However, at the output of the
BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data
is sent to a new device called the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes
Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving GPRS Support
Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It contains routing
information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the IP based internal backbone to the
correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also collects charging information connected to the use of the
external data networks and can act as a packet filter for incoming traffic.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles, registration of mobiles in
the network, mobility management, and collecting information on charging for the use of the air interface.
Internal Backbone
The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs. Tunnelling is
used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any information about domains
outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC, HLR or EIR is done using SS7.
Routing Area
GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in GSM, except that
it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than location areas, less radio resources are
used While broadcasting a page message.

Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE):
EDGE is a technology that gives GSM Networks the capacity to handle services for 3G. EDGE was developed
to enable the transmission of large amounts of data at peak rates of up to 472kbps. Users should experience
average speeds of 80 kbps to 130 kbps. EDGE deployment will begin in 2003 with full deployment finishing in
2004. EDGE devices are backwards compatible with GPRS and will be able to operate on GPRS networks
where EDGE has not yet been deployed.
Enhanced Data rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) introduces a new modulation technique, as well as protocol
enhancements for transmitting packets over the radio.
The use of the new modulation and the protocol enhancements, result in dramatically increased throughput and
capacity gains enabling 3G services in the existing GSM/GPRS networks. No changes are needed to the
existing core network infrastructure to support EDGE. This emphasizes the fact that EDGE is only an “add-on”
for BSS.
For EDGE, nine Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS) are introduced (MCS1 to MCS9) and optimized for
different radio environment. Four EDGE coding schemes are using GMSK and five are using 8 PSK
Modulation.
EDGE was first proposed to European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in Europe, as an
evolution of GSM at the beginning of 1997. Although EDGE reuses the GSM carrier bandwidth and time slot
structure, it is by no means restricted to use within GSM cellular systems. Instead, it can be seen as a generic
air interface for efficiently providing high bit rates, facilitating an evolution of existing cellular systems toward
third-generation capabilities. After evaluating a number of different proposals, EDGE was adopted by UWCC
in January 1998 as the outdoor component of 136HS to provide 384 kb/s data services. This was in support of
the technology evolution for GSM and TDMA/ 136 systems. Since then, EDGE development has been
concurrently carried out in ETSI and UWCC to guarantee a high degree of synergy with both GSM and
TDMA/136. The standardization roadmap for EDGE foresees two phases. In the first phase the emphasis has
been placed on Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) and Enhanced Circuit-Switched Data (ECSD). EDGE uses the same
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) frame structure, logic channel and 200 kHz carrier bandwidth as
today's GSM networks, which allows existing cell plans to remain intact. Its high data transmission speed
offers more diverse and media rich content and applications to GSM subscribers.
EDGE was first proposed to European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in Europe, as an
evolution of GSM at the beginning of 1997. Although EDGE reuses the GSM carrier bandwidth and time slot
structure, it is by no means restricted to use within GSM cellular systems. Instead, it can be seen as a generic
air interface for efficiently providing high bit rates, facilitating an evolution of existing cellular systems toward
third-generation capabilities. After evaluating a number of different proposals, EDGE was adopted by UWCC
in January 1998 as the outdoor component of 136HS to provide 384 kb/s data services. This was in support of
the technology evolution for GSM and TDMA/ 136 systems. Since then, EDGE development has been
concurrently carried out in ETSI and UWCC to guarantee a high degree of synergy with both GSM and
TDMA/136. The standardization roadmap for EDGE foresees two phases. In the first phase the emphasis has
been placed on Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) and Enhanced Circuit-Switched Data (ECSD). EDGE uses the same

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) frame structure, logic channel and 200 kHz carrier bandwidth as
today's GSM networks, which allows existing cell plans to remain intact. Its high data transmission speed
offers more diverse and media rich content and applications to GSM subscribers.
Upgradation to EDGE
 Mobile Station (MS) − MS should be EDGE enabled.

 BTS − HW supplied is Edge enabled.
 BSC − Definitions for EDGE timeslots needs to be done in BSC.
 GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) − Definitions for Edge need to be defined in GSNs.
 Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) − No definition is required.
Benefits of EDGE
 Short-term benefits − Capacity and performance,

 Easy implementation on a GSM/GPRS network,
 Cost effective,
 Increases the capacity and triples the data rate of GPRS,
 Enables new multimedia services,
 Long-term benefit − Harmonization with WCDMA.
What EDGE Would Mean to Subscribers
 Streaming applications
 Very high speed downloads
 Corporate intranet connections
 Quicker MMS
 Video phone
 Vertical corporate applications - Video conference, Remote presentations.

3G systems:
UMTS
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), based on the GSM standards, is a mobile cellular
system of third generation that is maintained by 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project). It specifies a
complete network system and the technology described in it is popularly referred as Freedom of Mobile
Multimedia Access (FOMA). This tutorial starts off with a brief introduction to the history of mobile
communication and cellular concepts and gradually moves on to explain the basics of GSM, GPRS, and EDGE,
before getting into the concepts of UMTS.
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is a third generation mobile cellular system for
networks based on the GSM standard. Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership
Project), UMTS is a component of the Standard International Union all IMT-2000 telecommunications and
compares it with the standard set for CDMA2000 networks based on competition cdmaOne technology. UMTS
uses wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to provide greater spectral
efficiency and bandwidth mobile network operators.

An Evolution that Makes Sense
HSUPA − High Speed Uplink Packet Access

HSDPA − High speed downlink packet access
The main idea behind 3G is to prepare a universal infrastructure able to carry existing and also future services.
The infrastructure should be so designed that technology changes and evolution can be adapted to the network
without causing uncertainties to the existing services using the existing network structure.
UMTS - WCDMA Technology:

The first Multiple Access Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Wideband Code Division networks
(WCDMA) were launched in 2002. At the end of 2005, there were 100 WCDMA networks open and a total of
more than 150 operators with licenses for frequencies WCDMA operation. Currently, WCDMA networks are
deployed in UMTS band of around 2 GHz in Europe and Asia, including Japan and America Korea. WCDMA
is deployed in the 850 and 1900 of the existing frequency allocations and the new 3G band 1700/2100 should
be available in the near future. 3GPP has defined WCDMA operation for several additional bands, which are
expected to be commissioned in the coming years.
As WCDMA mobile penetration increases, it allows WCDMA networks to carry a greater share of voice and
data traffic. WCDMA technology provides some advantages for the operator in that it allows the data, but also
improves the voice of base. Voice capacity offered is very high due to interference control mechanisms,
including frequency reuse of 1, fast power control, and soft handover.
WCDMA can offer a lot more voice minutes to customers. Meanwhile WCDMA can also improve broadband
voice service with AMR codec, which clearly provides better voice quality than fixed telephone landline. In
short, WCDMA can offer more voice minutes with better quality.
In addition to the high spectral efficiency, third-generation (3G) WCDMA provides even more dramatic
change in capacity of the base station and the efficiency of the equipment. The high level of integration in the
WCDMA is achieved due to the broadband carrier: a large number of users supported by the carrier, and less
radio frequency (RF) carriers are required to provide the same capacity.

With less RF parts and more digital baseband processing, WCDMA can take advantage of the rapid evolution
of digital signal processing capability. The level of integration of the high base station enables efficient
building high capacity sites since the complexity of RF combiners, additional antennas or power cables can be
avoided. WCDMA operators are able to provide useful data services, including navigation, person to person
video calls, sports and video and new mobile TV clips.
WCDMA enables simultaneous voice and data which allows, for example, browsing or email when voice
conferencing or video sharing in real time during voice calls.
The operators also offer mobile connectivity to the Internet and corporate intranet with maximum bit rate of
384 kbps downlink and both uplink. The first terminals and networks have been limited to 64 to 128 kbps
uplink while the latter products provide 384 kbps uplink.
WCDMA-3G
3G wireless service has been designed to provide high data speeds, always-on data access, and greater voice
capacity. Listed below are a few notable points −
 The high data speeds, measured in Mbps, enable full motion video, high-speed internet access and
video-conferencing.
 3G technology standards include UMTS, based on WCDMA technology (quite often the two terms are
used interchangeably) and CDMA2000, which is the outgrowth of the earlier CDMA 2G technology.
 UMTS standard is generally preferred by countries that use GSM network. CDMA2000 has various
types, including 1xRTT, 1xEV-DO and 1xEV-DV. The data rates they offer range from 144 kbps to
more than 2 mbps.
Sub-systems of 3G Network
A GSM system is basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems −

 Network Subsystem (NSS) − MSC/VLR, HLR, AuC, SMSC, EIR, MGW. Common for both 2G & 3G
Network.
 UTRAN − RNC & RBS.
 Operation and maintenance Support Subsystem (OSS).
There are three dominant interfaces, namely,
 IuCS − Between RNC and MSC for speech & Circuit data;
 IuPS − Between RNC & SGSN for packet data;
 Uu interface − Between the RNC and MS.
UMTS - HSPA Standardization:
Let's look at the standardization and deployment schedule of HSPA in brief −
 High-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) was standardized as part of 3GPP Release 5 with the first
specification version in March 2002.
 High-speed uplink packet access (HSUPA) was part of 3GPP Release 6 with the first specification
version in December 2004.
 HSDPA and HSUPA together are called High-Speed Packet Access’ (HSPA).
 The first commercial HSDPA networks were available at the end of 2005 and the commercial HSUPA
networks were available on 2007.
 The HSDPA peak data rate available in the terminals is initially 1.8Mbps and will increase to 3.6 and
7.2 Mbps during 2006 and 2007, and later on 10Mbps and beyond 10Mbps.
 The HSUPA peak data rate in the initial phase was 1–2 Mbps and the second phase was 3–4Mbps.
HSPA is deployed over the WCDMA network on the same carrier or - for high capacity and high speed
solution - using another carrier, see figure above. In both cases, WCDMA and HSPA can share all the network
elements in the core network and the radio network comprising base stations, radio network controller (RNC),
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN). WCDMA and HSPA
also share the site base station antennas and antenna cables.
The upgrade WCDMA HSPA requires new software and potentially new equipment in the base station and
RNC to support the rate and higher data capacity. Because of the shared infrastructure between WCDMA and
HSPA, the cost of the upgrade WCDMA HSPA is very low compared to the construction of a new stand-alone
data network.

CDMA2000:
CDMA2000 represents a family of IMT-2000 (3G) standards providing high-quality voice and broadband data
services over wireless networks. CDMA2000 builds on the inherent advantages of CDMA technologies and
introduces other enhancements, such as Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), advanced
control and signaling mechanisms, improved interference management techniques, end-to-end Quality of
Service (QoS), and new antenna techniques such as Multiple Inputs Multiple Outputs (MIMO) and
beamforming to increase data throughput rates and quality of service, while significantly improving network
capacity and reducing delivery cost.
Currently, CDMA2000 includes CDMA2000 1X (1X) and CDMA2000 EV-DO (EV-DO) standards.
CDMA2000 1X (IS-2000) supports circuit-switched voice up to and beyond 35 simultaneous call per sector and
high-speed data of up to 153 kbps in both directions. It was recognized by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) as an IMT-2000 standard in November 1999. CDMA2000 EV-DO
(Evolution-Data Optimized) introduces new high-speed packet-switched transmission techniques that are
specifically designed and optimized for a data-centric broadband network that can deliver peak data rates
beyond 3 Mbps in a mobile environment. CDMA2000 EV-DO was approved as an IMT-2000 standard
(cdma2000 High Rate packet Data Air Interface, IS-856) in 2001.
Built on the principle of backwards compatibility, the CDMA2000 evolution path has provided operators
favorable economics and a significant time-to-market advantage in introducing new value-added services.
CDMA2000 1X was deployed in 2000, as the first IMT-2000 standard to be commercially available, and today,
along with EV-DO, it is the leading 3G technology serving around a half billion users worldwide. CDMA2000
systems provide a family of related services including cellular, PCS, WLL and fixed wireless.
CDMA2000 is a code division multiple access (CDMA) version of IMT-2000 specifications developed by
International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
It includes a group of standards for voice and data services −
 Voice − CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced
 Data − CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized)
Features
 CDMA2000 is a family of technology for 3G mobile cellular communications for transmission of voice,
data and signals.
 It supports mobile communications at speeds between 144Kbps and 2Mbps.
 It has packet core network (PCN) for high speed secured delivery of data packets.
 It applies multicarrier modulation techniques to 3G networks. This gives higher data rate, greater
bandwidth and better voice quality. It is also backward compatible with older CDMA versions.
 It has multi-mode, multi-band roaming features.

CDMA2000 Advantages:
The CDMA2000 technology roadmap provides operators with industry-leading performance capabilities and a
time-to-market advantage to support high-quality voice communications and revenue generating data services.
Thanks to its forward and backward compatible technology upgrades within the 1.25 MHz CDMA radio
channel, CDMA operators have benefited from the favorable economics of an evolutionary “in-band” solution
and have been able to deploy new technologies and value-added services throughout their entire network faster
than their competitors and with a lower capital investment. The technology has been commercially deployed
since 2000, and the CDMA2000 industry has a mature ecosystem and large economies of scope and scale.
There are over one hundred infrastructure and handset suppliers and thousands of application developers
supporting CDMA2000 networks.
CDMA2000 key advantages include:
 Industry Leading Performance

 Support for advanced mobile services
 Device selection
 Seamless Evolution Path
 Flexible Spectral Allocation and Efficient Use of Spectrum
 Flexible Migration Path
 Flexible Network Architecture: CDMA2000 systems were designed for fixed wireless, wireless local
loop (WLL), limited mobility and full mobility applications – inside and outside of buildings – using
wide or narrow bandwidths – with or without other complementary air links – with ubiquitous or non-
contiguous coverage. CDMA2000 networks can be designed with a centralized or distributed
architecture, or with a mix of the two. CDMA2000 works with ANSI-41 and IP-based core networks
and can use a variety of backhaul technologies, which connect base stations to the core network.
 Global Roaming and Multi-mode, Multi-band Devices
CDMA2000 Evolution
CDMA2000 offers operators a robust, long-term evolution path that delivers the performance and economics to
meet the rapidly evolving needs of the mobile market place over the long-term. The CDMA2000 evolution path
is built on the principle of backward and forward compatibility, in-band migration, and support of
heterogeneous networks.
CDMA2000 offers some of the highest voice capacity and data rates, and lowest latencies among the leading
wide area network technologies available today to deliver high-quality voice and broadband multimedia data
services. Most of the technology enhancements are enabled through software upgrades.
Building on this solid foundation and flexibility, future enhancements will further strengthen the performance
and economics of the core technology and

supp
ort
the convergence of fixed, mobile and broadcast networks through the implementation of all-IP end-to-end
solutions.
CDMA2000 incorporates advancements in antenna technology, interference cancellation, smart network
techniques, modulation and multiplexing to increase its performance and value.
With 1X Advanced, the voice capacity of CDMA2000 1X will increase by a factor of four, and the data
throughputs and capacity of EV-DO will increase by another factor of four with the implementation of EV-DO
Rev. B and DO Advanced.
1X Advanced enables operators to offer a lower cost per call, more minutes of use, or the ability to enable
unlimited voice services. The technology also enables operators to tradeoff voice capacity for 70% more
coverage or increase broadband revenue by freeing up channels that can be used for broadband data services.
Besides offering better speeds, DO Advanced enables operators to add broadband network capacity where and
when it is needed. The combination of EV-DO Rev. B and DO Advanced will offer better speeds, increased
sector capacity, reduced latency and advanced quality of service features.
CDMA2000 technologies will continue to interoperate and coexist with wider-bandwidth OFDM-based
technologies such as 802.11n for wireless local area network (WLAN) connectivity and LTE.

CDMA2000 will offer global roaming, ubiquitous high-performance mobile broadband and voice services with
a defined evolution path, while OFDMA solutions will augment CDMA2000 capacity by leveraging wider-
bandwidths and MIMO antennas in densely populated hot-zones where the demand for broadband connectivity
is extremely high.
CDMA2000 will evolve and remain a key source of revenue in both developed and emerging markets for well
into the next decade.
Applications:
CDMA2000 was designed with the mobile Internet in mind. It is an efficient and reliable IP-based platform on
which to deliver wireless data applications. EV-DO technologies, optimized for broadband data, were designed
to provide high-speed user data rates - that are faster than fixed-line broadband solutions - and low latencies to
enable a broad range of data, multimedia and delay-sensitive services to ensure a superior customer experience.
CDMA2000 supports thousands of applications across multiple execution environments (e.g., BREW, Java,
Linux, Palm, RIM, Windows Mobile, etc.) and customers can choose from a wide variety of handsets, fixed
wireless phones, PDAs, smart phones, notebooks, desktop modems and PC cards to access these applications.
For operators, CDMA2000 offers a robust platform that is easy to evolve and capable of enabling a time-to-
market advantage of 1 to 2 years or more—in a competitive market, this is a significant benefit.
Today, CDMA2000 operators offer thousands of applications targeting consumers, businesses and public
service organizations on their EV-DO Rel. 0 and Rev. A networks.
 Consumer: Popular consumer applications include short messaging, instant messaging, picture

messaging, mobile TV, music downloads, video downloads, online gaming with richly rendered 3D
graphics, and location-based services.
 Business: The business customer benefits from having high-speed data connectivity to the Internet and
their virtual private network (VPN), and services such as sending and receiving e-mail with large
attachments, push-to-talk and multimedia (PTT and PTM), and sales force automation functions.
 Public Service: The above services are also valuable tools for the public sector, including national
security, first-responder and public safety users. Providing universal access to telephony and Internet
services is a key economic priority for most governments. In many countries, EV-DO wireless
broadband technologies are being deployed as a more economical DSL substitute. Forward looking
governments are taking full advantage of these services by connecting schools, hospitals, medical
clinics, police stations and communities to CDMA2000 telecommunication networks.
Next-generation mobile technologies, EV-DO Rev. A and Rev. B, are IP-based and enable operators to offer a
wide range of value-added services, including voice over IP (VoIP), video conferencing, advertising, social
networking, m-commerce, radio and television. They also support multicast services, “one-to-many” delivery,
which allows transmitting the same content to an unlimited number of users without the need to rebroadcast the
information multiple times.
CDMA2000 operators have leveraged their success in delivering broadband data services to establish
themselves as leaders in service innovation while driving double-digit growth in data revenues. In some markets
in Asia, they are already generating over 30 percent of their revenues from data services, and in the U.S., they
have surpassed the 25 percent mark.

CDMA Digital standard (IS 95)
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95) was the first ever CDMA-based digital cellular technology. It was developed
by Qualcomm and later adopted as a standard by the Telecommunications Industry Association in TIA/EIA/IS-
95 release published in 1995. The proprietary name for IS-95 is cdmaOne.
It is a 2G mobile telecommunications standard that uses code-division multiple access (CDMA), a multiple
access scheme for digital radio, to send voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed telephone number)
between mobile telephones and cell sites. CDMA transmits streams of bits (PN codes). CDMA permits several
radios to share the same frequencies. Unlike TDMA "time division multiple access", a competing system used
in 2G GSM, all radios can be active all the time, because network capacity does not directly limit the number of
active radios. Since larger numbers of phones can be served by smaller numbers of cell-sites, CDMA-based
standards have a significant economic advantage over TDMA-based standards,[citation needed] or the oldest
cellular standards that used frequency-division multiplexing.
In North America, the technology competed with Digital AMPS (IS-136, a TDMA technology). It was
supplanted by IS-2000 (CDMA2000), a later CDMA-based standard.
IS 95 is a cellular phone system based on Direct Sequence CDMA multiple access. Thus, multiple users
simultaneously share the same (wideband) channel. Designers from Qualcomm claim a 20 fold increase in
capacity over analog cellular telephony.
Structure of IS-95 channels in the forward link
This is a total of 64 IS-95 code channels that can be accommodated on each RF channel. The IS-95 channels in
the forward link are arranged in the following fashion:
 Pilot channel
 Paging channels (up to seven)
 Sync channel
 Traffic channels
The IS-95 channels are associated with different Walsh codes - particular codes being used to support different
functions as outlined below:

IS-95 channels in the forward link with associated Walsh codes

To generate the final signal, the data from the individual channels is multiplied with the Walsh codes to provide
the individual IS-95 forward link channels. The output from this process is then further multiplied with the short
PN codes. This provides a means of identifying the sector / cell from which the signal is coming for the handset
/ mobile
IS-95 channels in the forward link
The IS-95 forward link channels and their functions and make-up are summarized below:
 Pilot channel (PC): The pilot channel is transmitted as a reference by the base station to provide
timing and phase reference for the mobiles, and carries no real data. The "data" carried by the channel is a
continuous stream of zeros which is spread by Walsh code zero, which itself a stream of zeros. This is
further spread by a pair of quadrature PN sequences. This means that the pilot channel is effectively the PN
sequence with its associated offset. A measurement of the signal-to-noise ratio of the pilot channel also gives
the mobile an indication of which is the strongest serving sector.
 Paging channels (PCH): This IS-95 channel is used to carry information to enable mobiles to be
paged. Data carried by this IS-95 channel includes system parameters, voice pages, SMS and other broadcast
messages. It occupies Walsh codes 1 - 7 dependent upon the system requirements. The PCH carries data at
either 4.8 or 9.6 kbps - a field in the Sync Channel indicates the data rate being transmitted.
As with other channels there are a number of stages taken to produce the final channel. First the baseband
information is error protected. After this the data is repeated if it is at a rate of 4.8 kbps, otherwise it is left as
it is. Following this the data is interleaved and then scrambled by the decimated long PN sequence, and
finally spread by the Walsh code for the particular channel assignment. In this process the long PN code is
itself masked with a code which is specific to the channel being used. In this way the long PN code for
Paging Channel 1 (using Walsh Code 1) is different to Paging Channel 4 (using Walsh Code 4).
 Synchronisation channel (SC): This IS-95 channel is used to provide the timing reference to access
the cell . This IS-95 channel always uses Walsh code 32. Each base station has a fixed timing offset to

reduce the interference between adjacent base-stations.

The Sync channel incorporates an 80 mS superframe structure. This is divided into three 26.667 mS frames
which correspond to the same length as the short PN sequences. This means that they align with the timing
on the Pilot channel.
This IS-95 channel is allocated the least power of the overhead channels in the overall CDMA transmission.
The data that is transmitted on this channel includes the system time, pilot PN of the base station, long code
state, system ID, and the network ID.
 Forward Traffic Channel (FTC): As the name implies, the Forward Traffic Channel is used to carry
voice, user data, and also signalling information
When carrying voice, the coded voice data does not require a constant bit rate and IS-95 allows the rate of
the frames to change dynamically (every 20 ms). When the rate is reduced it reduces the level of interference
to other users. The original vocoder specification used a set of rates based on divisions of 9.6 kbps. This is
reflected in IS-95A. Later the vocoder was improved to give better voice quality and in IS-95B a vocoder
was introduced with a rate set based on 14.4 kbps. The 9.6 kbps rate set was termed RS1 and the second
based on 14.4 kbps was termed RS2. However data is always carried at full rate.
Forward channel modulation
The forward data appearing on the various IS-95 channels is brought together so that it can be summed and
modulated onto the radio frequency carrier. The individual gains of each IS-95 channel are adjusted to provide
the correct relative power for each channel - this is undertaken because the levels of traffic on each channel are
always changing.
Once the channel gains have been set the signals are added coherently to form the spread spectrum signal. Then
the I and Q components are each modulated onto a carrier and summed to give the final transmitted QPSK
signal.
Structure of IS-95 channels in the reverse link
The IS-95 channels for the reverse link are quite different to those in the forward link. There are only two basic
channels:
 Access channel
 Reverse traffic channel
The way in which these IS-95 channels are structured and assembled is also different. This is because they are
generated within the mobile rather than the base station. In terms of the modulation, OQPSK is used where a
half chip delay is introduced onto the Q channel of the modulation.
However orthogonal modulation schemes are used. The different mobiles are individually identified by a mask
on the long PN code which is based on the Equipment Serial Number (ESN). The long PN code is used to give
the final spreading of the data to 1.228 Mcps.

IS-95 channels forward link spreading

IS-95 channels in the reverse link
The two IS-95 channels in the reverse link are summarized below:
 Access channel (AC): This IS-95 channel is used by the mobile to communicate with the base station
when no traffic channel has been set up. This IS-95 channel is therefore used for gaining acess toth e
network, call origination requests and also for sending responses to paging commands that might be sent
bythe network.
There can be up to 32 Access Channels on the IS-95 reverse link for each Paging Channel on forward link.
Each AC uses the same PN but they are time shifted to enable the mobile to be uniquely identified. Data is
sent at 4800 bps in a 20 mS time frame so that each frame contains 96 bits.
 Reverse traffic channel (RTC): Like the Forward Traffic Channel, this reverse link IS-95 channel is
used to carry variable rate voice data, user data and signaling.
The structure of the reverse traffic channel is similar to that of the access channel. However this IS-95 also
includes a data burst randomizer into which the orthogonally modulated data is fed. The data burst
randomizer is the technique used to account for the variable rate voice data is accommodated - it is not
possible to use the same techniques used on the forward link because they affect the channel power. This in
turn would upset the power control adjustments that need to be made to ensure that all the mobiles are
received as close to the same strength as possible.
Although there are only two IS-95 channels on the reverse link, these are all that are needed to carry the
required amount of data from the mobile to the base station

Attributes of CDMA in Cellular Systems
There are many attributes of CDMA which are of great benefit to the cellular system
 Soft handoff.
Since every cell uses the same radio frequency band, the only difference between user channels is the
spreading code sequences. Therefore, there is no jump from one frequency to another frequency when a
user moves between cells. The mobile terminal receives the same signal in one cell as it does in the next,
and thus there is no harsh transition from one receiving mode to another. Two or more neighboring base
stations can receive the signal of a particular user, because they all use the same channel. Moreover, two
base stations can simultaneously transmit to the same user terminals. The mobile (rake) receiver can
resolve the two signals separately and combine them (see diversity). This feature is called soft handoff.
 Soft capacity or graceful degradation.
In FDMA and TDMA, N channels can be used virtually without interference from other users in the
same cell but potential users N+1, N+2, ..., are blocked until a channel is released. The capacity of
FDMA and TDMA is therefore fixed at N users and the link quality is determined by the
frequency reuse pattern.
In theory, it does not matter whether the spectrum is divided into frequencies, time slots, or codes, the
capacity provided from these three multiple access schemes is the same. However, in CDMA, all the
users in all cells share one radio channel and are separated by codes. Therefore, an additional user may
be added by sacrificing somewhat the link quality, with the effect that voice quality is just slightly
degraded compared to that of the normal N-channel cell. Thus, degradation of performance with an
increasing number of simultaneous users is "graceful" in CDMA systems, versus the hard limits placed
on FDMA and TDMA systems.
 Multipath tolerance.
Spread spectrum techniques are effective in combating the frequency selective fading that takes place in
multipath channels. The underlying principle is that when a signal is spread over a wide bandwidth, a
frequency selective fade will corrupt only a small portion of the signal's power spectrum, while passing
the remaining spectrum unblemished. As a result, upon despreading there is a better probability that the
signal can be recovered correctly. For an unspread signal whose spectral density happens to be
misplaced in a deep fade, an unrecoverable signal at the receiver is virtually assured.
To optimally combine signals received over various delayed paths, a rake receiver can be used.

 No channel equalization needed.
When the transmission rate is much higher than 10 kbps in both FDMA and TDMA, an equalizer is
needed for reducing the intersymbol interference caused by time delay spread. This is because when the
bit period becomes smaller than about ten times the time delay spread, intersymbol interference becomes
significant. However, in CDMA a correlatoris needed at minimum. To achieve good performance a rake
receiver is needed combat delay spread.
 Privacy.
An important requirement of spreading signals is that they be "noise-like", or pseudorandom.
Despreading the signal requires knowledge of the user's code, and for a binary code with spreading
factor N there exist 2N possible random sequences. In military systems these codes are kept secret, so it
is very difficult for an unauthorized attacker to tap into or transmit on another user's channel. Often it is
even difficult to detect the presence of a spread-spectrum signal because it is below the noise that is
present in the transmit bandwidth.
Note that in cellular systems, the codes are fully described in publicly available standards. In digital
systems, security against eavesdropping (confidentiality) is obtained through encryption. This is a highly
desirable alternative to the analog FDMA cellular phone system in wide use today, where with an
inexpensive scanner one can tune in to the private conversations of unwary neighbors.

Cable television
Cable television, generally, any system that distributes television signals by means of coaxial or fibre-optic
cables. The term also includes systems that distribute signals solely via satellite. Cable-television systems
originated in the United States in the late 1940s and were designed to improve reception of commercial network
broadcasts in remote and hilly areas. During the 1960s they were introduced in many large metropolitan areas
where local television reception is degraded by the reflection of signals from tall buildings. Commonly known
as community antenna television (CATV), these cable systems use a “community antenna” to receive broadcast
signals (often from communications satellites), which they then retransmit via cables to homes and
establishments in the local area subscribing to the service. Subscribers pay a specified monthly service charge in
addition to an initial installation fee.
Since the mid-1970s there has been a proliferation of cable-television systems offering special services. Besides
bringing high-quality signals to subscribers, the systems provide additional television channels. Some of these
systems can deliver 50 or more channels because they distribute signals occurring within the normal television
broadcast band as well as nonbroadcast frequencies. A frequency-conversion device is connected to the
television set of the subscriber to accommodate these signals of nonbroadcast frequencies. The increased
number of channels allows expanded programming, including broadcasts from distant cities, continuous
weather and stock-market reports, programs produced by community groups and educational institutions, and
access to pay-TV program materials such as recent motion pictures and sports events not telecast by other
broadcasters.
Another feature offered by more and more cable operators is two-way channel capability, which enables
subscribers to communicate with programming facilities or information centres within the system. Using the
cable connection, home viewers can, for example, participate in public-opinion polls or call up various kinds of
written and graphic materials (e.g., citations from reference books, concert schedules, and recipes). The latter
feature is offered by systems called videotex, which were first introduced in Great Britain and West Germany.
Two-way cable-television systems increasingly allow subscribers with home computers to link up with
computer networks, giving the subscribers access to data banks and permitting them to interact with other
online users. Cable operators have also experimented with video compression, digital transmission, and high-
definition television (HDTV).
In the United States, government deregulation of the cable-television industry in the 1990s allowed cable
companies to experiment with telephony and allowed telephone companies to distribute cable-television
programming.
The television cable industry has become a major service provider by allowing data transport over upgraded
CATV cable networks. The cable industry has had many plans for delivering unique services to its subscribers.
High-resolution digital video has been part of the plan, as well as TV set-top boxes that provide interactive
game interfaces, WebTV, and other features. Cable data networks make this possible.

This topic describes how broadband services are delivered over the "cable network." It discusses the
architecture of the cable network and several competing specifications that are attempting to define a universal
cable network standard.
Cable data networks are one of several residential broadband schemes. Other schemes include DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line), satellite systems such as Hughes Network System's DirecPC, and wireless data systems
discussed under "Wireless Broadband Access Technologies." In fact, MMDS (Multichannel Multipoint
Distribution Services) has been called a "wireless cable data network" solution because of its multipoint
characteristics. See "Residential Broadband."
CATV Architecture
The traditional CATV system consists of a shared coaxial cable network that transmits analog television signals
to downstream subscribers. It is estimated that over 100 million homes are reachable by CATV cable, of which
approximately 75 million of those homes are CATV subscribers.
The cable network mimics the over-the-air radio frequency broadcast signals that you would receive via a TV
antennae, but they are carried on cable. Television signals are transmitted in 6-MHz channels.
CATV is a shared cable system that uses a tree-and-branch topology in which multiple households within a
neighborhood share the same cable. The topology of the CATV system is pictured in Figure 1.
Figure

Note that early CATV systems were all coaxial cable. The figure shows a fiber cable trunk combined with a
coaxial cable trunk. This dual system is called a hybrid fiber coax (HFC) system. The fiber-optic cable helps
overcome attenuation of signals over long distances and problems related to aging components (aging coax
cable is commonly replaced with fiber where appropriate). Fiber also provides more bandwidth for future
expansion. In some areas, cable providers have been installing fiber cable all the way to the curb. These efforts
are covered under "FTTH (Fiber to the Home)."
Since the CATV network was primarily designed for downstream transmission of television signals, most of the
existing network is being refitted to support two-way data transmissions. For example, amplifiers are used at
various points along the cable to boost signals, but these amplifiers only work in one direction. Upgrading those
components, along with many other components has been a big and expensive task. A temporary solution to
provide two-way communications is the dual-path approach, in which subscribers transmit data upstream via a
separate telephone connection. This scheme is being phased out as full two-way systems are put into place, as
described next.
Cable Data Network Operation
Cable data network subscribers connect to the system via a cable modem. Once connected, subscribers obtain a
continuous connection to the Internet via the cable network. The modems are internal devices or connect to PC
and home entertainment equipment via USB (Universal Serial Bus) and other interfaces.
The cable modem communicates with the CMTS (Cable Modem Termination System) in the head office. The
CMTS provides connections for thousands of cable modems over a network that can stretch to over 100 km
with potential data rates up to 50 Mbits/sec. The CMTS also connects to the Internet and other media sources,
sending and receiving user packets.
The cable modem performs upstream and downstream conversions. In the downstream process, packet data
from the Internet arrives at the cable network provider's head end as shown in Figure 2. A processor module
converts IP packets into MPEG packets and then error checks and modulates the packets onto a carrier wave
using QAM/FEC (quadrature amplitude modulation/forward error correction). The output is then forwarded
downstream to the subscriber. The subscriber's modem converts the radio frequency information back to IP
packets and sends them to the end device. The head-end portion of the cable network can typically receive
signals from a variety of sources, including terrestrial and satellite wireless transmissions.

Figure
The cable network uses FDM (frequency division multiplexing). As mentioned, TV channels are carried in 6
MHz bands, and one or more of these channels is dedicated to carrying data. The upstream channel typically
occupies lower parts of the bandwidth not occupied by TV channels. Downstream rates are typically in the
range of 30 Mbits/sec or less while upstream rates are in the range of 300 Kibts/sec to 10 Mbits/sec.
The actual downstream data rate available to users will fluctuate because the system is shared and not all users
will be downloading information at the same time. There may be brief periods where all the bandwidth is
available to just a few users, which would make for near instantaneous downloads for megabit-size files. The
cable operator also has the flexibility to allocate more bandwidth by making additional channels available for
data.
The upstream channel is a problem. When upstream channels are used on the cable network, they typically
occupy lower frequencies that are subject to noise. In addition, the typical system uses TDMA, so users must
contend for access to time slots. As more people access the network, performance drops. Some systems are so
noisy that providers require users to use dial-up connections for upstream data.
Noise on the upstream connection is caused by electrical interference from home appliances, motors, and so on.
The problem is only made worse by poor quality construction, old cable, loose connections, and improperly
shielded cable. All combined, data is in for a rough ride on the way back to the head end. In fact, the noise
problem puts a severe limit on the upstream bandwidth.
Many of the problems just discussed can be resolved with Terayon's S-CDMA (Synchronous Code Division
Multiplexing). S-CDMA is a spread-spectrum modulation technique that uses available frequencies more

efficiently and can operate more reliably than TDMA in noisy upstream channels. Because of the way that S-
CDMA spreads its signals, it suffers less from external noise. In addition, S-CDMA synchronizes the upstream
signals, which reduces mutual interference, thus opening up more bandwidth. See "CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access)" for more information.
At first, one might think that downstream traffic naturally requires more bandwidth than upstream traffic. After
all, a single mouse click by a user can unleash an avalanche of data from an Internet server. However, many
people are using the Internet for voice calls and to exchange files, digital music, pictures, and video. In addition,
many people are setting up Web sites that can potentially overuse the upstream channel. Cable operators have
had to deal with this problem by preventing users from setting up Web sites at the far end of the network, where
there is the most contention for the upstream channel. These Web sites are moved to data centers that are closer
to the core of the Internet.
The shared nature of the cable network introduced security problems. Users armed with network snoopers can
watch traffic and attempt to capture valuable information. The cable industry has worked out encryption
techniques and other security measures that support privacy. Firewalls are now common in homes.
Cable Network Provider Services
Cable operators can add various types of Internet-related services to enhance their networks. For example,
caching ensures that the benefits of high-speed Internet access available to cable network subscribers is not lost
when accessing slower links and servers on the Internet. For example, a number of users in the system may
frequently access a server that is connected to the Internet via a 56K modem link. The cable operator can cache
this information on its local servers to make the information immediately available to subscribers. See "Content
Distribution."
IP telephony support allows users to make voice telephone calls over the cable network. This requires a cable
modem that provides integrated MTA (multimedia terminal adapter) support, which basically means it has a
telephone jack and a computer connector. IP telephony over cable networks supports multiple phone and
simultaneous calls, which are set up as virtual circuits. Additional virtual circuits can be created at any time,
with available bandwidth and the number of handsets/headsets being the only restriction. Incoming calls are set
up as another virtual circuit. At the cable operator end, an IP-to-PSTN (public-switched telephone network)
gateway converts and routes IP-based telephone calls into the traditional telephone system. See "Voice/Data
Networks."
Cable operators are working to provide a number of services to their customers, including audio and video
servers that can serve up music and movies. A big player is @Home, a cable- specific ISP, meaning that it
provides content to cable companies throughout the United States. Cable companies such as Cox
Communications deploy @Home Network as part of their interactive content for homes and workplaces. Cox is
an equity partner in At Home Corporation, along with Comcast Corporation and Tele-Communications.

Corporate users should keep in mind that cable networks are primarily geared toward home users, not
companies that want to build high-speed remote office connections, extranets, or other high-usage links. Many
cable operators may discourage large organizations from connecting to their cable system. See "NAS (Network
Access Server)" for alternatives.
Standards Development
Cable standards are designed to provide interoperability between cable modems and head-end gear. Subscribers
should be able to buy off-the-shelf cable modems that are guaranteed to connect over the cable network with
equipment installed at the cable operators site. Standards benefit both subscribers and operators by making
connection easier and promoting new applications. The most important standards are outlined here:
 DOCSIS (Data over Cable Interface Specification) DOCSIS is the result of work done by MCNS
(Multimedia Cable Network System Partners Ltd.). This standard has become the most interesting and
important, and is covered under the "DOCSIS" heading.
 DAVIC (Digital Audio Visual Council) DAVIC was a non-profit group that promoted digital audio-
visual applications and services based on specifications which maximized interoperability across
countries and applications/services. DAVIC developed a digital video broadcast reference model that is
popular in Europe and preferred by the European Cable Communications Association (ECCA), a
European cable industry organization. DAVIC is oriented toward delivering digital video to home users,
while DOCSIS is better positioned for data delivery. DAVIC completed its work and closed in 2000.
See the "DAVIC" topic.
 IEEE 802.14 Working Group This group is defining the physical layer and a MAC (Medium Access
Control) layer protocol for HFC networks. The architecture specifies an HFC cable plant with a radius
of 80 kilometers from the head end. The group's goal is to develop a specification for delivering
Ethernet traffic over the network. ATM networking was also considered for the delivery of multimedia
traffic. There has been some conflict between the work done by this IEEE group and the work done by
MCNS, but MCNS is implementing part of the IEEE's physical layer work. Still, a paper about cable
standards at the CATV Cyberlab claims that "the IEEE 802.14 effort was a failure." In fact, MCNS
began work on DOCSIS because the IEEE was not working fast enough on its specification.
 IETF IP over Cable Data Network (IPCDN) Working Group The IPCDN is defining how IP can
be delivered over the cable network. Most of its work is centered on DOCSIS and addresses higher
levels than the IEEE 802.14 Working Group, which is concentrating on physical and data link layer
protocols. IPCDN is defining a specification to map both IPv4 and IPv6 into the HFC access networks.
The group is interested in multicast, broadcast, address mapping and resolution (for IPv4), and neighbor
discovery (for IPv6). IPCDN is also working on bandwidth management and guarantees using RSVP,
security using IPSec, and management using SNMP.

Chapter No 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter No 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Wireless Communication (BTEC-601-18)

Unit 4: Wireless Systems & Standards:

AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 1

 The cells in AMPS are 10km to 20 km across.

 Since, it was an analog technology, it suffered from noise and eavesdropping.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 2

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 3

Features of ETACS System:

 For ETACS, the maximum deviation of the FM modulator is ± 10 kHz

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 4

United States digital cellular:

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 6

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 7

Similarities between IS-136 and IS-95

Difference between IS-136 and IS-95

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 8

IEEE Standards Association:

Notable IEEE Standards committees and formats[edit]

IEEE P80 Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding

IEEE 255 Standard Letter Symbols for Semiconductor Devices, IEEE-255-1963

Standard Letter Symbols for Units of Measurement, IEEE-260-1978 (now 260.1-

Standard Digital Interface for Programmable Instrumentation, IEEE-488-1978 (now

Recommended Practice and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 9

IEEE 610 Standard Glossary of Software Engineering Terminology

IEEE 754 Floating point arithmetic specifications

IEEE 802 LAN/MAN

IEEE 802.4 Standards for token passing bus access

IEEE 802.6 Standards for information exchange between systems

IEEE 802.7 Standards for broadband LAN cabling

IEEE 802.8 Fiber-optic connection

IEEE 802.9 Standards for integrated services, like voice.

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 10

IEEE 802.10 Standards for LAN/MAN security implementations

IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking – "WiFi"

IEEE 802.12 Standards for demand priority access method

IEEE 802.14 Standards for cable television broadband communications

IEEE 802.15.2 Bluetooth and Wi-Fi coexistence mechanism

IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor/Control Networks – "ZigBee"

IEEE 802.16 Wireless Networking – "WiMAX"

IEEE 828 Configuration Management in Systems and Software Engineering

IEEE 829 Software Test Documentation

IEEE 830 Software Requirements Specifications

Standard for Radix-Independent Floating-Point Arithmetic, IEEE-854-1987

IEEE 896 Futurebus

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 11

IEEE P1003.1 Portable Operating System Interface – – POSIX

IEEE 1016 Software Design Description

IEEE 1028 Standard for Software Reviews and Audits

IEEE 1044.1 Standard Classification for Software Anomalies

IEEE 1059 Software Verification And Validation Plan

IEEE 1073 Point of Care Medical Device Communication Standards

IEEE 1074 Software Development Life Cycle

IEEE 1076 VHDL – VHSIC Hardware Description Language

IEEE 1149.1 JTAG

IEEE 1149.6 AC-JTAG

IEEE 1180 Discrete cosine transform accuracy

IEEE 1233 System Requirements Specification

IEEE 1275 Open Firmware

IEEE 1284 Parallel port

Department of Computer Science & Engineering, CEC, Landran Page 12

IEEE P1363 Public key cryptography

IEEE 1364 Verilog