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Flight Mechanics Modeling
and Analysis
Flight Mechanics Modeling and Analysis comprehensively covers flight mechanics
and flight dynamics using a systems approach.
This book focuses on applied mathematics and control theory in its discussion of
flight mechanics to build a strong foundation for solving design and control prob-
lems in the areas of flight simulation and flight data analysis. The second edition has
been expanded to include two new chapters and coverage of aeroservoelastic topics
and engineering mechanics, presenting more concepts of flight control and aircraft
parameter estimation.
This book is intended for senior undergraduate aerospace students taking Aircraft
Mechanics, Flight Dynamics & Controls, and Flight Mechanics courses. It will also be
of interest to research students and R&D project-scientists of the same disciplines.
Including end-of-chapter exercises and illustrative examples with a MATLAB®-
based approach, this book also includes a Solutions Manual and Figure Slides for
adopting instructors.
Features:
• Covers flight mechanics, flight simulation, flight testing, flight control, and
aeroservoelasticity.
• Features artificial neural network- and fuzzy logic-based aspects in modeling
and analysis of flight mechanics systems: aircraft parameter e stimation and
reconfiguration of control.
• Focuses on a systems-based approach.
• Includes two new chapters, numerical simulation examples with MATLAB®-
based implementations, and end-of-chapter exercises.
• Includes a Solutions Manual and Figure Slides for adopting instructors.
Flight Mechanics Modeling
and Analysis
Second Edition
Jitendra R. Raol
Jatinder Singh
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discus-
sion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by
The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Second edition published 2023

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Jitendra R. Raol and Jatinder Singh
First edition published by CRC Press 2008

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and
apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright
material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, trans-
mitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact
the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works
that are not available on CCC please contact m
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used
only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Raol, J. R. (Jitendra R.), 1947- author. | Singh, Jatinder, 1964- author.
Title: Flight mechanics modeling and analysis / Jitendra R. Raol, Jatinder Singh.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2023] |
Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2022038871 (print) | LCCN 2022038872 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032276090 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032276106 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003293514 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Flight control–Simulation methods. | Aerodynamics–Mathematics. |
Airplanes–Control systems–Mathematical models.
Classification: LCC TL589.4 .R36 2023 (print) | LCC TL589.4 (ebook) |
DDC 629.132/3011–dc23/eng/20221018
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022038871
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022038872
ISBN: 9781032276090 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781032276106 (pbk)
ISBN: 9781003293514 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003293514
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032276090

This edition is dedicated
to Dr. S. Balakrishna
who had pioneered the activity in the late 60’s in the country,
and for his immense contributions to mainly the experimental
(as well as theoretical) flight mechanics and control, one of the
most thriving, formidable and difficult disciplines in India;
And
in loving memory to
Dr. S. Srinathkumar
who dedicated his life time in pursuit of flight control,
and was a main architect for the LCA Control Laws.
Contents
Preface.....................................................................................................................xix
Acknowledgements..................................................................................................xxi
Authors.................................................................................................................. xxiii
Introduction�� 1
I.1 Modeling�� 2
I.2 Flight Simulation�� 3
I.3 Flight Control�� 4
I.4 Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) in Control�� 4
I.5 Fuzzy Logic-Based Control�� 5
I.6 Evaluation of Aircraft Control-Pilot Interactions�� 6
I.7 Chapter Highlights�� 8
References�� 10
Chapter 1 Aerodynamic Principles and Fundamentals��13

Aerodynamic Concepts and Relationships��13
1.1
1.1.1 Air Pressure��13
1.1.2 Air Density��14
1.1.3 Air Temperature��15
1.1.4 Altitudes��15
1.1.5 Airspeeds-IAS, CAS, EAS, TAS��16
1.1.6 Bernoulli’s Continuity Equations��18
1.1.7 Mach Number�� 20
1.1.8 Reynold’s Number�� 20
1.1.9 Viscosity��21
Aircraft Force Parameters��21
1.2
1.2.1 Lift��21
1.2.2 Weight�� 23
1.2.3 Thrust�� 23
1.2.4 Drag�� 23
1.2.5 Load Factor�� 25
1.2.6 Drag Polars�� 25
Aerodynamic Derivatives – Preliminary Determination�� 25
1.3
Aircraft Propulsion and Its Performance�� 26
1.4
Aircraft Sensors-Instrumentation Systems�� 27
1.5
1.5.1 Air-Data Instruments�� 27
1.5.2 Pressure Altimeter�� 28
1.5.3 Air Speed Indicator�� 28
1.5.4 Mach Meter�� 28
1.5.5 Vertical Speed Indicator�� 28
1.5.6 Accelerometers�� 29
vii
viii Contents
1.6 Energy Awareness, Convergence, and Management�� 29

1.7 Angle of Attack Awareness and Management�� 29
Appendix 1A Airflow�� 30
1A.1 Boundary Layer��31
Appendix 1B Aircraft Engines�� 31
1B.1 Engine Thrust Computations��32
1B.2 For Turbojet-Type Engine��33
Epilogue�� 33
References�� 33
Chapter 2 Engineering Dynamics........................................................................ 35

2.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 35
2.2 K inematics................................................................................ 36
2.2.1 Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates............................ 36
2.2.2 Curvilinear Coordinates.............................................. 37
2.3 Relative Motion........................................................................ 38
2.3.1 Displacement and Time Derivatives........................... 38
2.3.2 Angular Velocity and Acceleration............................. 42
2.3.3 Velocity and Acceleration Using a Moving
Reference Frame��43
2.4 K inematics of Constraint Rigid Bodies....................................44
2.4.1 General Equations.......................................................44
2.4.2 Eulerian Angles........................................................... 45
2.5 Inertial Effects..........................................................................46
2.5.1 Linear and Angular Momentum.................................46
2.5.2 Inertial Properties........................................................ 50
2.5.3 Rate of Change of Angular Momentum...................... 51
2.6 Newton–Euler Equations of Motion......................................... 51
2.6.1 Fundamental Equations and Planar Motion................ 51
2.6.2 N-E Equations for a System........................................ 53
2.6.3 Principles of Momentum and Energy......................... 54
2.7 Analytics Mechanics................................................................ 55
2.7.1 Generalized Coordinates and Kinematical
Constraints��55
2.7.2 Virtual Displacements................................................. 56
2.7.3 Generalized Forces...................................................... 58
2.7.4 Lagrange’s Equations.................................................. 59
2.8 Constraint Generalized Coordinates........................................ 61
2.9 Alternative Formulations.......................................................... 62
2.9.1 Hamilton’s Principle.................................................... 62
2.9.2 Generalized Momentum Principles............................64
2.10 Gyroscopic Effects...................................................................66
2.10.1 Free Motion of Axisymmetric Body...........................66
Epilogue.............................................................................................. 69
Exercises.............................................................................................. 69
References........................................................................................... 69
Contents ix
Chapter 3 Equations of Motion............................................................................ 71

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 71
3.2 Rigid Body Equations of Motion (EOM)................................. 72
3.3 Resolution of Inertial Forces and Moments............................. 78
3.4 Resolution of Aerodynamic, Gravity, and Thrust Forces.........80
3.5 Complete Sets of EOM............................................................. 86
3.5.1 Rectangular Form........................................................ 86
3.5.2 Polar Form................................................................... 87
3.6 Missile Dynamic Equations.....................................................90
3.7 Rotorcraft Dynamics................................................................ 91
3.7.1 Momentum Theory.....................................................92
3.7.2 Blade-Element Theory................................................ 93
3.7.3 Rotorcraft Modeling Formulations.............................94
3.7.4 Limitations of Rigid Body Model............................... 95
Appendix 3A Aircraft Geometry and Coordinate Systems...............96
3A.1 Aircraft Axis and Notations........................................97
3A.2 Axes-Coordinates Transformations and Quaternions..... 97
3A.3 Transformation from Body to Earth Axis...................99
3A.4 Transformation from Stability Axis to Body Axis.....99
3A.5 Transformation from Stability Axis to Wind Axis (w).......100
3A.6 Transformation from Body Axis to Wind Axis........ 100
Appendix 3B Helicopter Aerodynamics.......................................... 100
Appendix 3C Types of Helicopters and Controls............................ 102
3C.1 Rotor Systems............................................................ 102
3C.1.1 Fully Articulated Rotor............................. 102
3C.1.2 Semi-Rigid/Teetering Rotor and
Rigid Rotor................................................ 102
3C.2 Helicopter Controls................................................... 103
Epilogue............................................................................................ 104
Exercises............................................................................................ 104
References......................................................................................... 105
Chapter 4 Aerodynamic Derivatives.................................................................. 107

4.1
Introduction............................................................................ 107
4.2
Basic Aerodynamic Forces and Moments.............................. 108
4.3
Aerodynamic Parameters....................................................... 110
4.3.1 Definition of Aerodynamic Derivatives.................... 111
4.3.2 Longitudinal Derivatives........................................... 113
4.3.2.1 Effect of Forward/Axial Speed u along
the X-Axis: (Xu, Zu, Mu)��113
4.3.2.2 Effect of Change in Vertical Speed w
(Equivalently AOA) along the Vertical
Z-Axis (Xw, Zw, Mw)�� 117
4.3.2.3 Effect of Change in Pitch Rate q:
(Xq, Zq, Mq)��119
x Contents
4.3.2.4 Effect of Change in Elevator Control

Surface Deflection: (Xδ e , Zδ e , Mδ e )��120
4.3.3 Lateral-Directional Derivatives................................. 126
4.3.3.1 Effect of Change in Side Speed v
(Equivalently the AOSS): (Yv , Lβ , N β )��126
4.3.3.2 Effect of Change in the Time Rate
Change in the Side Velocity (v):
(Yv , Lv , N v )��127
4.3.3.3 Effect of Change in Roll Rate p:
(Yp, Lp, Np)��127
4.3.3.4 Effect of Change in Yaw Rate r:
(Yr, Lr, Nr)��128
4.3.3.5 Effect of Change in Aileron and
Rudder Control Surface Deflection:
(Yδ a , Lδ a , Nδ a , Yδ r , Lδ r , Nδ r )��128
4.3.4 Compound Lateral-Directional Derivatives.............. 131
4.4 Missile Aerodynamic Derivatives.......................................... 132
4.4.1 Longitudinal Derivatives........................................... 133
4.4.2 Lateral-Directional Derivatives................................. 134
4.4.2.1 Roll Derivatives......................................... 134
4.4.2.2 Yaw Derivatives......................................... 134
4.5 Rotorcraft Aerodynamic Derivatives..................................... 135
4.6 Role of Derivatives in Aircraft Design Cycle and Flight
Control Law Development��139
4.7 Aircraft Aerodynamic Models............................................... 141
Appendix 4A Aircraft’s Static and Dynamic Stability..................... 143
4A.1 Neutral and Maneuver Points.......................... 145
Appendix 4B Transformations of Aerodynamic Derivatives........... 146
Appendix 4C Wind Tunnel Experimental Method for
Aerodynamic Coefficients�� 147
Epilogue............................................................................................ 148
Exercises............................................................................................ 148
References......................................................................................... 149
Chapter 5 Mathematical Modeling and Simplification of Equations of Motion......151

5.1 Introduction............................................................................ 151
5.2 Mathematical Model Structures............................................. 155
5.2.1 Transfer Function Models......................................... 156
5.2.1.1 Continuous-Time Model............................ 157
5.2.1.2 Discrete-Time Model................................. 160
5.2.1.3 Delta Form TF........................................... 164
5.2.2 State-Space Models................................................... 165
5.2.2.1 Physical Representation............................. 168
5.2.2.2 Controllable Canonical Form.................... 169
5.2.2.3 Observable Canonical Form...................... 171
Contents xi
5.2.2.4 Diagonal Canonical Form......................... 172

5.2.2.5 A General Model....................................... 173
5.2.3 Time-Series Models.................................................. 174
5.3 Models for Noise and Error Processes................................... 176
5.4 Strategies for Simplification of EOM..................................... 178
5.4.1 Choice of Coordinate Systems.................................. 179
5.4.2 Linearization of Model Equations............................ 180
5.4.3 Simplification Using Measured Data........................ 181
5.5 Longitudinal Models and Modes............................................ 182
5.5.1 Short-Period Mode.................................................... 187
5.5.2 Phugoid...................................................................... 190
5.6 Lateral and Lateral-Directional Models and Modes.............. 195
5.6.1 Dutch Roll Mode....................................................... 198
5.6.2 3DOF Spiral and Roll Subsidence Modes................. 199
5.6.3 Spiral Mode............................................................... 201
5.6.4 Roll Mode..................................................................202
5.7 Missile Aerodynamic Transfer Functions..............................203
5.8 Rotorcraft Linear Modeling...................................................206
5.8.1 Rotor Plus Body Models............................................207
5.8.2 Stability-Derivative Models......................................208
5.8.3 Rotor-Response Decomposition Models...................209
5.8.4 Evaluation/Validation of Linear Flight
Dynamics Models...................................................... 210
5.9 UAV Dynamics....................................................................... 212
5.10 MAV Dynamics...................................................................... 213
5.11 Lighter-than-Air Vehicle/BLIMP Dynamics......................... 213
Appendix 5A Equilibrium, Stability, and Damping........................ 216
Appendix 5B Stalls and Spins......................................................... 217
Epilogue............................................................................................ 217
Exercises............................................................................................ 218
References......................................................................................... 220
Chapter 6 Flight Simulation............................................................................... 223

6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 223
6.2 Aircraft Subsystem Data and Models..................................... 227
6.2.1 Aero Database........................................................... 228
6.2.2 Mass, Inertia, and Center of Gravity Characteristics.... 228
6.2.3 Instrumentation System............................................. 229
6.2.4 Inertial Navigation System - INS.............................. 229
6.2.5 Flight Management System....................................... 229
6.2.6 Actuator Models........................................................ 230
6.2.7 Engine Model............................................................ 232
6.2.8 Landing Gear............................................................ 232
6.2.9 Control Loading and Sound Simulation.................... 233
6.2.10 Motion Cues.............................................................. 234
xii Contents
6.2.11 Turbulence and Gust Models..................................... 235

6.2.12 Sensor Modeling....................................................... 235
6.2.13 Flight Dynamics........................................................ 235
6.3 Steady-State Flight and Trim Conditions............................... 236
6.3.1 The Rate of Climb and Turn Coordination Flights....... 238
6.3.2 Computation of Linear Models for Control
Law Design�� 240
6.4 Six DOF Simulation and Validation....................................... 243
6.4.1 Flight Simulation Model Validation for a Rotorcraft.... 244
6.4.2 Flight Simulation Model Validation Using the
Concept of Coefficient Matching�� 245
6.4.3 Flight Simulation Model Validation Using
Direct Update�� 246
6.5 PC MATLAB- and SIMULINK-Based Simulation............... 249
6.6 Real-Time Desktop Simulator for the Evaluation of
Flying Qualities�� 254
6.6.1 NALSIM Framework................................................ 254
6.6.2 Flying and Handling Quality Evaluation.................. 255
6.6.2.1 Variable Damping and Natural
Frequency Features��255
6.6.2.2 Tracking Tasks........................................... 255
6.7 Hardware-in-the-Loop-Simulation (HILS) for a Mini UAV...... 256
6.7.1 A 6DOF Model for SLYBIRD.................................. 256
6.7.2 Subsystems of the HILS............................................ 257
6.7.2.1 Real-Time Target Machine and
Interference��257
6.7.2.2 Autopilot Hardware................................... 257
6.7.2.3 Ground Control Station............................. 257
6.7.3 Model-Based Design Framework.............................. 258
Epilog�� 258
Exercises............................................................................................ 259
References......................................................................................... 259
Chapter 7 Flight Test Maneuvers and Database Management........................... 261

7.1 Introduction............................................................................ 261
7.2 Planning of Flight Test Maneuvers........................................ 262
7.2.1 Flight Test Evaluation of a Transport Aircraft..........264
7.2.2 Takeoff and Landing Tasks.......................................264
7.2.2.1 Approach and Landing Task......................264
7.2.2.2 Take Off Task............................................266
7.2.3 Other Maneuvers.......................................................266
7.3 Specific Flight Test Data Generation and Analysis Aspects....... 267
7.3.1 Longitudinal Axis Data Generation.......................... 267
7.3.2 Lateral-Directional Data Generation........................ 268
7.4 Quality of Flight Test Maneuvers........................................... 269
Contents xiii
7.5 Input Signals for Exciting Maneuvers.................................... 270

7.5.1 Design Consideration for Input Signals.................... 270
7.5.2 Specific Input Types ................................................. 272
7.6 Specific Maneuvers for Aerodynamic Modeling................... 272
7.6.1 Small-Amplitude Maneuvers.................................... 272
7.6.1.1 Longitudinal Short-period Maneuver........ 272
7.6.1.2 Phugoid Maneuver..................................... 273
7.6.1.3 Thrust Input Maneuver.............................. 273
7.6.1.4 Flaps Input Maneuver................................ 273
7.6.1.5 Lateral-Directional Maneuvers.................. 273
7.6.1.6 Aileron Input Roll Maneuver..................... 276
7.6.1.7 Rudder Input Maneuver............................. 276
7.6.1.8 Dutch Roll Maneuver................................. 276
7.6.1.9 Steady Heading Sideslip Maneuver........... 276
7.6.2 Large-Amplitude Maneuvers....................................280
7.6.3 A Typical Flight Test Exercise..................................280
7.7 Specific Dynamic Maneuvers for Determination of
Drag Polars�� 282
7.7.1 Roller Coaster (Pull-up Pushover) Maneuver........... 282
7.7.2 Slowdown Maneuver.................................................284
7.7.3 Acceleration and Deceleration Maneuver................. 285
7.7.4 Windup Turn Maneuver............................................ 285
7.8 Specific Maneuvers for Rotorcraft......................................... 285
7.9 Flight Test Database Management......................................... 289
7.9.1 Basic Requirements...................................................290
7.9.2 Selection and Classification of Flight Data............... 290
7.9.2.1 Classification Based on Type of
Maneuvers�� 290
7.9.2.2 Classification Based on Flight Conditions.....291
7.9.2.3 Classification Based on Aircraft
Configuration��291
7.9.3 Data Storage and Organization................................. 291
7.9.4 Flight Test Database in Oracle.................................. 291
7.9.5 Brief Description of a Typical Program.................... 294
7.9.5.1 Transactions............................................... 295
7.9.5.2 Graphs/Reports.......................................... 295
7.9.5.3 User Maintenance...................................... 296
Epilogue............................................................................................ 296
Appendix 7A Aircraft Certification Process and Weight Analysis....... 296
Exercises............................................................................................ 297
References......................................................................................... 298
Chapter 8 Flight Control.................................................................................... 301

8.1 Introduction............................................................................ 301
8.2 Control System: A Dynamic System Concept....................... 301
xiv Contents
8.2.1 Bode Diagrams and Transfer Functions.................... 303

8.2.2 Performance: Order, Type of System, and
Steady-State Error�� 304
8.2.3 Stability Criteria........................................................ 305
8.2.3.1 Static Stability............................................ 305
8.2.3.2 Routh–Hurwitz Criterion........................... 305
8.2.3.3 Nyquist Criterion.......................................306
8.2.3.4 Gain and Phase Margins............................307
8.3 Digital Control System...........................................................308
8.4 Design Compensation for Linear Control System..................309
8.5 Root Locus..............................................................................309
8.6 Aircraft Flight Control........................................................... 310
8.6.1 Requirements of Flight Control................................ 311
8.6.2 Stability and Control Augmentation Strategies......... 314
8.6.3 Performance Requirements and Criteria................... 317
8.6.4 Procedure for the Design and Evaluation of
Control Laws�� 317
8.7 Stability Augmentation Systems............................................ 320
8.7.1 Dampers: Acquisition of Dynamic Stability............. 320
8.7.1.1 Yaw Damper.............................................. 320
8.7.1.2 Pitch Damper............................................. 321
8.7.1.3 Phugoid Damper........................................ 322
8.7.2 Feedback-Acquisition of Static Stability................... 322
8.7.2.1 Feedback of AOA...................................... 322
8.7.2.2 Feedback of Load Factor........................... 322
8.7.2.3 Feedback of Sideslip.................................. 323
8.7.3 Basic Autopilot Systems............................................ 323
8.7.3.1 Longitudinal Autopilots............................. 323
8.7.3.2 Lateral Autopilots...................................... 325
8.7.4 Navigational Autopilot Systems................................ 326
8.7.4.1 Longitudinal Autopilot.............................. 326
8.7.4.2 Lateral Autopilot........................................ 328
8.8 Flight Control Design Examples............................................ 329
8.8.1 Designing a High AOA Pitch Mode Control............. 329
8.8.2 Tuning of a Two-Loop Autopilot............................... 332
8.8.2.1 Model of Airframe Autopilot.................... 332
8.8.2.2 Tuning with Looptune............................... 334
8.8.2.3 Addition of a Tracking Requirement......... 335
8.8.3 DC-8 Aircraft Pitch Attitude Control....................... 337
8.9 Fuzzy Logic Control............................................................... 339
8.10 Fault Management and Reconfiguration Control...................344
8.10.1 Models for Faults....................................................... 347
8.10.2 Aircraft FTR Control System...................................348
8.10.2.1 Sensor Fault Detection Scheme................. 349
8.10.2.2 Actuator Fault Detection Scheme.............. 354
8.10.2.3 Reconfiguration Concept........................... 354
Contents xv
8.10.2.4 Non-Model-Based Approach..................... 357

Appendix 8A Flight Control: The Systems Approach.....................360
Appendix 8B Aspects of Fly-by-Wire Flight Control Design.......... 361
Appendix 8C Missile Control Methods........................................... 362
Epilogue............................................................................................ 362
Exercises............................................................................................ 363
References......................................................................................... 363
Chapter 9 System Identification and Parameter Estimation for Aircraft........... 367

9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 367
9.2 System Identification.............................................................. 369
9.2.1 Time-Series and Regression Model Identification.... 370
9.2.2 Comparison of Several Model Order Criteria........... 372
9.2.3 Transfer Function Models from Real Flight Data..... 375
9.2.4 Expert Systems for System Identification................. 376
9.3 Aircraft Parameter Estimation............................................... 376
9.3.1 Maneuvers, Measurements, and
Mathematical Models................................................ 377
9.3.2 Parameter Estimation Methods................................. 378
9.3.2.1 Equation Error Method.............................. 378
9.3.2.2 Maximum-Likelihood Output Error
Method....................................................... 380
9.3.2.3 Maximum-Likelihood Estimation for
Dynamic System........................................ 381
9.3.2.4 Filtering Methods...................................... 383
9.3.3 Parameter Estimation Approaches for Inherently
Unstable, Augmented Aircraft.................................. 386
9.3.3.1 Stabilized Output Error Methods.............. 387
9.4 Determination of Stability and Control Derivatives from
Flight Data – Case Studies��388
9.4.1 Fighter Aircraft FA1.................................................. 389
9.4.2 Fighter Aircraft FA2................................................. 390
9.4.3 Basic and Modified Transport Aircraft..................... 391
9.4.4 Trainer Aircraft......................................................... 392
9.4.5 Light Canard Research Aircraft................................ 394
9.4.6 Helicopter.................................................................. 395
9.4.7 AGARD Standard Model.......................................... 396
9.4.8 Dynamic Wind Tunnel Experiments......................... 397
9.4.9 Iron Bird Results....................................................... 398
9.5 Approaches for Determination of Drag Polars from
Flight Data��398
9.5.1 Model-Based Approach for Determination of
Drag Polar................................................................. 398
9.5.2 Non-Model-Based Approach for Drag Polar
Determination...........................................................400
xvi Contents
9.6 Analysis of Large-Amplitude Maneuver Data....................... 401

9.7 Global Nonlinear Analytical Modeling..................................402
9.8 Fuzzy Kalman Filter for State Estimation..............................405
9.8.1 Tracking of Maneuvering Target...............................409
9.9 Derivative-Free Kalman Filter for State Estimation.............. 411
Appendix 9A Gaussian Sum Filter for Parameter Estimation......... 418
9A.1 Gaussian Sum-Extended Kalman Filter.................... 418
9A.1.1 Time Propagation Evolution...................... 419
9A.1.2 Measurement Data Update........................ 419
9A.2 Gaussian Sum Filter with Pruning............................ 420
9A.3 Lyapunov Stability Analysis of GSF via Observer.........421
9A.4 Aircraft Parameter Estimation.................................. 426
Appendix 9B Gaussian Sum Information Filter for Parameter
Estimation�� 429
9B.1 Gaussian Sum-Extended Information Filter............. 429
9B.1.1 Time Propagation Evolution...................... 430
9B.1.2 Measurement Data Update........................ 430
9B.2 Aircraft Parameter Estimation.................................. 431
Appendix 9C APE Using ANNs...................................................... 432
9C.1 APE with Feed-forward Neural Networks................ 432
9C.2 APE with Recurrent Neural Networks...................... 434
Epilogue............................................................................................ 436
Exercises............................................................................................ 436
References......................................................................................... 439
Chapter 10 Aircraft Handling Qualities Analysis............................................... 441

10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 441
10.2 Pilot Opinion Rating............................................................... 441
10.3 Human Operator Modeling.................................................... 442
10.3.1 Motion Plus Visual and Only Visual Cue
Experiments.............................................................. 443
10.4 Handling Qualities Criteria....................................................446
10.4.1 Longitudinal HQ Criteria.......................................... 447
10.4.1.1 LOTF (Lower-Order Equivalent TF)........ 447
10.4.1.2 CAP-Control Anticipation Parameter........448
10.4.1.3 Bandwidth Criterion..................................449
10.4.1.4 Neal-Smith Criterion.................................449
10.4.1.5 Closed-Loop Criterion............................... 450
10.4.1.6 Pitch Rate Response.................................. 450
10.4.1.7 C* (C-star) Criterion.................................. 451
10.4.1.8 Gibson’s Criterion...................................... 451
10.4.2 Lateral-Directional HQ Criteria................................ 452
10.4.2.1 LOTF (Lower-Order Equivalent TF)........ 452
10.4.2.2 Role Angle/Side Slip Mode Ratio.............. 452
10.4.2.3 Lateral/Directional Modes........................ 452
10.4.2.4 Roll Rate and Bank Angle Oscillations..... 453
Contents xvii
10.4.2.5 Roll Performance....................................... 454

10.4.2.6 Sideslip Excursions.................................... 454
10.5 Evaluation of HQ Criteria....................................................... 455
10.5.1 HQ for Large Transport Aircraft (LTA).................... 455
10.5.2 Rotorcraft Handling Qualities................................... 456
10.5.3 Handling Qualities Analysis Tool (HAT)................. 458
10.5.3.1 HLSR-Pitch Axis Response (PAR)
Criteria��458
10.5.3.2 HLSR-Roll Axis Response (RAR)
Criteria�� 460
10.5.3.3 HLSR-Yaw Axis Response (YAR)
Criteria�� 460
10.5.3.4 HLSR-Heave Axis Response (HAR)
Criteria�� 460
10.6 HQ Aspects for UAVs............................................................. 461
10.7 Pilot-Aircraft Interactions...................................................... 462
10.7.1 Longitudinal PIO Criteria......................................... 463
10.7.1.1 Ralph Smith Criterion................................ 463
10.7.1.2 Smith-Geddes Criterion............................. 463
10.7.1.3 Phase Rate Criterion.................................. 463
10.7.1.4 Loop Separation Parameter.......................464
10.7.1.5 N-S Time Domain Criterion......................464
10.7.1.6 Bandwidth PIO Criterion...........................464
10.7.1.7 Lateral PIO Criteria...................................464
10.7.1.8 Ralph-Smith...............................................464
10.7.1.9 Phase Rate..................................................464
10.8 Model Order Reduction for Evaluations of HQ......................465
Epilogue............................................................................................466
Exercises............................................................................................ 467
References......................................................................................... 467
Chapter 11 Aeroservoelastic Concepts................................................................ 471

Introduction............................................................................ 471
11.1
11.1.1 Modeling Procedures................................................ 471
11.1.1.1 Minimum State for Approximating
Unsteady Aerodynamics��471
11.1.1.2 Unsteady Aerodynamic Corrections
Factor Methodology��471
11.1.2 Analysis Methods��472
11.1.2.1 Matched Filter Theory (MFT)��472
11.1.3 Synthesis Methodology��472
11.1.3.1 Integrated Structure Control Law
Design Methodology��472
11.1.3.2 Design Using Constrained Optimization
with Singular Value Constraints�� 472
11.1.4 Validation of Methods through Experimentation..... 473
xviii Contents
11.2 Flight Dynamics of a Flexible Aircraft.................................. 473

11.2.1 ASE Formulation....................................................... 473
11.2.1.1 K inetic Energy........................................... 473
11.2.1.2 Potential Energy........................................ 476
11.2.1.3 Generalized Forces and Moments............. 476
11.2.1.4 Equations for Elastic Airplane.................. 477
11.3 Parameter Estimation for Flexible Aircraft............................ 478
11.3.1 Flexible Aircraft Model............................................ 479
11.3.1.1 Structural Deformation Model.................. 479
11.3.1.2 Extended Aerodynamic Model.................. 479
11.3.2 Estimation of Modeling Variables............................ 481
11.3.2.1 Estimating Modal Displacements.............. 481
11.3.2.2 Estimating Modal Rates............................ 482
11.3.2.3 Estimating Airflow Angles........................ 482
11.3.2.4 Estimating Modal Accelerations............... 483
11.3.2.5 Kalman Filtering to Improve the
Modal State Estimation�� 483
11.3.2.6 Practical Aspects....................................... 483
11.4 X-56A Aircraft and Flight Tests.............................................484
11.4.1 Aircraft......................................................................484
11.4.2 Instrumentation.........................................................484
11.4.3 Flight Testing.............................................................484
11.4.4 Flight Test Results.....................................................484
Epilogue............................................................................................ 486
Exercises............................................................................................ 487
References......................................................................................... 487
Appendix A: Atmospheric Disturbance Models................................................ 489
Appendix B: Artificial Neural Network-Based Modeling................................. 493
Appendix C: Fuzzy Logic-Based Modeling........................................................507
Appendix D: Statistics and Probability.............................................................. 515
Appendix E: Signal and Systems Concepts........................................................ 523
Bibliography.......................................................................................................... 533
Index....................................................................................................................... 535
Preface
Today the subject of Flight Mechanics: Modeling and Analysis assumes greater impor-
tance in design, development, analysis, and evaluation via flight tests, of aerospace
vehicles, especially in fly-by-wire (FBW) aircraft development programs. Study of flight
mechanics is important because the understanding of flight dynamics of aerospace vehi-
cles presupposes good understanding of flight mechanics. This study is undertaken via
control theoretic-systems approach without undermining the importance of the related
aerodynamics that inherently provides the basis of flight mechanics modeling and analy-
sis; this approach and related methods provide natural synergy with flight mechanics
applications to design and development of flight control laws, flight simulation, aircraft
system identification, aircraft parameter estimation, and handling qualities evaluation for
a piloted vehicle. Interestingly, several such aspects also apply to unmanned (uninhibited)
aerial vehicles (UAVs), micro air vehicles (MAVs), and rotorcrafts. Collectively, all the
foregoing topics are generally studied and researched under the banner of flight dynam-
ics, but we like to use the catchy terminology of flight mechanics and control, and hence,
the flight mechanics modeling and analysis as the name of the present volume, which is a
much-revised version of the previous CRC book by the same name.
In this book, we study some of the foregoing topics and emphasize the use of flight
mechanics-knowledge via modeling and analysis, the latter are the control-systems-
theoretic approaches. We illustrate several concepts and methods of flight mechanics
as applied to system identification, aircraft parameter estimation, flight simulation/con-
trol, and handling qualities evaluations; where appropriate, we use several numerical
simulation examples coded (by the authors in MATLAB, which is the trade mark of
MathWorks Ltd. USA); the user should have an access to PC-based MATLAB soft-
ware and its other toolboxes: signal processing, control system, system identification,
neural networks, fuzzy logic, and aerospace.
This edition is the revised version in the following sense: (i) the aerodynamics prin-
ciples and fundamental are given an enhanced treatment; (ii) a new chapter on engi-
neering dynamics is introduced; (iii) additional material for the chapter on equations of
motion is included; (iv) the transfer function analysis methods is unified with the mate-
rial on mathematical model building, and the additional aspects of stability and con-
trol are presented; (v) flight simulation material is expanded with additional concepts
on desktop simulator and hardware-in-the-loop simulation (HILS); (vi) flight control
chapter is expanded with the basic aspects of (a) control system concepts, (b) stability
augmentation systems, (c) autopilot design, (d) some flight control design examples,
and (e) some additional material on design of flight control; (vii) the aircraft parameter
estimation is expanded with the newer material on nonlinear estimation, and neural
network-based techniques, related examples, and Lyapunov stability analysis; (viii) a
new chapter is introduced on aero-servo-elastic concepts with emphasis on modeling,
design, and parameter estimation; and (ix) in appendixes B and C, the concepts of arti-
ficial neural networks and fuzzy logic that are used for aircraft parameter estimation
and flight control, respectively, are briefly given.
xix
xx Preface
There are several good books on flight mechanics/dynamics but these either do
not approach the subject from systems’ point of view or the treatment of such aspects
as outlined above is somewhat limited or specialized. The systems approach inher-
ently borrows the ideas and concepts from applied mathematics; mathematical model
building, especially based on empirical methods, control theory, and signal/data anal-
ysis methods; also, concepts from linear algebra and matrix computation are greatly
used. Collective study of these concepts – aerodynamics, engineering dynamics, and
control system methods – lends itself to a synergy that can be described in short as
flight mechanics modeling and analysis. The new-generation paradigms of artificial
neural network- and fuzzy logic-based modeling are gradually making their way
into flight dynamic modeling and associated parameter estimation, simulation, and
control technologies; hence, these topics are also integrated in here, perhaps, for the
first time in a book on flight mechanics.
The end users of this integrated technology of Flight Mechanics Modeling and
Analysis will be aero-systems-educational institutions, aerospace R&D laboratories,
aerospace industries, flight test agencies, and transportation/automotive industry.
Interestingly, some other industrial and mechanical engineering centers might be
able to derive a good benefit from certain material of this book.
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:
The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgements
The subject of flight mechanics has been studied for nearly 100 years, in some ways.
The advances in the theory and approaches to understanding of various aspects of
flight mechanics have been of varied nature and types, and several researchers and
engineers all over the world have made contributions to this specialized field, which
has emerged as an independent discipline, from the basic aerodynamics and the
applied mechanics.
We are very grateful to Dr. S. Balakrishna and Dr. S. Srinathkumar (late) who ini-
tiated the research and a number of project activities in flight mechanics and control
in CSIR-NAL six decades ago. Balakrishan built, in-house, the first 3DOF motion-
based simulator in 1976 in NAL for research on human operator modeling, and pro-
posed mathematical models based on time-series approach. The major impetus to
the activity came from the country’s indigenous fighter aircraft and missile develop-
ment programs, which supported the sponsored activities in the areas of modeling
and identification, flight simulation, dynamic wind tunnel-based experiments, and
flight control. Srinathkumar lead the control law team for a decade on the indigenous
fighter aircraft development program of the country, and the light combat aircraft
(LCA) made a successful maiden flight, with the control law designed and synthe-
sized by him and his team, in Bangalore on 4th January 2001, this was a historical
moment for the country. We are hence grateful to several aeronautical and flight-
testing agencies in India and a few overseas (e.g., CALSPAN, USA; DLR, Germany;
and UK, via cooperative exchange programs) that have, in some ways, supported the
research and development in these areas in CSIR-NAL.
We appreciate constant technical support from several colleagues, of the flight
mechanics and control discipline/division, who have greatly, tirelessly, and very ably
furthered the cause of the flight mechanics and control research and application from
the CSIR-NAL’s platform. Certain contributions in the area of flight simulation and
aircraft parameter estimation from: Niranjan, T. (late); Srikanth, K., Thomas, M.,
Pashilkar, A. A., and Madhuranath, P.; Parameswaran, V., Basappa, K., Sudesh, K.
K., Shantakumar, N., and Girija, G.; Mohan Ram V.S.; Sheikh, I.; Singh, G. K.;
Savanur, Shobha; Sara Mohan George, and Selvi, S. S. are gratefully appreciated.
The first author is very grateful to Prof. G. N. V. Rao and Prof. M. R.
Ananthasayanam, Dept. of Aerospace Engg., IISc. (Indian Institute of Science),
Bangalore, for teaching him some basics of flight mechanics; and to Dr. Ranjit. C.
Desai (M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara) and (late) Prof. Naresh Kumar Sinha
(McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada) for teaching him control and system iden-
tification theories. We are also grateful to Kyra Lindholm, Kendall Bartels, and oth-
ers from CRC Press who have been involved in this new project of the revision of this
book for their continual support and attention. The first edition of this book was initi-
ated by one of the great editors of the CRC press Mr. Jonathan Plant in early 2007.
We are as ever, very grateful to our spouses and children for their understanding,
endurance, care, and affection. We are grateful to Mayur, J. Raol, and Mrs. Amina
Khan Mayur for the suggestions of the design of the cover for this new edition.
xxi
Authors
Jitendra R. Raol had received B. E. and M.
E. degrees in electrical engineering from M. S.
University (MSU) of Baroda, Vadodara, in 1971
and 1973, respectively, and Ph.D. (in electrical &
computer engineering) from McMaster University,
Hamilton, Canada, in 1986, and at both the places,
he was also a postgraduate research and teaching
assistant. He had joined the National Aeronautical
Laboratory (NAL) in 1975. At CSIR-NAL, he was
involved in the activities on human pilot modeling
in fix- and motion-based research flight simulators.
He re-joined NAL in 1986 and retired in July 2007
as Scientist-G (and Head, flight mechanics, and
control division at CSIR-NAL).
He had visited Syria, Germany, The United Kingdom, Canada, China, the
United States of America, and South Africa on deputation/fellowships to (i) work
on research problems on system identification, neural networks, parameter estima-
tion, multi-sensor data fusion, and robotics; (ii) present technical papers at interna-
tional conferences; and/or (iii) deliver guest lectures at some of these places. He had
given several guest lectures at many Indian colleges and universities, and Honeywell
(HTSL, Bangalore).
He was a Fellow of the IEE/IET (United Kingdom) and a senior member of the
IEEE (United States). He is a life-fellow of the Aeronautical Society of India and a
life member of the Systems Society of India. During his studies at the MSU, he had
received Suba Rao memorial prize and M. C. Ghia charitable fellowship. In 1976, he
had won K. F. Antia Memorial Prize of the Institution of Engineers (India) for his
research paper on nonlinear filtering. He was awarded a certificate of merit by the
Institution of Engineers (India) for his paper on parameter estimation of unstable
systems. He had received the best poster paper award from the National Conference
on Sensor Technology (New Delhi) for a paper on sensor data fusion. He had also
received a gold medal and a certificate for a paper related to target tracking (from
the Institute of Electronics and Telecommunications Engineers, India). He is also
one of the (5) recipients of the CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
India) prestigious technology shield for the year 2003 for the leadership and contri-
butions to the development of Integrated Flight Mechanics and Control Technology
for Aerospace Vehicles in the country; the shield was associated with a plaque, a
certificate, and a project-grant-prize of INRs. 3,000,000 for the project work. He was
one of the five recipients of the Chellaram Foundation Diabetes Research Award-
2018 for the best paper (presented at the 2nd International Diabetes Summit, March
2018, Pune, India, which carried a prize of 100,000 INRs.). He has received Sir
Thomas Ward memorial prize of the Institution of Engineers (India) in 2019 (jointly)
xxiii
xxiv Authors
for the paper on Image Centroid Tracking with Fuzzy Logic…, and it carried a gold
medal and a certificate. He is featured in the list of the Stanford University (USA) as
one of the top 2% scientists/researchers of the world for the year 2019.
He has published nearly 150 research papers and numerous technical reports. He
had Guest-edited two special issues of Sadhana (an engineering journal published by
the Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore) on (i) advances in modeling, system iden-
tification, and parameter estimation (jointly with Late Prof. Dr. Naresh Kumar Sinha)
and (ii) multi-source, multi-sensor information fusion. He had also Guest-edited two
special issues of the Defense Science Journal (New Delhi, India) on (i) mobile intel-
ligent autonomous systems (jointly with Dr. Ajith K. Gopal, CSIR-SA), and (ii) aero-
space avionics and allied technologies (jointly with Prof. A. Ramachandran, MSRIT).
He has co-authored an IEE/IET (London, UK) Control Series book Modeling
and Parameter Estimation of Dynamic Systems (2004), a CRC Press (Florida, USA)
book Flight Mechanics Modeling and Analysis (2009), a CRC Press book Nonlinear
Filtering: Concepts and Engineering Applications (2017), and a CRC Press book
Control Systems: Classical, Modern, and AI based Approaches (2019). He has also
authored CRC Press books Multi-sensor Data Fusion with MATLAB (2010), and
Data Fusion Mathematics–Theory and Practice (2015). He has edited (with Ajith K.
Gopal) a CRC press book Mobile Intelligent Autonomous Systems (2012).
He has served as a member/chairman of numerous advisory-, technical project review-,
and doctoral examination committees. He has also conducted sponsored research and
worked on several projects from industry as well as other R&D organizations to CSIR-
NAL with substantial budget. Under his technical guidance, eleven doctoral and eight
master research scholars have had received their degrees successfully. He is a reviewer
of a dozen national/international journals, and has evaluated several M. Tech./Doctoral
theses (from India and overseas). He had been with MSRIT (M. S. Ramaiah Institute of
Technology, Bengaluru) as emeritus professor for five years; with the Govt. College of
Engineering, Kunnur (Kerala) as a senior research advisor; and with the Department
of Aerospace Engineering (IISc., Bangalore) as a consultant on modeling and parameter
estimation for the Type I diabetes patients’ data for a period of three months.
His main research interests have been and are data fusion, system identification,
state/parameter estimation, flight mechanics-flight data analysis, H-infinity filter-
ing, nonlinear filtering, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic systems, genetic algo-
rithms, and soft technologies for robotics.
He has also authored a few books as the collection of his 320 (free-) verses on
various facets closely related to science, philosophy, evolution, and life itself. He
has also contributed 62 articles and 830 ‘bites’ (long quotes) on matrubharti.com
(#1 Indian Content Community) and 7 ebooks on Amazon KDP (kindle direct
publishing) covering social, philosophical, science, and human life-related aspects
and issues. He is one of the most downloaded one hundred English authors of the
matrubharti.com for the year 2021.
His new area of study and research is data-systems analytics (DaSyA).
Authors xxv
Jatinder Singh joined as a senior scientist in the

flight mechanics and control division of NAL in
1998. He has a PhD from IIT, Kanpur. He was a
recipient of the Alexander von Humboldt fellow-
ship and has worked as a guest scientist at the
DLR Institute for Flight Systems, Braunschweig,
Germany, before joining NAL. He is a senior mem-
ber of the AIAA, and a life member of Aeronautical
Society of India and the Systems Society of India.
He is recipient of the NAL foundation day award,
and was also a member of the team, under the lead-
ership of Dr. J. R. Raol, that won the CSIR tech-
nology shield for the year 2003 that was awarded
to the flight mechanics and control division of
NAL for their contribution to the integrated flight
mechanics and control technology for aerospace vehicles. He has several conference
and journal papers to his credit. He has also co-authored the book Modelling and
Parameter Estimation for Dynamic Systems published by the IEE/IET, London, UK,
in 2004. He has been extensively involved in aircraft modeling and parameter esti-
mation work and has made significant contribution to the LCA (light combat aircraft)
program. His expertise is in the area of flight mechanics-flight data analysis, system
identification, aerodynamic modeling for fixed and rotary wing aircraft, Kalman fil-
tering, and artificial neural networks. Some of the major projects he has worked on
include: (i) Aero database validation and update of LCA (TEJAS), (ii) flight identi-
fication of intermediate Jet Trainer HJT-36 Aircraft, (iii) online flight path recon-
struction and parameter estimation, (iv) development of neural network software for
flush air data system, (v) stall data analysis, (vi) flight data analysis for SARAS-LTA
(Light Transport Aircraft), (vii) EC 135 & ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter) rotor-
craft system identification, and (viii) FOC upgradation of Mirage 2000 Aircraft.
Presently, he is a chief scientist and heads the division of flight mechanics and
control at the CSIR-NAL, Bangalore.
Introduction
Flight mechanics is a bit difficult subject to understand, especially for non-aerospace

scientists and engineers; even for aerospace scientists and engineers with background
in pure aerodynamics, propulsion, and structures, it would be difficult to appreciate
various aspects of flight mechanics, especially when applied to flight simulation,
flight control, and aircraft parameter estimation. It is strongly felt, based on our own
experience, that an approach based on the control-system theory would be very use-
ful for better understanding of flight mechanics: its analysis and applications. The
approach taken here is via simple concepts of mathematical model building, intro-
duction of flight mechanics, and mathematical representations of its concepts. This
leads to the equations of motion of an aerospace vehicle and the simplifications of
these equations to arrive at linear models, which are often used for aircraft param-
eter estimation, design of flight control laws, and handling qualities (HQ) evaluation.
Subsequently, the original non-linear (or sometimes extended linear models, like
piece-wise models) can be used for further studies and interpretations.
The problems in aircraft dynamics are, often but not always, related to simulation,
flight control, and system identification. Application of these to an aerospace vehicle
centers on the knowledge of flight mechanics of the vehicle. The main point of this
book is to strengthen the base in flight mechanics by using system-theoretic concepts
of mathematical model building, system identification, aircraft parameter estimation,
simulation, and control that provide the defining principles and techniques. Often,
flight mechanics and flight dynamics are used interchangeably; however, study of
flight dynamics encompasses flight mechanics analysis. In this book, the emphasis is
on flight mechanics with associated studies in model building and their use in vari-
ous applications that broaden the scope to flight dynamics; however, for the historical
reasons, we like and prefer the catchy name that is the title of this book.
Flight mechanics of an aerospace vehicle is approached from the fundamental
aspects of study of a dynamic system. The dynamics of aircraft flight are described
by its equations of motion [1–3]. The main forces that act on the aircraft are inertial,
gravitational, aerodynamic, and propulsive. The aerodynamic forces have a major
contribution in the flight of an atmospheric vehicle.
In fact, aircraft stability and control should be studied from the point of view of
applied science because it utilizes information, data and analytical tools from several
disciplines: (i) applied mathematics, (ii) control and systems dynamics, (iii) aerody-
namics and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), (iv) wind-tunnel testing, (v) flight
testing, (vi) aeroservoelasticity, (vii) flying/ HQs, (viii) flight dynamics simulation,
and (ix) flight control [4]. Thus, the field of aircraft stability and control has evolved
as a mature discipline in the design development, and certification of atmospheric
vehicles, and mainly airplanes.
Figure I.1 depicts the interconnection of several disciplines that form the input/
output (I/O) to the study of flight mechanics.
DOI: 10.1201/9781003293514-1 1
2 Flight Mechanics Modeling and Analysis
Interactions between
inertial, elastic and
aerodynamic forces
(aeroelasticity/flutter)
Vehicle performance
(range, endurance, rate of
Newton’s Laws of climb, take-off and
Flight mechanics- landing, flight path
motion/coordinate
rigid body 6DOF optimization) and
systems/math EOM
modeling handling qualities
evaluation/simulation
validation
Accurate prediction/estimates of (force/

moments) aerodynamic coefficients or
derivatives. Aerodata base (application
rules) as look up tables or gobal
analytical models
FIGURE I.1 Interaction of several disciplines in the study of flight mechanics (collectively
often called flight dynamics).
I.1 MODELING
The modeling of aircraft dynamics involves mainly the characterization of the aero-
dynamic forces and moments. Modeling, identification, parameter estimation, and
simulation play a very significant role in the present-day system analysis of complex
dynamic systems including aerospace vehicles. The information obtained from the
application of these techniques can be routinely used for flight simulation, design and
development of flight control laws, and prediction (including simulation) of dynamic
phenomena of these vehicles.
Flight motions of an aircraft can be described by non-linear coupled differential
equations based on Newton’s laws of motion of a rigid body, with several associated
constants and parameters that are mass and geometry-related coefficients, aerody-
namic coefficients, and aerodynamic stability and control derivatives. Simplification
can be made by using relevant assumptions. An aircraft is considered as a dynamic
system that can be studied directly by doing some experiments with it or by utiliz-
ing its mathematical model. For aircraft, both are possible: the latter is done in the
design and development stage, and the former is done when the vehicle is ready for
flight tests. Flight mechanics analysis, flight simulation, flight control design, and
partly the handling quality analysis (HQA) are carried out using the mathematical
models. Subsequently, the flight data are obtained from flight tests on the aircraft
at several flight conditions (defined by altitude and Mach number). These data are
pre-processed and analyzed by system identification/parameter estimation proce-
dures [5] and the mathematical models (i.e., their parameters) are updated, if deemed
necessary.
For system identification and estimation of the aerodynamic derivatives from
flight test data, one needs to conduct appropriate flight tests and acquire these data.
Introduction 3
For this task, certain special maneuvers are performed by the test pilot to excite the
modes of the test aircraft. Then, one uses parameter/state estimation techniques. The
aerodynamic derivatives (stability and control derivatives) that form parameters in
the mathematical model of an aircraft are required for one or more of the following
reasons: (i) they explain aerodynamic, stability, and control behavior of the vehicle,
thereby describing its static/dynamic behavior; (ii) the mathematical models (and
the associated parameters) are required for the design of flight control systems; and
(iii) high-fidelity simulators need accurate mathematical models of aircraft. Three
main approaches for the estimation of these derivatives are (i) analytical methods,
like DATACOM, CFD; (ii) wind-tunnel testing of scaled models of aircraft; and (iii)
flight testing and subsequent flight data analysis.
Main focus here is on the third approach. The subject of flight tests is very vast,
and we would concentrate only on the flight tests techniques/experiments that are just
necessary to generate dynamic responses of aircraft with a view to further analyzing
these data in order to extract aerodynamic derivatives of aircraft. Similar methods
with certain special or degenerate experiments are applicable for other atmospheric
or space vehicles. For projectiles, aeroballistic test range facilities are often used.
Specifically, some important principles and techniques of system identification, and
state/parameter estimation are covered in this book. The applications of these tech-
niques to kinematic consistency checking and estimation of aerodynamic deriva-
tives from flight data are discussed. The determination of aircraft performance (drag
polars) and HQs from flight test data is also of great importance. The drag polars can
be successfully determined from the dynamic maneuvers data using parameter esti-
mation methods. Thus, several important concepts and aspects of flight mechanics
analysis from modeling, and simulation point of view are presented. Here, modeling
is approached from the system identification and parameter estimation point of view.
I.2 FLIGHT SIMULATION

This is the subject of system’s analysis, like you know the mathematical model of the
dynamic system, e.g., aircraft dynamics, and you want its responses to a given input,
here the pilot command signals, and the responses are the changes in angle of attack,
speed, altitude, pitch attitude, and roll angle, or the yaw angle, etc. The flight simula-
tion of an aircraft provides a virtual scenario on the ground itself (in the simulation
laboratory/facility) of the flight conditions in air, and this helps in understanding the
flight dynamics, and the behavior of the aircraft during the take-off and the landing
conditions. The flight simulation helps in design and validation of flight control laws,
the HQ evaluation of the aircraft, and understanding the effects of the faults in flying
methods, and the faults in various subsystems of the aircraft, e.g., avionics, engine,
aircraft control surfaces, etc., by simulation of many such conditions in the labora-
tory, so a lot of risk is avoided. There are mainly two types of flight simulators: (i)
for training the pilots who would fly an airline aircraft, or a fighter aircraft, and (ii)
for research, mainly for the design and development of aircraft, and its control laws,
like hardware-in-the-loop simulator. For each category, there are again two major
systems: (i) fixed base and (ii) motion based; of course within these two categories,
there are a few variations, like with full visual cues, limited degree of freedom, etc.
I.3 FLIGHT CONTROL

Many modern fighter aircraft are designed with unstable configurations, meaning
thereby that they do not possess natural or inherent stability, i.e., they have relaxed
static stability. Some of the merits of such design are (i) improvement in perfor-
mance (i.e., increased lift, L/D, drag ratio) and (ii) improvement in maneuverability.
Essentially, the stability task has been partially transferred to the control task and
hence the emphasis on flight control. Flight control systems for aerospace vehicles
are basically extended applications of the classical control methods and/or the so-
called modern control approaches to the problem of design and development of accu-
rate/sophisticated control laws with one or more of the following purposes: (i) to
improve the otherwise poor static stability or low damping in dynamics in a given
axis, (ii) to provide stability to inherently unstable aircraft/dynamics, (iii) to improve
the HQs of the aircraft and pilot-aircraft interactions/coupling, (iv) to improve the
safety and reliability of the aircraft’s functions, e.g., in the presence of certain kind
of failures, and (v) to reduce the workload of the pilot in handling the complex flight
missions and tasks, e.g., autopilot. Recently, there is upward surge of applications
of artificial neural networks (ANNs) and fuzzy logic/system (FL/S) to aid the flight
control/autopilot systems.
Figure I.2 depicts a synergy of the development process of flight control and flight
simulation for an aircraft [6].
I.4 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANNs) IN CONTROL

ANNs are emerging paradigms for solving complex problems in science and engi-
neering [7–10]. The ANNs have the following features: (i) they mimic some simple
behavior of a human brain; (ii) they have massively parallel architecture/topology; (iii)
they can be represented by adaptive circuits with input channel, weights (parameters/
coefficients), one or two hidden layers, and output channel with some non-linearities;
(iv) the weights can be tuned to obtain optimum performance of the neural network
in modeling of a dynamic system or non-linear curve fitting; (v) they require training
algorithms to determine the weights; (vi) they can have feedback-type arrangement
within the neuronal structure leading to recurrent neural networks (RRNs); (vii) the
trained network can be used for predicting the behavior of the dynamic system, and
also for parameter estimation; (viii) they can be easily coded and validated using
standard software procedures; (ix) optimally structured neural network architectures
can be hard-wired and embedded into a chip for practical applications – this will
be the generalization of the erstwhile analog circuits-cum-computers; and (x) then,
the neural network-based system can be truly termed as a new generation powerful/
parallel computer.
The aerodynamic model (used for design of flight control laws) could be highly
non-linear and dependent on many physical variables. The difference between the
mathematical model and the real system may cause performance degradation. To
overcome this drawback, ANN can be used and its weights adjusted to compensate
for the effect of the modeling errors. There are several ways the ANNs can be used
for control augmentation: (i) conventional control can be aided by ANNs controllers
Introduction 5
yes
Piloted
ok simulation yes
no no ok
Full
envelope Full flight
envelope Gain yes
schedules
Design/analyze OK
control laws
Linear no
models
from EOMs/ Feedback
simulation Control laws
Actuator
Dynamics- Mass
Pilot Models Inertia/cg
Commands : Aircraft
pitch stick responses
Engine
roll stick Flight Positions
Dynamics-
rudder pedal Dynamics velocities
Models
throttle lever attitudes
flap/slat
Atmospheric Aerodata
Models W/T,Analytical
Flight simulation
Vehicle Stability/
control Trim& linearize
configuration
analysis simulation
FIGURE I.2 System synergy between flight simulation and control. (From Madhuranath, P.
Introduction to flight simulation. In Aircraft Flight Control and Simulation (edrs. Chetty S.,
and Madhuranath, P.), NAL Special Publication, SP-9717, National Aerospace Laboratories,
Bangalore, August, 1997.)
for online learning to represent the local inverse dynamics of an aircraft, (ii) attempt
to compensate for uncertainty without explicitly identifying changes in the aircraft
model, (iii) the ANN’s non-linearity can be made adaptive and used in the desired
dynamics block of the flight controller, (iv) the learning ability can be incorporated
into the gain scheduling process, and (v) sensor/actuator failure detection and man-
agement. Some of the benefits would be: (i) the controller becomes more robust and
more insensitive to the plant parameter variations, and (ii) the online learning ability
would be useful in handling certain unexpected behavior, of course, in a limited way,
e.g., fault diagnosis and reconfiguration.
In this book, the ANNs are used for aircraft parameter estimation from realisti-
cally simulated flight data.
I.5 FUZZY LOGIC-BASED CONTROL

The fuzzy logic is also emerging as a new paradigm for non-linear modeling espe-
cially to represent certain kind of uncertainty, called vagueness, with more rigor.
The fuzzy logic-based systems have the following features: (i) they are based on
multi-valued logic as against the bi-valued (crisp) logic, (ii) they do not have any spe-
cific architecture like neural networks, (iii) they are based on certain rules that need
to be a priori specified, (iv) fuzzy logic is a machine intelligent approach in which
desired behavior can be specified by the rules in which an expert’s (or a design engi-
neer’s) experience can be captured, (v) fuzzy logic system deals with approximate
reasoning in uncertain situations where truth is a matter of degree, and (vi) fuzzy sys-
tem is based on the computational mechanism (algorithm) with which decisions can
be inferred despite incomplete knowledge. This is the process of inference engine.
Fuzzy logic-based control is suited to multivariable and non-linear processes. The
measured plant variables are first fuzzified. Then, the inference engine is invoked.
Finally, the results are defuzzified to convert the composite membership function of
the output into a single crisp value. This specifies the desired control action. The heu-
ristic fuzzy control does not require deep knowledge of the to-be-controlled process.
The heuristic knowledge of the control policy should be known a priori. There are
several ways fuzzy logic can be used to augment the flight control system: (i) FL will
approximately duplicate some of the ways a pilot might respond to an aircraft that is
not behaving as expected due to a damage or failure, (ii) to incorporate the complex
non-linear strategies based on pilot’s or system design engineer’s experience and intel-
ligence within the control law, (iii) adaptive fuzzy gain scheduling (AGS) using the
fuzzy relationships between the scheduling variables and controller parameters, and
(iv) fuzzy logic-based adaptive tuning of Kalman filter for adaptive estimation/control.
In this book, FL is used for reconfiguration of control law in the strategy of fault
identification and management.
I.6 EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT CONTROL-PILOT INTERACTIONS

The HQA and prediction for a fighter aircraft are important in the design and devel-
opment of a flight control system [11]. Traditionally pilot’s opinion ratings have been
on 1- to 10-point scale, called Cooper-Harper scale. Each point gives a qualitative
opinion of the pilot’s view of the aircraft’s overall behavior for a specified task/
mission. This looks somewhat like multi-valued description. The ratings/qualitative
description is also specified in the three levels: rating 1–3.5 → Level 1, rating 3.5–6.5
→ Level 2, and rating 6.5–10 → Level 3. The description of the behavior of the air-
craft with pilot in the loop sounds somewhat like rule-based logical enunciation of
the pilot’s assessment of the aircraft’s performance. The Levels 1–3 have gradation
more coarse than the pilot’s rating scale. To quantify this assessment, several HQ
criteria have been evolved that are largely based, in one way or the other, on the
fundamental tenets/concepts of the (conventional) control theory, e.g., bandwidth,
rise time, settling time, gain, and phase margin (GPMs), etc. [12]. It might be, per-
haps, feasible to establish some connectivity between multi-valued logic-fuzzy sys-
tem, H-infinity concept, and HQ criteria: the FL/S are useful for representing, in
some concrete form, the uncertainty in a system’s model – this uncertainty plays an
important role in evaluating the robustness of a flight control system – the stability
and related aspects of which are evaluated using the HQ criteria.
A possible synergy of many such aspects presented in this book is highlighted in
Figure I.3 [13]. Further, system-oriented synergy is presented in Figure I.4.
Introduction 7
Chapters 9
Use of ANNs and Fuzzy logic in

Modelling, Identification
Chapter 5, 9 Chapter 9
Model Model Model

fitting Augmentation in desired fitting
dynamics
Use of
model
paras.
Scheduling CONTROL System Sensor,

actuator
of control design/
Reconfigure failure
gains/ System Computer/ detection
Can use for testing /restructure
AGS identification
ANN,FS to control
using
Chapter 8 scheme
obtain ANN/FS
adaptive Chapter 8
gains
Aerodynamic Sensor multiple

database and redundancy
linear math (e.g. AOA)
models/ control
laws synthesis/ Chapter 5,6
Flight simulation Use of
Predicted
validation
Info.
Sensor measurement and air data

validation system/NN training
prediction of angle of attack and angle of
side slip
FIGURE I.3 System synergy of aircraft control system aided by artificial neural networks
(ANN), fuzzy system (FS), system identification (SID), and restructuring schemes (AGS:
adaptive gain scheduling). (From: Raol, J. R. Intelligent and allied technologies for flight
control - a brief review. ARA Journal, Vol. 2001–2002, No. 25–27, 2002.)
Thus, the important features of flight mechanics-dynamics are measurements,

representations, and predictions, i.e., modeling, and analysis of aerodynamic forces,
and evaluation of HQs. Related main problems in engineering, especially for most
atmospheric vehicles, are [2,6,14–16] (i) stability in motion; (ii) responses of the
vehicle to propulsive and control input changes; (iii) responses to atmospheric gust
and turbulence; (iv) aeroelastic oscillations; and (v) performance in terms of speed,
altitude, range, and fuel assessed from flight maneuvers and testing. Reference [17]
is a recent volumetric treatise on flight dynamics. Also, the field of ‘soft’ comput-
ing [18] is gaining importance in the aerospace field, and hence, some aspects are
dealt with in this book. There is an immense scope of extending soft computing to
flight simulation (like ANN-polynomial models for aero database representation),
and human operator modeling while performing tasks in a flight simulator, etc.
Maneuvers-Chapter 7
Measurements
Specific inputs:
input responses Data compatibility
Test aircraft/
Doublets or 3211 vehicle check
input
Parameter Chapter 9
update rule/
+
formula _
Models Methods
Aircraft EOM/
postulated math model in
estimation/Chapters 3-5/
algorithm/SW
Chapter 4, 5
Model
verification
Dynamics of control /systems
eqn. (8.11)
K1 (first two terms)
K2
FIGURE 1.4 System synergy of maneuvers, parameter estimation, aerodynamic effects, and
aircraft and control dynamics.
I.7 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

In Chapter 1, we introduce several important fundamental and basic aspects of aero-
dynamics that are required to understand the behavior of an aircraft when it is flying
in the atmosphere. In the flight mechanics modeling and analysis, these aspects play
an implicit role, and hence, some basic knowledge and information are just sufficient.
Introduction 9
Chapter 2 deals with some fundamental aspects of engineering mechanics/dynamics,

since an aircraft is an engineering system, and it has its own dynamics; and all the
topics briefly discussed here are very relevant to understanding of flight mechanic of
an atmospheric vehicle; and when combined with the concepts of Chapter 1, the flight
mechanics stands on a firmer ground.
Chapter 3 deals with equations of motion of aerospace vehicles, especially for air-
craft, helicopter, and missile. The solution of these equations provides the dynamic
responses of the vehicle. The aerodynamic derivatives are the kernel of the equations
of motion. Together, these models capture the dynamic behavior of the vehicle in
motion. In Chapter 4, we discuss the fundamental concepts of aerodynamic deriva-
tives and models. The aerodynamic derivatives as the constituents of the aerody-
namic model building are explained in sufficient details to render better appreciation
of the material of the later chapters.
In Chapter 5, we resort to simplification of the equations of motion, since inher-
ently these could be complicated and non-linear. Before that, we introduce the
concepts and methods of mathematical structures and model building for dynamic
systems: the conventional transfer function (TF), time-series, and state-space model-
ing aspects are treated. The delta operator TF theory is also highlighted. The simpli-
fied EOM (equations of motion) with embedded aerodynamic derivatives provide
easier and better understanding of the behavior of the vehicle. It is here that some of
the concepts and methods of Chapter 3 will be useful.
In Chapter 6, the concepts and approaches to simulation of aircraft dynamics are
discussed. Depending on the availability of the detailed models of the subsystems
of the aircraft, the simulation could be made simpler or more sophisticated. Its use
in understanding of dynamics of a flying vehicle, in validation of flight control laws,
and trying out parameter estimation exercises/algorithms need not be overempha-
sized. In Chapter 7, we discuss types of the input excitation signals (pilot commands)
and flight test maneuvers that are an integral part of flight test exercises of an aircraft
under certification or other special test trials.
In Chapter 8, we introduce some important fundamental concepts of control
theory, requirements of flight control, stability augmentation systems, basic auto-
pilot systems, and principles of reconfiguration-fuzzy logic control. Flight control
examples are given. Some modeling and analysis aspects of aircraft fault detection,
and identification are discussed. Several important features of modeling and design
processes are outlined.
Chapter 9 deals with concepts and methods of system identification and parameter
estimation as applied to real or simulated flight test data. Some important methods
are discussed, and the results of several practical case studies are presented. Recent
aspects of analytical global modeling, and neural network/fuzzy logic-based param-
eter estimation approaches are also treated. Aircraft parameter estimation results
using Gaussian sum extended Kalman filter and information filters are discussed,
and analytical conditions for the convergence of these algorithms using Lyapunov
method are derived.
In Chapter 10, concepts of HQA of aircraft are treated. The HQA helps in the
evaluation of aircraft design (though in a limited way), its dynamic behavior and
flight control laws at simulation stage as well as after the flight tests are conducted.
For fighter and large transport aircraft and rotorcrafts, evaluation of pilot-vehicle
interactions via HQA is very important in the early new vehicle development/modi-
fication programs. Aspects of HQA and pilot-induced oscillations, better known as
pilot-vehicle interactions, are also discussed.
Chapter 11 deals with basic concepts of aeroservoelasticity: modeling, design, and
estimation for flexible aircraft.
It would be, of course, necessary to have a reasonably good background in the
basics of linear control systems and linear algebra.
In Appendixes A, B, C, D, and E, we compile several important aspects related to
atmospheric models, ANNs, fuzzy logic, and systems/signal to support the material
of the various chapters.
Disclaimer: Although enough care has been taken in working out the solutions
of examples/exercises and presentation of various theories and case study results in
this book, any practical applications of these should be made with proper care and
caution; any such endeavors would be the readers’/users’ own responsibility. Some
MATLAB programs developed for the illustration of various concepts via examples
in this book would be accessible to the readers from the book’s URL of the CRC
Press.
The end users of this integrated technology will be educational institutions, aero-
space R&D laboratories, aerospace industries, flight test agencies, and transporta-
tion/automotive industry. Interestingly, some other industrial and engineering centers
might be able to derive a good benefit from certain material of this book.
REFERENCES
1. McRuer, D. T., Ashkenas, I., and Graham, D. Aircraft Dynamics and Automatic
Control. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1973.
2. Nelson, R. C. Flight Stability and Automatic Control, 2nd Edn. McGraw Hill
International Editions, New York, 1998.
3. Cook, M. V. Flight Dynamics Principles. Arnold, London, 1997.
4. Roskam, J. Evolution of airplane stability and control: A designer’s viewpoint. Journal
of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 14(3), 481–487, 1991.
5. Raol, J. R., Girija, G., and Singh, J. Modelling and parameter of dynamic systems. IEE
Control Series, Vol. 65, IEE, London, UK, 2004.
6. Madhuranath, P. Introduction to flight simulation. In Aircraft Flight Control and
Simulation (edrs. Chetty S., and Madhuranath, P.), NAL Special Publication, SP-9717,
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore, 1997.
7. Zurada, J. M. Introduction to ArtificialNneural System. West Publishing Company,
New York, 1992.
8. Haykin, S. Neural Networks-A Comprehensive Foundation. IEEE, New York, 1994.
9. Kosko, B. Neural Networks and FuzzySystems-A Dynamical Systems Approach to
Machine Intelligence. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
10. King, R. E. Computational Intelligence in ControlEngineering. Marcel Dekker, New
York, 1999.
11. Mooij, H. A. Criteria for Low Speed Longitudinal Handling Qualities (of Transport
Aircraft with Closed-Loop Flight Control Systems). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, the
Netherlands, 1984.
12. Sinha, N. K. Control Systems. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York, 1988.
Introduction 11
13. Raol, J. R. Intelligent and allied technologies for flight control - a brief review. ARA
Journal, 2001–2002, 25–27, 2002.
14. Etkin, B., and Reid, L. D. Dynamics of Flight – Stability and Control, 3rd Edn. John
Wiley, New York, 1996.
15. Yechout, T. R., Morris, S. L., Bossert, D. E., and Hallgren, W. F. Introduction to Aircraft
Flight Mechanics-Performance, Static Stability, Dynamic Stability, and Classical
Feedback Control. AIAA Education Series, Reston, VA, 2003.
16. Ranjan, V. Flight Dynamics, Simulation, and Control-For Rigid and Flexible Aircraft.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2015.
17. Stengal, R. F. Flight Dynamics. Princeton University Press. Prenceton, NJ, 2004.
18. Hajela, P. Soft computing in multidisciplinary aerospace design – new directions for
research. Progress in Aerospace Science, 38, 1–21, 2002.
1 Aerodynamic Principles
and Fundamentals
1.1
AERODYNAMIC CONCEPTS AND RELATIONSHIPS
An atmospheric vehicle moves in the flow field of (free) air. Air pressure (P), air tem-
perature (T), air density (ρ), and air velocity (V) are very important considerations in
the study of such flight vehicles, and a knowledge of (P, ρ, T, V) at a point in the air
defines a flow field; here, e.g., P = P(x, y, z), and so on. In any flight mechanics-cum-
dynamics (FMD) study and analysis, the three aspects are very important: (i) aircraft
stability and control, (ii) aircraft performance, and (iii) vehicle’s dynamic trajectory
analysis. Aircraft stability and control aspects are the direct outcomes of the appli-
cation of the control theory of dynamic systems to aircraft, and here, the aircraft is
considered as a dynamic system. The aircraft performance mainly depends on the
aircraft engine being used for propelling the vehicle through the atmosphere. The
aircraft dynamic trajectory is the time history of its flight path and of many compo-
nents of this flight path through the atmosphere. All these three major studies and
study of flight mechanics constitute the main body of the flight dynamics.
1.1.1 Air Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force acting on a unit area, and it is due to the time rate
of change of momentum (mass times velocity of the air parcels) of the gas/air mol-
ecules imparting on that surface; P = lim 
 dF 
( 2
 , pressure at a point N/m ;atm ;
dA→ 0  dA 
)
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 N/m2 = 2016 lb/ft2 = 2016/(12)2 lb/in2 = 14 PSI. For an aircraft, it is
usually measured by using a pitot-static system of the kind shown in Figure 1.1 that
measures the total and static air pressures. The pressure tube is a concentric with
center tube measuring the total pressure and the outer tube surrounding it measuring
the static pressure. As the aircraft moves forward, the airflow comes to rest at the
mouth of the pitot tube. This is known as the stagnation point, and the pressure at
this point is given by
1
PT = Ps + ρV 2 (1.1)
2
Here, PT is the total pressure, which is often measured at the nose boom. Ps is the
static pressure upstream away from the body, and V is the free stream velocity. The
1
ρV 2 is termed as the dynamic pressure and is generally denoted by q , and ρ ‘rho’
2
is the air density. Equation (1.1) holds good only for low-speed flights where the
compressibility effects can be ignored. Also, note that both the dynamic and static
DOI: 10.1201/9781003293514-2 13
Airflow °° ° °
°° ° °
Holes for static
pressure measurement
FIGURE 1.1 Pitot-static tube.
pressure act on the inner tube, while only static pressure acts on the outer tube. The
difference between the two is the dynamic pressure, which is used to determine the
velocity V of the aircraft, and the dynamic pressure is the direct consequence of
the aircraft’s velocity. At high speeds (Mach number, M > 0.3), the pitot measure-
ments must be corrected for compressibility effects. The corrected dynamic pressure
qc can be written as [1]:
γ
 γ − 1 2  γ −1 
 
qc = PT − Ps = Ps  1 + M  −1 (1.2)
 2  
 
Here, γ is the ratio of specific heats (heat capacity with constant pressure to heat
capacity with constant volume) and is taken as 1.4; and it is also known as adiabatic
index, and Laplace’s coefficient. The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the speed
of the aircraft to the speed of sound. It is also worth mentioning here that the static
pressure is subject to errors called position errors. It is a known fact that for any given
static source location, the position error varies with a change in speed and altitude.
The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101 kN/m2. It is often expressed in
terms of bars: 1 bar = 100 kN/m2. Thus, one millibar = 100 N/m2 = Pa (Pascal). Thus,
when an aircraft lies in the atmospheric air, the air pressure acts on all its external
body parts, fuselage, wings, and engine. The air with its dynamic pressure provides
lift to the aircraft as well as opposes its forward motion (i.e., it provides the drag
force), and the balance of this with the weight of the whole aircraft and the propulsive
force supplied by aircraft engine keeps the aircraft in its steady-state motion in the
air. So, the aircraft flight is the balance of various forces acting on it!
1.1.2 Air Density
In general, density of any material is defined as its mass per its own unit volume:
 ; ( kg / m )
dm 
ρ = Mass / Volume = lim  3
(1.3)
dv→0  dv 
It signifies the fact how much material is compacted in so much volume. The relation
between pressure, density, and temperature, according to gas laws for a perfect gas,
is given by:
P = ρ RT (1.4)
Aerodynamic Principles and Fundamentals 15
Here, R is the (universal) gas constant (287 J/kg-K; J is Joules, and K is the tem-
perature in Kelvin; =8.31432 J/Kelvin-mole). A perfect gas is one in which the
intermolecular forces (which are the ramifications of the complex interaction of the
electromagnetic properties of the electrons and nucleus) are negligible; air at stan-
dard conditions can be approximated by a perfect gas. Another factor related to den-
sity that occurs in many formulae is the ratio of the air density ρ to the sea-level
density ρ0 (1.225 kg/m3):
ρ
σ= (1.5)
ρ0
The related quantity, the specific weight, is defined as: Wt./volume = m g/volume;
here, m is the mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2. We have seen
that the density enters in the formula for dynamic pressure. This means that the air-
craft will have higher dynamic pressure in the dense air. At higher altitudes where
the air density is low, the dynamic pressure acting on the aircraft will be also low!
1.1.3 Air Temperature
The particles in a gas are in a constant motion, and each particle has kinetic energy;
and hence, the temperature T of the gas is thus directly proportional to the average
molecular kinetic energy, KE = (3/2) kT; k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10 −23
Joules/Kelvin). The pressure and temperature are also related via gas law. The tem-
perature of the atmosphere varies with altitude and can be represented by a linear
relation:
T = T1 + lh (1.6)
Here, l is the lapse rate that indicates the rate of change in temperature with altitude.
In an aircraft, a temperature probe is used to measure the total temperature of the air.
Assuming adiabatic conditions (no loss of heat), the total temperature Tt in terms of
ambient temperature T is given by:
γ −1 2
Tt = T 1 + M  (1.7)
 2 
1.1.4 Altitudes
In aeronautics and aviation flight, we talk about several types of altitude, the primary
among them being the absolute, geometric, and geo-potential altitude. Geometric
altitude is the altitude-height from mean sea level. It does not vary with temperature
or with the change of gravity. The absolute altitude is measured from the center of
the earth. If H a denotes the absolute altitude, H GM denotes the geometric altitude, and
RE is the radius of earth, then
H a = H GM + RE (1.8)
If g0 is the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, then the ‘g’ varies as [1,2]:
2
g  RE 
= (1.9)
g0  RE + H GM 
The ‘g’ is the local gravitational acceleration at a given absolute height, Ha.
The geo-potential altitude H GP is in fact a fictitious altitude defined based on the
reference gravity at sea level (g0 = 9.81 m/sec 2 ). The relation between the geometric
and geo-potential altitude is given by:
 RE 
H GP =   H GM (1.10)
 RE + H GM 
The difference between H GM and H GP is small for lower altitudes, but it grows as the
altitude increases.
Other altitudes are the pressure altitude, density altitude, and temperature alti-
tude. We know that the static pressure varies with altitude. A sensor called altimeter,
calibrated using the standard atmosphere, measures the static pressure and relates it
to altitude. The altitude indicated by the altimeter is therefore the pressure altitude.
The density and the temperature altitudes, likewise, are the altitudes in the standard
atmosphere corresponding to the measured density and temperature. The density
altitude is often used for piston engine aircraft since their power is generally pro-
portional to air density. At a certain geometric altitude, there is a set of P, T, and
the density values for each of these, one can read-off the altitudes from the SATM
table; e.g., at a certain altitude, the pressure P = 4.72 104 N/m2→6000 m (altitude/ht.);
and T = 255.7 K→Temperature altitude is 5 km; and density = P/(RT) = 0.641 kg/m3→
density altitude is 6.25 km.
Note: Some call the geometric altitude as the system altitude. Some define an
absolute altitude as the height above the surface of the earth at any given surface
location. If the aircraft is above the mountain, then the absolute altitude is the verti-
cal clearance between the aircraft and the surface of the mountain. Also, the true
altitude is defined as the height above the sea level. The pressure altitude is defined
as the height from the reference where the pressure is 29.921 In. (760 mm) of Hg
(mercury). Other related definitions are as follows: the Geoid height is the height of
the actual surface of the earth from the surface of the ideal spheroid of the Earth, the
elevation is the height from the actual surface, and the geodetic height is from the
spheroid (of the Earth).
1.1.5 Airspeeds-IAS, CAS, EAS, TAS

The basic speed of sound is given by:
a = γ RT (1.11)
Aerodynamic Principles and Fundamentals 17
For sea-level conditions (T is 288 K), the speed of sound is computed to be nearly
340 m/s. It has already been mentioned that the pitot-static tube can be used to mea-
sure the airspeed. The pressure difference, (PT − Ps), measured by the pitot-static tube
is passed on to an indicator that is calibrated to standard sea-level conditions. The
airspeed read from this instrument is called the indicated airspeed (IAS). The IAS
will be affected by instrument and position errors. Instrument errors could arise from
mechanical inaccuracies, while position errors are caused by location of the pitot-
static tube in the flow field that is distorted because of the interference from fuselage
or wing. Correction for these errors in IAS will yield the calibrated airspeed (CAS).
Modern aircraft have airspeed indicators which directly read CAS [1,2]. True air-
speed (TAS) is the actual airspeed of the aircraft relative to the air. The relationship
between the TAS and the ground speed is given by:
TAS = Vg + Vw (1.12)
Here, Vg is the speed w.r.t the ground and Vw is the wind speed. Equivalent airspeed
(EAS) is defined as the speed at standard sea-level conditions which produce the
same dynamic pressure as the TAS:
1 1
ρ0 (EAS)2 = ρ (TAS)2 (1.13)
2 2
or
EAS
TAS = (1.14)
σ
ρ
where σ =
ρ0
Thus, TAS results when EAS is corrected for density altitude. Knowing TAS,
Mach number can be computed using the relation:
TAS TAS
M= = (1.15)
a γ RT
In terms of total pressure PT and static pressure P at a given flight altitude, TAS and
EAS for the subsonic flight (M < 0.3) can be obtained using the relation:
2 ( PT − P )
TAS = (1.16)
ρ
and
2 ( PT − P )
EAS = (1.17)
ρ0
Interestingly, Mach number can be viewed as the ratio of the inertia force to elastic
force. For high subsonic flight (M > 0.3), TAS and CAS are given by:
γ −1
2a 2  PT − P  γ 
TAS = +1 − 1 (1.18)
γ − 1  P  
 
and
γ −1
 
2a02  PT − P  γ
CAS = + 1 − 1 (1.19)
γ − 1  P0  
 
The ‘a0’ is the speed of sound at sea-level condition and P0 is the static pressure at
sea level (1.01325 × 105 N/m2). In other words, the relationship between TAS and CAS
can also be expressed as:
a
TAS = CAS (1.20)
a0
Aircraft speeds are classified as: subsonic M < 1; transonic 0.8 ≤ M ≤ 1.2 ; supersonic
1 < M < 5; and hypersonic M ≥ 5.
1.1.6 Bernoulli’s Continuity Equations

Continuity equation relates density, velocity, and area at one section of the flow to the
same quantities at another section. In Figure 1.2, the flow is shown to be bounded by
two streamlines. The mass flow rates at sections 1 and 2 are given by [3]:
m 1 = ρ1 A1V1; m 2 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.21)
Since, mass can neither be created nor be destroyed (in a general sense, otherwise,
we have to use E = mc2):
m 1 = m 2 or ρ1 A1V1 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.22)
Section 2
Section 1
m1 = ρ1 A1V1 m 2 = ρ 2 A2V2
Stream tube
FIGURE 1.2 Stream tube.

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I felt sad to think I had no means of relief. At 4 o’clock this morning
the Captain came, and finding him so ill, brought out a tent to cover
the one he laid in.
27th.—Last night, my messmate Philips returned from Santa Fe, with
a message from Col. Price to the different Captains, to send on ten
men from each company, as an escort for Col. Mitchell, who was
about to start for Chihuahua. From thence he is to proceed to open a
communication with General Wool. To-day an express arrived from
Col. Mitchell for the same purpose. We were hastily paraded to
ascertain how many would volunteer to go, when I, with five others of
my company, stepped out of the ranks, and had our names enrolled.
We were satisfied that we could not render our situation worse, and
hoped any change might be for the better. We hastened to the
grazing ground, over the mountain, for our horses, which occupied
us all day. Mine was gone of course. To prevent delay, I gave my
note to a young man for a horse which belonged to a deceased
soldier.
28th.—A full company having been made up, this morning we
gathered at our quarters, and were ready at 8 o’clock to take leave of
our kind hearted comrades. They bid us “good-bye,” with many
expressions of regret, and injunctions to write often. We pursued our
journey 35 miles, and put up late in the evening at the house of a
rich Spaniard, who accommodated us with an empty room twenty
feet square, but it had so small a fireplace that we could not use it for
our culinary purposes, so we were forced to do most of our cooking
in the open air. It fell to my lot as usual to make the bread, and I
kneaded forty pounds of Taos flour in a mass, and baked thirty-six
good sized cakes, while two others prepared our camp kettles of
coffee, &c.
Sunday, 29th.—At 4 o’clock we ate our breakfast, and were on the
road by day-light. We travelled all day without stopping, and arrived
at Santa Fe at 6 o’clock in the evening. We went immediately to the
American Hotel where supper was provided for us. Nineteen men sat
down to the table, none of whom had enjoyed such a privilege for
nearly four months. All were hungry, and it was amusing to see how
we tried to eat our landlord out of house and home. After supper we
retired to our quarters in a very small room.
30th.—Word was sent from Col. Mitchell this morning for us to
parade before the Governor’s house for inspection. Our horses were
also examined, and all being found in good order for the trip, we
were dismissed and conducted to our quarters, in the court house;
where we drew our rations, viz. thirty pounds of good American flour,
with pork enough to last five days.
December 1st.—Paraded again soon after breakfast, and were told
by our Captain, that previously to our departure, we must all march
to the sutler’s store, and acknowledge our indebtedness to him, so
up we rode in right order and dismounted. We had a peep at our
accounts, and I found mine to be $30 75. I had purchased a few
articles of clothing on my route, being forced to do so from necessity.
I was therefore not surprised at the amount, especially when I read
the prices of some the articles, viz. a small cotton handkerchief $1—
suspenders $1—flannel shirt $3—tin coffee pot $1 50, &c. &c. Here
we bade farewell to our Captains, who had accompanied us to Santa
Fe to see us off. Captain Williams shook me cordially by the hand,
saying, he had no expectation of seeing me again in this world.
Captain Hudson now took charge, and rode with us two miles out of
town—here he informed us, we had a dangerous road to travel, but
would leave us to the care of Lieutenant Todd for two days, till we
were joined by Col. Mitchell and himself. He returned to town, and
we came on four miles and stopped at a house, whose master sold
us forage for our horses and wood, it being severely cold. Sixty of us
occupied two large rooms for the night.
2d.—We marched 25 miles to a place called San Domingo, and took
quarters in a deserted house. This is a considerable place, with a
handsome church, which was being illuminated when we arrived. In
a little time the bells began to ring, and there was a firing of musketry
and considerable commotion at the door of the church. Several of
our soldiers were induced to go up and inquire into the meaning of
the uproar. We were told that a converted Indian chief had just died,
and all this was to prevent him from going down to purgatory. The
roll of the drum and firing continued a long time, when the
ceremonies commenced in the church, from the door of which we
saw many large wax candles burning, but not being permitted to
enter we very quietly retired.
3d.—After travelling six miles we came to an Indian village called
San Felippe, and two miles further down the Rio Grande we
encamped in the midst of a good pasture for our horses. After
supper, our Lieutenant told me I was honored with the appointment
of Captain of the watch. In consequence of this distinction, I had to
be up nearly all night. It was very cold. We were now comparatively
happy, for we had plenty of good flour from the States, with coffee,
sugar, &c.
4th.—We learn that we shall be obliged to stay here till Col. Mitchell
comes up with the other company, so we seize the opportunity to
have our horses shod. Two blacksmiths are now at work; I have just
bought a set of shoes and nails from our sutler for $3.
5th.—The weather has moderated somewhat, but the face of the
country presents nothing inviting at this season of the year. Every
thing has a desolate and wintry appearance. There being no food for
our horses, we chopped down some limbs of the cotton wood tree
for them to eat. We then went to a Mexican village to buy corn.
Having no money, I took some tobacco and buttons to trade for the
corn. While here, I sold my greasy blanket for a Navihoe one, with a
meal for my horse in the bargain. The man with whom I traded was
very kind; he set before me some corn, mush and sausages, but
being seasoned with onions, I declined eating. He then brought in
some corn stalk molasses, which I mixed with water and drank,
thanking him for his hospitality. I returned to camp, when I found that
Col. Mitchell, and the baggage wagons had arrived. I was officer of
the guard to-night, and up till 12 o’clock.
Sunday, 6th.—Formed in line by our Colonel in the midst of a heavy
shower of rain, and marched down the Rio Grande, a long distance.
Our course is due south, keeping the river constantly on our right,
and ranges of mountains on our left hand. We passed many villages,
and at night encamped near one.
7th.—Rising early this morning to prepare breakfast, I found the
snow four inches deep, and still snowing very fast. Marched in right
order 15 miles, and after passing several towns situated on the
banks of the river, we stopped at night at the large town of Albikirk.
Here are garrisoned one hundred and fifty regulars; near whose
quarters we encamped in a large room 100 feet by 40. In this place
we found a number of soldiers, some engaged in tailoring, some
playing cards, and others amusing themselves in various ways.
8th.—The country through which we passed to-day is thickly dotted
over with towns and villages, whose names I cannot remember, but
the road is dismal enough, being still among the mountains, where
every object the eye rests upon is covered with snow. The cold is
very intense. We pitched our tents to-night under the walls of a town.
We had six small ears of corn for our horses, and no fodder. I went
to the Quarter Master and was informed by him that the Mexicans
had refused to sell us any thing. I cut some buttons from a uniform
jacket, and with them tried to purchase food for my horse, but I was
refused every where. I sat down and made out a requisition, and with
several others went to their large stacks, ten feet high, which we
ascended, and threw down a large turn for each. We succeeded in
coming off with our booty, and in a few minutes, we were in bed. We
were not disturbed in conscience in the least, being fully covered by
the axiom, “necessity knows no law.”
9th.—We were called up this morning to lead our horses into ranks,
when two guns and a sabre were missing. They had been taken
from the tents by the Mexicans. After the line was formed, Col.
Mitchell ordered the men who had lost their arms, to march out. He
then told them they would be left behind to search the town, assisted
by the alcalde, and if they should not find their arms they would have
to return to Santa Fe. We then left; marched ten miles and
encamped near a village. Our interpreter was sent to procure forage
for the horses, but he returned with the news that none could be had.
Our Captain told the Sergeant to go up with a file of soldiers and
take what was wanting. He formed a line of twenty men, I among
them, and marched off with our Orderly at the head, and second
Sergeant, with the bags to put the corn in. At the door of the house,
we were ordered to halt. The lock was broken, and we entered, filled
our sacks and packed them down to the camp. In this adventure I
made the acquaintance of a young man by the name of Hepbourn.
He was born and raised in Prince George’s County, Md. After
supper, we were all ordered up to draw fifteen rounds of cartridges.
A strong guard was ordered out to-night.
10th.—Having orders to march very early, we rose by light and
proceeded down the river 18 miles, the country presenting very
much the appearance already described. We saw a few vineyards,
surrounded by walls. I felt miserably disordered from the cold and
loss of rest. I was just about to sit down to supper, which I thought
might revive me, when our Orderly came by, requesting the men to
form in line immediately, as the Captain wished to read the Articles
of War. We stood just one hour and listened to the dry detail. When
the reading was concluded, we returned to our tents. After supper,
sixteen men were detailed on guard. I stood two hours the first
watch, and three hours before day-light. It was extremely cold.
11th.—The roll was called at day-break, and after parade we
continued our march 12 miles and encamped in a town among the
mountains. Wood was very scarce, and the severity of the weather
increasing.
12th.—We eat our breakfast at day-light. It consisted of mess pork
and bread, half baked by a miserable fire. We went 12 miles to a
place where there is a fine supply of wood. Our poor fellows had the
satisfaction of having a good fire all night, and it was very necessary,
for the weather was tempestuous with cold gusts of wind and snow.
Sunday, 13th.—At one o’clock this morning I awoke and found
myself so cold that I arose and went to the guard-fire to thaw myself.
I stood by the fire till day-light. The Captain in his round to visit the
guard, stopped at the fire, and I had a pleasant chat with him. He is
very clever and condescending. He remained an hour or two, and
then woke up the Orderly to have all in readiness for a start. We
came over the mountain four miles, where our road intersected the
river again, passed a town, and further on encamped near the river.
Our interpreter bought a beef from the natives, also a little wood to
cook it. The wild geese are very numerous here.
14th.—The roll was called very early this morning—and as my horse
had a sore back, I asked the Captain’s permission to walk behind the
wagons. I walked all this day and led my horse. When I came up to
the encampment I found that my mess had supper ready. It
consisted of a kind of chicken pie, bread and coffee. I relished the
supper very much, but by way of desert I received information that I
had to stand sentinel. I walked my post two hours and then went to
bed; being too cold to sleep, I got up at two o’clock, and went to the
guard-fire. The guard said he was very sleepy and would lie down if I
would consent to serve while he slept. To this I readily agreed—and
he laid down, while I made a large fire, which soon attracted the
attention of the other sentinels, and several of them collected around
it. We enjoyed each others conversation till the morning dawned.
15th.—I woke up the Sergeant, who said we had walked our post
four hours over the time. I received the compliment, but did not tell
him that we had sat by the fire all the time. In his Irish brogue, and
with a pipe in his mouth, he proceeded to call the roll. We are to stay
here till the 17th.
16th.—Having secured some beef, I made a large fire to get an early
breakfast. Yesterday our Quarter Master pressed a lot of seven very
good cattle from the Mexicans. Last night a strong guard of twenty
men was stationed around our camp. The weather is still raw and
cold. We are yet among the mountains.
17th.—This morning we reached the second crossing of the Rio
Grande. Four miles beyond the crossing, we overtook Col.
Doniphan’s command, and encamped near them. Having to walk
and lead my horse, I did not come up till all were fixed. I found our
boys very angry at a circumstance which they related and made me
write down, with a promise to publish it—which promise I now fulfil.
While on the march to-day, the Captain ordered a halt, and told the
soldiers that he had been requested by the Lieutenants to beg them
all not to come near their fire or tents, as it incommoded them
greatly. He stated on his own behalf, as well as on behalf of the other
officers, that it was quite a nuisance to have the privates lurking
about their tents and fires. He said that something might be “hooked”
and that the Lieutenant had already lost some saleratus, &c. This
was a poser. Our poor fellows could hardly endure it. Some of them
were much exasperated. I tried to soothe them, and told them no
other harm was meant than a slight intimation that we must keep
away at meal times, as a knowledge of their better fare might make
us dissatisfied, &c. All passed off better than I expected. We had to
go a mile for water, and the thermometer at zero.
18th.—The situation of our tents was by no means pleasant. There
was much complaint about stones and hillocks, lying hard, &c.
Breakfast over, I started with the wagons, in company with some
others, whose horses’ backs were sore. I felt stupified from the cold
and loss of rest, having walked my round five hours last night. We
went on 12 miles, which we trudged on foot. At night we cut some
branches of the cotton wood for our horses to eat. We were
preparing to rest, when our Captain told us, if any man lost his horse
he would have to walk back to Santa Fe. He further said, that we had
to go through a gloomy region or desert, 85 miles in extent, where no
wood or water could be procured. He advised us to go to work and
prepare food enough to last three or four days. I made up 30 lbs. of
flour and baked eighteen cakes, while the balance was attended to
by my mess.
19th.—We were all busy providing against the perils of our difficult
and dangerous march. We shall have to keep close company, as the
Navihoe Indians roam this desert in bands. At 11 o’clock we moved
off in fine order, and marched 15 miles over the dreary plain. At 8
o’clock at night the Captain ordered a halt. We picked up a few
weeds, kindled a little fire, took a cold cut of bread and meat, and
laid on the ground to rest, without erecting the tents. A young man
having drank too much of the “ardiente,” very unluckily offended one
of the officers, and was ordered to be tied to the wagon wheel. He
cut a variety of capers while this was being done. His friends soon
set him at liberty.
20th.—The news of a “spring in the desert” was brought by some
scouts, who had started out on an exploring expedition. They found
the spring in a place full 6 miles from our road. We drove the cattle
over a miserably rough path to drink from the spring, which turned
out to be a muddy pool. We afterwards marched 15 miles and
encamped late at night. We took a slice of bread and meat and laid
down to rest on our blankets.
21st.—The appearance of our Captain very early this morning
aroused us. He came with the intelligence that Major Gilpin had sent
on an express last night for a reinforcement, as he was expecting an
attack every moment from the enemy. In a few minutes we were on
the march, and without stopping to take breakfast we travelled 35
miles. We encamped late at night 3 miles from the river, where men
and beasts, thirsty and weary, were refreshed. I was afraid my horse
would kill himself drinking. With six others, I pressed some oxen from
the traders, whom we found encamped here, as the most of our
team had given out and were left upon the road.
22nd.—Passed over 14 miles of broken wretched country to-day, the
soil of which produces nothing but a kind of shrub called soap-weed.
The inhabitants, it is said, use this weed in washing their clothes. We
encamped in a rough place, among stones and hillocks.
23rd.—I trust the end of this “jornada,” as it is called, and which
means the “region of death,” is nearly reached, for a march of 12
miles brought us to a village, where we halted to take in provisions
bought by our Quarter Master. Proceeding two miles further we
came up to Major Gilpin, whom we found encamped on a large
sandy plain. We had to go 2 or 3 miles for wood. Our flour was
nearly gone, and we had a little beef soup and rice for supper at
night. The boys being still hungry, we went to the village and
procured some dried fruit and pumpkins, which we sliced up and
stewed in our camp kettles. Of this fare we partook heartily, and laid
down to sleep in the sand.
24th.—The first blast of the bugle this morning made us hurry into
line. Some of the men being rather tardy, were too late, and they
were told by the officer who inspected us, that any man who did not
come into rank at the sound of the bugle, would be made to stand
guard three days. We broke ranks and ate our breakfast, which
consisted of a small piece of bread, made up with pumpkin. The
weather is now quite pleasant, and the country, hitherto so uniformly
desolate, begins to improve in appearance.
BATTLE OF BRACITO.
25th.—In the union of our forces we are one thousand strong. Moved
as early as usual from the position we have occupied the last three
days, and after marching 12 miles, we came to Bracito, and
encamped at 10 o’clock. We stripped our horses as usual, and
picketed them out; went out to hunt wood to cook our dinners. Some
of the men had gone at least a mile from camp when the alarm was
given, “to arms! to arms!” Looking in the direction pointed out we saw
a cloud of dust, as if the whole of Mexico was coming down upon us.
Unwilling to throw away our wood, we ran with our turns on our
shoulders, when we heard an officer hallooing—“Throw away your
wood and bring your horses into camp.” We obeyed the order as
quickly as possible. We found our Orderly at his post, directing the
men to load their guns and get into line. Every man was at his proper
place in a few minutes. By this time the Mexican army was in sight,
and had formed in battle array at a distance of a mile from us.
Presently an officer came out of their ranks, handsomely mounted
and bearing a black flag. Col. Mitchell, accompanied with the
interpreter, rode up to meet him on half way ground to inquire his
business. He told them he had come to demand the surrender of our
entire force, by submitting, he said, our lives would be spared—if we
did not, every man would be put to death. Our interpreter cut short
his harangue by telling him to “go to h— and bring on his forces.” In
the meantime our company (the Chihuahua Rangers) received
orders from head quarters to right about face, and march from the
right, where we were somewhat protected by brush, weeds and
gopher hills, to the extreme left, in open ground to withstand the
charge of the Mexican cavalry; so off we marched in double quick
time to our position on the left. Our Captain here told us to reserve
our fire till the enemy was in fair rifle distance, and added that he
hoped no man in his command would act the coward, but all would
do their duty as volunteers and American soldiers. He had scarcely
done speaking, when the enemy commenced firing at us, from three
to four hundred yards distant. They advanced closer, and continued
to advance, pouring in volley after volley, till the sound of bullets over
our heads reminded me of a hail storm.—We waited impatiently for
the word of command. It was at length given, “fire.” One loud peal of
thunder was heard from our Missouri rifles. Consternation and
dismay was the result, for, thrown into confusion, the Mexicans
commenced obliquing to our left. Another volley, well aimed, caused
them to retreat towards our wagons. Here they were met by a round
from the wagon company. In the meantime Capt. Reid, at the head
of eighteen men, well mounted, pushed after them, chasing them to
the mountains. All their provisions, guns, sabres, camp furniture, &c.,
besides one 10 pound howitzer, fell into our hands. The Mexican
loss was estimated at thirty or forty killed and wounded, while we
had but two slightly wounded. The Mexicans left their dead on the
field.
26th.—With fifteen prisoners and a few wounded Mexicans, we
resumed our march, the main army being flanked on both sides, and
came on 16 miles and encamped in a desolate place filled with thorn
bushes. Here we prepared our supper, and were about to sit down,
when the report of a gun from the picket guard, caused us to
extinguish the fires, and form in line as quickly as possible. Presently
our Lieutenant rode up and said it was a false alarm. We were
ordered to break ranks and get our supper. Again we commenced
that unfortunate meal, when the report of a second gun, so loud as
to be heard by every one, again made us put the fires down. There
was a tremendous clattering of arms, for all formed in line in a few
seconds. At this moment Lieut. Cribbons rode up and said that in
visiting one of the outer pickets, he was requested to give the
countersign by the guard, whose gun was cocked, and he
accidentally let the hammer down too heavily, causing it to explode,
the load passing close to the Lieutenant’s face. After hearing this
statement, we again broke ranks to resume our supper. I stood
sentinel, to guard the wagons and piece of artillery taken from the
enemy, till 12 o’clock, then went to bed—was awakened again at 3,
and stood till 6 o’clock.
Sunday, 27th.—Col. Doniphan wishing an early start, the roll was
called at light and we moved on in the same order as yesterday, with
front and rear guard. We had scarcely travelled six miles, when at a
distance over the river was seen a dust, as if a body of horsemen
were meeting us. We were told to keep cool and obey orders.
Continuing our course we met several Mexicans bearing a white flag.
Their commander coming up, presented Colonels Doniphan and
Mitchell his sabre. They then drank wine and other liquors together,
and we resumed our march, crossed the Rio Grande, and encamped
in the town of El Paso del Norte about night-fall. This is the noted
pass between Old and New Mexico. The town contains about seven
or eight thousand inhabitants, and is built along the margin of the
river, several miles in length. The environs are cultivated to some
extent, and the usual varieties of fruit grow here in abundance. The
river is compressed in many places to a very small compass, by the
high and precipitous mountains, through which it winds its way.
28th.—Established our quarters a mile from the city, where there is a
large coral or enclosure, in which to keep our horses. Throughout the
day a variety of fruit was brought to camp by the natives, and readily
bought up by the soldiers. The wind was high, and we were nearly
blinded by clouds of dust, which being mixed with isinglass is very
hurtful to the eyes.
29th.—To-day Col. Doniphan, while searching the town, found two
pieces of cannon, and after breaking several locks, a good deal of
ammunition was discovered. We all paraded and were carried
through the regular drill.
January 1st, 1847.—The last two days being quite cold, with high
winds, we kept in camp. After the usual parade to-day, Lieutenant
Todd went to town about 10 o’clock in company with several of our
men, but they returned in a short time at full speed, hallooing with all
their might for us to get our horses quickly, and saddle up, for the
Mexicans were coming on us. In a little while we were ready and
marched over the river to join the other regiment, and prepared for
battle. When we arrived at the ground, we were formed by Col.
Doniphan, who despatched Col. Mitchell with twelve men to
reconnoitre the enemy, who were reported to be in sight. In the
course of an hour, they returned and said it was a false alarm. We
then marched to the public square, and informed by our Captain that
arrangements were made to keep us in town, and that our camp
equipage must be sent for. One out of each mess was directed to go
with the wagons for that purpose. We were well supplied with fuel at
night, and our quarters were quite comfortable.
2nd.—Nothing of importance transpired to-day. The roll was called,
and we paraded twice, morning and evening.
Sunday, 3rd.—The usual duties being over, and a high wind
prevailing, we did not go to church. Hearing that a sick horse was in
the coral I went over to see, and found it was my mare. I brought her
out to have her bled and physicked. I went to get assistance, and
when I returned with a friend I found she had escaped; searched the
town three hours without finding her.
4th.—Renewed my efforts to recover my lost horse; walked till three
o’clock, when I found her in the centre of a lot about two miles from
town—dead. I hastened to Col. Mitchell and told him I was on foot,
as my mare had lost breath and was laid up to dry. He advised me to
look about and ascertain if I could suit myself. If I succeeded I was to
call on him again in the morning.
5th.—Our Orderly Sergeant in reading over the names of those to be
placed on mounted guard, cried out mine. Accordingly, I with three
others marched down to the public square, where we paraded, and
dinner, or rather supper, being over, we were placed as sentinels till
three o’clock in the morning. I then went to the guard-fire, spread
down my blanket and slept till day-light.
6th.—To-day we were allowed two-third rations of coarse Taos flour,
some coffee without sugar, and poor mutton. We sometimes got a
few peaches from the inhabitants in exchange for tobacco, buttons,
&c.
7th.—Finding our flour nearly gone I went out and bought a baked
pumpkin to mix with it; saw much fruit exhibited for sale, but had no
money to buy any. Our scouting party which had been sent out a few
days ago, returned this evening, bringing three prisoners, a priest
among them. They were captured 12 miles down, on their way to
Chihuahua, with papers containing information of our movements to
the Mexican army in that quarter. They were placed under strict
surveillance.
Sunday, 10th.—I went to church with a number of others, and
witnessed all the ceremonies, and manœuvres of this singular
people. The church is large, and the handsomest and best built
house in the place. I saw the representation of Christ in the
sepulchre, with various other images in and near the altar. On our
return we found multitudes in the open street playing cards—sorry to
say, some were American soldiers.
13th.—Our time begins to hang heavily. The ordinary duties of the
day are soon accomplished, and no novelty to amuse or excite, the
soldiers become restless and are ready for any excess. Our living
consists of poor mutton, the miserable Taos flour and a little coffee.
Some complain and others “hook” what they can to improve their
fare.
14th.—I was taken last night with a violent headache and pain in the
bowels. My diarrhœa having become much worse I got up and went
to the Surgeon, who gave me 15 grs. calomel, 10 do. jalap, 5 do.
rhubarb and 2 do. tartar, all mixed up together in a dose. I took this
monstrous compound and sat by the guard-fire till morning, I then
laid on my blanket and slept till 3 o’clock in the evening. Needing
some refreshment, I tried my mess, but they had nothing I could
relish; I went to Sergeant Edwards and he gave me a lump of sugar
to sweeten my coffee. I tried in vain to borrow a picayune to
purchase some molasses. At length I applied to a messmate who
had come to me a few days after my horse had died, bringing a
mule, and saying if I would consent to let him draw the rations of my
horse I should have the use of this mule. Yesterday I understood he
had sent his mule away to graze, and was selling my corn. When I
presented my petition, he turned his back as a refusal, and went
down among the gamblers and lost every cent.
15th.—Feeling disordered and ill, I applied early to our Surgeon, who
gave me a small lump of sugar, charging me to take particular care
of the article, as it was only intended for the sick. He felt my pulse
and made me swallow a large dose of salts and tartar; I then went to
my blanket.
16th.—I awoke this morning with a high fever and headache. The
Surgeon gave me a large pill, and I was placed in the hospital, under
the particular care of a doctor, whose name I could not learn, but
who said he was from Philadelphia, and could out-practice any man
in the regiment. Wishing some coffee, he very politely took a pinch of
sugar between his thumb and finger to sweeten it for me, talking the
while of “his superior skill,” &c.
17th.—Still in the hospital, but feeling better, I applied to the Quarter
Master, who gave me four pints of American flour; I baked a small
cake to eat with my coffee. At night I spread my blanket in the tent,
and slept with my mess.
18th.—At the sound of the reveille I arose and strolled over the
graveyard, where the remains of young Leland were interred
yesterday. This young man died of the fever prevailing among the
troops, and his grave is close to the wall, fronting an old church in
ruins. Piles of bones lay around—in the centre of some of the hills
were erected wooden crosses.
21st.—Since Tuesday last I have been ill in the hospital, with high
fever and headache—bed hard and uncomfortable, consequently
little sleep or rest. The doctor, in his round, asked me why I was not
out at the roll-call this morning, as my name was erased, by his
direction, from the sick list. He said there was nothing the matter with
me, and he would give me no more medicine. He charged me with
being home-sick, &c. &c., with many other tender and endearing
epithets. Weak and quite unwell, I left the hospital and found my way
to Col. Doniphan’s quarters, I consulted Dr. Morton, who, with
expressions of sympathy, gave me the necessary restoratives. I had
symptoms of jaundice, with very sore eyes.
26th.—I was somewhat recovered from my illness, through the
humane treatment of Dr. Morton, but I still suffered considerably from
my eyes. I felt much regret that I was prevented from joining Capt.
Hudson, who took our company on a scout, and will be gone several
days. I begin to feel weary of our detention here, occasioned by the
non-arrival of Capt. Weightman with the artillery from Santa Fe. Col.
Doniphan is hourly expecting this reinforcement.
27th.—Last evening a fellow was caught by our outer picket guard,
who could give no satisfactory account of himself, and told so many
contradictory tales, that our Colonel sent him to the guard-house. At
ten o’clock our company returned from the scouting expedition; they
went down to the fort, 25 miles off, and found it was deserted. They
think it very likely we shall have no fighting to do at Chihuahua.
29th.—While on guard to-day over the prisoners taken at the battle
of Bracito, I thought I would write in my journal, I searched my belt
for it in vain. It was gone!—taken out probably by some mischievous
soldier in the tent. In this book I had faithfully kept an account of
every thing interesting to myself at least, since the day I left Carroll
County, Missouri. Having another blank book I commenced writing
again, but felt provoked at my loss.
30th.—This morning, being relieved from the duty of sentinel, I went
immediately to Capt. Hudson and stated the loss of my journal. He
asked me a number of questions in relation to it, and appeared
pleased at so unusual an undertaking in a private. He went forward
and told the soldiers that Maryland’s book must be restored or every
man in his command should be searched.
31st.—The impatience of our boys for the arrival of the artillery has
induced several to go out to meet it. This evening some of them
returned, and said it was not more than 30 miles off. To-day my book
was found on the floor of the tent. The robber was no doubt alarmed
by the Captain’s order, and dropped it in the most convenient place.
February 1st.—We paraded early, and about 12 o’clock several
rounds from our artillery-men, just across the Rio Grande,
announced the arrival of Capt. Weightman from Santa Fe, with four
six pounders and two twelve pound howitzers. They marched in town
in right order; our men firing the salute from our piece of captured
cannon just as they reached the public square. This company is an
important acquisition to our small force.
3d.—Early orders were received that Lieut. Col. Mitchell, at the head
of the Chihuahua Rangers, would move down to the fort to-day.
Every thing being in readiness we came on in double file, and arrived
at sunset at a pretty little village. Our provision wagons being
delayed on the road, every thing like food in this small place was had
in requisition by the orders of the Colonel, and we made our supper
on pies, cheese, bread, &c.
4th.—This morning we were told to saddle up and hasten forward to
overtake the traders, who had disobeyed orders in preceding us; we
were ordered to bring them back. In obedience to the order we
started and travelled 13 miles. On the way we saw several
Mexicans, who endeavored to elude our observation. Our first and
second Lieutenants wishing to know who they were, and on what
errand bent, gave chase. After a run of two miles at full speed, they
were overtaken and searched. One was the alcalde from the town
where we staid last night. We halted late in the evening on the road,
where we met a Mexican fully armed, gun, sabre, &c. He was also
stopped and minutely examined, but no papers being found on his
person, he was suffered to pass.
5th.—Marched on several miles, overtook and encamped with the
traders, who had formed their wagons in a pen or coral, tried to
refresh ourselves on a supper of black bread, poor beef, and
sassafras tea, cooked over a fire of thorn bushes. The traders sell
the bark of the sassafras at $1 per pound. A small cup of the
decoction cost 25 cents to-night.
6th.—The ground was so uneven we did not erect our tents, but
spread our blankets and went to bed; the cold prevented any thing
like refreshing sleep. We arrived late at our former encampment, and
found Col. Mitchell had returned from El Paso, whither he had gone
to see Col. Doniphan. He brought news, which was currently
reported there, viz. that Gen. Taylor had been overpowered at San
Louis Potosi by the Mexicans, and was imprisoned, with 4000
regulars. Of course this was a Mexican story, told no doubt for effect
—and it had its effect upon our boys, for it made us feel as if we
could fight like lions against the treacherous foe. We waited at this
place for Col. Doniphan, who was making every preparation for our
dangerous trip. I made for my own use to-day a pair of wooden
spurs.
7th.—This morning after roll-call and breakfast, we fed our horses
and mules, and tried to rest and amuse ourselves. At supper I made
some pancakes, without milk or eggs, unfortunately I put rather too
much salt in my batter. Fifteen men were sent down the river on a
scouting expedition to-night. My name was called to be on guard, so
I gathered up my blanket and went into the line with the rest. I was
placed in first relief, near the river. I walked two hours, then went to
bed at 12 o’clock by the guard-fire; I was awakened by the Corporal
at three, and stood till morning.
8th.—Prepared my clothes by washing and mending, for our
departure. Boiled some beans and beef for my mess. The weather
was very disagreeable, and we all felt weary of our delay.
9th.—While busily engaged fixing up to-day, Col. Doniphan came on
with the artillery and encamped near us. All is now bustle and
excitement, as it is said we shall start in the morning.
10th.—Col. Doniphan has concluded to stay here to-day with the
army, as it is very cold and cloudy. Our boys are making desperate
efforts to amuse themselves. Among other things, our sutler is here
with his establishment, and whiskey is selling at 75 cents per pint.
With some honorable exceptions, the scene among officers and men
may be much “better imagined than described.”
11th.—The whole of Col. Doniphan’s regiment, including the
Chihuahua Rangers, started this morning for the South to join Gen.
Wool. We marched in right order 12 miles, and encamped on the
bank of the river.
12th.—The wagons not coming in last night, some uneasiness was
expressed by our Commander, when, with fifteen others, I returned
to where we encamped the night before, and found the train just
about to move on. We passed a caravan, who told us they had lost
the last night 250 mules and 50 yoke of oxen, driven off by the
Indians. We came to our camp and found cooking to be the order of
the day. We are about entering another jornada, and provisions for
four days must be packed.
13th.—Detained here to have all in complete readiness. The Indians
were at their thievish work again. Last night they drove off some
cattle and mules belonging to the traders. The skill and daring
evinced by these bands of savages exceed belief. They follow the
army, and are always prowling around our camp at night.
Sunday, 14th.—Although on mounted guard nearly all night, I made
all the haste I could to eat an early breakfast and saddle up. I was
among the first in the ranks. Here we were told that the burial of two
soldiers, who expired last night, would only detain us a few minutes
longer. The mournful ceremony ended, we started at 8 o’clock; came
on the jornada five miles, and halted to feed our horses and mules. I
was in the rear guard behind the prisoners all day—travelled a long
and wearisome journey through the sand until 8 o’clock at night. I ate
a small piece of bread and meat, and spread my blanket at the
guard-fire, where I slept till four. I was awakened by the officer of the
watch and stood till six. I was at last relieved by the sound of the
tattoo.
15th.—12 miles further on we stopped to eat breakfast, which was a
cold cut. We again moved on, and came 20 miles through this
jornada and encamped late in the night. No water was as yet to be
seen. Our Sergeant measured to each man a half pint. One man
sold his half pint for 50 cents.
16th.—We made an early start, and after marching 15 miles, came
to some puddles of dirty water. Our horses and mules rushed in and
drank all they could get. Ascending the hill before us a spring was
discovered, but the water was muddy and brackish. At night had a
slight shower of rain, with lightning and thunder.
17th.—On awaking, the first thing I heard was that a man in our
company was dead. The poor fellow had left a wife and family in
Missouri to serve his country. He was taken sick at El Paso, with the
measles, and had come thus far to die. We followed his remains to
the grave, where our Captain stood forth and made an impressive
speech. He stated that “this was the third time he had been called,
on occasions like the present, to perform the mournful duty to men in
his command, and that it was wisdom for each and all to prepare for
the worst,” &c. The usual rounds were fired, and we covered poor
Tolly over with soap-weed, and filled up the grave. After trampling the
dirt and leveling the ground, we marched off in right order to this
spot, where we shall rest to-day.
18th.—Loaned my mule to a soldier who had lost his horse, to
enable him to go in search. I was rewarded for this favor, by being
compelled to stay behind my company several hours, till he returned
with his horse. We pursued our journey two miles, and overtook the
command at a Hot Spring, which was discovered on the top of a
small eminence. It boiled up very curiously in the centre, covering
the surface with bubbles. The temperature about 100 degrees. The
water is scarcely fit to drink, having a very disagreeable taste,
nevertheless, the men filled their canteens, saying they would drink it
when it got cold enough. The country still presents a barren
appearance, the soil sterile; the surface rocky and mountainous. We
marched 14 miles, and about sunset, encamped close to a small
stream, which supplied a few poor villagers with water. The people
busied themselves in preparing for us, what they could, viz. a little
muskeet brush to cook with, and corn for our cattle. In crossing this
jornada, the teamsters were obliged to throw away 5000 pounds
flour, and leave several wagons behind—the mules being unable to
proceed.
19th.—After a journey of such length over uneven ground, the
fatigue of the army induced our Commander to remain in camp to-
day. About two o’clock the wind began to rise, and increased in
violence till the tents were leveled to the ground. We tried to cook by
digging pits in which to place the fire. The sand blowing in clouds,
covered our food; making it gritty and unpleasant to eat. As night
came on, a heavy storm of wind stripped our wagons of their covers.
Quite unsheltered, we had to do the best we could, and that was bad
enough. We laid down, as we had often done before, on our
blankets. We slept uncomfortably on hillocks and tufts of grass.
20th.—The wind having abated, we were all in line at an early hour—
came nine miles through this ranch, to the mouth of another jornada.
Here the same scene of desolation is presented. No cultivation to be
seen any where, nor scarcely any natural vegetable production
except the thorn and muskeet brush. The days are warm, and the
nights very cold, in this region.
21st.—Marched ten miles out to the Hot Springs, which are situated
in a ranch, and encamped. The army will here halt a day or two. The
same arrangements are to be made as before. While cooking my
meat and bread, I was informed by the Orderly, that with 18 others, I
was appointed to go before the command several miles. Hastily
despatching the meal, we mounted and rode out a long distance,
where we had to stand all night. We made a small fire of brush weed
on the road side.
22d.—I was relieved from duty early this morning by the next detail.
Feeling much disordered from loss of rest and fatigue. I was greatly
obliged to a messmate who very thoughtfully brought me some water
and a piece of bread for my breakfast. The army appearing—we
went into line by sections of four, and marched 17 miles where we
encamped at a place where the men had water; but none could be
spared to the poor horses and mules. After eating some bread, we
laid down on the ground and went to sleep.
23d.—Without waiting for refreshment of any kind, we came on to-
day eight miles to a pond, where we watered our horses and mules
—we stopped for the poor animals to graze awhile and then
proceeded three miles, when we halted for the night at a stream of
water. Several antelopes were killed to-day. After the tents were
fixed up, we boiled some of the flesh, which made fine eating; the
repast was seasoned with a good appetite; a fast of nearly forty-eight
hours, had made us hungry enough.
24th.—In conversation with my Captain—I expressed a wish to go
up a neighboring mountain, as I understood a large Tagoon could be
seen from its summit. He told me to go and make all the
observations I could. Having no time to lose, I commenced its
ascent, by climbing over large rocks, in which were formed several
immense caves—some of them I thought were well fitted to be the
resort of robbers. At length I found myself on the top, and set down

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Flight Mechanics Modeling and

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Second edition published 2023

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 Jitendra R. Raol and Jatinder Singh

First edition published by CRC Press 2008

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 9781032276090 (hbk)

Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9781032276090

Chapter 1 Aerodynamic Principles and Fundamentals���������������������������������������13

1.6  Energy Awareness, Convergence, and Management��������������� 29

Chapter 2 Engineering Dynamics........................................................................ 35

Chapter 3 Equations of Motion............................................................................ 71

Chapter 4 Aerodynamic Derivatives.................................................................. 107

4.3.2.4  Effect of Change in Elevator Control

Chapter 5 Mathematical Modeling and Simplification of Equations of Motion......151

5.2.2.4 Diagonal Canonical Form......................... 172

Chapter 6 Flight Simulation............................................................................... 223

6.2.11 Turbulence and Gust Models..................................... 235

Chapter 7 Flight Test Maneuvers and Database Management........................... 261

7.5 Input Signals for Exciting Maneuvers.................................... 270

Chapter 8 Flight Control.................................................................................... 301

8.2.1 Bode Diagrams and Transfer Functions.................... 303

8.10.2.4 Non-Model-Based Approach..................... 357

Chapter 9 System Identification and Parameter Estimation for Aircraft........... 367

9.6 Analysis of Large-Amplitude Maneuver Data....................... 401

Chapter 10 Aircraft Handling Qualities Analysis............................................... 441

10.4.2.5 Roll Performance....................................... 454

Chapter 11 Aeroservoelastic Concepts................................................................ 471

11.2 Flight Dynamics of a Flexible Aircraft.................................. 473

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

Jatinder Singh joined as a senior scientist in the

Flight mechanics is a bit difficult subject to understand, especially for non-aerospace

Accurate prediction/estimates of (force/

I.2 FLIGHT SIMULATION

I.3 FLIGHT CONTROL

I.4 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANNs) IN CONTROL

I.5 FUZZY LOGIC-BASED CONTROL

I.6 EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT CONTROL-PILOT INTERACTIONS

Use of ANNs and Fuzzy logic in

Model Model Model

Scheduling CONTROL System Sensor,

Aerodynamic Sensor multiple

Sensor measurement and air data

Thus, the important features of flight mechanics-dynamics are measurements,

Dynamics of control /systems

I.7 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

Chapter 2 deals with some fundamental aspects of engineering mechanics/dynamics,

FIGURE 1.1 Pitot-static tube.

1.1.5 Airspeeds-IAS, CAS, EAS, TAS

1.1.6 Bernoulli’s Continuity Equations

m 1 = ρ1 A1V1; m 2 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.21)

m 1 = m 2 or ρ1 A1V1 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.22)

FIGURE 1.2 Stream tube.

Chapter 1 Aerodynamic Principles and Fundamentals��13

1.6 Energy Awareness, Convergence, and Management�� 29

4.3.2.4 Effect of Change in Elevator Control

6.2.11 Turbulence and Gust Models..................................... 235

7.5 Input Signals for Exciting Maneuvers.................................... 270

8.2.1 Bode Diagrams and Transfer Functions.................... 303

8.10.2.4 Non-Model-Based Approach..................... 357

10.4.2.5 Roll Performance....................................... 454

11.2 Flight Dynamics of a Flexible Aircraft.................................. 473

I.2 FLIGHT SIMULATION

I.3 FLIGHT CONTROL

I.4 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS (ANNs) IN CONTROL

I.5 FUZZY LOGIC-BASED CONTROL

I.6 EVALUATION OF AIRCRAFT CONTROL-PILOT INTERACTIONS

I.7 CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

1.1.5 Airspeeds-IAS, CAS, EAS, TAS

1.1.6 Bernoulli’s Continuity Equations

m 1 = ρ1 A1V1; m 2 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.21)

m 1 = m 2 or ρ1 A1V1 = ρ2 A2V2 (1.22)