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Shiv Kumar

Fluid
Mechanics
(Vol. 2)
Basic Concepts and Principles
Fourth Edition
Fluid Mechanics (Vol. 2)
Shiv Kumar

Fluid Mechanics (Vol. 2)

Basic Concepts and Principles
Fourth Edition

123
Shiv Kumar
New Delhi, India

ISBN 978-3-030-99753-3 ISBN 978-3-030-99754-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99754-0

Jointly published with ANE Books Pvt. Ltd.

In addition to this printed edition, there is a local printed edition of this work available via Ane Books in South
Asia (India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan) and Africa (all countries in the African
subcontinent).
ISBN of the Co-Publisher’s edition: 978-9-384-72699-7.

© The Author(s) 2010, 2012, 2021, 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage
and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or
hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions
that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Dedicated
to
My Parents
My Wife Dr. Kusum and My Son Tanishq
 Preface

This book has been written for the introductory course on Fluid Mechanics at
the undergraduate level. This book fulfills the curriculum needs of UG students of
Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Chemical
Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Production Engineering,
Automobile Engineering, aeronautical Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering,
Tool Engineering and Mechatronics Engineering etc. Fluid Mechanics is dividing
into two volumes. Fluid Mechanics Volume-II includesten chapters:
1. Laminar Flow (Viscous Flow), 2. Turbulent Flow, 3. Boundary Layer
Theory, 4. Flow through Pipe, 5. Pipe Flow Measurement,6. Orifices and
Mouthpieces, 7. Flow Past Submerged Bodies, 8. Flow through Open Channels,
9.Notches and Weirs, 10. Compressible Flows. Fluid Mechanics deals with the
innovative use of the laws of Fluid Mechanics in solving the relevant technological
problems. This introductory textbook aims to provide undergraduate engineering
students with the knowledge (basics principles and fluid mechanics laws) they need
to understand and analyze the fluid mechanics problems they are likely to encounter
in practice.
The book is developed in the context of the author’s simpler methodology to
present even complex things. The most positive factor about the book is that it is
concise, and everything is described from an elementary and tangible perspective.
The book presents the concepts in a very logical format with complete word
descriptions. The subject matter is illustrated with a lot of examples. A great deal
of attention is given to select the numerical problems and solving them. The theory
and numerical problems at the end of each chapter also aim to enhance the creative
capabilities of students. Ultimately as an introductory text for the undergraduate
students, this book provides the background necessary for solving the complex
problems in thermodynamics.
Writing this book made me think about a lot more than the material it covers.
The methods I used in this book are primarily those that worked best for my
students. The suggestions from the teachers and students for the further improvement
of the text are welcome and will be implemented in the next edition. The readers
are requested to bring out the error to the notice, which will be gratefully
acknowledged.
Shiv Kumar
vii
 Acknowledgements

First of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to God for giving me the
strength and health for comleting this book. I am very thankful to my colleagues in
the mechanical engineering department for their highly appreciable help and my
students for their valuable suggestions.
I am also thankful to my publishers Shri Sunil Saxena and Shri Jai Raj Kapoor
of Ane Books Pvt. Ltd. and the editorial group for their help and assistance.
A special thanks goes to my wife Dr. Kusum Lata for her help, support and
strength to complete the book.

Shiv Kumar

ix
 Contents

Preface to the First Edition vii

Acknowledgements ix

1. Laminar Flow 1–82

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 2
1.2.1 Laminar Flow
1.2.2 Turbulent Flow
1.3 Reynolds Experiment 3
1.4 Experimental Determination of Critical Velocity 4
1.5 Steady Laminar Flow Through a Circular Pipe 5
1.5.1 Comparison Between Hagen-poiseuille Equation and Darcy’s Formula
1.6 Flow Between Parallel Plates 23
1.6.1 Both Plates are Fixed
1.7 Momentum Correction Factor 35
1.8 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor 37
1.9 Power Absorbed in Viscous Resistance 40
1.9.1 Journal Bearing
1.9.2 Foot-step Bearing
1.9.3 Collar Bearing
1.10 Dash-Pot Mechanism: Movement of a piston in a dash-Pot 48
1.11 Stoke’s Law 50
1.12 Measurement of Viscosity 51
1.12.1 Capillary Tube Viscometer
1.12.2 Rotating Cylinder Viscometer
1.12.3 Falling Sphere Viscometer
1.12.4 Industrial Viscometers
1.13 Navier-Stokes Equations of Motion 62
1.14 Fluidization 71
1.14.1 Conditions for Fluidization
1.14.2 Types of Fluidization
Summary 73
Assignment - 1 77

xi
xii Fluid Mechanics

Assignment - 2 79

2. Turbulent Flow 83-118

2.1 Introduction 83
2.2 Types of Velocities in a Turbulent Flow 83
2.2.1 Relation between Various Velocities
2.2.2 Degree or Level of Turbulence
2.2.3 Intensity of Turbulence
2.3 Classification of Turbulence 86
2.4 Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 86
2.4.1 Reynolds Theory
2.4.2 Boussinesq Eddy-viscous Theory
2.4.3 Prandtl’s Mixing Length Theory
2.4.4 Von-Karman’s Theory
2.5 Velocity Distribution Law in Turbulent Flow 90
2.5.1 Velocity Distribution in Laminar Region: Zone-I
2.5.2 Velocity Distribution in the Turbulent Region: Zone-II
2.5.3 Relation Between Umax and u
2.6 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries 95
2.6.1 Hydrodynamically Smooth Boundary
2.6.2 Hydrodynamically Rough Boundary
2.7 Velocity Distribution in Terms of Mean Velocity 96
2.8 Power Law for Velocity Distribution in Smooth Pipes 98
2.9 Determination of Coefficient of Friction f 99
2.10 Thermal (Hot-wire and hot film) Anemometers 109
2.11 Laser Doppler Velocimetry 110
2.11.1 Operating Principle
Summary 113
Assignment - 1 116
Assignment - 2 117

3. Boundary Layer Theory 119–180

3.1 Introduction 119
3.2 Boundary Layer Formation Over a Flat Plate 120
3.2.1 Laminar Boundary Layer
3.2.2 Transition Boundary Layer
3.2.3 Turbulent Boundary Layer
3.2.4 Laminar Sub-layer
3.3 Boundary Layer Thickness: δ 123
3.4 Displacement Thickness: δ* 125
3.5 Momentum Thickness: θ 126
3.6 Energy Thickness: δ** 128
3.7 Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 135
3.8 Estimation of the Laminar Boundary Layer Thickness 139
3.9 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 164
3.10 Boundary Layer on Rough Surfaces 169
Contents xiii

3.11 Separation of Boundary Layer 170

3.12 Control of Boundary Layer Separation 172
3.12.1 Suction Method
3.12.2 By Pass Method
3.12.3 Injection Method
3.12.4 Rotating of Cylinder Method
3.12.5 Streamlining of Body Shape
Summary 174
Assignment - 1 177
Assignment - 2 178

4. Flow Through Pipe 181–229

4.1 Introduction 181
4.2 Energy Losses in Pipes 181
4.2.1 Major losses
4.2.2 Minor Losses
4.3 Siphon 219
4.4 Pipes in Series: Compound Pipes 223
4.5 Concept of Equivalent Length and Equivalent Pipe 225
4.5.1 Equivalent Length
4.5.2 Equivalent Pipe
4.6 Pipes in Parallel 228
4.6.1 Three Pipes in Parallel
4.6.2 Four Pipes in Parallel
4.7 Transmission of Hydraulic Power Through Pipelines 242
4.7.1 Condition for Maximum Transmission Power
4.7.2 Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power
4.8 Water Hammer 248
4.8.1 Pressure Rise due to Gradual Closure of Valve
4.8.2 Pressure Rise due to Instantaneous Closure of Valve
4.8.3 Pressure Rise due to Instantaneous Closure of Valve in an Elastic Pipe
4.9 Pipe Networks 255
4.9.1 Hardy Cross Method (HCM)
4.10 Surge Tank 260
4.10.1 Types of Surge tanks
4.11 Three Reservoir Problem 263
4.12 Pipe Networks 275
Summary 281
Assignment - 1 285
Assignment - 2 286

5. Pipe Flow Measurement 289–338

5.1 Introduction 289
5.2 Types of Orifices 289
5.3 Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate 314
5.4 Pitot Tube 321
5.5 Current Meter 326
5.6 Rotameter 328
xiv Fluid Mechanics

5.7 Bend Meter 329

Summary 334
Assignment - 1 335
Assignment - 2 336

6. Orifices and Mouthpieces 339–366

6.1 Introduction 339
6.2 Types of Orifices 339
6.3 Hydraulic Coefficients 340
6.3.1 Coefficient of Contraction: Cc
6.3.2 Coefficient of Velocity: Cv
6.3.3 Coefficient of Discharge: Cd
6.4 Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Coefficients 341
6.4.1 Coefficient of Discharge: Cd
6.4.2 Coefficient of contraction: Cc
6.5 Small and Large Orifices 345
6.6 Discharge through a Small Rectangular Orifice 346
6.7 Discharge through a Large Rectangular Orifice 346
6.8 Discharge through fully Submerged Orifice 349
6.9 Discharge through Partially Submerged Orifice 350
6.10 Classification of Mouthpieces 351
6.10.1 External Mouthpieces
6.10.2 Internal Mouthpiece
6.11 Discharge through External Cylindrical Mouthpiece 352
6.12 Discharge through a Convergent Mouthpiece 353
6.13 Discharge through a Convergent-divergent Mouthpiece 354
6.14 Discharge through an internal mouthpiece (Re-entrant or Borda’s mouthpiece) 357
6.14.1 Borda’s Mouthpiece Running Free
6.14.2 Borda’s Mouthpiece Running Full
Summary 362
Assignment - 1 364
Assignment - 2 365

7. Flow Past Submerged Bodies 367–402

7.1 Introduction 367
7.2 Drag and Lift 367
7.3 Types of Drag Force 368
7.3.1 Stream-Lined and Bluff Bodies
7.4 Expression for Drag and Lift 370
7.4.1 Drag Force: FD
7.4.2 Lift Force: FL
7.4.3 Co-efficient of Drag: CD
7.4.4 Co-efficient of Lift: CL
7.5 Drag on a Sphere 378
7.6 Drag on a Cylinder 379
7.7 Lift and Circulation on a Circular Cylinder 380
Contents xv

7.8 Magnus Effect: Lift Generated by Spinning 387

7.9 Lift on an Airfoil 393
7.9.1 Steady State of a Flying Object
Summary 398
Assignment - 1 400
Assignment - 2 401

8. Flow Through Open Channels 403–426

8.1 Introduction 403
8.2 Geometrical Terminologies: Flow Through Open Channels 403
8.3 Types of Flow in Open Channels 404
8.3.1 Steady and Unsteady Flow
8.3.2 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
8.3.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
8.3.4 Sub-critical, Critical and Super-critical Flow
8.4 Chezy’s Formula 406
8.5 Empirical Relations For Determination of Chezy Constant 407
8.6 Most Economical Section 412
8.6.1 Most Economical Rectangular Channel
8.6.2 Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel
Summary 421
Assignment - 1 424
Assignment - 2 424

9. Notches and Weirs 427–458

9.1 Introduction 427
9.2 Difference between Notch and Orifice 427
9.3 Difference between a Notch and a Weir 428
9.4 Classification of Notches and Weirs 428
9.5 Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir 429
9.6 Triangular Notch or V-notch 430
9.7 Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir 436
9.8 Discharge Over a Stepped Notch 437
9.9 Advantages of Triangular Notch Over Rectangular Notch 438
9.10 Effect on the Discharge Over a Notch Due to an Error in
the Measurement of Head 439
9.10.1 For a Rectangular Notch
9.10.2 For a Triangular Notch
9.11 Cipolletti Weir 441
9.12 Francis’s Formula for Rectangular Weir with end Contractions 443
9.13 Velocity of Approach 444
9.14 Ventilation of Weirs 447
9.15 Discharge over a Broad Crested Weir 449
9.16 Discharge Over a Submerged Weir 450
9.17 Ogee Weir 451
Summary 453
Assignment - 1 456
 xvi Fluid Mechanics

Assignment - 2 457

10. Compressible Flow 459–518

10.1 Introduction 459
10.2 Equation of State 459
10.3 Thermodynamic Processes 461
10.3.1 Isothermal Process [T = c]
10.3.2 Isobaric Process [ p = c]
10.3.3 Isochoric Process (or Isometric Process) [V = c]
10.3.4 Adiabatic Process [ pvγ = c ]
10.3.5 Polytropic Process [pvn = c]
10.4 Steady and Unsteady Flow 468
10.5 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow 468
10.6 Compressible and Incompressible Flow 468
10.6.1Compressible Flow [ρ ≠ c]
10.6.2Incompressible Flow (ρ = c).
10.7 Rate of Flow 469
10.8 Continuity Equation 470
10.9 Steady Flow Energy Equation [SFEE] 471
10.10 Stagnation State 473
10.11 Velocity of Sound Wave in Compressible Fluids 475
10.11.1 Velocity of Sound (a) in Terms of Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K)
10.12 Velocity of Sound in an Ideal Gas 479
10.13 Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances in a Compressible Fluid) 481
10.14 Nozzle and Diffuser 484
10.15 Flow Through Nozzle 489
10.16 Nozzles Operating in the Off-design Condition 494
10.17 Normal Shocks 498
10.17.1 Flow of Perfect Gases with Heat-transfer (Rayleigh Flow)
10.17.2 Flow of Perfect Gases with Friction (Fanno Flow)
Summary 510
Assignment - 1 516
Assignment - 2 518

References 519
Appendices 521
Index 529
 1

Laminar Flow
(Viscous Flow or Flow with
Low Reynolds Number)

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The flow of real fluid differs from that of ideal fluid in respect of viscous effects that
take place near to the surface of the solid body. As ideal fluid is inviscid, the presence
of a solid body does not affect the flow; the fluid is assumed to slip over the surface
 du 
of solid body and no velocity gradient   exists over the surface of a solid body, and
 dy 
 du 
hence no shear stress  τ = µ  acts on the layers. On the other hand, when real fluid
 dy 
flows over the surface of a solid body, the fluid particles contacting with surface get
zero velocity. This flow characteristic of a real fluid at the surface is in accordance with
the no-slip condition. These particles then retard the motion of particles in the adjoining
fluid layer and so on. This change of velocity gradient is responsible for development
of viscous shear resistance which opposes the motion.
The following velocity profile is shown in Fig. 1.1, when ideal and the real fluid
flow through pipes and over the surface of solid body.

du
dy = 0

Solid body
 du 
(a) Velocity distribution in ideal fluid flow  = 0 through pipe and
 dy 
over the surface of solid body.

© The Author(s) 2023 1

S. Kumar, Fluid Mechanics (Vol. 2),
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99754-0_1
 2 Fluid Mechanics

du > 0 du > 0
dy dy

Solid body

 du 
(b) Velocity distribution in real fluid flow  > 0  through pipe and
 dy 
over the surface of solid body.

Fig. 1.1: Comparison of ideal and real fluid flows.

1.2 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

The flow of a real fluid is divided into two types:
(i) Laminar flow.
(ii) Turbulent flow.

1.2.1 Laminar Flow

The laminar flow is a smooth regular flow in layers. Such flow exists only at low
velocities. Fluid particles remain in motion in respective layers. In other words there
will be no exchange of fluid particles from one layer to another. Thus, there will be
no momentum transmission from one layer to another. The various particles in a layer
describe definite straight line path as shown in Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2: Laminar flow through pipe.

1.2.2 Turbulent Flow

In the turbulent flow, the fluid particles flow in zig-zag way (i.e. the fluid particles
are not moving in layer). In the other words, there will be exchange of fluid particles
from one layer to another. Such flow exists only at high velocities. This type of flow
is shown is Fig. 1.3.

Velocity
distribution
curve

Fig. 1.3: Turbulent flow through pipe.

Laminar Flow 3

The type of flow, either laminar or turbulent, is described on the basis of

Reynolds number (Re).
ρDV DV
Reynolds number: Re = =
µ µ
where ρ = density of the fluid
D = diameter of the pipe
V = mean velocity of the fluid
µ = viscosity of fluid
ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid
If Re < 2000, the flow through pipe is laminar and Re > 4000, the flow through
pipe is turbulent.

1.3 REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

 ρVD 
Osborne Reynolds was a scientist who discovered that Reynolds number  Re = 
 µ 
is the criterion for determining the type of flow (either laminar or turbulent) in a
circular pipe. The arrangement of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Dye
Dye container

Bell-mouthed
entrance
Glass tube
Water
container

Filament of dye Flow control

Water valve

Reynolds apparatus for demonstration of laminar and turbulent flow.

(a) Straight line filament of dye shows laminar flow.

Straight line filament of dye

(b) Wavy filament of dye indicating onset of turbulence.

Wavy filament of dye

 4 Fluid Mechanics

(c) Diffused filament of dye indicating turbulent flow.

Diffused filament of dye

Fig. 1.4
The main parts of the apparatus are:
(i) A water container.
(ii) An arrangement to inject a fine filament of dye into the bell-mouthed
entrance of a glass tube through which water flows, and
(iii) A valve to control the flow through the glass tube.
A fine filament of dye was introduced into the glass tube near the smoothly
rounded bell-mouthed entrance. At low rate of flow the filament of dye appeared as
a straight line parallel to the tube axis indicating laminar flow as shown in Fig. 1.4(a).
As the valve was further opened resulting in high velocity of flow, the dye filament
became wavy leading to its breakup and finally diffusing into the flowing water, Fig.
1.4. (b) and (c) shows the flow condition at increasing velocities indicating the onset
of turbulence and then flow completely changing over to turbulence.
By the above experiment Reynolds established that when the velocity is below
a certain limit the fluid particles move in parallel layers or laminae and the layers slide
one over the other. The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent
is called critical velocity.

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL VELOCITY

In the previous section, the types of flow i.e., laminar and turbulent were described
clearly. In this experiment, we will see, the range of Reynolds number or velocity up
to which the laminar flow and turbulent flow are maintained in a pipe of constant
diameter and constant fluid properties (i.e., ρ and µ). Finally we will determine the
critical value of velocity and Reynolds number.
The energy loss in certain length of straight circular pipe is determined by
pressure drop measured by a differential manometer as shown is Fig. 1.5 (a).
l

V
1 2

Differential
x Manometer

(a) Experimental setup.

Laminar Flow 5

D
Parabolic
variation
2
(hf ∝ V )
C
L.F. = Laminar flow
Linear T.F. = Turbulent flow
variation B l.c.v. = Low critical velocity
log hf u.c.v = Upper critical velocity
(hf ∝ V) A
Tr.F. = Transition flow
Tr.F.
L.F. T.F.

O l.c.v u.c.v
log V

(b) Energy or head loss variation with velocity

Fig. 1.5
Then mean velocity of flow is calculated from the known volumetric rate of flow (Q)
passing through the pipe. The energy or head loss (hf) and corresponding mean
velocity (V) may be plotted on a log-log graph paper. The head loss (hf) is seen to
increase linearly with velocity (V) till point B. The linear relationship between hf and
V indicates laminar flow while a higher velocities a nearly parabolic relationship (hf µ
V2), the parabolic relationship between hf and V indicates turbulent flow (CD).
Between the two flow regimes there lies a transition zone in which flow is in the
process of changing over from laminar to turbulent. As velocity is increased the head
loss (hf) varies with the mean velocity (V) according to the laws (hf µV, hf µV2) and
is indicated by line OABCD, where for decreasing velocities it will be seen to follow
the path DCAO. From this experiment, it may be deduced that the points A and B lying
on the straight line OB define the lower and upper critical velocities respectively.
In flow through pipe, the values of Reynolds number at point A (i.e., lower
critical velocity): Re = 2000 and at point B (i.e., upper critical velocity): Re = 4000,
the transition from laminar to turbulent may occur at the value of Reynold’s number
between 2000 and 4000.

1.5 STEADY LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR PIPE

The laminar, incompressible and steady flow through pipe may be completely analysed
by two laws:
(i) Newton’s law of viscosity and
(ii) Newton’s second law of motion.
Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R and a concentric cylindrical fluid
element of radius r and length dx as shown is Fig. 1.6.
 6 Fluid Mechanics

R τ.2πrdx ∂p
Direction of p+ dx πr 2
flow r ∂x
pπr 2
dx

Fig. 1.6: Steady, laminar and incompressible flow through pipe.

The forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The pressure force (pπr2) on the left face (acting from left to right).

 ∂p 
2. The pressure force  p + . dx πr2 on the right face. (acting from right to left).
 ∂x 
3. The shear force (τ.2πrdx) acting on the surface of the fluid element opposing
the motion (acting from right to left).
As the flow is steady, laminar and uniform, the total acceleration is zero.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the summation of all forces in
the direction of flow is equal to product of mass and acceleration i.e., the summation
of all forces in the direction of flow must be zero ( acceleration is zero).

 ∂p 
pπr2 –  p + dx πr2 – τ . 2πr dx = 0
∂x

∂p
– dx πr 2 – τ . 2πr dx = 0
∂x
∂p
– r – τ.2= 0
∂x

∂p r
or τ=– . ...(1.5.1)
∂x 2
This equation gives the distribution of shear stress across a flow section, the
dp
pressure gradient depends only on the direction of flow i.e. x-direction, hence
dx
above Eq. (1.5.1) provides a linear relationship between shear stress τ and radius r,
it is evident from the equation that the shear stress will be maximum at the pipe
 ∂p R 
surface where r = R  i.e., τmax = − .  and zero at the centre of pipe where r = 0,
 ∂x 2 
as shown in Fig. 1.7.
Laminar Flow 7

Fig. 1.7: Shear stress and velocity distribution across a section.

Velocity distribution:
The shear stress is related to the velocity gradient by Newton’s law of viscosity.
du
Shear stress : τ = µ
dy
Here, y is distance measured from the pipe wall,
y=R– r
Differentiating, dy = – dr  R = constant
du
∴ Shear stress in present case: τ = µ
– dr
du
τ = –µ ...(1.5.2)
dr
du
It is to be noted that the velocity gradient: is negative i.e. as r increases,
dr
u decreases.
Equating Eqs. (1.5.2) and (1.5.1), we get
du dp r
–µ =–
dr dx 2
du 1 dp
= r
dr 2µ dx
Integrating w.r.t. r, we get
1 dp r 2
u= +C
2μ dx 2
1 dp 2
u= r +C ...(1.5.3.)
4μ dx
where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the
boundary condition that at r = R, u = 0
1 dp 2
0= R +C
4μ dx
1 dp 2
or C= – R
4μ dx
Substituting the value of C in Eq. (1.5.3), we get
1 dp 2 1 dp 2
u= r – R
4μ dx 4µ dx
 8 Fluid Mechanics

1 dp  2 2 
u= – R –r ...(1.5.4)
4μ dx  

dp
In Eq. (1.5.4), the values of µ, and R are constant, which means the velocity
dx
u varies with the square of r. This Eq. (1.5.4) is equation of parabola. This shows that
the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity
distribution is shown is Fig. 1.7
[Note : Pressure variation along the x-direction i.e., along the direction of flow,
dp
is always negative because of continuous decrease of pressure in the direction of
dx
flow].
Ratio of maximum to average velocity:
The velocity is maximum, when r = 0 in Eq. (1.5.4). Thus maximum velocity,
Umax is obtained as
1 dp 2
Umax = – R ...(1.5.5)
4µ dx
Discharge through pipe: Q
The average velocity: u =
Cross-sectional area of pipe:π R 2
Q
u =
πR 2
Consider a small circular ring element of radius r and thickness dr as shown in
Fig. 1.8.
The fluid flowing per second through small elementary ring: dQ

dr
R
r

Fig. 1.8: Discharge flow through pipe

dQ = velocity at radius r × area of a small ring element.
dQ = u × 2πrdr
Substituting the value of u from Eq. (1.5.4) in above equation, we get
1 dp
dQ = − [R2 – r2] 2prdr
4µ dx
Net discharge flow through pipe: Q
R
Q= ∫ dQ
0
Laminar Flow 9

R
1 dp
∫ – 4µ dx [ R
2
= – r 2 ]2πrdr
0

R
1 dp
= −
4µ dx ∫
2π ( R 2 − r 2 )rdr
0

R
1 dp  R 2 r 2 r 4 
= − 2π  – 
4μ dx  2 4 
0

1 dp  R4 R4 
= – 2π  – 
4μ dx  2 4 

1 dp R4
= – 2π×
4μ dx 4

π dp 4
Q = – R
8µ dx

Q
∴ Average velocity: u =
πR 2

π dp 4
− R
8µ dx
u =
πR 2

1 dp 2
u =− R ...(1.5.6)
8µ dx
Dividing Eq. (1.5.5) by Eq. (1.5.6), we get

1 dp 2
– R
U max 4μ dx
= =2
u 1 dp 2
– R
8µ dx

∴ Maximum velocity: Umax = 2 times average velocity: u

Umax =2 u
 10 Fluid Mechanics

Drop of pressure head for a given length (l) of a pipe:

Recalling the average velocity through pipe from Eq. (1.5.6)

1 2

D u

l
1 2

Fig. 1.9: Drop of Pressure head in a pipe

1 dp 2
u = − R
8µ dx
dp 8μu
or – = 2
dx R
 dp 
The term  –  represents pressure drop per unit length through pipe and may
 dx 
be written as
∆p – ( p2 – p1 ) p1 – p 2
– = =
l l l

p1 – p2 8µu
∴ = 2
l R
8µul D
p1 – p2 = R =
D
2 2
 
2
32µul
=
D2
Dividing by ρg on the both sides, we get
p1 – p2 32µul
=
ρg ρgD 2

32µul
hf = ... (1.5.7)
ρgD2
p1 – p2
where hf = , loss of pressure head
ρg
µ = viscosity of fluid
Laminar Flow 11

u = average velocity of flow

ρ = density of fluid
Equation (1.5.7) is called Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
Q Q 4Q
We know that the average velocity : u = = =
Area π D 2 πD 2
4

4Q
Substituting u = in Eq.. (1.5.7), we get
πD 2

128Qµl
hf = ...(1.5.8)
πρgD4

Equation (1.5.8) is also called Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

Note: Hagen–Poiseuille Eqs. (1.5.7) and (1.5.8) are only applicable for steady,
laminar and incompressible flow through pipe.
If the pressure loss (or head loss) is known, the required pumping power to
overcome the pressure loss is determined from
Ppump, L = Q∆p = Qρghf
= mg hf [ m = ρQ]
where Q = volume flow rate
m = mass flow rate
The average velocity for laminar flow in horizontal pipe is, from Eq. (1.5.7)

ρgh f D 2 ∆pD 2
u = =  ∆p = ρghf
32µl 32µl
Then the volume flow rate for laminar flow through a horizontal pipe of diameter
D and length l, from Eq. (1.5.8)
πρg h f D 4 π∆p D 4
Q= = ...(1.5.9)
128 µl 128 µl
This equation is known as Poiseuille’s law and this flow is called Hagen-
Poiseuille flow in honour of the works of G. Hagen (1797-1884) and J. Poiseuille
(1799-1869) on the subject. It is to be noted from Eq. (1.5.9) that for a specified
volume flow rate, the pressure drops and thus the required pumping power is directly
proportional to the length of the pipe and viscosity of the fluid, but it is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the diameter (or radius) of the pipe. Therefore,
the pumping power requirement for a piping system can be reduced by a factor of 16
by doubling the pipe diameter as shown in Fig. 1.10.
 12 Fluid Mechanics

D u

Ppump = 16 kW

u
2D 4

Ppump = 1 kW

Fig. 1.10: Pumping power requirement can be reduced by a

factor 16 by doubling the pipe diameter
Of course the benefits of the reduction in power costs must be weighed against the
increased cost of construction due to using a larger-diameter pipe.

1.5.1 Comparison between Hagen-Poiseuille Equation and Darcy’s

Formula

Hagen-Poiseuille Equation Darcy’s Formula

32µul 4 f lρu 2
Pressure loss: ∆p = Pressure loss: ∆p =
D2 2D

32µul 4 f lu 2
Head loss: hf = Head loss: hf =
ρgD 2 2 gD
32νul
=
gD 2

µ
 ν =
ρ
1. The above equations are valid
only for fully developed laminar
flow in horizontal circular pipes
but not for inclined pipes.
2. In these equations, pressure
or head loss only due to viscous
effect of the liquid.
1. The above equations are valid
for both laminar and turbulent
flows, in both circular and non-
circular pipes, smooth or rough
surface, horizontal or inclined pipes.
2. In these equations, pressure loss
or head loss is due to friction.
Laminar Flow 13

For laminar flow, by equating Hagen-Poiseuille equation and Darcy’s formula,

we get
32µul 4 f lu2
=
ρgD 2 2 gD
16µ
=f
ρDu
16
or f = ρuD
µ
16
f = ...(1.5.10)
Re
ρuD
where Re = , Reynolds number
µ
The above Eq. (1.5.10) gives a relationship between coefficient of friction f and
the Reynolds number Re, for laminar flow through a circular pipe.

Problem 1.1: An oil of viscosity 5 poise flows in a 5.0 mm diameter pipe,

discharge rate being 5.5 liter/s. If the specific gravity of oil is 0.87, state whether flow
is laminar or turbulent.
Solution: Given data:
5
Viscosity: µ = 5 poise = Ns/m2 = 0.5 Ns/m2
10
Diameter of pipe: D = 50 mm = 0.05 m
5.5
Discharge: Q = 5.5 liter/s = m3/s = 0.005 m3/s
1000
Specific gravity of oil: S = 0.87
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.87 × 1000 kg/m3 = 870 kg/m3

Q 4Q 4 × 0.0055
Average velocity: u = π = = = 2.8 m/s
D 2 πD
2
3.14 × (0.05) 2
4

ρu D 870 × 2.8 × 0.05

Reynolds number: Re = = = 243.6
µ 0.5
Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000.
Hence, the flow in pipe is laminar.

Problem 1.2: An oil of specific weight 8930 N/m3 and kinematics viscosity
0.0002 m2/s is pumed through a 150 mm diameter 300 m long pipe at the rate of
200 kN/h. Show that the flow is viscous and find the power required.
 14 Fluid Mechanics

Solution: Given data:

Specific weight: w = 8930 N/m3
Kinematic viscosity: ν = 0.0002 m2/s
Diameter: D = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Length: l = 300 m
Weight flow rate: 3
W = 200 kN/h = 200 × 10 N/h
200 ×103
= N/s = 55.55 N/s
60 × 60
Discharge: Q = mv
m mg
= =  Weight flow rate: W = mg
ρ ρg
W
=
w
Specific weight: w = ρg
55.55 3
Q= m /s = 0.00622 m3 /s
8930
also Q = Au
π 2
0.00622 = D u
4
0.00622 × 4 = 3.14 × (0.15)2 × u
Or average velocity: u = 0.352 m/s
uD 0.352 × 0.15
Reynolds number: Re = = = 264
ν 0.0002
Since, Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is viscous.
According to Hagen-Poiseuille equation, the loss of pressure head:
32µul
hf =
ρgD 2
32νul µ
= ν=
gD 2 ρ
32 × 0.0002 × 0.352 × 300
= = 3.06 m
9.81× (0.15) 2
∴ Power required = mg hf = W hf  W = mg
= 55.55 × 3.06 = 169.98 Nm/s or J/s = 169.98 W

Problem 1.3: An oil of viscosity 0.95 poise and specific gravity 0.92 is flowing
through a horizontal pipe of diameter 120 mm and length 20 m. Find the difference
of pressure of the two ends of the pipe, if 120 kg of the oil is collected in a tank in
40 seconds.
Laminar Flow 15

Solution: Given data:

0.95
Viscosity of oil: µ = 0.95 poise = Ns/m2 = 0.095 Ns/m2
10
Specific gravity: S = 0.92
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.92 × 1000 kg/m3 = 920 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe: D = 120 mm = 0.12 m
Length of pipe: l = 20 m
Mass of oil collected: M = 120 kg in time : t = 40s
M 120
∴ Mass flow rate: m= = kg/s = 3 kg/s
t 40
Also mass flow rate: m = ρAu by continuity equation.
π 2
3 = 920 × (0.12) × u
4
3 = 10.399 u
3
or u = = 0.2884 m/s
10.399
ρuD
Reynolds number: Re =
µ
920 × 0.2884 × 0.12
= = 335.15
0.095
As the Reynolds number is less than 2000. Hence, the flow is laminar.
32μul
Loss of head between two ends: hf =
ρgD 2
p1 – p2
also hf =
ρg
p1 – p2 32μul
∴ =
ρg ρgD 2
32μul 32 × 0.095 × 0.2884 × 20
p1 – p2 = =
D 2 (0.12) 2
= 1217.688 N/m2 or Pa = 1.217 kPa

Problem 1.4: A fluid of viscosity 8 poise and specific gravity 1.2 is flowing
through a circular pipe of diameter 100 mm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe
wall is 210 N/m2. Find:
(i) The pressure gradient,
(ii) The average velocity, and
(iii) Reynolds number of the flow. (GGSIP University, Delhi. Dec. 2006)
 16 Fluid Mechanics

Solution: Given data:

8
Viscosity: µ = 8 poise = Ns/m2 = 0.8 Ns/m2
10
Specific gravity: S = 1.2
∴ Density: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 1.2 × 1000 = 1200 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe: D = 100 mm = 0.1m

D 0.1
∴ Radius of pipe: R = = = 0.05 m
2 2
Maximum shear stress: τmax = 210 N/m2
∂p
(i) Pressure gradient:
∂x
∂p R
The maximum shear stress: τ max = −
∂x 2
∂p 0.05
210 = − ×
∂x 2
∂p
or = – 8400 N/m2 per m
∂x
(ii) Average velocity: u
We know that the expression of average velocity:
1 dp 2
u = − R
8µ dx
1
=– × (– 8400) × (0.05)2
8 × 0.8
= 3.28 m/s
(iii) Reynolds number: Re
ρDu 12 × 0.1× 3.28
Re = = = 492
µ 0.8
Problem 1.5: An oil of specific gravity 0.9 is flowing through a pipe of diameter
110 mm. The viscosity of oil is 10 poise and velocity at the centre is 2 m/s. Find :
(i) Pressure gradient in the direction of flow,
(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall,
(iii) Reynolds number, and
(iv) Velocity at a distance of 30 mm from the wall.
(GGSIP University, Delhi. Dec. 2007)

Solution: Given data:

Specific gravity of oil: S = 0.9
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe: D = 110 mm = 0.11 m
D 0.11
Radius of pipe: R = = = 0.055 m
2 2
Laminar Flow 17

10
Viscosity of oil: µ = 10 poise = Ns/m2 = 1 Ns/m2
10
Velocity at the centre i.e., maximum velocity: Umax = 2 m/s
∂p
(i) Pressure gradient in the direction of flow:
∂x
We know that the expression of maximum velocity: Umax
1 ∂p 2
Umax = – R
4µ ∂x
1 ∂p
2 =– × × (0.055)2
4 ×1 ∂x
∂p
or = –2644.62 N/m3
∂x
(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall: τ0 = τmax
∂p . R
τmax = –
∂x 2
0.055
= – (– 2644.62) × = 72.727 N/m2
2
ρuD
(iii) Reynolds number: Re =
µ
U max
 Umax = 2u or u =
2
ρU max D 900 × 2 × 0.11
= = = 99
2µ 2 ×1
(iv) Velocity at a distance of 30 mm from the wall: u

y = 30 mm = 0.03 m
R u
r

Fig. 8.11: Schematic for Problem 1.5

–1 ∂p
u= (R2 – r2)
4µ ∂x
where r=R – y
= 0.055 – 0.03 = 0.025 m
1
∴ u = – 4 ×1 × [(0.055)2 × (0.25)2]
= 661.155 × [3.025 × 10–3 – 6.25 × 10–4]
= 1.586 m/s
 18 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 1.6: An oil having viscosity of 7.5 poise of specific gravity 0.85 flows
through a horizontal 50 mm diameter pipe with a pressure drop of 18 kN/m2 per metre
length of pipe. Determine (i) the flow rate of oil and centre line velocity (ii) power
required to maintained the flow in 100 m length of pipe (iii) velocity and shear stress
at 8 mm from the wall.
Solution: Given data:

7.5
Viscosity of oil: µ = 7.5 poise = Ns/m 2 = 0.75 Ns/m2
10
Specific gravity: S = 0.85
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.85 × 1000 kg/m3 = 850 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe: D = 50 mm = 0.05 m
D 0.05
∴ Radius of pipe: R = = = 0.025 m
2 2
Pressure drop: p1 – p2 = 18 kN/m2 per m length of pipe
p1 − p2
i.e., = 18 kN/m3 = 18 × 103 N/m3
l
Pressure drop for laminar flow through pipe is,
32µul
p1 – p2 =
D2
p1 − p2 32µu
=
l D2
32 × 0.75 × u
18 × 103 =
(0.05)2
or u = 1.87 m/s
ρDu 850 × 0.05 × 1.87
Reynolds number: Re = = = 105.96
µ 0.75
Reynolds number is less than 2000.
Hence, the flow in pipe is laminar.
π 2
(i) Flow rate: Q = Au = D u
4
3.14
= × (0.05)2 ×1.87 = 0.003669 m3/s
4
The maximum velocity occurs at centre line of the pipe and it equals twice
the average flow velocity.
Umax = 2u = 2 × 1.87 = 3.74 m/s
(ii) Power required to maintain the flow in 100 m length of pipe: P
P = mghf
Laminar Flow 19

= ρQghf  m = ρQ
32µul
where hf = [Hagen–Poiseuille equation]
ρgD 2
ρQg × 32µul
∴ P=
ρgD 2
32µuQl
=  l = 100 m
D2
32 × 0.75 × 1.87 × 0.003669 × 100
= = 6586.58 W
(0.05)2
(iii) Velocity at radius r is given by

y = 8 mm = 0.08 m
R u
r

Fig. 1.12: Schematic for Problem 1.6

1 dp
u= − (R2 – r2)
4µ dx
Corresponding to 8 mm from the wall,
r=R – y
= 0.025 – 0.008 = 0.017 m
p1 − p2
and = 18 × 103 N/m3
l
p2 − p1
or = –18 × 103 N/m3
l
dp
or = –18 × 103 N/m3
dx
1
∴ u= − × (– 18 × 103) × [(0.025)2 – (0.017)2]
4 × 0.75
= 2.01 m/s
dp r
and Shear stress: τ=–
dx 2
0.017
= – (–18 × 103) × = 153 N/m2
2
 20 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 1.7: An oil of specific gravity 0.9 and viscosity 10 poise is flowing
through a pipe of diameter 110 mm. The velocity at the centre is 2 m/s. Find:
(i) Pressure gradient in the direction of flow.
(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall.
Solution: Given data:
Specific gravity of oil: S = 0.9
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.9 × 1000 kg/m3 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe: D = 110 mm = 0.11 m
D 0.11
Radius of pipe: R = = = 0.055 m
2 2
10
Viscosity of oil: µ = 10 poise = Ns/m2 = 1 Ns/m2
10
Velocity at the centre i.e., maximum velocity:
Umax = 2 m/s
∂p
(i) Pressure gradient in the direction of flow:
∂x
We know that the expression of maximum velocity:
1 ∂p 2
Umax = − R
4µ ∂x
1 ∂p
2= − × × (0.055) 2
4 × 1 ∂x
∂p
or = –2644.62 N/m2
∂x
(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall: τ0 = τmax
∂p R 0.055
τmax = − = – (–2644.62) × = 72.727 N/m2
∂x 2 2
Problem 1.8: A laminar flow is taking place in a pipe of diameter 250 mm. The
maximum velocity is 2 m/s. Find the mean velocity and the radius at which this
occurs. Also find the velocity at 40 mm from the wall of the pipe.
Solution: Given data:
Diameter of pipe: D = 250 mm = 0.250 m
D 0.250
∴ Radius of pipe: R = = = 0.125 m
2 2
Maximum velocity: Umax = 2 m/s
(i) Mean velocity: u
U max 2
We have u = = = 1 m/s
2 2
(ii) Radius at which u occurs: r

The velocity u at any radius r is given

1 dp
u =– [R2 – r2]
4µ dx
Laminar Flow 21

1 dp 2  r 2 
u =– R 1 − 2 
4µ dx  R 
  r 2 
u = U max 1 −   
  R  
1 dp 2
where Umax = – R
4µ dx
Now the radius r at which u = u = 1 m/s
  r 2 
∴ 1 = 2 1 −   
  0.125  
2
 r  1
or 1–   =
 0.125  2
2
 r  1 1
or   =1– = = 0.5
 0.125  2 2
r
or = 0.5
0.125
0.5 = 0.08838 m = 88.38 mm
r = 0.125 ×
(iii) Velocity at 40 mm from the wall: u

y = 40 mm = 0.04 m
R u
r

Fig. 1.13: Schematic for Problem 1.8

r = R – y = 0.125 – 0.04 = 0.085 m

The velocity at radius: r = 0.085 m
OR
The velocity at 40 mm from pipe wall is
  r 2    0.085 2 
u = UMax  1 −    = 2 × 1 −  0.125  
  R      
= 1.075 m/s
Problem 1.9: An oil of dynamic viscosity 1.5 poise and specific gravity 0.9 a
laminar flows through a 20 mm diameter vertical pipe. Two pressure gauges have been
fixed at 20 m apart. The pressure gauge fixed at higher level roads 600 kPa. Find the
direction of flow and rate of flow through the pipe.
 22 Fluid Mechanics

Solution: Given data:

1.5
Dynamic viscosity: µ = 1.5 poise = Ns/m2 = 0.15 Ns/m2
10
Specific gravity: S = 0.9
∴ Density of oil: ρ = S × 1000 kg/m3 = 0.9 × 1000 = 900 kg/m3
Diameter of pipe : D = 20 mm = 0.02 m
Length of pipe between two gauges: l = 20 m
Pressure at higher level gauge: pB = 200 kPa = 200 × 103 N/m2
Pressure at lower level gauge: pA = 600 kPa = 600 × 103 N/m2
Total energy per unit weight at lower level A: EA
pA V2
EA = + A + zA
ρg 2g
200 kPa
Assuming datum at level A, B
∴ zA = 0
Diameter of pipe is same and hence, velocity at
A and B will be same.
l = 20 m
i.e., VA = VB = V

600 kPa
pA V2 Datum line
EA = ρ g + 2 g A

600 × 103 V2
= + 2g
900 × 9.81 Fig. 1.14: Schematic
2 for Problem 1.9
V
EA = 67.95 + ...(i)
2g
Similarly, total energy per unit weight at
higher level B: EB
PB V2
EB = + 2 g + zB
ρg
200 × 103 V2
= + + 20  zB = l = 20 m
900 × 9.81 2g
V2 V2
= 22.65 + 2 g + 20 = 42.65 + 2 g ... (ii)
It is clear from Eqs. (i) and (ii), EA > EB. Hence, the flow takes place from A to B.
Note: Fluid always flows from higher energy level to lower energy level.
Rate of flow: Q
Loss of head: hf = EA – EB
V2 V2
= 67.95 + – 42.65 – = 25.3 m
2g 2g
Keep in mind, the Hagen-Poiseuille’s equation is only applicable for horizontal
pipe flow. So, in present case (i.e., vertical pipe), we used Darcy-Weisbach’s formula.
Laminar Flow 23

4 flu 2
hf =
2 gD
(Darcy-Weisbach’s formula)
16
where f = , Darcy’s coefficient of friction for laminar
Re
flow
16 16µ
= =
ρuD ρuD
µ
4 × 16µ lu 2
∴ hf = ×
ρuD 2 gD
32µlu
hf =
ρgD 2
32 × 0.15 × 20 × u
25.3 =
900 × 9.81 × (0.02) 2
or u = 0.93 m/s
∴ Rate of flow: Q = cross-sectional area of pipe × average velocity
π 2 3.14
= D ×u = × (0.02) 2 × 0.93
4 4
= 0.000292 m3/s = 0.000292 × 1000 litre/s = 0.292 litre/s

1.6 FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

Consider two parallel plates, bottom being stationary while the top one moving with a
constant velocity U. Let small fluid element of dimensions be dx (length), dy (thickness)
as shown in Fig. 1.15. Let width of the plates be unity not shown in Fig. 1.15.
Moving Plate U
U

 ∂τ 
 τ + ∂y dy  dx

p.dy h
dy  ∂p 
 p + dx  dy
τdx ∂x
y
x dx
o

Fixed Plate

Fig. 1.15: Flow between two pallet plates.

According to the Newton’s second law of motion for steady, laminar and
incompressible flow is summation of all forces in the direction of flow = m ax
 ∂p   ∂τ 
p.dy –  p + ⋅ dx dy +  τ + ⋅ dy  dx − τ ⋅ dx = 0  ax = 0
∂x  ∂y 
 24 Fluid Mechanics

∂p ∂τ
− dxdy + dydx = 0
∂x ∂y
∂p ∂τ
or =
∂x ∂y
Here p = f(x) and τ = f(y) only.
Hence partial derivative can be changed to total derivative.
dp dτ
∴ = ... (1.6.1)
dx dy
In case of laminar flow, the shear stress is given by the Newton’s law of
viscosity.
du
Shear stress: τ= µ
dy
Substituting the value of τ in Eq. (1.6.1), we get
dp d  du 
dx
= µ 
dy  dy 
dp d 2u
or =µ 2  µ = constant
dx dy
d 2u 1 dp
or 2 =
dy µ dx
On integrating above equation, we get
du 1 dp dp
= y+A At particular section, =c
dy µ dx dx
Again integrating, we get
1 dp y 2
u= + Ayy + B
µ dx 2
1 dp 2
or u= y + Ayy + B ...(1.6.2)
2μ dx
where A and B are constants of integration and to be determined from the known
boundary conditions.
In the present case, the boundary conditions are:
u = 0 at y = 0

and u = U at y = h
Substituting these conditions in Eq. (1.6.2), we get
0 = B at u = 0, y = 0
or B=0
and at u = U at y = h;
1 dp 2
U= h + Ah + B
2µ dx
Laminar Flow 25

1 dp 2
or Ah = U – h B=0
2µ dx

U 1 dp
or A
= − h
h 2µ dx
Substituting the values of constants A and B in Eq. (1.6.2), we get
1 dp y 1 dp
u= y2 + U – hy
2µ dx h 2µ dx

y 1 dp
u= U− ( hy − y 2 ) ... (1.6.3)
h 2µ dx

The flow between two parallel plates, one is fixed and the other is moving is
known as Couette flow.
Rearranging Eq. (1.6.3), we get
y h2 dp y  y
u=U – 1 − 
h 2µ dx h  h

u y h2 dp y  y
or = – 1 − 
U h 2µU dx h  h

u y y  y
= +α 1 −  ...(1.6.4)
U h h  h 

h 2  dp 
where α = − is the dimensionless pressure gradient
2µU  dx 
For α > 0, the pressure is decreasing in the direction of flow, the velocity is
positive over the whole width between the plates.
For α > 0, the pressure is increasing in the direction of flow and the reverse flow
begins to occur near the fixed plate as the value α becomes less than –1.
The reverse flow near the fixed plate is due to the dragging action of the faster
neighbouring layers on the fluid close to the moving plate is not enough to overcome
the influence of the adverse pressure gradient.
when α = 0, Eq. (1.6.4) becomes
u y
=
U h
This pure shearing flow is called simple Couette flow.
 26 Fluid Mechanics

The velocity distribution of the Couette flow is shown in Fig. 1.16 is a function
of the distance from the fixed plate for various dimensionless pressure gradient (α).
Moving Plate U

3
α = –2

2
α=
1
α=
–1

0
h

α=
α=
α=
Reverse
Flow

Fixed Plate –0.2 0 1 1.3

u
U

Fig. 1.16: Couette Flow

Average velocity and shear stress distribution.
Consider a small fixed element of cross-section with unit width and height dy;
Discharge per unit width through the element:
dq = velocity × cross-sectional of the fluid element
= u . dy .1
= u dy
Total discharge per unit width: q
h
q= ∫ dq
0
h h
U 1 dp 
= ∫ udy = ∫  h y – 2µ dx (hy − y
2
) dy
0 0 
h h h
U h dp 1 dp
∫ ydy − 2µ dx ∫ ydy − 2µ dx ∫ y
2
= dy
h 0 0 0
h h h
U  y2  h dp  y 2  1 dp  y 3 
=   −   −  
h  2  0 2µ dx  2  0 2µ dx  3  0

U h 2 h dp h 2 1 dp h3
= – . −
h 2 2µ dx 2 2µ dx 3
Uh h3 dp h3 dp
= − −
2 4µ dx 6 dx
Uh h3 dp
= −
2 12µ dx
Discharge: q
Average velocity: u =
Cross-sectional area of fluid flow
Laminar Flow 27

Uh h3 dp
−
2 12µ dx
=
h ×1

U h2 dp
u
= − ...(1.6.5)
2 12µ dx
The shear stress distribution may be computed by using the Newton’s law of
viscosity.
du
τ = µ dy

d U 1 dp 
= µ y− ( hy − y 2 ) 
dy  h 2µ dx 
U 1 dp
τ=µ − ( y − 2 y) ... (1.6.6)
h 2 dx
Pressure head loss for a given length (l):
Recalling average velocity through parallel plates from Eq. (1.6.5)
U h 2 dp
u = −
2 12µ dx

1 U 2

p1 p2
h u

l
1 2

Fig. 1.17: Pressure head loss in Couette flow

h2 dp U
or − = u –
12µ dx 2
dp 12µu 6µU
− = –
dx h 2 h2
 dp 
The term  −  represents pressure drop per unit length of pole and may be
 dx 
written as
∆p ( p2 − p1 ) p −p
− = − = 1 2
l l l
 28 Fluid Mechanics

p1 − p2 12µu 6µU
= –
l h2 h2
12µul 6µU
or p1 – p2 = – l
h2 h2
Dividing by ρg above in both sides, we get
p1 − p2 12µul 6µUl
= –
ρg ρgh 2
ρgh 2

12µul 6µUl
hf = 2 –
ρgh ρgh 2
p1 − p2
where hf = ρg , drop of pressure head due to friction.
6µl
=hf  2u − U 
ρgh2  

1.6.1 Both Plates are Fixed

Recalling the general Eq. (1.6.2) for velocity distribution:
1 dp 2
y + Ay + B
u= ...(1.6.7)
2µ dx
where A and B are constant of integration. Their values are obtained from the
two below boundary conditions:
(i) at y = 0, u = 0
(ii) at y = h, u = 0

Velocity
distribution
h

y
x

Fig. 1.18: Both Plates are fixed.

Substitution of y = 0, u = 0 in Eq. (1.6.7), we get
0 =0+ 0 + B
or B=0
and substitution of y = h, u = 0 in Eq. (1.6.7), we get
1 dp 2
0= h + Ah + 0
2µ dx
Laminar Flow 29

1 dp
or A= − h
2µ dx
Substituting the values of A and B in Eq. (1.6.7), we get
1 dp 2  1 dp 
u= y + y − h + 0
2 µ dx  2µ dx 
1 dp 2 1 dp
u= y – h. y
2 µ dx 2µ dx
1 dp
u=
−  hy − y 2  ... (1.6.8)
2µ dx  

dp
In the above equation µ, and h are constants. It means u varies with the
dx
square of y. Here Eq. (1.6.8) is a equation of a parabola. Hence velocity distribution
across a section of the two parallel fixed plates is parabolic. This velocity distribution
is shown in Fig. 1.18.
Ratio of Maximum Velocity to average velocity:
The velocity of the fluid is maximum at the centre between two fixed plate,
h
putting the value of y = in Eq. (1.6.8), we get
2

1 dp  h h2 
2
Umax = −  − 
2µ dx  2 4

1 dp h2
= − .
2µ dx 4

1 dp 2
U max = − h ...(1.6.9)
8µ dx

Discharge
Average velocity: u =
Cross-sectional area of fluid flow
Consider rate of flow of fluid through the element strip of thickness dy and unit
width.
∴ The rate of flow through small element strip:
dq = velocity at a distance y × cross-sectional area of strip
1 dp
= − [hy – y2] × dy × 1
2µ dx
Net discharge flow through fixed plates:
h h
1 dp
∫ − 2µ dx (hy − y
2
q= ∫ dq = o
)dy
o
 30 Fluid Mechanics

h
1 dp  hy 2 y 3 
= −  − 
2µ dx  2 3 0

1 dp  h h 
3 3
= −  − 
2µ dx  2 3 

1 dp h3 1 dp 3
= . = − .h
2µ dx 6 12µ dx
1 dp 3
− h
q 12µ dx
∴ Average velocity: u = =
A h ×1
1 dp 2
u= − h ... (1.6.10)
12µ dx
Dividing Eq. (1.6.9) by Eq. (1.6.10), we get

1 dp 2
− h
U max 8µ dx 12 3
= = = = 1.5
u 1 dp 2 8 2
− .h
12µ dx
U max 3
= = 1.5
u 2
3
Maximum velocity: Umax = times average velocity: u
2
3
i.e., U max
= = u 1.5 u
2
Shear Stress Distribution:
In case of fluid flowing through fixed plates, the shear stress is given by the
Newton’s law of viscosity.
du
Shear stress: τ= µ
dy
Substituting the value of u from Eq. (8.6.8) in above equation, we get
d  1 dp 
Shear stress: τ=  − ( hy − y 2 ) 
dy  2µ dx 
 1 dp 
= µ × − (h − 2 y ) 
 2µ dx 
1 dp
τ= −
2 dx
[ (h − 2 y )] ...(1.6.11)

dp
In above Eq. (1.6.11), and h are constants.
dx
Laminar Flow 31

Hence shear stress τ varies linearly with y. The shear stress distribution is shown
in Fig. (1.19). The shear stress is maximum when y = 0 and h i.e., at the walls of the
fixed plates.
1 dp
∴ Maximum shear stress: τmax = − .h
2 dx

Direction of
flow
h

τmax

Fig. 1.19: Shear stress distribution across a section of parallel fixed plates.

h
and shear stress is zero at the centre line between the two i.e., y = .
2
Pressure head loss for a given length:
Recalling the average velocity through parallel fixed plates equation (1.6.10)
1 dp 2
u = − h
12µ dx

dp 12µu
or − =
dx h2
1 2

p1 p2
u

y
x
0

l
1 2
Fig. 1.20: Pressure head loss in parallel fixed plates

 dp 
The term  −  represents pressure drop per unit length of plate and may be
 dx 
written as
 32 Fluid Mechanics

∆p −( p2 − p1 ) p1 − p2
− = =
l l l

p1 − p2 12µu
∴ =
l h2
12µul
p1 – p2 =
h2
Dividing both sides by ρ g, we get
p1 − p2 12µul
=
ρg ρgh 2
12µul
hf =
ρgh2
p1 − p2
where hf = , drop of pressure head due to friction.
ρg

Table 1.1

S. Variable Flow through Flow through Plates

No. Pipe One plate Both plates

is fixed are are fixed
and other
moving

1 dp Uy 1 dp 1 dp
1. Velocity: u − [R2– r2] − (hy − y 2 ) − (hy − y 2 )
4µ dx h 2µ dx 2µ dx

1 dp 2 U h 2 dp 1 dp 2
2. Average velocity: u − R − − h
8µ dx 2 12µ dx 12µ dx

dp r µU 1 dp 1 dp
3. Shear stress: τ − − (h − 2 y ) − [h − 2 y ]
dx 2 h 2 dx 2 dx
32µul 6µl 12µul
4. Pressure head drop: hf ρgD 2 [ 2u − U ] ρgh 2
ρgh 2

Problem 1.10: An oil of viscosity 0.2 poise flowing between two fixed plates 1 m
wide maintained 12 mm apart. The velocity midway between the plates is 2 m/s. Find
(i) the pressure gradient along flow,
(ii) the average velocity, and
(iii) the rate of flow.
Another random document with
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 “Gee! I thought of that,” declared Patsy. “You have hit the nail on the
head, chief, for fair.”
“I think that these crooks, in order to expedite matters and create a
general belief that Gordon has murdered Pauline Perrot, planted this
evidence and probably more, and immediately started Henley with it to
inform the constable, aiming to get in their work on old Mr. Strickland as
soon as possible. I saw that Henley was a bit set back when he discovered
my identity and that I already was at work on the case.”
“I noticed that, too, chief,” put in Patsy.
“Henley decided to seize the bull by the horns, however, pretending he
wanted to aid me, and I think he now has something up his sleeve,” Nick
added. “I’m going to give him a chance to show his hand.”
“How so?” Chick questioned.
“I’m not yet sure what I shall frame up. Be that as it may, Chick, you hike
back to town and get after Dayton. It’s dollars to fried holes that he has a
hand in this game. Use your own judgment as to the best course to shape,
and leave Patsy and me to tie knots in this end of the string. That’s all for the
present.”
“Enough said, too, Nick,” replied Chick, seizing his hat. “You have
pulled off a clever bit of work, remarkably clever, and we’re now right in
line to deliver the goods. Leave Dayton to me. I’ll get him.”
Chick did not wait for an answer. He hurried out of the house and started
for town in the taxicab.
 CHAPTER VII.

HENLEY SHOWS HIS HAND.

It was, indeed, a clever bit of detective work that had enabled Nick Carter
to form a theory consistent with all of the circumstances and the
accumulation of evidence denoting that Arthur Gordon was guilty of the
basest of treachery and the most heinous of crimes, and which would have
been convincing not only to the public, but probably to all other detectives
than Nick Carter himself.
He keenly realized, however, that a theory based only upon his own
convictions was not enough, that absolute evidence was needed to convince
others, and he was not long in hitting upon a plan by which he thought he
could obtain it.
Nick hurriedly explained it to Patsy, giving him a few necessary
instructions, and he then sent him to call the suspected man from the kitchen.
Henley came slouching into the library a moment later, with Ginger
trailing at his heels. He had a more lowering look in his shifty eyes. He had
become impatient and suspicious during his long wait. He did not fancy his
having been excluded from the conference of the detectives. It smacked of
distrust of him, and his resentment was manifest in his swarthy face.
Nick saw it, of course, and at once took steps to dispel it.
“Pardon me, Henley, for keeping you waiting so long,” he apologized
with a heartiness well calculated to be convincing. “I had no idea it would
take more than a few minutes to examine these articles. Sorry to have kept
you waiting.”
“That’s all right, Mr. Carter,” growled Henley, with countenance lighting.
“Time ain’t wuth much to me. I reckoned you’d want a good look at them.”
“I have examined them carefully, Henley.”
“What d’ye think about it?”
“It looks like a bad mess, very bad,” Nick said, more gravely.
“So it does,” Henley nodded. “There ain’t nothing to it but murder, that I
can see.”
“I’m inclined to agree with you,” Nick replied.
 “Sure thing, chief,” put in Patsy. “What else can you make of it? It’s dead
lucky we met Mr. Henley. He sure has put us on the right track.”
“And he can do still more to aid us,” supplemented Nick approvingly. “I
suppose, Henley, you are perfectly willing to assist us. You will be well paid
for your services. I guarantee that.”
“Your word’s good enough for me, Mr. Carter,” said Henley, consenting
with a readiness denoting that his misgivings were entirely dispelled. “I’m
right here to lend you a hand. Say what you want, sir, and I’ll do it.”
“Good enough,” Nick declared. “We’ll set about it at once. Find the
butler, Patsy, and have him give you a pair of Gordon’s shoes. I will look
after those left by the girl. We’ll leave these other articles until we return. I’ll
take the precaution, however, to lock the library door. Get Gordon’s shoes
and rejoin us in the car.”
Patsy hastened from the room, then started upstairs to say a few
encouraging words to Strickland and Wilhelmina.
“I wish to visit the spot where you found these garments, Henley, or
where Ginger nosed them out, to be more correct,” said Nick, taking only the
pair of button boots from the table and thrusting them into his pocket.
“I’ll show you,” said Henley. “That won’t take long.”
“We will expedite matters by going in my car as far as possible,” Nick
added. “Bring along the dog. We may find him useful.”
“He’s some dog, Mr. Carter; you can bet on that.”
“He looks it, Henley, no mistake. One moment while I lock this door and
remove the key. Now, then, we’re off.”
Nick led the way out to the touring car, in which Patsy presently joined
them, bringing a pair of Gordon’s shoes, and in another moment they were
speeding down the long driveway toward the woodland road.
“Take us to the point where we picked Henley up, Danny,” Nick directed.
“He then can take the ribbons and show us the way.”
“You can run a quarter mile farther,” said Henley. “That’ll take us to the
crossroad. It’s rough going, then, too rough for a buzz car.”
“We will walk the remaining distance, Henley, in that case,” Nick replied,
all the while with an air of friendliness and appreciation of his services that
appeared to deceive the swarthy ruffian. “I think you said it is less than a
mile from the road to the pond you mentioned.”
 “ ’Tain’t more than half a mile.”
“Just where did you see Gordon and the girl last evening?”
“Going through the crossroad.”
“We traced them to the juncture of the two roads.”
“It was a quarter mile from there that I saw them.”
“Was Gordon carrying a suit case?”
“That’s what,” nodded Henley. “The girl had her jacket over her arm. The
man had an ugly look, and they seemed to be in a fuss over something, but I
couldn’t hear what they said. I watched them till they turned a bend in the
road, and that was the last I saw of them.”
“Gordon looked threatening, did he?”
“I sure would have thought so, Mr. Carter, if he had been looking at me,”
Henley forcibly declared. “He looked fit to fight a dog.”
If Nick Carter had wanted further evidence of Henley’s complicity in the
knavish game that was being played, these last statements would have
convinced him of it, in view of his own discoveries and deductions. He did
not betray his suspicions, but pretended to have entire confidence in the
rascal, interrogating him along much the same lines until Danny brought the
car to a stop at the crossroad.
Nick was the first to alight, followed by Henley and the hound, while
Patsy paused to question:
“Am I to go with you, chief?”
Nick hesitated for a moment, as if he had given this matter no previous
thought, and he then said abruptly:
“No, you’ll not be needed. Henley and I can look over the ground and
accomplish all that can be done.”
“Sure we can,” put in Henley, with ill-concealed eagerness.
“You return with Danny, Patsy, and keep an eye on those things in the
library. There is a bare possibility that some one will try to destroy them, in
case our suspicions are known.”
“That’s right, too,” Patsy quickly agreed. “I thought you were taking a
chance, chief, in leaving them there.”
“You return and look after them,” Nick repeated decidedly. “I’ll hoof it
back with Henley after making an investigation. He won’t mind the tramp.”
 “Mind it be hanged!” cried Henley. “Tramping round these diggings is
the most that I do.”
“That settles it, then,” said Nick. “Back into the crossroad to make a turn,
Danny, and wait for us at Gordon’s place.”
“I’ve got you, chief,” nodded Patsy. “We’ll keep an eye on things.”
Nick did not hasten his departure with Henley. He waited until Danny had
turned the touring car, then watched it speed away with both of his
assistants, till it vanished around a near bend in the road.
Henley stood silently watching him, with his shotgun under his arm.
There was a gleam of secret satisfaction deep down in his shifty eyes, an
ominous curve in his thin-lipped mouth. Both vanished instantly, however,
when Nick turned and said:
“Now, Henley, it’s up to you.”
“I’ll make good, all right,” was the reply, with a covert significance the
detective was quick to notice.
“Lead the way, then.”
“I’ll soon show you, Mr. Carter,” Henley added, with the same sinister
significance. “Come on, Ginger. He’s some dog, Carter, some dog. Ginger
can’t be beat.”
Nick did not reply. He followed the swarthy ruffian over the rough
crossroad, stopping at intervals to study the ground, stating that he wanted to
examine the footprints of the missing couple, if any could be found. He
delayed frequently in this way—but with an entirely different object in view.
Twenty minutes brought them to a path through the woodland, into which
Henley struck without hesitation, remarking grimly:
“They must have gone this way. It was on this side of the pond that
Ginger nosed out the bloodstained togs.”
“How far is the pond from here?” Nick inquired, following him.
“Not far,” Henley gruffly assured him. “It’s over the hill and down into
the valley. There’s another path on t’other side of it, leading to a road
running south.”
“Toward Fordham, then.”
“That’s what. Gordon must have known about the pond. ’Tain’t very big,
but it’s as deep as a volcano. The devil himself couldn’t raise a corpse sunk
to the bottom of it. Gordon knew that, mebbe.”
 “Quite likely, Henley, since he evidently wanted to get rid of the girl,”
Nick allowed.
“That’s how it looks to me. Bear off this way, sir.”
Henley strode away to the left and plunged through the bushes and
underbrush, Nick following, with Ginger bringing up in the rear.
Ten minutes brought them in sight of the pond, shut in on all sides by a
thick belt of woods, and Nick followed his uncouth guide down to the edge
of it and to the spot he was seeking, a lonely and suitable place enough for
such a crime as superficially appeared to have been committed.
“Here’s the spot,” cried Henley, pointing to some trampled shrubs and
underbrush. “There’s the log where Ginger nosed out the girl’s hat and
jacket. They were rolled up and thrust under it, then partly covered with dirt
and leaves.”
“Yes, yes, I see.”
“Here’s blood on the bushes, and footprints in the ground and dry leaves,
as if the girl put up a fight to save herself from——”
“Stop a moment,” said Nick, intently viewing the evidence mentioned. “I
want to compare these shoes with the imprints.”
“Gordon’s shoes?”
“Yes. The button boots belong to the girl. She left them in a house where
she has been boarding.”
“You went there after them?” questioned Henley, with sinister scrutiny.
“Yes, certainly,” said Nick, without looking up. “By Jove, they
correspond perfectly, Henley. There’s no question about it.”
Nick was comparing both pieces of footwear with several impressions
found in the damp earth. There was, as he had stated, no question as to the
correspondence in size and shape, which was further evidence of who had
been there the previous evening.
“It looks bad, bad enough,” he added, after viewing the blood-spattered
bushes, the rough ground on all sides, and seeking vainly for evidence
showing in which direction Gordon had departed.
“You have made no search for the girl’s body, Henley, you said.”
“What’s the use?” Henley asked, with a growl. “A hundred to one it’s at
the bottom of the pond.”
 “Very likely,” admitted Nick, with seeming uncertainty as to what course
to take.
“Gordon wouldn’t have waited to bury it.”
“True again,” Nick allowed. “If we only knew in which direction he went
——”
“We can find that out easy enough,” Henley interrupted, with eyes
gleaming for an instant.
“How so?” asked Nick, though he had expected and been only waiting for
these suggestions. “How can we contrive to trace him?”
“Leave it to Ginger.”
“You mean——”
“Ginger will show you,” Henley cut in. “He can trail him like breaking
sticks. He’s some dog. Mr. Carter, some dog. Wait a bit and I’ll show you.
Gimme one of Gordon’s shoes.”
“By Jove, that’s a good idea, Henley.” Nick cried, as if he had not thought
of it. “He can get the scent from this, perhaps, as you suggest. I ought to
have been wise to that.”
“Here you, Ginger, come here,” Henley growled harshly. “Come here,
you rascal.”
The hound bounded through the bushes and cringed at his master’s feet.
Henley seized him by the scruff of the neck and held to his nostrils the
shoe the detective had given him, then pointed to the larger of the imprints in
the ground.
“Get after him, Ginger!” he commanded, producing a leather strap and
hooking it to the dog’s collar. “Follow him up! After him, Ginger, you
rascal!”
The hound brightened up and appeared to know what was wanted. He
began to bark, until Henley cuffed him fiercely, and then he thrust his
muzzle to the ground, whining and eagerly tugging hard on the leather leash.
Henley seized his shotgun from the ground where he had placed it, crying
gruffly:
“I told you, Carter. He’s got the scent. Come on at my heels. Ginger’ll
trail him.”
“By Jove, I believe you are right, Henley,” Nick cried, following.
“I know I’m right. He’s some dog, sir, some dog.”
 “Some dog, Henley, no mistake.”
“Can you stick close?”
“Bet you!” said Nick, as both plunged on after the hound. “You can’t go
too fast for me.”
“Sing out if I do.”
“I’ll hang on, all right. Want me to carry your gun?”
“Not much!” growled Henley. “I’m used to this ’ere business.”
“Gordon evidently went round the pond, instead of back to the
crossroad.”
“That’s so. He most likely was heading for the other road.”
“It looks so, for fair.”
“Ginger’ll trail him. Leave it to Ginger.”
The hound was plunging on all the while, with his muzzle to the ground,
and was shaping a course through the woods and around the south side of the
pond.
“Plainly enough, whoever planted this evidence wore the shoes Gordon
had been wearing,” thought Nick, tramping rapidly on behind Henley.
“That’s evidence enough, too, that he now is in the hands of this rascal’s
confederates. It would be like Mortimer Deland not to overlook a point as
essential as that. Where will the trail end? That’s the question.”
It then was, in fact, almost the only important question in Nick Carter’s
mind. He felt that he had a correct answer for all of the others. He was not
left long in uncertainty, however, for the trail was not a very long one.
Ten minutes brought them to a narrow road on the south side of the pond,
though a quarter mile from it, and the hound started off to the left without a
moment’s hesitation.
Another eighth of a mile brought them to what evidently was an
extensive private estate. There were low walls through the woods, and away
off to the right could be seen at intervals, when the trees and foliage did not
hide them, the white stones and monuments of a distant cemetery.
“Whose place is this, Henley?” Nick inquired, while both scrambled over
a low wall over which the hound had leaped. “Do you know who owns this
estate?”
“Sure I know,” growled Henley, over his shoulder. “I know every place in
these parts.”
 “Whose is it?”
“It’s owned by a man named Barker, Colonel Morgan Barker, but he’s in
Europe with his family. The house hasn’t been open for a year.”
Nick remembered the man and the place, also the Barker tomb, in which
Mortimer Deland had temporarily concealed the art treasures stolen from
Rudolph Strickland’s flat in Fifth Avenue, and from which gruesome
confinement Nick had rescued Patsy Garvan on the night of the round-up.
No additional evidence was needed to convince him that he had hit the
nail on the head, that Pauline Perrot and Mortimer Deland were one and the
same, and that this notorious European crook was back of the knavery then
in progress.
“It’s dollars to doughnuts, now, that the rascal has taken secret possession
of Barker’s unoccupied house,” Nick said to himself. “It’s the old Barker
homestead, and sufficiently isolated to serve Deland admirably for such a
job. He knew all about it, too, and that he would ordinarily be safe from
intruders. I’ll butt in on him, now, in a way he’ll not fancy.”
The last scarce had crossed Nick’s mind when they emerged into the
cleared land back of the large old country house, stable, and outbuildings.
Ginger was still tugging on the leash and leading the way between the
buildings and toward the rear of the fine old dwelling.
Not a word now came from Henley.
Nick glanced sharply at the house while they approached it. Shutters
protected all of the lower windows. The curtains at those on the upper floors
were closely drawn. The surrounding grounds, an eighth of a mile from the
nearest road, shut in by the trees of an extensive park, were entirely deserted
and running to rank grass and weeds.
When within ten yards of the rear door, toward which the hound was
heading, Nick said abruptly:
“Stop a moment, Henley. If our man is here——”
“He’s here, Carter, all right,” Henley cut in gruffly.
He swung round while he spoke and dropped the leash, then threw his
shotgun into the hollow of his arm, instantly covering the detective.
“He’s here, Carter,” he added, with sinister significance. “Don’t you
reach for a gun. Don’t move, blast you, or I’ll pepper you so with buckshot
that you’ll look like a sieve.”
 CHAPTER VIII.

FACE TO FACE.

Nick Carter’s feelings upon seeing the sudden display of animosity by

Pete Henley were not manifest in his face. He gazed at the swarthy ruffian
with hardly a change of countenance, apparently indifferent to the double-
barreled gun with which he was covered.
“What’s the joke, Henley?” he asked coolly.
The ruffian had murder in his eyes, and looked as black and threatening
as a thundercloud.
“You’re the joke, Carter, if there’s any joke to it,” he replied, with a snarl.
“You’ve barked up the wrong tree and tackled the wrong bunch. Stick up
your hands, and be quick about it.”
“Certainly, Henley, since you insist so politely,” Nick rejoined, raising his
hands as high as his head.
“Keep them there, now.”
“But you might answer my question, at least, and explain this sudden
change of attitude on your part.”
“You’ll know soon enough,” was the reply, followed by a short, sharp
whistle.
Ginger did not respond to it. He had disappeared around a corner of the
house.
Instead, the back door was quickly opened and two roughly clad men
appeared on the threshold, both still under thirty. One of them instantly
darted back through the hall, and Nick heard him shout to another in one of
the adjoining rooms.
Henley, meantime, growled harshly, with his evil eyes constantly on the
detective:
“Come out here, Foster, and get behind the dick. Feel under his coat and
get his guns. Kneel down while doing it, so I’ll not hit you. I’ll plug him, all
right, if he moves a finger.”
“There will be no occasion, Henley, you rat,” Nick now said sternly. “I
value a whole skin too highly to take any chance against that blunderbuss in
such hands as yours. I see, now, that you have served me a scurvy trick. Go
as far as you like.”
“You don’t need to tell me that,” snapped Henley. “I’m on the way. Got
’em, Bill?”
“Both of ’em, Jim,” returned Foster, who had hurriedly disarmed the
detective and was threatening him with his two weapons. “Who is he?”
“Nick Carter.”
“Thunder! Where did you run up against him? If he——”
“You’re to bring him in, Jim,” cut in the man who had briefly vanished,
and now returned to the open door. “His jags says——”
“Is he out here, Brigham?” Henley interrupted, with countenance
clearing.
“Sure. Been here ten minutes.”
“That’s more like it,” cried Henley. “He can now take the ribbons. Get a
move on, Carter, and—stop a bit!”
Nick halted.
“Feel again, Foster, and fish out his irons. Snap them on his own wrists,
hands behind him, as he will on ours if he gets a chance.”
“You’ve told the truth once, Henley, at least,” Nick put in dryly.
“But you’ll never get the chance,” Henley retorted. “Dukes down and
behind you, Carter, or I’ll pull the trigger.”
“Don’t trouble yourself,” said Nick, obeying. “Point the gun another way.
It might go off by chance.”
Henley heard the snap of handcuffs around Nick’s wrists and saw Foster
straighten up after having secured him, and he then lowered the shotgun and
grinned maliciously.
“You thought you were the real thing, didn’t you, Carter?” he demanded.
“Get a move on and I’ll show you what you’re up against and where you
stand.”
“I can guess.”
“Into the shack, and no funny business, mind you, or you’ll hear
something drop, if you live until you hit the floor. Lead the way, Brigham.
Where’s his jags?”
“In the dining room, Jim.”
 “Head that way. Plug along, Carter, where he leads.”
Nick felt the prod of the ruffian’s gun in the small of his back, but he had
no intention of offering any objection. He followed Brigham into the house,
a stocky, ill-favored fellow with fiery-red hair, and in another moment he
heard the door closed and locked behind him.
The hall was dim when the sunlight was thus excluded. It ran straight
through the spacious old colonial house to the front door. A broad, but
angular stairway led up to the second floor. There was a damp and musty
smell in the long-closed dwelling, and the rooms on each side of the broad
hall looked dusty, gloomy, and deserted.
The exception, in the last respect, was the large dining room into which
the detective was conducted by the three crooks.
That room contained only one occupant, however; the man in search of
whom Chick Carter had left the Gordon residence more than an hour before
—Mr. Edgar Hereford Dayton.
He was seated in one of the leather upholstered chairs, pushed back from
the polished table. He did not appear disturbed by what had occurred or by
the advent of the detective upon the scene, though he gazed at Nick
curiously when he entered, flecking the ashes from the end of a cigarette.
His overcoat and hat were lying on a chair near the wall, and near it stood
a closed leather suit case.
Nick Carter identified him instantly as Dayton—and somewhat more than
that when he spoke.
Henley was the first to open fire, however, addressing Dayton and saying
gruffly, the moment he entered:
“You’d better clean out that town office, old sport, or fight shy from it
now on. I reckon this dick has sent his right bower to keep an eye on it.
Leastwise, I don’t see where else he would have sent him in such a rush.”
Nick suppressed a smile. It amused him to find that Henley was a bit
more discerning than he had thought him.
Dayton appeared unmoved by Henley’s announcement and advice. He
glanced at the suit case mentioned, then responded with a curious mingling
of coolness and assurance that Nick was quick to remember:
“He is welcome, Henley, to inspect that office. It already is cleaned out of
all that would interest him. Suppose, instead of giving me needless advice,
you tell me just what this meddlesome fellow is after, and what he has been
doing.”
“By Jove, I’m not mistaken,” was the thought then in Nick’s mind. “This
rascal has even more strings to his bow than I suspected.”
“That’s quickly told——” Henley began to reply.
“But better told first hand,” Nick cut in curtly, with his gaze intently fixed
on the man he addressed. “I’ll give you the information you want. I’ll tell
you what I’m after and what I’ve been doing.”
“Ah!” Dayton spoke with an icy drawl. “Better first hand, indeed, as you
say. I do not yet place you, however, nor——”
“Oh, a truce to subterfuge,” Nick again interrupted curtly.
“Subterfuge?”
“You know me perfectly well—but not better than I know you.”
“Indeed?”
“You place me, all right, as I sooner or later will again place you where
you belong.” Nick went on sternly, disregarding the other’s queries. “A wig,
a beard, a reverse curve of the eyebrows, a more florid skin, an altered voice
—it takes more than those to blind me, though you might get by others. Fly
your true colors, Mr. Mortimer Deland, and I’ll tell you what I am after and
what I’ve been doing.”
“Ah! That is a great inducement, so great that I find myself utterly unable
to resist it.”
Deland replied with unruffled composure. He drew up a little in his chair,
gazed steadily at the detective for a moment, then raised his slender white
hands to his head, deftly removing the exceedingly artistic disguise which
Nick alone had been able to penetrate, and which had fairly transfigured the
mobile, sinister, clean-cut, yet strangely effeminate features of—Mortimer
Deland.
Jim Henley and the two frowning crooks near by evinced no surprise nor
made any comments. That Deland was the master, and they merely hirelings,
was perfectly apparent to the detective.
It appeared obvious, too, that Chick Carter must have arrived too late to
have picked up the supposed Dayton before he left his office—a mischance
that would seem to have badly aggravated the present desperate situation of
the detective.
 Deland appeared to think so, too, for he smiled with vicious complacency
while he tossed his disguise upon the table, saying with the same frigid voice
and insolent assurance which was so characteristic of him that they had at
once betrayed him to the detective:
“Now, having met you halfway, Carter, and complied with the stipulation
you imposed, it is up to you to perform your part of the brief verbal contract.
Sit down, if you prefer; there are plenty of chairs. I regret that I cannot
release you, but that would be injudicious for obvious reasons. Tell me, now,
as you promised, what are you after and what have you been doing, that my
good friend Henley has rounded you up in this fashion?”
 CHAPTER IX.

THE ACME OF KNAVERY.

Nick Carter ignored Mortimer Deland’s mocking suavity, the miscreant’s

manifest air of superiority and contempt. He sat down directly opposite the
notorious crook, replying sternly:
“That may be quickly told, Deland, and I’m right here to tell it.”
“I am listening.”
“You wish to know what I am after. I am after a rascal who has been
playing a very extraordinary game, so extraordinary that he might have won
out and accomplished his evil designs—if I had not butted into the game to
thwart it.”
“Ah!” drawled Deland. “That makes it very unfortunate for him—but
doubly unfortunate for you, perhaps.”
“That last word is well added.”
“Indeed?”
“You will agree with me later.”
“I seldom agree with men of your vocation,” said Deland, smiling
ironically. “Be good enough to explain, Mr. Carter. I do not quite get you.
For whom are you seeking?”
“For Pauline Perrot—said to have been murdered by Arthur Gordon,”
Nick replied curtly.
“Dear me, is that so?” smiled Deland, with eyes narrowing. “I remember
Gordon. It was he who started you on my track several months ago, with
very disastrous results. I would not grieve deeply, Carter, if evil did befall
Mr. Arthur Gordon.”
“I am very well aware of that, Deland,” Nick said dryly. “Your assurance
of it is entirely unnecessary.”
“Pauline Perrot, eh?” queried Deland, unruffled. “Said to have been
murdered. She is Gordon’s stenographer, I believe. I think I have seen her
coming from his business office. Murdered, eh? What are the circumstances,
Carter? Have you succeeded in finding her—or what is left of her?”
“Yes,” Nick said shortly.
 “Dear me, is that so?”
Deland did not, in fact, then suppose it was so, Henley being the only one
of the four crooks then informed of what the detective had discovered.
“I not only have found all that is left of her, but also all that she left
behind her,” Nick pointedly added.
Deland’s eyes took on a sharper gleam and glitter, his thin lips a more
sinister and threatening curve. The tinge of color in his cheeks waned
perceptibly. His long, slender fingers closed involuntarily, until their
carefully manicured nails bit into his palms. He laughed, nevertheless, in a
cold and mirthless fashion, while he echoed inquiringly:
“All that she left behind her?”
“Exactly,” said Nick.
“You mean——”
“The garments she left in the home of Mrs. Lord, with whom she has
been boarding.”
“You have been there?”
Deland’s brows knit closer and fell to a settled frown over his steadily
dilating eyes.
“How else could I have found the garments?” Nick demanded. “Yes, I
have been there and——”
“And that’s not the only place he’s been to, nor all he——”
“One moment, Henley,” Deland coldly interrupted. “I will hear you
presently. Permit Mr. Carter to have his say. What more, Carter; what
more?”
“Oh, there is a good deal more, Deland, if I chose to tell you all of my
discoveries and deductions,” Nick now said, more sternly.
“Ah, indeed?”
“So much, Deland, that it would reveal in every detail the knavish game
you have been playing,” Nick went on forcibly. “But you have overplayed
yourself, over-estimated the value of your cards.”
“My cards?”
“Have you not learned in all the years you have lived in vice and crime
that three kings, well played, will invariably beat three knaves?”
“See here, Carter——”
 “Oh, you wanted me to have my say,” Nick went on sternly, interrupting.
“The three kings you have been up against, Deland, are Patsy Garvan, Chick
Carter, and myself—three kings in the detective deck. You, Deland, are
single-handed the three knaves—yourself, the man Dayton, and the
supposed murdered girl, Pauline Perrot. Three knaves, Deland, never beat
three kings.”
“You say—you say that I am Pauline Perrot?” gasped Deland, with his
wonderful nerve shaken for the first time.
“I not only say so, but I can also prove it,” cried Nick. “I say, too, that
you now have Arthur Gordon confined in this house, and that you and these
three rascals——”
“Stop!” Deland leaped to his feet. “I have heard enough from you, Carter.
Keep an eye on him, Foster, with a weapon ready. If he utters another word,
or makes an aggressive move, shoot him instantly. This way, Henley, into the
hall. I prefer to hear your story.”
An expression of devilish ferocity now had settled upon his vicious white
face. He strode into the hall, Henley following, and for several minutes the
two remained there in a whispered discussion.
Nick Carter waited with apparent indifference.
“There soon will be something doing, I imagine,” he said to himself. “I
wonder whether Chick arrived in time to pick up his quarry. That now
appears very improbable. Fortunately, however, I have another string to my
bow, one that Henley does not even suspect. The odds are considerable, but
—ah, well, I have never known him to fail to make good.”
There was a still more vicious look on Deland’s face when he returned
with Henley. It was like that which it had worn when, having caught Patsy
Garvan as he now had cornered Nick, he left him to die in the Barker tomb.
He came and stood directly in front of Nick, gazing down at him and
saying, with icy severity:
“Henley has made it perfectly plain to me. There is no occasion for you to
say more.”
“Very well,” Nick returned indifferently.
“You are very clever, Carter, very clever,” Deland went on. “I have never
in Europe encountered an inspector who compared at all with you. You are
so dangerous, Carter, that the world is too small for both of us.”
 “Why don’t you move out?” Nick coolly inquired.
“You have exposed my game, indeed, and thwarted part of it,” Deland
went on, as if there had been no interruption. “But I have, at least, the money
and bonds stolen from Gordon’s vault. They are in yonder suit case.”
“Thanks for the information,” Nick again put in. “It will save me from
searching for them.”
“I also have Gordon, here, as you have inferred,” continued Deland icily.
“And, best of all—I have you!”
“I would be foolish to deny it,” Nick dryly allowed.
“And here, Carter, before we bolt for parts unknown, is where I shall get
even with you and with him, where I will forever wipe you out of my path.
Gordon is bound hand and foot in a room on the top floor.”
“Thanks again, Deland.”
“I will send you both to the devil.”
“By what route, pray?”
“In a chariot of fire!” cried Deland, with a sudden outburst of ferocity.
“Well, well, that will beat walking,” Nick declared, not in the least
daunted by the significance of the miscreant’s threat.
Deland swung around to Foster and Gribham, who had stood listening
with stoical indifference to the foregoing colloquy.
“Go and get him, you two,” he fiercely commanded. “Bring Gordon
down here. We will wipe them out together. We will leave no evidence here
to tell the story. We will bind both, lock them in the library closet, and then
fire the house.”
“That’s the stuff!” Henley said, with a growl. “It will burn like tinder.
That will finish them.”
“Get Gordon—get Gordon!” Deland fairly shrieked. “Bring him to the
library. We can be out of here with our plunder, with the deed done, in less
than a dozen minutes. Go and get Gordon. Bring Carter after me, Henley.
Bring him into the library. I’ll do it—I long to do it! It shall be my hand that
starts the flames!”
In another moment all of them, Nick Carter included, were striding into
the dimly lighted hall.
 CHAPTER X.

THE OTHER STRINGS.

Patsy Garvan did not ride far with Danny Maloney after their parting
from Nick Carter and Henley. Glancing back over his shoulder, Patsy waited
only until they had rounded the curve in the road, when he called quickly:
“Slow down, Danny, and drop me. We’re out of sight.”
Danny obeyed at once, saying regretfully:
“Gee! I wish I was going with you. I might be needed.”
“One is better than two,” Patsy replied, leaping down to the road.
“There’s only half the risk of being seen. I can fill the bill, all right, single-
handed.”
“So long, then, and good luck.”
“Same to you.”
Danny sped on with the car.
Patsy Garvan, however, plunged into the woods, at once shaping a course
that would bring him in sight of the crossroad through which Nick and
Henley were to pass.
It was to enable Patsy to make this detour that Nick repeatedly stopped on
the road, pretending he wanted to find footprints left by the missing couple.
Patsy accomplished the move with no great difficulty, and entirely
unsuspected by Henley, owing to the artful attitude toward him that Nick had
assumed.
Patsy saw them pass along the road; in fact, saw them on the edge of the
pond, and then he followed them at a discreet distance until, from behind
one of the outbuildings, he saw Nick held up by Henley and afterward taken
into the house.
“Gee! that does settle it,” he said to himself. “I must know who is there
and what’s going to come off, but it won’t do for me to approach the house
from this side. Those rats are in the rear rooms, or a side one, or they could
not have reached the back door so quickly after Henley whistled. I’ll make a
circuit to the front road and have a look.”
 It took Patsy several minutes to do so, seeking the shelter of a wall over
which he could plainly see the front of the dwelling, and he then met with an
agreeable surprise.
A familiar whistle fell upon his ears, and he turned and discovered Chick
under the same wall.
“Gee whiz!” he exclaimed, when they met. “This is dead lucky, for fair.”
“It’s not all luck, I guess,” Chick replied. “Give the chief the credit for
it.”
“You found your man?”
“I arrived just in time to see him leaving his office.”
“He must be out here, now, since you are here.”
“That’s what,” Chick nodded. “He went round to the back door of the
house about ten minutes ago. I’ve been waiting and watching till I could get
a line on what’s going on in there.”
“Gee! I can supply that line, all right,” chuckled Patsy.
“Cut loose, then,” said Chick.
Patsy informed him with very few words what had occurred, and the
subterfuge Nick had employed.
“It now is up to us, Chick,” he added. “The gang we want is in that house,
and probably Arthur Gordon. We must go in and get them. There’s nothing
else to it.”
“Only one thing,” corrected Chick, who again was sizing up the house.
“What’s that?”
“The way to get in, Patsy, so as to catch them hands down. It’s a hundred
to one that they are on the ground floor, also in one of the rear rooms, as you
have said.”
“It’s a safe gamble, Chick, in my opinion.”
“And I am equally sure that we could not force any of the lower windows
without being heard. We can take a chance and approach the front of the
house, and by climbing that trellis at the east end of the veranda, we can
reach the veranda roof and three of the second-floor windows.”
“Like breaking sticks,” nodded Patsy approvingly. “It’s dollars to
doughnuts that we then can quietly force one of the windows.”
“I think so, too.”