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Veterinary Arthroscopy for the Small
Animal Practitioner
Veterinary Arthroscopy for the Small
Animal Practitioner
Edited By
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to
reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Timothy C. McCarthy to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some content that appears in standard print
versions of this book may not be available in other formats.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
I dedicate this book to all my patients.
Without their participation, this would not have been possible
vii
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
About the Companion Website xiv
2 General Technique 23
2.1 Anesthesia, Patient Support, and Pain Management 23
2.2 Postoperative Care 23
2.3 Patient Preparation, Positioning, and Operating Room Setup 24
2.3.1 Shoulder Joint 24
2.3.2 Elbow Joint 26
2.3.3 Radiocarpal Joint 28
2.3.4 Hip Joint 29
2.3.5 Stifle Joint 29
2.3.6 Tibiotarsal Joint 31
2.4 Portal Placement-General 31
References 34
viii Contents
3 Shoulder Joint 36
3.1 Patient Preparation, Positioning, and Operating Room Setup 36
3.2 Portal Sites and Portal Placement 37
3.2.1 Telescope Portals 37
3.2.2 Operative Portals 39
3.2.3 Egress Portals 40
3.3 Nerves of Concern with Shoulder Joint Arthroscopy 40
3.4 Examination Protocol and Normal Arthroscopic Anatomy 41
3.5 Diseases of the Shoulder Diagnosed and Managed with Arthroscopy 47
3.5.1 Osteochondritis Dissecans (OCD) 47
3.5.1.1 OCD Lesion Removal and Management 59
3.5.2 Bicipital Tendon Injuries 73
3.5.3 Soft Tissue Injuries of the Shoulder with or Without Shoulder Instability 81
3.5.4 Ununited Caudal Glenoid Ossification Center (UCGOC) 95
3.5.5 Ununited Supraglenoid Tubercle (USGT) 100
3.5.6 Arthroscopic-Assisted Intra-Articular Fracture Repair 100
3.5.7 Arthroscopic Biopsy of Intra-Articular Neoplasia 101
3.5.8 Glenoid Cartilage Defects 102
3.5.9 Chondromalacia 104
3.5.10 Infraspinatus Muscle Contracture 104
References 106
Index 305
xi
Preface
While writing this book, my 50 year anniversary of grad- interviewed with the head of the program and, during
uation from Veterinary School occurred. Fifty years! the interview, it was obvious that if I applied for the
This has been an incredible journey! Beyond my wildest masters degree program there was no chance that I
dreams. I never thought that I would be where I am would be accepted but if I applied for the PhD program
today and would have done the things that I have done. I was guaranteed to be accepted. Interesting but it
I never dreamed that the first edition of this book would worked. Six years later I passed the ACVS examination
be translated into Russian or that I would be invited to and became a board-certified surgeon and, in a few
Russia to launch its sale and teach Russian Veterinarians. years later, won my PhD. ACVS recently initiated fel-
I never dreamed that I would travel to teach in 14 coun- lowship training in minimally invasive surgery, and I
tries and 23 states. That I would publish books about my was selected as a founding fellow in this program for
professional work. both small animal soft tissue surgery and small animal
It is amazing that I was even able to become a orthopedics, the only veterinarian to qualify for both
Veterinarian. I am so dyslexic that I struggled to learn to categories.
read. When I started the fifth grade, I was reading at a At my 25 year class reunion, I was informed that at a
second grade level. Spelling was impossible. In the third previous time I had been unanimously selected as the
grade, I was able to get 49 out of 50 words WRONG on a classmate least likely to go back to school AND they
review spelling test even after spending uncountable were “Stunned” that I was board certified. My reply was
hours with my parents trying to learn spelling using that no one is more stunned than I.
flash cards. People with really bad handwriting are Getting into endoscopy happened totally by chance. I
probably dyslexic and with really bad handwriting no got a call from a local veterinarian asking if I wanted to
one can tell how the word was spelled. I think that I got buy a used gastroscope that he had. As a surgeon, I had
into Veterinary School with the lowest grades in the his- never really thought about doing GI endoscopy but
tory of Veterinary Medicine, but Baxter Black and I thought, “hey why not” since no one in the area was
debate who’s was worst. If it were not for Dr. Don Bailey, providing this service. I did not buy that endoscope but
I would not have been accepted. He worked for Dr. bought another one that was in better shape for $550
Davis, who was head of the admission committee when with a light source and all the instruments that I needed.
I applied, all through Veterinary School and graduated A little later, I bought a laparoscope to do liver biopsies
at the top of this class. I managed to not flunk out and and then an arthroscope. I never thought that I would
graduated at the bottom of the class, again Baxter Black pay for this equipment, but I thought it would be fun, I
and I argue about who was really “last in class.” And might be able to practice better medicine, and I could
they call the person who graduates last in class “Dr.” afford the expense.
It was obvious in my first job out of school that I I started putting endoscopes everywhere and added to
wanted to do surgery. Residency programs for advanced the list of procedures that could be performed by trying
training were a new entity 50 years ago and they were new things on my patients. Many of the endoscopic first
few and far between. Then how does someone with ever procedures were performed on patients with clini-
grades barely above 2.0 get into a residency program? cal problems. Using the axiom of “Above all do no
NOT! I finally thought that I needed to try CSU, my harm” and combining endoscopy with transition to tra-
“amalater.” They did not have a residency program, but ditional approaches, there were an unbelievingly low
there was the graduate program at the Surgery Lab. I number of problems or complications. Very few firsts
xii Preface
were planned or thought about ahead of time and many with my first Psychologist, I unloaded everything that
were spur of the moment events added to an already was bothering me, things that I never thought I would
ongoing procedure or immediately before surgery by ever tell anyone, at the end of the session she said that I
asking the question, can I do this with a scope? In cases saved about nine months of therapy because I was ready
where the question was asked before surgery the discus- and she did not have to spend that time breaking down
sion with the client was, I would like to try this with my resistance. We went from there. I am a much happier
minimally invasive technique, I have never done this person, I have eliminated my anger issues, and I am
before or this has never been done before, if I cannot do much more resilient to the stresses in life.
this with minimally invasive technique I will do it the Early in this saga, I made the statement in my lec-
traditional old way, and the cost will by the same how tures: “Endoscopy is a quantum leap forward in our
matter how it gets done. I never had a client say no to diagnostic and therapeutic armamentarium.” This was
this plan. Sure, I had to eat some of the cost on many and still is true. Now I say “A patient comes into every
early cases, but this is the easiest, most effective, cheap- veterinary practice every day who would benefit from a
est continuing education I have ever gotten and has minimally invasive procedure” This is also true or when
benefitted the patients, clients, my practice, my happi- I get pushy: “Every patient who comes into every veteri-
ness, plus my pocketbook thousands of times over the nary practice every day would benefit from a minimally
cost. Sixty endoscopes and over 7000 procedures later I invasive procedure” and this is almost true.
am writing the second edition of this book. Enjoy your endoscopes. They are the best burnout
I know that I am different and do not follow the book. protection that you can buy.
I am so dyslexic that I cannot read about what I am not
supposed to be able to do. I also never learned to come
in out of the rain because my mother took me out in the
rain. In the first grade, when we had art class all the
class got coloring books, but the teacher did not give me
one. Being a typical first grader, I was devastated and
did not understand why I did not get a coloring book.
The teacher then brought me a large blank piece of
paper and told me that my mother did not want me to
have a coloring book but wanted me to make my own
drawings. So, I never learned to color between the lines.
In fact, I never learned that there were lines. When
someone says something about thinking outside the box
my question is, what is a box?
As I said at the beginning, my career has been an
incredible journey. But it has not all been easy or fun.
There have been times of miserable struggle. I belong to
the face book group; “Not one more vet,” because I am a
suicide survivor. Twice in my life I have been at the edge.
Fortunately, I never acted on my thoughts of suicide and
am here to tell about the experience. If I can get through
this so can you. I looked for and got help from my friends
and great help from some great Psychologists. I also have
to admit that I am really stubborn and wasn’t going to let
the b’s win. If you are in trouble, get help! Working with
a psychologist has changed my life. It does not mean that
if you see a Psychologist that there is something wrong
with you. Get over this mental block. Unburden yourself
to them, that is what they are there for. At my first visit
xiii
Acknowledgments
This work would not have been accomplished without a great number of people and animals who collectively made
this possible. I simply put it to paper.
First to my parents for bringing me into this world and for their unending support, encouragement, and love.
To Dr. Don and Betty Bailey for introducing me to Veterinary Medicine, for getting me into Veterinary School, and
for their continued support throughout my career.
To all my teachers and professors, from my first-grade teacher Mrs. Mathews, through high school and college for
their efforts to educate and stimulate me but especially to Drs Jim Creed, Glenn Severin, Pat Chase, Harry Gorman,
and Henry Swan.
To my colleagues who referred the cases that provided me with the material for learning these techniques. And to
the clients who entrusted me with their beloved pets.
To Dr. Karl Storz, his daughter Ms. Sible Storz, and his grandson Mr. Karl-Christian Storz for their interest in
Veterinary Medicine and support of our profession. To all the staff of the Veterinary Division of the Karl Storz
Endoscope Company for their educational endeavors and instrumentation development for our profession. Especially
to Dr. Christopher Chamness for his support, encouragement, and friendship.
To all the younger veterinarians who have picked up the reins and are driving all aspects of endoscopy forward at
an ever-increasing rate. I am thrilled that I now only see smoke and taillights. This is a thrill to watch.
And most importantly, to my wife and son for their patience and for allowing me the time to complete this
project.
xiv
Note: The videos are clearly signposted throughout the book. Look out for .
1
Veterinary Arthroscopy for the Small Animal Practitioner, First Edition. Timothy C. McCarthy.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/mccarthy/arthroscopy
2 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
down off the couch or the favorite chair, and inability Table 1.1 Diagnoses with arthroscopy.
to get in and out of the car or truck; combined with
All joints Degenerative joint disease
joint pain, swelling or thickening, crepitus, reduced
Chondromalacia
range of joint motion, or joint instability on physical
Neoplasia
examination are definite reasons to perform arthros-
Synovitis/villus synovial proliferation
copy. Radiographic, CT, MRI, or ultrasound abnormal-
Intra-articular Fractures
ities of increased joint fluid or joint capsule thickening,
Immune-mediated polyarthropathies
periarticular osteophytes, periarticular sclerosis, OCD
Septic arthritis
lesions, ununited anconeal processes, ununited caudal
Shoulder OCD of the humeral head
glenoid ossification center, intra-articular fractures or joint Bicipital tendon ruptures – partial and
chips, periarticular bone lysis, tendon and ligament complete
abnormalities, or any other changes involving a joint Medial glenohumeral ligament and
are also indications for arthroscopy. Normal radio- subscapularis tendon injuries
graphic, CT, MRI, or ultrasound findings do not pre- Lateral glenoid labrum separations
clude arthroscopy as a diagnostic technique if history Ununited caudal glenoid ossification center
and physical findings point to joint involvement. Ununited supraglenoid tubercle
Arthroscopy is indicated whenever we need more Supraspinatus tendon injuries
information about a joint than can be obtained with Glenoid cartilage defects
any less invasive technique. Elbow joint Medial coronoid process pathology/
Arthroscopy is most commonly performed in the fragmentation
shoulder, elbow, and stifle in dogs. Arthroscopy is less Lateral coronoid process pathology/
fragmentation
commonly performed on the radiocarpal, hip, and tibio-
OCD of the humeral condyle
tarsal joints. Arthroscopy is easier to perform in large
Ununited anconeal process
dogs but has been done effectively in dogs as small as
Joint incongruity/growth deformity
seven pounds. Arthroscopy has also been performed in Incomplete humeral condyle ossification
the shoulder, elbow, and stifle of cats but its use is
Radiocarpal Radial carpal bone fractures
largely unexplored in this species. The same position- joint Chip fractures of the dorsal margin of the
ing, procedures, techniques, and portals that are used in distal radius
dogs are used for cats. Ligament and joint capsule tears
Conditions that have been diagnosed with arthros- Hip joint Hip dysplasia
copy (Table 1.1) include osteochondritis dissecans Dorsal joint capsule tears
(OCD) of the shoulder, stifle, elbow, and tibiotarsal Aseptic necrosis of the femoral head
joints (Van Bree and Van Ryssen 1998); partial and Stifle joint Cranial cruciate ligament ruptures – partial
complete cranial and caudal cruciate ligament rup- and complete
tures; meniscal injuries; medial coronoid processes dis- Caudal cruciate ligament ruptures – partial
ease (MCPD); ununited caudal glenoid ossification and complete
center (UCGOC), ununited anconeal process (UAP), Meniscal injuries
ununited supraglenoid tubercle, degenerative joint dis- OCD of the femoral condyle
ease (DJD); intra-articular fractures; immune-mediated Medial patellar luxation/lateral patellar
ligament rupture
arthritis; synovitis; partial or complete bicipital tendon
Long digital extensor tendon injuries
rupture; injury to other intra-articular soft tissues of
Popliteal tendon avulsion
the shoulder, soft tissue injury of intra-articular struc-
Cruciate stabilization failure
tures of the elbow, radiocarpal, stifle, and hip joints;
Hock joint OCD of the talus
septic arthritis; and neoplasia. Arthroscopic assess-
ment of femoral head and acetabular articular cartilage
condition in young dysplastic dogs have been used for
case selection and to predict results with pelvic osteot- Operative procedures currently being performed with
omy surgery. Cartilage injury or chondromalacia sec- arthroscopy (Table 1.2) include removal of OCD cartilage
ondary to instability, deformity, or inflammatory flaps and debridement of the cartilage defects in the
processes is more easily identified and the extent of shoulder, elbow, stifle, and tibiotarsal joints (Bertrand
damage scored more accurately than with open et al. 1997; Bilmont et al. 2018; Cook et al. 2001; Gielen
surgery. et al. 2002; McCarthy 1999; Miller and Beale 2008; Olivieri
1.2 Instrumentation and Equipmen 3
Table 1.2 Operative procedures performed of avulsed ligament attachments, medial patellar luxation
with arthroscopy. management (Bevan and Taylor 2004), assisted repair of
intraarticular fractures (Beale and Cole 2012; Bright and
Shoulder OCD cartilage flap removal and lesion
joint debridement May 2011; Cole and Beale 2020; Cusack and Johnson 2013;
Bicipital tendon transection Deneuche and Viguier 2002; Perry et al. 2010), intra-artic-
Ununited caudal glenoid ossification center ular management of shoulder instability (Franklin
fragment removal et al. 2013; Mitchell and Innes 2000; Ridge et al. 2014),
Ununited supraglenoid tubercle fragment neoplasia management (Arias et al. 2009; Scherrer
removal et al. 2005), septic arthritis management (Fearnside and
Intra-articular soft tissue injury stabilization Preston 2002; Luther et al. 2005), and more. The majority
Intra-articular or assisted fracture repair
of procedures and publications relate to application of
Elbow joint Medial coronoid process fragment arthroscopy in dogs, but this technique has also been per-
removal/process revision formed in cats (Bardet 1998; Beale and Cole 2012;
OCD cartilage flap removal and lesion Bright 2010; Cole and Beale 2020; Cusack and
debridement
Johnson 2013; Mindner et al. 2016; Ridge 2009; Serck and
Anconeal process removal
Wouters 2019; Staiger and Beale 2005).
Osteophyte resection
Intra-articular or assisted fracture repair
Radiocarpal Carpal chip removal
joint Intra-articular or assisted fracture repair
1.2 Instrumentation
Stifle joint Cruciate ligament debridement/removal
and Equipment
Meniscectomy – partial/total
OCD cartilage flap removal and lesion 1.2.1 Arthroscopes
debridement
Rigid telescopes used for arthroscopy range in size from
Meniscal release
1.9 to 5.0 mm diameter. Telescopes in use today are
Intra-articular or assisted fracture repair
designed using what is termed a Hopkins rod lens sys-
Hock joint OCD cartilage flap removal and lesion
tem (Figure 1.1) for image transmission that has dra-
debridement
matically improved image quality over previous lens
Free joint body and tarsal chip fracture
fragment removal systems. Telescopes commonly used for small animal
Intra-articular or assisted fracture repair arthroscopy (Table 1.3) include a long 2.7 mm arthro-
scope also called the 2.7 mm multipurpose rigid tele-
scope (MPRT), a 4.0 mm arthroscope, a short 2.7 mm
et al. 2007; Person 1989; Rochat 2001; Van Bree and Van arthroscope, a 2.4 mm arthroscope, and a 1.9 mm arthro-
Ryssen 1998); coronoid process fragment removal scope (Figure 1.2). These telescopes all have a 30° visual
(McCarthy 1999; Rochat 2001) and coronoid process revi- angle, but other angles are available (Figure 1.3). Each
sion or subtotal coronoidectomy (McCarthy 1999), free has advantages, disadvantages, and specific best
joint body (arthrolith) removal (Smith et al. 2012), bicipi- applications.
tal tendon transection (Bergenhuyzen et al. 2010; Cook The 2.7 mm MPRT was for years promoted as the tel-
et al. 2005; Rochat 2001), carpal chip removal escope of choice for arthroscopy in small animals
(McCarthy 2005), partial and total meniscectomy (Ertelt because it had the best optics of all the small telescopes
and Fehr 2009; Ridge 2006; Ritzo et al. 2014; Rochat 2001), and its length allows it to be used for multiple endo-
cruciate ligament debridement (Rochat 2001), meniscal scopic techniques. This recommendation has changed
release (Austin et al. 2007; Kim et al. 2016; McCarthy 1999), with improvement of the optics of the 2.4 mm arthro-
ununited caudal glenoid ossification center removal scope, which now equals or exceeds those of the 2.7 mm
(McCarthy 2005), ununited supraglenoid tubercle MPRT. The 2.4 scope is shorter, 11 cm vs 18 cm, smaller,
removal (McCarthy 2005; Serck and Wouters 2019), unu- with a better blunt obturator design making it much
nited anconeal process removal (McCarthy 2005), screw easier to insert and use in the small joints of our patients.
fixation of ununited anconeal process fragments, osteo- This size and design allow procedures to be performed
phyte removal in chronic degenerative joint disease of the with less joint damage.
elbow and tarsus (McCarthy 2005), intra-articular repair One of the previous arguments for recommendation
of ruptured cranial cruciate ligaments (Bolia and of the 2.7 mm MPRT was that it can be used for many
Böttcher 2015; Person 1987; Winkels et al. 2010), fixation endoscopic techniques commonly performed in small
4 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
Figure 1.1 A diagram of the Hopkins rod lens system shown in the telescope at the bottom and a conventional lens system in
the telescope at the top. Hopkins rod lenses are the standard design for arthroscopes in current use today. Source: Photo
courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, Germany.
Arthroscope diameter Telescope length (cm) Telescope angle (°) Telescope part number (Karl Storz)
0°
12°
30°
Figure 1.2 Arthroscopes commonly used in small animal
practice from bottom to top: the long 2.7 mm multipurpose
rigid telescope (MPRT), 4.0 mm arthroscope, short 2.7 mm Figure 1.3 A diagram showing the angle of view of
arthroscope, 2.4 mm arthroscope, and 1.9 mm arthroscope. telescopes used for arthroscopy. Thirty degrees is the angle
These telescopes all have a viewing angle of 30°. The 2.7 mm of view of all commonly used telescopes for arthroscopy. Zero
multipurpose telescope has a working length of 18 cm; the degree and seventy degrees arthroscopes are available but
4.0 mm, short 2.7 mm, and 2.4 mm arthroscopes have a are rarely used. Source: Photo courtesy of KARL STORZ:
working length of 11 cm; and the 1.9 mm arthroscope with © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, Germany.
6.5 cm working length. These telescopes are all autoclavable.
Source: Photo courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE &
Co KG, Germany.
1.2 Instrumentation and Equipmen 5
animal practice and is why this endoscope is termed the out of the joint. This is particularly important for
MPRT. The larger size of this telescope and the design of beginners.
the blunt obturator increase the difficulty of establish- A significant advance in telescope technology is that
ing a telescope portal for arthroscopy. The other major most telescopes are now autoclavable. The autoclavable
disadvantage of this telescope is its length, which makes telescopes are labeled as autoclavable. This greatly facil-
manipulations more difficult for arthroscopy with the itates instrument turnaround and practice efficiency.
finite movements needed for maneuvering the visual
field within small joints combined with the long ful-
1.2.2 Sheaths and Cannulas
crum produced by a video camera on the end of the tel-
escope. The demands of arthroscopy for effective 1.2.2.1 Telescope Sheaths
application in small animals today combined with the Arthroscopes are used with a cannula or sheath to pro-
need for continued improvement in technique and tect the telescope and provide a channel for fluid inflow
results no longer allow us to substitute a multipurpose (Figure 1.4 and Table 1.4). A specifically matched sheath
telescope, when a better single application instrument is is required for each specific telescope size. Telescope
available. The 2.4 mm arthroscope is currently the tele- sheaths come with a sharp trocar and a blunt obturator.
scope of choice for small animal practice. The blunt obturator is preferred because it causes less
A 2.7 mm arthroscope is available with a working damage to joint cartilage when establishing the tele-
length of 11 cm. Its shorter length is an advantage over scope portal. Sheaths for the smaller telescopes used in
the 2.7 mm MPRT for arthroscopy making handling the small animal practice typically have a single fixed stop-
telescope in small joints much easier. The only other cock with a Luer lock connector used for fluid inflow.
advantage of this telescope over the 2.4 mm arthro- Cannulas are also available with two stopcocks and
scope is that it is more robust with less chance of break- stopcocks that rotate on the cannula. All sheaths have a
age, especially when used by a beginner. Disadvantages locking mechanism that fixes the cannula to the tele-
are that the optics are not as good as either the 2.4 mm scope. This locking mechanism is very important as it
arthroscope or the 2.7 mm MPRT and the blunt obtura- protects the telescope from being damaged. When
tor design makes portal placement more difficult. locked in place, the distal tip of the telescope is aligned
The 1.9 mm arthroscopes are available in 10 mm and with the distal tip of the sheath and this protects the
6.5 mm lengths. The smaller size of these telescopes is distal lens of the telescope. More importantly, when the
an advantage for use in smaller joints such as the radio- telescope is locked in place, the sheath protects against
carpal joint, tibiotarsal joint, and for use in small dogs or excessive bending stresses along the telescope shaft.
cats. Their disadvantages are that they are fragile break- This locking mechanism also creates a watertight seal at
ing more easily, the field of view is significantly smaller the proximal end of the sheath so that irrigating fluid
increasing the difficulty of joint visualization, and the flows into the joint. It is very important that the tele-
optics are not as good making them less effective for scope is properly locked in place for fluid flow, to pre-
documentation purposes. vent interference of the tip of the cannula with the
Four-millimeter diameter telescopes are also available visual field, and most importantly, to prevent telescope
for use in small animals but are too large for most joints damage.
in most patients. A 4 mm arthroscope has been used in The locking mechanism of telescope cannulas has
the stifle joint of larger dogs and in the shoulder joint in evolved over time from a rotating ring to a sliding box
giant breeds. Four-millimeter telescopes are available in and, more recently, to a snap-in design with spring-
lengths of 18 cm and a shorter 12 mm version. A 4.0 loaded locks (Figure 1.5). The rotating ring is the tradi-
Endocameleon arthroscope is a new addition to the tional coupling mechanism being the oldest and simplest
armamentarium for large joint arthroscopy with a vari- configuration for locking the telescope to the cannula.
able direction of view from 15° to 90°. This design works well, has withstood the test of time for
The shorter length arthroscopes have another advan- dependability, and is easy to use. The sliding box or auto-
tage in that they can be held in a pistol grip fashion with matic lock design is slightly easier to use, is more secure
the surgeon’s index finger on the skin at the portal site than the traditional coupling mechanism, but can
to accurately and easily maintain a constant depth of become hard to slide over time eventually sticking and
telescope insertion. This greatly reduces the number of becoming inoperable. The snap-in coupling is the most
times the field of view is lost because the telescope is recent locking mechanism, is the easiest to use, and pro-
inserted too deep or the telescope is inadvertently pulled vides secure attachment of the telescope to the cannula.
6 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
Figure 1.4 Arthroscope sheaths with blunt obturators from left to right: blunt obturator for the 2.7 mm long arthroscope or
MPRT, sheath for the 2.7 mm long arthroscope or MPRT telescope with a single rotatable stopcock and with a blunt obturator
inserted, blunt obturator for the 2.4 mm telescope, sheath for the 2.4 mm arthroscope with a single fixed stopcock, blunt
obturator for the short 2.7 mm arthroscope, sheath for the short 2.7 mm arthroscope with a single rotatable stopcock, an
operating cannula with a blunt obturator in place, sheath for the1.9 mm arthroscope with a single fixed stopcock and with a
blunt obturator inserted, and an egress cannula with a blunt obturator in place. The telescope cannulas in this image all have
the snap-in coupling design. Source: Photo courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, Germany.
Arthroscope Sheaths part number (Karl Storz) Obturators part number (Karl Storz)
1.2.2.2 Operative Cannulas best, but both are effective with each having its indica-
Operative portals are established with a cannula tions, advantages, and disadvantages. When a cannula
(Figure 1.6 and Table 1.5) or using a free passage tech- is used, access for instrumentation is established and
nique where instruments are placed through the soft maintained by placing the cannula into the joint at
tissues overlying the joint without using a cannula. the operative portal site. This technique has the
Conflicting opinions exist about which technique is advantage of facilitating reinsertion of instruments.
1.2 Instrumentation and Equipmen 7
Figure 1.5 Locking mechanism designs for attaching sheaths to telescopes. From left to right: A snap-in coupling mechanism
with spring-loaded locks, a traditional rotating ring locking mechanism, and an automatic lock. Source: Photo courtesy of KARL
STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, Germany.
Cannula diameter ( mm) Instrument size ( mm) Cannula part number (Karl Storz) Obturator part number (Karl Storz)
a
5.5 4.8 64146 X 64146 XS/XT
a
4.5 3.5 64169 X 64169 XS/XT
a
3.5 2.8 64183 X 64183 XS/XT
a
2.5 2.0 64302 X 64302 XS/XT
a
Shown in Figure A I 6.
8 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
so they do not hold fluid in the joint when an instru- Table 1.6 Egress cannulas used for small animal
ment is not in place. Gaskets increase the resistance of arthroscopy.
instrument insertion or removal and increase the ten-
dency for cannulas to be removed when instruments are Cannula Cannula part Obturator part number
diameter ( mm) number (Karl Storz) (Karl Storz)
withdrawn.
Operative cannulas are positioned under observation 4.5 a
64146 TT 28146 TO/TS
with the arthroscope to prevent intra-articular damage. a
3.2 64146 T 64146 QO/28146QB
a
2.2 64146 R 64146RO
1.2.2.3 Egress Cannulas
a
A site for outflow of fluid from joints is required. Fluid Shown in Figure A I 7.
flow is necessary to maintain a clear visual field during
arthroscopy, to provide joint distension, and for removal Placement of an egress cannula is difficult in some
of debris created with operative procedures. Low out- smaller joints because of inadequate space within the
flow resistance achieved with an egress cannula will joint or inadequate room for portal placement sites. In
maintain adequate fluid flow without excessive pres- these cases, and for simple diagnostic procedures in
sure. Egress cannulas for small animal arthroscopy are larger joints, a 20-gauge hypodermic needle is used for
2.2, 3.2, and 4.5 mm in diameter (Figure 1.7 and an egress site. Egress through operative portals is used
Table 1.6). The larger two sizes have multiple side holes in many joints for many operative procedures. This has
in the distal 1–2 cm of the cannula. This allows free the advantage of simplifying the procedure by eliminat-
access of fluid to the cannula and minimizes the possi- ing the step of egress cannula placement. Another
bility of occlusion. A Luer connector at the proximal or advantage of using operative portals for egress is that
outside end of the cannula allows connection of an when egress is close to the operative site debris from the
outflow line to direct fluid away from the operative field. procedure flows directly out of the joint rather than
The two larger sizes have a stopcock to control the rate through the joint to a distant egress portal. This
of fluid egress. The two larger egress cannulas come decreases the potential for leaving operative debris in
with either a sharp trocar or a blunt obturator for insert- the joint.
ing the cannula into the joint. Intra-articular tissue
damage is minimized by observing cannula placement
1.2.3 Operative Hand Instruments
with the arthroscope.
The number and variety of hand instruments available
for arthroscopy are extensive, but fortunately very few
hand instruments are needed to perform operative
arthroscopy for most of the common conditions seen in
small animals. A basic set of arthroscopic hand instru-
mentation (Table 1.7 and Figure 1.8a) includes 2.0, 2.5,
3.5, 4.0, and 5.0 mm arthroscopic rongeurs (Figure 1.8b);
2.3 and 3.5 mm arthroscopic grasping forceps
(Figure 1.8c); 0°, 30°, and 70° microfracture chisels
(Figure 1.8d); 0, 2–0, 3–0 and 4–0 straight curettes
(Figure 1.8e); 3–0, 4–0, and 5–0 curved/angled curettes;
1 and 2 mm hook probes (Figure 1.8f); and changing
rods or switching sticks (Figure 1.8g). Standard surgical
instrumentation and supplies used for arthroscopy
(Table 1.8) include curved mosquito hemostats with
and without teeth; 20 gauge 1″ and 1.5″ hypodermic
needles; 20 gauge 2.5″ or 3.5″spinal needles; no. 11 scal-
Figure 1.7 Egress cannulas for small animal arthroscopy
from bottom to top: a 2.2 mm egress cannula without a pel blades; 3 and 12 cc syringes; a 3-way stopcock; liter
stopcock, a 3.2 mm egress cannula with a stopcock, and a containers of saline or Ringers solution; IV administra-
4.5 mm egress cannula with a stopcock. The 3.2 mm tion sets; IV extension sets; pressure cuffs for fluid bags,
cannula is shown with a blunt obturator, and the 4.5 and a set of standard orthopedic operative instruments.
cannula is shown with a sharp trocar. Source: Photo
courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, This set of instruments is adequate for performing
Germany. OCD surgery in all joints, for coronoid process revision,
1.2 Instrumentation and Equipmen 9
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.8 Operative hand instruments for small animal arthroscopy: (a) A set of small animal arthroscopy hand instruments
that are sufficient for the majority of operative procedures being performed today. On the top row from left to right: 2.0 mm
grasping forceps, 2.8 mm SilGrasp cartilage grasping forceps with straight spoon-shaped jaws, 2.8 mm SilGrasp straight Alligator
grasping forceps, 3 mm SilGrasp straight Alligator grasping forceps, 3.5 mm Blakesley rongeurs, and 4.0 mm Blakesley rongeurs.
On the bottom row from left to right: 30°, 0°, and 70° microfracture chisels; 0, 2–0, 3–0, and 4–0 curettes; 1.0 mm and 2.0 mm
graduated probes; a 5–0 delicate curette, and two switching sticks or changing rods. Instrument details are presented in
individual groups. (b) Rongeurs and grasping forceps from left to right, Blakesley 4.0 mm rongeurs, Blakesley 3.5 mm rongeurs,
2.8 mm SilGrasp cartilage grasping forceps with straight spoon-shaped jaws, and 2.0 mm grasping forceps with spoon-shaped
jaws. (c) Grasping forceps from left to right: 2.8 mm SilGrasp alligator grasping forceps and 3.5 mm SilGrasp alligator grasping
forceps. (d) Microfracture chisels from top to bottom: 0°, 30°, and 70°. (e) Straight curettes from left to right: 0, 2–0, 3–0, 4–0,
and 2.3 mm straight curettes. (f) Graduated probes: a 2.0 mm graduated hook probe at the top and 1.0 mm graduated hook
probe at the bottom. (g) Changing rods or switching sticks: a 2.8 mm diameter × 23 cm long changing rod on top and a 3.5 mm
diameter × 23 cm long changing rod on the bottom. A 2.0 mm diameter × 15 cm changing rod is also available. Source: Photo
courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co KG, Germany.
10 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
(c) (d)
(e)
(f) (g)
Table 1.7 Hand instruments used for small animal Table 1.8 Additional supplies used for small animal
arthroscopy. arthroscopy
1.2.4 Power Instruments Table 1.9 Power instruments used for small animal
arthroscopy.
1.2.4.1 Power Shavers
Power-operated shavers are a great asset to operative Part number
arthroscopy and are used to remove cartilage, bone, Instrumentation (Karl Storz)
and soft tissues (Figure 1.10 and Table 1.9). These units
greatly speed operative procedures, produce a better Power shaver
result with a smoother surface after tissue removal, Unidrive SL III Arthro(Console) 287230 2
and decrease the amount of debris left in joints. Drillcut-X Arthro(Handpiece) 28200 DX
Shavers are not absolutely necessary for some of the Multifunction Handpiece 287210 36
basic operative procedures in small animals which can Shaver blades(70 mm Length)
be performed effectively with hand instruments. Using Aggressive cutter 3.5 mm 28206 ABS
a powered shaver when first learning to perform
Aggressive cutter 2.5 mm 28206 AAS
arthroscopy is not recommended because the potential
Full radius resector 3.5 mm 28206 CBS
for severe joint and instrument damage is greatly
increased by putting power tools in the hands of the Full radius resector 2.5 mm 28206 CAS
inexperienced operator. Extensive damage can be Aggressive full radius resector 3.5 mm 28206 DBS
caused by a single rotation of the shaver when the Aggressive full radius resector 2.5 mm 28206 DAS
blade is inappropriately placed. Any surgeon getting Small round burr 3.5 mm 28206 FBS
into arthroscopy needs to consider purchasing a power Small Round Burr 2.5 mm 28206 FAS
shaver at the time of acquiring initial instrumentation Two pedal foot switch 200168 31
or as a planned addition. Complex procedures per-
Three pedal foot switch 200128 32
formed by experienced surgeons are greatly facilitated
Bipolar radiofrequency
with a shaver and an appropriate selection of blades.
MITEK VAPR/VAPR VUE
Fluid pumps
Endomat select UP210
Vet software (must be specified UP609
or device does not function)
Irrigation tubing set 031523-10
(a)
1.2.4.2 Radiofrequency/Electrocautery
Instrumentation
Monopolar or bipolar radio-frequency instrumentation
is used to cut tissue, cauterize bleeding vessels, and for
removal of tissue by vaporization. The most common
use of radio-frequency is for ablation of the fat pad and
villus synovial reaction to improve visualization in the
cruciate compromised stifle joint, for cranial cruciate
ligament debridement or removal, for medial meniscal
Figure 1.13 Foot switches for use with the shaver
system. (a) The three pedal shaver foot switch. The left release by transection of the caudal meniscotibial liga-
pedal is for unidirectional rotation to the left ment, and for partial or complete meniscectomy.
(counterclockwise), the right pedal is for unidirectional Radiofrequency was used in the shoulder joint for ther-
rotation to the right (clockwise), and the center pedal is
mal modification of medial soft tissue structures, but
for oscillating rotation. (b) The two pedal shaver foot
switch. The left pedal is for unidirectional rotation to the this application has fallen into disfavor and is no longer
left (counterclockwise), and the right pedal is for recommended. Radiofrequency is also used for transec-
unidirectional rotation to the right (clockwise). To achieve tion of the bicipital tendon when indicated. Ablation of
oscillating rotation, both pedals are depressed. Source:
villus synovial proliferation with radiofrequency is ben-
Photo courtesy of KARL STORZ: © KARL STORZ SE & Co
KG, Germany. eficial in any joint to improve the visual field by removal
of excessive synovial tissue.
Specific instrumentation designed for arthroscopy is
versions (Figure 1.13b). The three-pedal system is larger available in bipolar configuration (Figure 1.14 and
but is easier to use because each pedal has one function Table 1.9). Multiple handpiece tip configurations and
with the left pedal running the shaver in one direction, sizes are available to facilitate access to structures within
the right pedal running the shaver in the other direc- joints and for different tissue effects (Figure 1.15). The
tion, and the center pedal activating the oscillating rota- power settings of these units are automatically set for
tion function. With the two pedals system, each direction the handpiece employed but are also manually adjusta-
of rotation is controlled by depressing one of the foot ble for different applications. The original arthroscopy
pedals but to achieve oscillating rotation both pedals specific bipolar radio-frequency unit is still in use but is
need to be depressed at the same time making control of no longer supported. Evolution of this system through
this function more difficult. several generations has occurred with significant
Another issue with power shavers is balancing liq- improvements including better heat management and
uid inflow and outflow. Inflow is controlled with integrated suction (Figure 1.16).
1.2 Instrumentation and Equipmen 15
Video cameras
Image I S H3-link rigid TC 300
endoscopy full HD link module
Image I connect console TC 200
Image I S three chip full HD TH 100
camera head
Light sources
Xenon Nova(175 W) 691315 01
Xenon Nova 300(300 W) 201340 01
LED Nova 150(150 W) 201612 01
Power LED 175(175 W) 201614 01-1
Power LED 300(300 W) TL 300
Fiber optic light cables
Many lengths and diameters 495/69495
Monitors
Any high quality flat-screen monitor
Documentation
AIDA with Smartscreeen WD 350
Compact one piece portable system
Tele PAC VET X LED RP 100
Tele cam one-chip camera head 20 212 030/20212130
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22 1 Introduction and Instrumentation
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23
General Technique
2.1 Anesthesia, Patient Support, patients, although more comfortable the day of arthros-
and Pain Management copy, have been more painful the day after surgery when
local anesthetics were used. Another concern with
A surgical plane of general anesthesia is required for intra-articular placement of local anesthetics is systemic
arthroscopy with the same considerations that would be toxicity (Di Salvo and Bufalari 2015). Intra-articular sys-
temic pain medications may be beneficial in managing
employed for any orthopedic surgery. Beyond this basic
postarthroscopy pain (El Baz and Farahat 2019; Moeen
criterion selection of preanesthetic medications, induc-
and Ramadan 2017; Salman and Olgunkeleş 2019).
tion agents, maintenance anesthesia, and pain manage-
Intra-articular corticosteroids have been used occasion-
ment are more patient driven than they are procedure
ally in severely inflamed joints, but their use is contro-
driven. Anesthetic and support needs of the young dog
versial (Céleste et al. 2005; Doyle et al. 2005; Gogia
undergoing shoulder arthroscopy for OCD are com-
et al. 1993; Murphy et al. 2000; Todhunter et al. 1996).
pletely different than the needs of the geriatric dog
Supportive treatment typically includes intravenous
undergoing multiportal elbow arthroscopy for debrid-
crystalloid fluid therapy based on patient needs.
ing degenerative joint disease. Pain management needs
Perioperative antibiotic administration is left to the dis-
also vary greatly depending on patient needs and on the
cretion of the surgeon. Padded leg wraps are applied at
specific arthroscopic procedure that is performed; how-
the end of the procedure for distal joints including the
ever, pain medication needs are usually significantly
elbow, carpus, stifle, and hock. The wraps are removed
less than those for an open arthrotomy or other open prior to release on the day following arthroscopy.
orthopedic procedure. Postoperative icing of joints undergoing extensive
An example of a typical patient management protocol arthroscopy has been used when indicated.
includes preanesthetic evaluation with CBC, blood
chemistry profile, thoracic radiographs, EKG, and uri-
nalysis. Preanesthetic, induction, and maintenance pro- 2.2 Postoperative Care
tocols that are appropriate for the patient are used based
on those established for individual practices. Most patients are kept in the hospital until the day after
Perioperative NSAIDs are given based on standards arthroscopy was performed although many can be
employed by the practice. Additional opiate pain medi- released on the day of surgery. Medications starting
cations are indicated for sensitive patients and for more after the procedure include oral NSAIDs with Tramadol
extensive arthroscopic procedures such as multiportal or other appropriate opiates. Patients are released with
elbow debridement or arthroscopic stifle debridement these medications for 7–14 days. Activity is restricted for
in conjunction with surgical management of cruciate a minimum of 2 weeks. In-house activity is limited to
ligament injuries. Intra-articular local anesthetics are walking with no running, jumping, roughhousing,
typically not used as they damage joint cartilage (Çevik going up or downstairs, jumping up or down off the fur-
and Gergin 2018; Jayaram et al. 2019; Lo and Sciore 2009) niture, or jumping in or out of the car. Outside activity is
although single intra-articular injections of some limited to leash walking sufficient for urination and def-
diluted local anesthetics have not been proven to be det- ecation. A recheck examination is performed at two
rimental (Breu and Rosenmeier 2013; Dragoo et al. 2012; weeks after arthroscopy, and the activity level is adjusted
Kreuz et al. 2018). Personal experience has found that based on the procedure that was performed and on
Veterinary Arthroscopy for the Small Animal Practitioner, First Edition. Timothy C. McCarthy.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/mccarthy/arthroscopy
24 2 General Technique
2.3 Patient Preparation,
Positioning, and Operating
Room Setup
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2 A patient positioned in dorsal recumbency with the front legs hung in preparation for bilateral shoulder and/or
elbow arthroscopy. (a) An AP view and (b) a lateral view. Source: Timothy C. McCarthy. © John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Surgeon Assistant
Figure 2.3 Operating room setup for bilateral shoulder arthroscopy for OCD or UCGOC with the patient in dorsal recumbency.
The surgeon and assistant stand on what will be the ventral side of the patient after it is rotated on the side away from the
shoulder to be operated. The monitor is placed at the caudal end of the patient. This arrangement is also used for bilateral
elbow arthroscopy for UAP. Source: Drawing by Cindy Cox.
26 2 General Technique
toward the side to be operated first and the surgeon be performed with monitor position as for bilateral pro-
stands ventral to the patient with an assistant standing cedures or with the monitor on the dorsal side of the
on the same side caudal to the surgeon, between the patient directly across from the surgeon. For the cranio-
surgeon and the monitor. After the first side has been medial telescope portal, the patient is prepared and
completed, both surgeon and assistant move to the draped in dorsal recumbency, but the legs are left
other side of the patient and the patient is rolled to attached to the suspension system. This is an uncom-
expose the second shoulder. For bilateral bicipital ten- monly employed technique. An easier procedure is to
don surgery and procedures involving medial joint use an Endocameleon Arthro or a 70° arthroscope to
structures, patient positioning and transfer from side to evaluate the lateral joint structures from the lateral
side is the same as for OCD and UCGOC surgery but the portals.
monitor is placed at the head of the patient and the
assistant stands cranial to the surgeon, again between
2.3.2 Elbow Joint
the surgeon and the monitor (Figure 2.4). Bilateral pro-
cedures involving manipulations in both the cranial and Elbow arthroscopy is typically performed bilaterally at
caudal joint compartments require two monitors: one the same anesthesia, and dorsal recumbency is
placed at the head of the patient and one placed and the employed to allow access to both elbows using the same
foot of the patient (Figure 2.5). Unilateral procedures in preparation as for the shoulder joint (Figure 2.2). The
either the cranial or caudal areas of the joint are per- patient is prepared with both legs suspended, and drap-
formed with the patient positioned in lateral recum- ing is done so that the legs are freely movable and can be
bency with the joint to be examined on the upside and abducted for access to the medial aspect of both joints.
with the surgeon and assistant standing on the ventral Bilateral procedures for medial coronoid process pathol-
side of the patient (Figure 2.6). Unilateral procedures ogy, for medial condylar ridge OCD lesions, and for gen-
performed with the patient in lateral recumbency can eral exploration of the elbow joints using the medial
Anesthesia machine
Sterile
Video
table
cart
setup
Surgeon
Assistant
Figure 2.4 Operating room setup for bilateral shoulder arthroscopy for bicipital tendon transection and for other cranial or
medial joint procedures with the patient in dorsal recumbency. The surgeon and assistant stand on what will be the ventral
side of the patient after it is rotated on the side away from the shoulder to be operated. The monitor is placed at the cranial
end of the patient. This arrangement is also used for bilateral elbow arthroscopy for medial coronoid process disease and OCD
of the elbow joint. Source: Drawing by Cindy Cox.
2.3 Patient Preparation, Positioning, and Operating Room Setu 27
Anesthesia machine
Sterile
table
Video setup
cart
Video
cart
Surgeon Assistant
Figure 2.5 Operating room setup for bilateral elbow arthroscopy with monitors at both the head and foot of the table. This
operating room configuration can also be used for bilateral shoulder arthroscopy. Source: Drawing by Cindy Cox.
Video cart
Anesthesia
machine
Sterile
table
setup
Assistant Surgeon
Figure 2.6 Operating room setup for unilateral shoulder arthroscopy with the surgeon and assistant standing on the ventral
side of the patient and the monitor placed on the dorsal side of the patient. Source: Drawing by Cindy Cox.
28 2 General Technique
(a) (b)
Figure 2.7 (a) The front leg of a dog viewed in a caudal to cranial direction that has been draped and positioned for elbow
joint arthroscopy. The leg is abducted over a one-pound cotton roll that is being used as a bolster, and the antebrachium is
rotated internally. (b) A medial to lateral view of the front leg of a dog that has been draped and positioned for elbow joint
arthroscopy. The leg is abducted over a one-pound cotton roll that is being used as a bolster, and the antebrachium is rotated
internally. These two movements open the medial aspect of the joint. Source: Timothy C. McCarthy. © John Wiley & Sons Inc.
telescope portal and craniomedial operative portal are the problem of working away from the monitor for coro-
performed with the patient in dorsal recumbency with noid process revision or fragment removal if required. If
the monitor placed at the head of the patient (Figure 2.4). a second monitor is not available, alternatives are to per-
The patient is held in dorsal recumbency with position- form a unilateral procedure with the patient in dorsal or
ing supports, sandbags, or a “V” trough, the leg to be lateral recumbency with the monitor placed across from
operated is abducted, and the surgeon stands on the the surgeon on the opposite side of the patient. Then to
same side as the joint being operated. The assistant perform the second side, the monitor is moved when
stands beside the surgeon on the patient’s cranial side the surgeon and assistant change sides. An additional
between the surgeon and the monitor. A bolster is alternative is to use caudal portals for access to the anco-
placed under the elbow joint to create a fulcrum for val- neal process with the patient in dorsal recumbency and
gus stress with internal rotation to open the medial side the monitor at the head of the table. Multiportal elbow
of the joint. A one-pound roll of cotton covered with a arthroscopy for debridement of degenerative joint dis-
waterproof sterile drape is commonly used for the bol- ease is typically performed as a unilateral procedure
ster (Figure 2.7a and b. When the first joint arthroscopy with the patient in dorsal recumbency so that the patient
has been completed, both surgeon and assistant move to can be rolled from side to side for access to both medial
the other side of the patient and the other leg is abducted and lateral aspects of the joint and with the monitor at
for the second procedure. Arthroscopy for bilateral unu- the head of the patient.
nited anconeal process removal is also performed with
the patient in dorsal recumbency but with the monitor
2.3.3 Radiocarpal Joint
at the caudal end of the table, and the legs are abducted
to provide access to the medial aspect of the joint for Portals for radiocarpal joint arthroscopy are all on the
placement of a standard medial telescope portal, caudo- dorsal aspect of the joint, and procedures are typically
medial operative portal, and a craniomedial operative unilateral. Dorsal recumbency with the leg pulled cau-
portal (Figure 2.4). Ununited anconeal processes are dally or lateral recumbency with the limb rotated out-
commonly associated with medial coronoid process ward is employed for unilateral arthroscopy. For the
pathology, and this positioning with this portal selection occasional bilateral procedure, the patient is placed in
allows evaluation of the medial coronoid process at the dorsal recumbency with the monitor placed at the head
same time as anconeal process fragment removal. This of the table (Figure 2.4) and the assistant stands cranial
positioning requires two monitors, one at each end of to the surgeon. For lateral recumbency, the monitor is
the patient (Figure 2.5). With only one monitor, there is placed across the table from the surgeon (Figure 2.6).
2.3 Patient Preparation, Positioning, and Operating Room Setu 29
Anesthesia
machine
Sterile
table
setup
Surgeon
Video
cart
Assistant
Figure 2.8 Operating room setup for hip arthroscopy with the patient in lateral recumbency and prepared for pelvic
osteotomy surgery following arthroscopy. The monitor is placed at the head of the patient or obliquely on the dorsal side of the
patient cranially out of the way of the aseptic field. The surgeon stands at the foot of the table or on the dorsal side at the level
of the pelvis. The assistant stands on the ventral side of the patient at the level of the hind legs. Source: Drawing by Cindy Cox.
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"Nothing now; the men have taken their grog, and promised to do
their duty wherever we go."
This was heavy news to me, for I had no reason to doubt the truth of
it. If the men drank their grog, I was satisfied in my own mind that
they had given up the battle. If they drank liquor they could be won
over to almost anything, for the mate could give them enough to
make demons of them.
"How are you, Phil?" said Waterford, in a mocking tone, as he
entered the steerage.
"As well as usual, excepting these bonds," I replied.
"I have you now where I want you, and I have come down to tell you
the news."
"I heard you tell it to the captain just now. It is not necessary to repeat
it."
"All right if you know which way the wind blows. You have been the
cause of all the mischief on board."
"I am sorry you took so much pains to keep me on board then."
"I have my reasons for all I do. I would rather have six devils than one
psalm-singer in my crew. As soon as the men knew you were safe,
they caved in, drank their grog like sailors, and now they are willing to
do their duty."
"Willing to help you run a cargo of slaves over to Cuba," I repeated.
"Yes; that's just what they are willing to do; and you will be of the
same mind before I have done with you."
"I hope not; though I don't know how much I am able to bear."
"Nor I; neither do I care. You shall have enough of it before you are
done. But I did not come here to pass compliments with you."
"I did not suspect you of any such intention."
"I'm glad you know me," he continued, seating himself on the
steward's berth. "I'm not an angel."
"You needn't have said that."
"Nor are you."
"I am not."
"But when a man uses me well, I am his friend."
"I pity your friend."
"None of your impudence, Phil. It's my next move."
"You said we were not to pass compliments."
"Have a care what you say. I'm not an angel; I'm not a psalm-singer;
and I don't pretend to be what I am not."
"You serve the devil, and are proud of your master," I replied, wishing
to prove that I was not ashamed of what I had done, nor sorry for it.
"There is no cant about me. You are a thief and a liar, in spite of your
cant."
"You are coming to the compliments, after all. Woe unto you when all
men shall speak well of you."
"All men don't speak well of you. I say you are a thief and liar."
"I appreciate the compliment."
"You stole my money, and then lied to me about it."
"I have nothing to say."
"You will have something to say before I am done with you," he
added, with a fierce oath, as he sprang to his feet. "You robbed my
trunk, and took fifteen hundred dollars in gold from it. Do you know
how to speak the truth?"
"I have always succeeded tolerably well in doing so."
"What did you do with the money you took from my trunk?"
"I should feel obliged to speak the truth if I said anything."
"You had better do it. I know that the money I lost was in my trunk
when I left my state-room, the day I put you in there."
"I had a similar confidence in regard to my own trunk on a certain
occasion," I answered.
"I'm not to be trifled with. I'll give you till to-morrow morning to make
up your mind. If you don't tell me then what you did with that money,
I'll give you the rope's end every hour till you are willing to answer
me."
"I will think of it."
"If you have thrown it overboard, I will throw you over after it."
"What makes you think I threw it overboard?"
"Because I found that the bull's eye in my state-room had been
opened."
"Did you lose all the money in your trunk?"
"No; you know I didn't."
"You ought to be thankful that I did not take what did not belong to
me. I should have done so if I had suspected to what use that money
was to be applied."
"No cant to me!"
"Perhaps you will be willing to own that you stole the money I took
from your trunk out of mine."
"I am; I do own it; and in due time it will buy fifteen or twenty niggers,
and pay me five hundred per cent."
"Never, if I can help it!"
"You can't help it. I don't believe you were fool enough to throw the
money overboard; and you will be glad to tell me where it is within
twenty-four hours."
I could not say that I should not; for, between fifteen hundred dollars
and being beaten to death, I should certainly choose to give up the
former.
"I suppose the money you obtained by forgery in St. Louis will be
used in buying negroes."
"Humph, Phil! You grow wise."
"A simple matter; my father wrote me that you were suspected."
"Did he, indeed?"
"He seemed to be interested, and I told him all I knew about it."
"If you are ready to tell me now where the money is, I can give you an
easier position for the night, Phil," said he, in gentler tones.
"I am not ready," I replied.
"Think well of it, for I shall do all I say I will," said he, leaving the
steerage.
I did not doubt it.
CHAPTER XVII.
IN WHICH PHIL BECOMES BETTER
ACQUAINTED WITH THE CABIN STEWARD.
I was alone again. I felt that we had lost our case. The men had
given up the battle, drank their grog, and, under the influence of
liquor, would be as willing to trade in human beings as to perform
their ordinary duty. I could do nothing single-handed, and I might as
well give up before I had suffered the tortures of the mate's wrath as
afterwards. I would yield no principle, I would take no part in handling
the vessel, but I would tell the mate where my gold was. I actually
shuddered when I thought of having the money which I had earned
by my labor applied to the purchase of human beings; but I did not
see how I could help myself, for after I had been beaten and abused,
my money was still likely to be found when the between-decks was
prepared for the reception of the miserable wretches whose flesh
and blood were to enrich Waterford and his infamous companions.
I looked around the steerage. It was fitted up with eight berths, but at
present it was occupied only by the cabin steward, whose
sympathies were with our party, though he had not yet committed
himself. I afterwards learned the use to which this steerage was to
be applied. As only a few of the crew could safely be informed of the
nature of the unlawful voyage before they were shipped, of course
not all of them could be expected to engage in the dangerous
business without compulsion, and they were liable, as in the present
instance, to ship a majority who would rather fight than incur the peril
of being hanged or imprisoned for being concerned in it. But the
officers were sure of five men,—the Spanish and Portuguese sailors,
—for they had signed the shipping articles with their eyes wide open.
Indeed, they had been employed to put down a mutiny, as well as to
work the bark. It was not desirable to separate the crew; but, when it
became necessary, those in the interests of the officers, or a
sufficient number of them to enable the captain and mate to enforce
their authority, were to be berthed in the steerage, where they could
at all times be within hail of their superiors.
This plan is often, if not always, adopted in whalemen, where boat-
steerers are regarded as officers, and are berthed in the steerage, in
order to be used in subduing the crew in the event of any
insubordination. I glanced about the place, and I found that it was
also used as the armory. When I first came on board, I had seen no
arms; but now there were four muskets, several pistols, and half a
dozen cutlasses hung upon the bulkhead. Probably they had been
brought out from their hiding-places since the disturbance with the
crew. I wondered that the Spanish and Portuguese sailors were not
already installed in their quarters; but I supposed the mate wished to
have them mingle with the other hands forward as long as possible,
so as to take note of any disaffection, and report it to him.
While I was looking about me, the cabin steward came into the
steerage with my supper. His name was Palmer, and he was an
American. He had a very light and fair complexion; and, though I had
not seen much of him on board, I judged that he was a little inclined
to be a dandy. He was about twenty-five years of age, and was
certainly a very good-looking fellow—which he evidently believed
himself.
"I am sorry for you, Phil," said he, as he placed his dishes in one of
the berths.
"Are you really so?" I asked.
"I am, indeed; and if I dared to do so, I would let you go at once."
"You haven't the courage to do that, then?"
"The mate would murder me if I did."
"Then it does not make much difference how sorry you are for me," I
added, rather despondent.
"I only wished to express my sympathy for you, and to say that, if I
could, I would let you loose."
"I suppose you know what kind of a voyage this bark is bound
upon?"
"I do; the mate told me yesterday, and I have heard enough said in
the cabin before to make me understand all about it," answered the
steward.
"Do you like the business?"
"No, I don't; but what can I do?"
"I don't know that you can do anything."
"If I had known what the voyage was to be, I would have hung
myself rather than come on board. I have a little African blood in my
veins, though I don't say much about it generally."
"Whether you have African blood in your veins or not, you must
dislike a voyage like this. What did the mate say to you?"
"He told me I might loose one of your hands to let you eat your
supper, but he would shoot me if I let you escape from the steerage,"
said he, unfastening the cord which bound my right arm to the
stanchion.
"Can't you ease off the other just a little? The cord hurts my wrist
very much."
"I'll do that."
He loosed the line, and thus to some extent relieved the pain I felt.
He handed me some tea, bread and meat, of which I ate while we
were talking.
"Where is the mate now?" I inquired.
"On deck."
"And the captain?"
"Drunk in his state-room. He came out to supper, but he did not eat
anything; only drank two half tumblers of whiskey, and then turned
in. I think the mate wishes to keep him drunk as much as possible,
so that he won't meddle with the affairs of the vessel," replied the
steward, in a whisper.
"Where are the two passengers?"
"They are on the deck with the mate."
"Do you know who they are?"
"I only know that they are Spaniards or Cubans. From what I hear
them say, I judge that they and the mate find the money to buy the
negroes, while the vessel and the captain have a share of the
profits."
"Have they the money on board?"
"I don't know anything about it from what they say; but of course they
have."
"You say the mate told you about the voyage yesterday. What did he
say?"
"He didn't say much; and I think he spoke of it because I couldn't
help hearing what was said in the cabin. He only told me to do my
duty, and I should make a thousand dollars out of the cruise."
"What did you say?"
"I told him I should do my duty. I was afraid of him, and I let him
believe that I didn't care whether the bark went a slaving or not. I
have always kept on the right side of him, but I hate him worse than I
hate the evil one. If I hadn't a mother on shore to take care of, I'd
sink the ship, and go down in her, rather than have anything to do
with slaving."
"Are you a spy, sent here by the mate to sound me?" I added,
suddenly, looking him in the face very earnestly.
"That's too bad, Phil!" said he, springing to his feet. "I only pity you
because you stood out against the mate, and against slaving."
"You say you have kept on the right side of the mate?"
"I have, for my own comfort and safety. My mother was a slave—but
no matter about that," he added; and before I knew what he was
about, he had unloosed my left hand.
"What are you doing?" I demanded.
"If you think I am a spy, I will prove to you that I am not. I will set you
free, though it costs me my life."
"Don't do it, Palmer. Pardon me for what I said. You need not wonder
that I am suspicious in a vessel like this."
"I don't wonder; but you shall not suspect me, if I can do anything to
prevent it."
"I do not suspect you any longer. I am satisfied that you are a good
fellow, and true at heart. But put the cords on as you found them; I
will not get you into trouble, whatever happens to me."
"No, you shall be free. Perhaps you can bring the men up to the
scratch again, for they have all backed down. They drank their grog
when I gave it to them this afternoon."
"If you are really my friend,—and I know you are now,—you can
serve me better than by loosing my bonds at this moment."
"I will do just what you tell me to do," replied the steward.
"I have full confidence in you. Tie my hands up just as you found
them, only not quite so tight."
He followed my directions; and, as I had finished my supper, he
made fast my right arm to the stanchion. I had my doubts about
trusting this man with the secret of the crew; but, since our party had
given in their adherence to the mate, and the plan had been
practically abandoned, so far as I knew, I did not feel that I need
distrust him.
"Palmer, where do you sleep?" I asked.
"Here," he replied, pointing to his berth.
"What time do you turn in?"
"Any time when I can; sometimes at eight bells, sometimes at two."
"What time do the mate and the passengers turn in?"
"Mr. Waterford always turns in at eight when he has the mid-watch.
The Spaniards sometimes sit up till eleven, but generally turn in by
ten. Why do you ask, Phil?"
"If you really wish to serve me, Palmer, you can do so."
"I'll do anything you tell me, even if it costs me my life; for I would
rather die than be in a slave ship. My mother—no matter about that.
She was a slave once, and I never will help any man or woman into
slavery if I can avoid it."
"All right, Palmer. You may be able to save the bark from this
miserable business. But I will not say anything more now."
"What shall I do?" asked the steward, not a little excited.
"Don't turn in till all is quiet in the cabin. The second mate has the
first watch to-night. Give the captain all the whiskey he wants, and
when the mate and passengers have turned in, and you think they
are asleep, then come into the steerage and let me know."
"I will do all just as you say."
"Don't bring any lights, and don't act as though anything had
happened. Go now."
"You may depend upon me, Phil. I meant to take sides with your men
as soon as I dared to do so."
"Hold on a minute, Palmer. Are there any guns or pistols in the
cabin?"
"The Spaniards have revolvers in their state-rooms, and they loaded
them this forenoon, when the row on deck took place."
"We don't want to kill any one, or have any one killed. If you could
draw the charges from their revolvers, and bring their ammunition in
here, you might help matters."
"What do you mean to do, Phil?" asked the steward, opening his
eyes very wide.
"We haven't time to talk about it now; but if there is any back-bone
left in the men, we will have the bark before morning," I whispered in
his ear.
"I'll do all I can."
"Where are the powder and ball for these guns and pistols?" I asked.
"Here, in that box in the corner."
"All right."
The cabin steward left the steerage, and I felt that I had an ally
whose aid made success hopeful, if not certain. I was excited by the
prospect. I intended, as soon as all was quiet in the cabin, to make
my way to the forecastle through the between-decks, and stir up the
men to carry out the project we had arranged. Right and justice, as
well as self-preservation, demanded action.
CHAPTER XVIII.
IN WHICH PHIL AND OTHERS VISIT THE CABIN
OF THE BARK.
I did not believe it would require a great deal of eloquence to bring
our party back to a sense of their duty, and I waited impatiently for the
time of action. The steerage grew dark, and presently the mate, with
a lantern in his hand, appeared. He looked over the cords by which I
was made fast to the stanchion, to satisfy himself that the steward
had left me secure for the night.
"You are all right, Phil; but I don't think you will sleep very well here,"
said he.
"I don't expect to sleep."
"Have you anything to say yet?"
"No, sir; not yet."
"I always took you for a sensible fellow; but I see I was mistaken."
"We are all liable to mistakes," I replied, feeling the necessity of
saying something.
"You can sleep in one of those berths, if you prefer."
"I do prefer it."
"Then tell me where the money is, and I will let you loose."
"The money belongs to me."
"I don't wish to argue the matter. If you want to sleep in a berth, you
can do so by telling me where the money is."
"I think you ought to let me have my own money, Mr. Waterford. I
worked hard—"
"No cant. I see you are not ready to tell yet. If you get tired of your
situation before morning, you can call the steward, who sleeps here,
and he will let me know. I have the mid-watch, and I'm going to turn in
now. It's no use to waste time talking with you."
I did not wish him to waste any time in this profitless manner; so I
said nothing, and he left me to my hard fate. Since Palmer had
loosed my bonds I was tolerably comfortable, though the pitching of
the bark occasionally threw the strain of the ropes upon my arms. I
heard no more from the mate, and I supposed he had turned in; but
the steward did not come as soon as I expected. I heard two bells on
deck, which indicated nine o'clock; but I concluded that the Spaniards
in the cabin had not yet turned in.
The steerage was pitch dark, and I could not see a thing; but soon
after I heard two bells, there was a sound not more than a mouse
might have made in his nocturnal perambulations in search of
cheese. I listened attentively, and was soon conscious that some one
was in the steerage with me.
"Phil," said a whispered voice, when I began to be not a little excited
over the circumstance.
"Who's there?" I replied, in a tone as low and guarded, for I was
willing to believe that the visitor was a friend until he had proved
himself to be a foe.
"Where are you?"
"Here."
I listened and heard the suppressed breathings of the person; and
presently I felt his hand laid upon me. I had a further opportunity to
exercise my senses, for I could smell rum very distinctly.
"Who is it?" I asked.
"Don't you know me? I'm Jack Sanderson," replied the visitor. "We
want you on deck."
"I thought you had all caved in."
"Not a bit of it, Phil. We are all as true as the compass."
"You have been drinking."
"Only a nip or two each; but we are all right. We pretended to cave in,
but we didn't, Phil. Now let me cut your ropes."
"No; not yet, Jack. You will spoil everything if you move too soon."
"What do you mean? Have you caved in, Phil?"
"No; but I have a friend in the cabin."
"Who?"
"Palmer, the steward."
"Good!"
"As soon as all hands in the cabin have turned in, he will loose me,
and then we shall be ready for you. Are the men all right?"
"Every one of them."
"Now leave me, Jack. If you like, you can stay between decks till the
steward comes, and then I will join you."
"All right, Phil."
Sanderson left me, and I was now thoroughly satisfied that the
scheme would be a success; I did not see how it could fail. The mate
evidently depended too much upon the instinctive subordination of
sailors, and appeared to have taken no special precautions for the
safety of the bark and his wicked project. The men had promised to
do their duty, which he interpreted as one thing and they as another.
The drinking of their grog was doubtless enough to convince him that
the crew were converted to his scheme.
I heard three bells, and then four; but Palmer did not come, and I
began to question whether I had not made a mistake in trusting him
as far as I had. I was sorry that I had not permitted Sanderson to
unfasten me, for then I might have availed myself of any chance that
offered if the steward was faithless. But I wronged him again. Before
five bells, he came with a lantern in one hand, and a couple of
revolvers in the other. He carefully closed the door behind him as he
entered, and laid the pistols in his berth.
"I was afraid you were not coming," I whispered; "but you are as true
as steel."
"I am, Phil. You needn't have any doubts of me. The passengers
didn't turn in till ten o'clock. They have been drinking and playing
cards."
"Are they asleep?"
"I reckon they are; they snore, at any rate. They were both tight, and
only quit their game when the liquor had made them so sleepy they
didn't know a jack from an ace."
"How's the captain?"
"Drunk as an owl. I gave him a whole tumblerful of whiskey at two
bells, and he won't know anything till morning."
"How is it on deck?"
"The second mate is on the watch, of course. It is almost calm, and
Waterford was afraid of that steamer we saw to-day. I heard him tell
the second mate to keep two men on the cross-trees, with an eye to
windward. He made him send Gorro and Martino up, for he wouldn't
trust any other men in the watch."
"Good! That will save us the trouble of knocking them on the head,
which we don't want to do," I replied, as Palmer untied the cords
which fastened me to the stanchion.
In a moment more I was free, and the steward handed me one of the
revolvers.
"Take this; you may want it," said he. "It isn't worth while to be too
nice in a scrape of this kind. The mate or those Spaniards would
murder any of us, if it was necessary, as easy as they would turn a
hand."
"I shall use it if the case requires; but I hope it will not be necessary to
shoot any one. Sanderson has been down to see me."
"No!"
"Yes, he has. The men are as true as we could wish. But we won't
waste any time," I added, moving towards the door which led into the
between-decks. "Sanderson is close by, I suppose."
"But what am I to do?"
"Go with us into the cabin. We shall secure the mate first. Take those
lines with you, for we must tie him hand and foot."
"Do you know how the second mate stands?"
"He's all right, though he don't say much, being an officer. Baxter will
take care of him. While Martino and Gorro stay aloft, there will be
nothing to do on deck. Now wait here till we come."
I took his lantern, and went between decks, where I found Sanderson
as impatient as though he had been waiting for his grog.
"I was afraid something had happened," said he, in tremulous
accents.
"No; everything is as well as it could be; better than I anticipated.
Everybody in the cabin except the mate is drunk, and the steward
says Gorro and Martino are on the cross-trees."
"That's so."
"How are the men?"
"All right. I went out to the forecastle, and told them how it was with
you; but I thought you would never come."
"The Spaniards in the cabin did not turn in till four bells. But heave
ahead now; bring down the men who are to act with us."
"Ay, ay!"
"Tell Baxter he need do nothing on deck until we come up from the
cabin. Do you know who is at the helm?"
"Welsh; we put him there when Martino was sent aloft on the
lookout."
"He will know what we are about."
"But you had better go to the scuttle, and speak a word to Baxter. It
will make the men feel better to know you are all right."
"Very well, I will; but we must not waste time. Everything is favorable
for the movement now, and we don't know how long it may be so."
I walked with Sanderson to the forecastle, leaving Palmer in the
steerage to warn us if anything went wrong in the cabin. Sanderson
whispered to Baxter that we were ready, and the four men who were
to join us came below.
"Don't do anything on deck, Baxter," I whispered. "Get our men out of
their berths and on deck as quietly as possible."
"They are all wide awake, and will come out when I rap on the
planks," replied the stout-hearted old salt.
"If Gorro and Martino attempt to come down from the cross-trees,
make a spread eagle of them on the main-rigging. Don't let the three
Spaniards come out of the forecastle."
"Ay, ay! But how about the second mate?" asked Baxter.
"In about ten minutes the work below will be done. By that time you
can tell him what we are about."
"What if he objects?"
"He won't object."
"But if he does?"
"Serve him as you do the others. Make him fast, hand and foot. Now
mind your eye."
I led the way aft, followed by my five companions. I had one of the
revolvers in my belt, and had given the other to Baxter, though I
cautioned him not to use it except in the last emergency. We all took
off our shoes, and left them between decks. We then entered the
steerage, where Palmer was nervously awaiting our arrival.
"What shall I do?" asked Palmer.
"Hold the light, and carry the ropes; nothing more. Sanderson and I
will take care of the mate."
"Has he a pistol in his state-room?" asked Jack.
"I don't know. Probably he has; but we won't mind a pistol. We will not
let him wake enough to know how to use it, if he has one. Are you all
ready?"
"Ay, ay!" whispered the men.
"Stay where you are, with the light, Palmer, until you hear a noise. I
know just where the room is, and I can find the mate in the dark."
I opened the door which led into the cabin, and crept cautiously aft till
I had reached the door of Waterford's room. I could hear the heavy
snoring of the captain, and I was satisfied that he would give us no
trouble. He was too drunk to resist us, and I had decided not to
meddle with him till we had secured the others.
I waited till all my companions were in the cabin; and then, closely
attended by Sanderson, I crept into the mate's state-room. I bent over
the berth, and, by his heavy breathing, ascertained where his head
lay. I then placed my right hand upon his throat, and with my left
thrust a handkerchief into his mouth, so that he could not cry out. At
the same instant, Sanderson seized his hands, and the mate was
secure.
Securing the Mate.
CHAPTER XIX.
IN WHICH PHIL AND HIS COMPANIONS OBTAIN
POSSESSION OF THE MICHIGAN.
Jack Sanderson was a powerful man, and when he had seized the
hands of Waterford, he threw his body upon that of his victim.
Resistance was useless and hopeless. The mate struggled, until his
breath and his strength were exhausted, and then he gave it up. I
had choked him so hard, that the want of breath very soon
weakened him.
"Show the men where the Spaniards are!" I called to Palmer.
But he had already indicated to the rest of our party in the cabin the
room of the two passengers. I heard a slight struggle in that
direction, but it was soon over, and I was satisfied that our men had
effectually done their work.
"The cords, Palmer!" I called to the steward.
"Here they are. Can I help you?"
"Yes; tie his hands together," I replied.
While the steward was thus engaged, I removed the handkerchief
from the mouth of the mate, for he was breathing with extreme
difficulty. He was so exhausted that he lay quite still until his hands
were made fast. But gradually he regained his breath and his
strength. He looked at me, and I saw that he understood the whole
matter without any explanation. His expression was ugly again, and I
was satisfied that we should have all the trouble with him which he
had the power to make.
"Put a line around each of his ankles, Sanderson," said I, when the
hands of the prisoner were securely bound.