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 FOUNDATIONS OF
COMPUTING
Fifth Edition

Essential for
Computing Studies, Profession and Entrance
Examinations
 FOUNDATIONS OF
COMPUTING
Fifth Edition

Essential for
Computing Studies, Profession and Entrance
Examinations

Pradeep K. Sinha
Priti Sinha

www.bpbonline.com
FIRST EDITION 2023
Copyright © BPB Publications, India
ISBN: 978-93-5551-254-3

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed or

transmitted in any form or by any means or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher with the exception to
the program listings which may be entered, stored and executed in a computer
system, but they can not be reproduced by the means of publication, photocopy,
recording, or by any electronic and mechanical means.

LIMITS OF LIABILITY AND DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY

The information contained in this book is true to correct and the best of author's
and publisher's knowledge. The author has made every effort to ensure the
accuracy of these publications, but publisher cannot be held responsible for any
loss or damage arising from any information in this book.

All trademarks referred to in the book are acknowledged as properties of their

respective owners but BPB Publications cannot guarantee the accuracy of this
information.

Distributors:
BPB PUBLICATIONS
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Published by Manish Jain for BPB Publications, 20 Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New
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www.bpbonline.com
 Table of Contents
LETTER TO READERS

PREFACE

ABOUT LECTURE NOTES PRESENTATION SLIDES

ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 1: CHARACTERISTICS, EVOLUTION, AND

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
Characteristics of Computers
Evolution of Computers
Computer Generations
First Generation (1942-1955)
Second Generation (1955-1964)
Third Generation (1964-1975)
Fourth Generation (1975-1989)
Fifth Generation (1989-Present)
Classification of Computers
Notebook Computers (Laptops)
Personal Computers (PCs)
Workstations
Mainframe Systems
Supercomputers
Client and Server Computers
Handheld Computers
Points to Remember
Questions
CHAPTER 2: INTERNAL DATA REPRESENTATION IN
COMPUTERS
Number Systems Used in Computers
Binary Number System
Octal Number System
Hexadecimal Number System
Converting from One Number System to Another
Converting from Another Base to Decimal
Converting from Decimal to Another Base (Division-Remainder
Technique)
Converting from a Base Other Than 10 to Another Base Other
Than 10
Shortcut Method for Binary to Octal Conversion
Shortcut Method for Octal to Binary Conversion
Shortcut Method for Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
Shortcut Method for Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion
Fractional Numbers
Character Coding Schemes
BCD Code
EBCDIC
Zoned and Packed Decimal Numbers
ASCII
Unicode
Collating Sequence
Binary Arithmetic
Why Binary?
Binary Addition
Binary Subtraction
Binary Multiplication
Binary Division
Why Do Computers Use Additive Method?
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 3: DIGITAL SYSTEMS DESIGN

Boolean Algebra
Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra
Postulates of Boolean Algebra
The Principle of Duality
Theorems of Boolean Algebra
Boolean Functions
Minimization of Boolean Functions by Algebraic Manipulations
Complement of a Function
Canonical Forms of Boolean Functions
Conversion between Canonical Forms
Minimization of Boolean Functions by Map Simplification
Logic Gates
Logic Circuits
Converting Expressions to Logic Circuits
The Universal NAND Gate
The Universal NOR Gate
Design of Combinational Circuits
Design of Half-Adder
Design of Full-Adder
A Parallel Binary Adder
Flip-Flops
Types of Flip-flops
Excitation Tables
Edge-Triggered Flip-Flops
Master-Slave Flip-Flop
Uses of Flip-flops
Sequential Circuits
Flip-flop Input Equations
State Table
State Diagram
Design of Sequential Circuits
Design of Binary Counter
Points to Remember
Questions
CHAPTER 4 : COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
Basic Functions of a Computer
Basic Computer Organization
Basic Functional Units
System Concept
Basic Processor and Memory Architecture
CPU Architectures
Basic Components of CPU
CPU Instruction Set
CPU Registers
Processor Speed
Types of Processors
Memory Architectures
Storage Evaluation Criteria
Main Memory Organization
Main Memory Capacity
Types of Memory Chips
Minimizing Memory-Processor Speed Mismatch
Cache Memory
Memory Interleaving
Hybrid Approach
Memory and I/O Buses
Memory Buses
I/O Buses
Interconnection Architectures
Unibus Architecture
Dual Bus Architecture
DMA Architecture
Multiprocessor System Architectures
Shared Memory Systems
Distributed Memory Systems
Parallel Processing Systems
Points to Remember
Questions
CHAPTER 5: SECONDARY STORAGE
Classification of Secondary Storage
Magnetic Tapes
Basic Principles of Operation
Types of Magnetic Tapes
Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Tapes
Uses of Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic Disks
Basic Principles of Operation
Types of Magnetic Disks
Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Disks
Uses of Magnetic Disks
Optical Disks
Basic Principles of Operation
Types of Optical Disks
Advantages and Limitations of Optical Disks
Uses of Optical Disks
Memory Storage Devices
Solid State Drive (SSD)
Flash Drive (Pen Drive)
Memory Card (SD/MMC)
RAM Disk
Hybrid Secondary Storage Drives
Mass Storage Devices
Disk Array
Automated Tape Library
CD-ROM Jukebox
RAID Storage
RAID Techniques
RAID Levels
Storage Interfaces
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)
SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment)
Fiber Channel (FC)
FireWire
 iSCSI (Internet SCSI)
FC versus iSCSI
DAS, SAN, and NAS
DAS (Direct Attached Storage)
SAN (Storage Area Network)
NAS (Network Attached Storage)
Data Backup
What is Data Backup?
Why Backup Data?
Types of Backup
Backup Policy
Backup versus Archiving
Hierarchical Storage System (HSS)
On-line, Near-line, and Off-line Storage
Hierarchical Storage Management (HSM)
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 6: INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICES

Input Devices
Keyboard Devices
Point-and-Draw Devices
Data Scanning Devices
Digitizer
Electronic-card Reader
Speech Recognition Devices
Vision-Input Systems
Output Devices
Monitors
Printers
Plotters
3D Printers
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Screen Image Projector
Voice Response Systems
 Ergonomically Designed Devices
I/O Interfaces
Device Controllers
Serial and Parallel Ports
SCSI Interface
USB (Universal Serial Bus) Standard
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 7: SOFTWARE
Basic Concepts and Terminologies
What is Software?
Relationship between Hardware and Software
Types of Software
Logical System Architecture
Firmware
Middleware
Acquiring Software
Buying Pre-written Software
Ordering Customized Software
Developing Customized Software
Downloading Public-domain Software
Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
Advantages of SDLC Model
Limitations of SDLC Model
Lightweight SDLC Models
Software Design Approaches
Software Implementation
Software Testing and Debugging
What are Testing and Debugging?
Types of Program Errors
Debugging a Program for Syntax Errors
Debugging a Program for Logic Errors
Software Testing Concepts
Testing Methodologies
 Test-set-generation Techniques
Test-case-selection Techniques
Software Deployment
Changeover Operations
Changeover Methods
System Evaluation
Software Maintenance
Definition
Need for Software Maintenance
Types of Software Maintenance
Importance of Software Maintenance
Controlling Modifications
Tools for Effective Software Maintenance
Software Documentation
What is Documentation?
Need for Documentation
Forms of Documentation
Documentation Standard
Software Engineering
What is Software Engineering?
Need for Software Engineering
Goals of Software Engineering
Principles of Software Engineering
Some Popular Application Software Packages
Word-processing Package
Spreadsheet Package
Graphics Package
Personal-assistance Package
Education Software
Entertainment Software
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 8: PLANNING THE COMPUTER PROGRAM

Purpose of Program Planning
Algorithm
What is an Algorithm?
Sample Algorithms
Quality of Algorithms
Representation of Algorithms
Flowcharts
What is a Flowchart?
Why Use Flowcharts?
Flowchart Symbols
Sample Flowcharts
Levels of Flowcharts
Flowcharting Rules
Advantages and Limitations of Flowcharts
Decision Tables
What is a Decision Table?
Sample Decision Table
Advantages and Limitations of Decision Tables
Pseudocode
What is Pseudocode?
Pseudocodes for Basic Logic (Control) Structures
Sample Pseudocode
Indentation
Advantages and Limitations of Pseudocode
Data Structures
Types of Data Structures
Array
Linked List
Stack
Queue
Hash Table
Tree
Binary Tree
Binary Search Tree
Graph
Heap
Points to Remember
 Questions

CHAPTER 9: PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Analogy with Natural Languages
Machine Language
Advantages and Limitations of Machine Language
Assembly Language
Assembler
Advantages of Assembly Language over Machine Language
Limitations of Assembly Language
Typical Uses of Assembly Language
Assembly Languages with Macro Instructions
High-level Language
Compiler
Linker
Interpreter
Intermediate Language Compiler and Interpreter
Advantages and Limitations of High-level Languages
Object-Oriented Languages
What is Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)?
Fundamental Concepts of OOP
Key Elements of Object-Oriented Paradigm
Procedure-oriented versus Object-oriented Programming
Advantages of OOP
Some High-level Languages
Dealing with So Many High-level Languages
Why So Many High-level Languages?
Characteristics of a Good Programming Language
Selecting a Language for Coding an Application
Other Types of Languages
Scripting Languages
Fourth and Fifth Generation Languages (4GLs and 5GLs)
Markup Languages
Interface Definition Languages (IDL)
Other Related Concepts
 Subprogram
Preprocessor
Postprocessor
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 10: OPERATING SYSTEMS

Basic Concepts
What is an Operating System?
Main Functions of an Operating System
Measuring System Performance
Process Management
Process Management in Early Systems
Multiprogramming
Multitasking
Multithreading
Multiprocessing
Time-sharing
Mutual Exclusion
Deadlock
Memory Management
Uniprogramming Memory Model
Multiprogramming Memory Models
Memory Fragmentation
Paging
Virtual Memory
File Management
File Structure
File Access Methods
File Operations
File Naming
Directories
Disk Space Allocation Methods
Device Management
Controlling I/O Devices
 Simple and Easy User Interface to I/O Devices
Spooling
Command Interpretation
Shell
Operating System Structure
Layered Structure
Kernel
Monolithic Kernel versus Microkernel
Resident and Non-Resident Operating System Modules
OS Capability Enhancement Software
Translating Programs
Library Programs
Utility Programs
Some Popular Operating Systems
UNIX
MS-DOS
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows Server (Earlier Known as Windows NT)
Linux
Mac OS
iOS
WatchOS
Android OS
Real-time, Network and Distributed Operating Systems
Real-time Operating Systems
Network and Distributed Operating Systems
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 11: DATABASE AND DATA SCIENCE

Data versus Information
Data Storage Hierarchy
Standard Methods of Organizing Data
File-oriented Approach
Database-oriented Approach
 File Management System
File Types
File Organizations
File Utilities
Database Management System
Database Models
Main Components of a DBMS
Creating and Using a Database
Database Security
Client-Server Database Systems
Distributed Database Systems
Active Database Systems
Multimedia Database Systems
Requirements for Multimedia Database Systems
Data Science
Stages in Data Science
Data Warehousing
Need for a Data Warehouse
Building a Data Warehouse
Data Warehousing Terminologies
Data Mining
Classification of Data Mining Algorithms
Data Mining Techniques
Data Warehousing versus Data Mining
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 12: DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND COMPUTER

NETWORKS
Basic Concepts
Basic Elements of a Communication System
Data Transmission Modes
Data Transmission Speed
Data Transmission Media
Digital and Analog Data Transmission
 Modulation Techniques
Modems
Analog versus Digital Transmission
Data Transmission Services
Communication Processors
Multiplexers
Concentrators
Front-End Processors (FEP)
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous Transmission
Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
Message Switching
Packet Switching
Routing Techniques
Place Where Routing Decisions are Made
Static and Dynamic Routing
Network Topologies
Network Types (PAN, LAN, CAN, MAN, and WAN)
Communication Protocols
Roles of a Communication Protocol
Concept of Layered Protocols in Network Design
Network Interface Card (NIC)
The OSI Model
Example of Message Transfer in the OSI Model
Internetworking Tools
Wireless Networks
Types of Wireless Computing Systems
Issues in Wireless Computing Systems
Wireless Applications
Wireless Communication Technologies
Wireless Technologies and Standards
Distributed Computing Systems
Grid Computing
Cloud Computing
 Grid versus Cloud
Service Layers of Cloud Computing
Types of Clouds
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 13: THE INTERNET AND INTERNET OF THINGS

Definition and History
Its Basic Services
Electronic Mail
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Telnet
Usenet News
The World Wide Web (WWW)
WWW Browsers
Web Services
Internet Search Engines
Major Elements of Internet Search Engines
Types of Internet Search Engines
Some Popular Internet Search Engines
Uses of the Internet
Other Related Concepts
Intranet
Proxy Server
Internet Telephony
Microbrowser
Next Generation Internet Protocol (IPV6)
Internet of Things (IoT)
Benefits of IoT
IoT Applications (Uses of IoT)
Challenges in Adoption of IoT
Points to Remember
Question

CHAPTER 14: MULTIMEDIA COMPUTING

 What is Multimedia?
What is a Multimedia Computer System?
Multimedia Components
Text
Graphics
Animation
Audio
Video
Multimedia Applications
Applications in Education Sector
Applications in Entertainment Sector
Applications in Corporate Sector
Applications in Science and Engineering Sector
Data Compression
Types of Compression Techniques
Basic Compression Techniques
Some Standard Multimedia Compression Techniques
Multimedia Synchronization
Temporal Specification
Temporal Synchronization
Media Center Computer
Media Center PC Features and Functionalities
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 15: INFORMATION SECURITY

Security Policies versus Mechanisms
Security Goals
External, Internal, and Communication Security
Potential Attacks to Computer Systems
Passive Attacks
Active Attacks
Cryptography
Basic Concepts and Terminologies
Basic Requirements
 Symmetric and Asymmetric Cryptosystems
Authentication
What is Authentication?
Types of Authentication Needed
Approaches to Authentication
User Login Authentication
One-way Authentication of Communicating Entities
Two-way Authentication of Communicating Entities
Access Control
What is Access Control?
Access Control Terminologies
Protection Domains
Access Matrix
Implementation of Access Matrix as Access Control Lists
Digital Signature
Firewall
What is a Firewall?
Types of Firewalls
Advantages and Limitations of Firewalls
Software Piracy Protection
What is Software Piracy?
Mechanisms to Protect Software Piracy
e-Mail Security
Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)
Privacy Enhanced Mail (PEM)
Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME)
Spam E-mail and Anti-spam Software
IP Security (IPSec)
What is IPSec?
IPSec Functionality
IPSec Features
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS)
SSL Connection and Session
SSL Architecture
SSL Record Protocol
SSL Change Cipher Spec Protocol
 SSL Alert Protocol
SSL Handshake Protocol
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)
Parties Involved in an Electronic Transaction
An Electronic Transaction Process
Security Requirements of an Electronic Transaction Process
How SET Meets These Security Requirements?
Dual Signature Mechanism of SET
Management of Public Keys
Certification Authority (CA)
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)
Steganography
What is Steganography?
Mechanism to Detect Steganographically-hidden Message
Guidelines for Secure Systems Design
Cyber Laws, Cyber Forensics, and CERT
Cyber Laws
Cyber Forensics
CERT
Points to Remember
Questions

CHAPTER 16: APPLICATION DOMAINS

Electronic Governance (E-governance)
What is E-governance?
Benefits of E-governance
Issues and Challenges in E-governance
E-governance Applications
Geo-informatics
Geo-informatics Applications
Medical Informatics
Medical Informatics Applications
Bioinformatics
What is Bioinformatics?
 Branches of Bioinformatics
Points to Remember
Questions

GLOSSARY

INDEX

KNOW YOUR AUTHOR

 LETTER TO READERS

Dear Reader,
A book that connects well with your thoughts and learning
process can be written undoubtedly by an author who
shares the same thoughts, understanding, and passion for
learning as yours.
Over three decades ago, I introduced my first book with a strong
conviction to the above statement. That commitment continues even
today. I am committed to writing quality books in Computer Science
and associated areas for my readers. To date, I have authored six
textbooks targeted towards this endeavor, and plan to author more
in future.
Wide popularity of my books clearly indicates the support that I have
received from my readers. I express my gratitude and regards to all
my readers for their support and feedback. Your support provides
greater strength and inspires me to work harder towards my
commitment. I look forward to your continued encouragement.
Yours truly,
Pradeep K. Sinha
January 2023
 Preface

Audience
The current edition of Foundations of Computing is based on the
feedback from academia, industry, and candidates preparing for
entrance examinations.

Academia
Several academic institutions today offer degree/diploma/certificate
programs in Computer Science (CS),Computer Applications
(CA), Information Technology (IT), and other related areas.
Few examples of such programs are BE (CS), BE (IT), B.Tech (CS),
B.Tech (IT), MCA, MCS, MCM, M.Sc. (IT), BCA, BCS, B.Sc. (IT), DCA,
PGDCA, C-DAC's Pre-DAC and Diploma programs, and DOEACC
Certificate Courses.
The primary objective of these education programs is to impart
knowledge of the various topics in CS, CA, and IT to their students
to meet the industry's demand for IT professionals. Hence, these
programs include various foundation courses in CS, CA, and IT, such
as Computer Organization, Programming Fundamentals, Digital
Systems Design, Data Structures, Operating Systems, Software
Engineering, Computer Networks, and Information Security. Since
long time, both students and faculty members have wished for a
single comprehensive book that can provide a good coverage of the
essentials of these foundation courses in a consistent style.
Foundations of Computing is designed to meet this requirement of
academia.

Industry
Different IT professionals specialize in different areas. A few such
areas are System Analysis and Design, Application Programming,
System Programming, Data Science, Network Management, and
System Administration. A professional working in one such area
often needs the understanding of other areas for effective delivery of
his/her tasks. For example, a system administrator needs to refer to
topics in operating systems, networking, security, and computer
architecture to perform his/her job effectively. Similarly, an
application programmer needs to refer to topics in software
engineering, operating systems, security, networking, database
management, and computer architecture to develop good
applications. Often, IT professionals refer to the topics in other areas
for broadening their knowledge for their professional growth. This
requires them to refer to multiple books by different authors. Since
long time, they have desired to have a single book that covers all
these topics in sufficient depth. They expect the book to serve as a
good handbook (reference material) for various topics in CS, CA, and
IT to save them from the hassles of purchasing and referring to
multiple books. Foundations of Computing is designed to meet this
requirement of IT professionals.

Entrance Examination Candidates

To have a bright future in any profession today, one cannot ignore
having a sound foundation in IT, because IT is an integral part of all
types of professions. Hence, entrance examinations for admissions
to several educational institutions/programs and entrance tests for
many types of jobs (such as engineering, management, banking,
law, administrative services, journalism, etc.) test basic
understanding of computing concepts of the candidates. For a long
time, candidates preparing for such entrance tests and competitive
examinations have desired for a single book that they can use to
prepare for various topics in computing. Foundations of Computing is
designed to meet this requirement of candidates preparing for
various types of entrance examinations and tests.

Usages
Although, Foundations of Computing is suitable for a wide range of
readers, its four primary usages are as follows:

Textbook
Foundations of Computing is suitable for use as a textbook for the
various foundation courses taught in Master's, Bachelor's, Diploma,
and Certificate programs in Computer Science (CS), Computer
Applications (CA), and Information Technology (IT). Textbook style
of presentation of the topics covered in the book and the Lecture
Notes Presentation Slides included with the book make it suitable for
use as a textbook for such courses. Hence, we recommend its use as
a textbook for several foundation courses taught in CS, CA, and IT
programs.
Reference Book for Students
Where Foundations of Computing is not a prescribed textbook,
students will still find it useful to have it as a reference book. As the
book covers most of the important topics that students of CS, CA,
and IT programs learn during their education programs, they will
find it handy and useful as a reference book during the entire period.
The book will also serve as a good reference book after they
complete their education programs and enter into their professional
career. Hence, we recommend every student of CS, CA, and IT
programs to keep a copy of the book handy and refer to it whenever
required during and even after their education programs.
Reference Book for Professionals
As Foundations of Computing covers the important topics of IT
profession, IT professionals will find it a useful reference book for
addressing their needs. Hence, we recommend every IT professional
to keep a copy of the book and refer to it whenever required during
their professional career.
Preparation Book for Entrance Examination
Candidates
Candidates preparing for entrance examinations for admissions to
several educational institutions/programs and entrance tests for
many types of jobs will find the book handy and useful for preparing
for various topics of CS, CA, and IT. Such candidates will find the
book and its Lecture Notes Presentation Slides the most suitable
material for this purpose. Once they qualify in their desired
examination, they can use the book later as a good reference book
while pursuing their education programs or professional career.

Features

Overall Features
The layout, organization, and contents of the book are carefully
designed to present the various topics of foundation courses in CS,
CA, and IT in an interesting, logical, and informative manner. The
book does not concentrate on any particular computer system or
hardware. Instead, it discusses, in a general setting, the
organization, functions, programming, and usage principles
applicable to all types of computer systems.
All concepts presented in the book are illustrated with practical
examples whenever required. The book also contains numerous
diagrams for better illustration. These features enable the readers to
grasp the presented concepts easily and to use the book effectively
for self-study.
Each chapter contains a section on ‘Points to Remember’that
highlights the important points covered in the chapter.
Each chapter also contains a number of review questions that test
the understanding of the topics covered in the chapter.
The book contains a separate list of abbreviations used in the book,
and a glossary of important terms.
To make the contents interesting to read and easily understandable,
the style of presentation used throughout the book is motivational,
non-mathematical, and explanatory in nature.
The book contains a set of presentation slides for each chapter in
the form of Lecture Notes Presentation Slides. It can serve as lecture
aid, self-paced learning aid, and revision material.
All these features make the book ideal for all types of audience
mentioned earlier.

New Edition Features

Readers will find this edition of the book more useful than its
previous editions because:
We have added new topics and classifications to various
chapters, introducing the readers to the latest trends and
technologies in computing.
We have updated the contents to make it up-to-date.
We have updated the lecture notes presentation slides.
The size of the book is made more handy.
Statistical data indicates that with every new edition of the book, the
number of readers has soared much higher than its previous edition.
This is because every new edition incorporates the suggestions
received from the readers, making the book more suitable for a
larger audience. We expect this edition to have a similar impact.

Contents
The book begins with an introduction to computers. Chapter 1
explains the characteristics of this versatile tool, and its evolution
from its early days to different types and forms in which it is
available today.
Chapter 2 deals with the internal data representation in computers
and the manner in which computers perform various basic
operations (comparison, sorting, addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, etc.) on these data. It begins with the fundamental
concepts of number systems and examples of popular number
systems that are commonly used by computer professionals. It then
presents the popular coding schemes, which computers use to
record data internally.
Chapter 3 deals with the design of digital systems. It begins with an
introduction to Boolean algebra. It then explains how Boolean
algebra, logic gates and flip-flops are used to design digital circuits.
It illustrates the design of digital circuits (both combinational and
sequential) with suitable examples.
Chapter 4 presents an overview of computer system architecture. It
first introduces the basic functional units of a computer system and
then deals with the architectures of processor and memory.
Subsequently, it presents interconnection architectures for
interconnecting the processors, memory, and I/O units. It also deals
with multiprocessor system architectures.
Chapter 5 presents the terminologies, principles of operation, uses,
and trade-offs of different types of secondary storage devices. It also
describes memory storage devices, mass storage devices, RAID
storage, storage interfaces, various options available for processor-
to-storage connectivity (DAS, SAN, and NAS), data backup, and
Hierarchical Storage System (HSS).
Chapter 6 presents the structure and functioning of various types of
I/O devices. It also describes the commonly used types of I/O
interfaces for connecting I/O devices to computer systems.
Chapter 7 introduces the concept of software and explains the need
for both hardware and software for a computer to do useful job. It
describes the various types of software, and the different ways to
acquire or develop software. It presents Software Development Life
Cycle (SDLC) phases, software design approaches (top-down,
bottom-up, and out-of-the-middle), software testing methodologies,
software deployment methods, software maintenance, software
documentation, and software engineering. It also introduces some
popular application software packages.
Chapter 8 deals with the tools that are commonly used for planning
the logic of computer programs. These include flowcharts, decision
tables, and pseudocodes. It also presents the various types of data
structures used in programming. These include array, linked list,
stack, queue, hash table, tree, binary search tree, graph, and heap.
Chapter 9 deals with the programming languages that are commonly
used for writing computer programs. It describes the various
program development tools such as compiler, linker, interpreter,
intermediate language compiler and interpreter, preprocessor, and
postprocessor. It then explains how to choose a programming
language for coding an application.
Chapter 10 presents the need, functionalities, and major
components of an operating system. It deals with the basic design
principles of major components of an operating system, including
process management, memory management, file management,
device management, and command interpretation modules. It also
introduces some popular operating systems (Unix, MS-DOS, MS-
Windows, Linux, MacOS, iOS, WatchOS, Android OS), and some
special types of operating systems (real-time, network, and
distributed operating systems).
Chapter 11 deals with database and data science. It explains the
difference between data and information, and the process of
converting data into information. It describes data storage hierarchy,
standard methods of organizing data, difference between File
Management Systems (FMS) and Database Management Systems
(DBMS), and types of database systems. It also presents the basic
concepts of data science and the stages involved in finding useful
patterns in data to help decision makers make meaningful decisions.
Finally, it introduces the concept of data warehousing and data
mining, and explains the difference between them.
Chapter 12 deals with data communication technologies and their
use in building various types of computer networks. It describes the
techniques, channels, and devices, which communication systems
use to communicate data from one location to another. It then
describes the various types of computer networks, communication
protocols, internetworking tools, wireless communication
technologies, and wireless networks. It also describes a few
paradigms of distributed computing systems, such as grid computing
and cloud computing.
Chapter 13 describes the Internet, its various uses, and tools and
technologies available to the Internet users for making effective use
of the resources on the Internet. It also describes the Internet of
Things (IoT), the new generation of the Internet.
Chapter 14 explains multimedia computing systems and their
applications. It deals with the hardware and software requirements
for processing various multimedia data types (text, graphics,
animation, audio, and video), data compression techniques, and
multimedia synchronization techniques. It also introduces media
center computer, which is a popular electronic equipment used in
homes.
Chapter 15 deals with the security requirements of computer
systems and the various policies and mechanisms, which computer
systems use to deal with them. It describes potential attacks to
computer systems (passive and active type attacks), cryptography
(symmetric and asymmetric cryptosystems), authentication
mechanisms (in stand alone and networked systems), access control
mechanisms, digital signature, firewall, software piracy protection, e-
mail security, IPSec., Secure Socket Layer (SSL), Transport Layer
Security (TLS), Secure Electronic Transaction (SET), Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI), and steganography. It also presents the
guidelines for designing secure systems, and introduces cyber laws,
cyber forensics, and CERT (Computer Emergency Response Team).
Chapter 16 deals with a few popular application domains including e-
governance, geoinformatics, medical informatics, and bioinformatics.
 Acknowledgement
A book of this type naturally evolves from a number of ideas from
previous books dealing with the subject matter presented in this
book. The authors express their thanks to all these authors, too
numerous to acknowledge individually.
We are indebted to all the readers and other experts who have used
the earlier editions of this book and have provided valuable inputs
about its contents. Their inputs have helped in gradually improving
the quality of the book from one edition to another.
We are thankful to Mr. Gaur Sunder for providing valuable inputs on
technical contents of the book. His inputs have helped in improving
the book's quality.
We are thankful to Mr. Akash Mondal and Mr. Harshit Poddar for
designing the cover of this edition of the book, and to Mr. Rajeev
Rudrakshi for his help in improving the quality of the Lecture Notes
Presentation Slides.
We are thankful to Mrs. Sushma Pawar, Mrs. Prajakta Kulkarni, Mrs.
Arpita Kulkarni and Mr. Sandeep Kesavan for their support activities.
We are also thankful to Mr. Manish Jain and other members of BPB
Publications for their support and help in publishing the work.
Finally, we would like to thank our son, Deeptanshu, for his loving
support and understanding during the entire period of this long
project.
We dedicate the book to our parents whose sacrifices, love, and
affection made us capable of carrying out such work.
Pradeep K. Sinha
Priti Sinha
January 2023
 About Lecture Notes
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How to Access the Lecture Notes Presentation
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 Abbreviations

1, 2, 3, 4, 5
1G First Generation
2G Second Generation
3D Three Dimensional
3G Third Generation
4G Fourth Generation
4GL Fourth Generation Language
5G Fifth Generation
5GL Fifth Generation Language

A
A Accumulator register
A/D Analog-to-Digital
ABC Atanasoff Berry Computer
ACL Access Control List
ACM Association for Computing Machinery
AHCI Advanced Host Controller Interface
AI Artificial Intelligence
AL Arbitrated Loop
ALGOL ALGOrithmic Language
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
AM Amplitude Modulation; Manufacturing
AMD Advanced Micro Devices
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AOL America OnLine
APL A Programming Language
ARPANE Advanced Research Project Agency Network
T
AS Authentication Server
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
ASD Adaptive Software Development
ASP Agile Software Process
ATA Advanced Technology Attachment
ATM Automatic Teller Machine; Asynchronous Transfer Mode

B
B2B Business to Business
BARC Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
BASIC Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BCD Binary Coded Decimal
BIOS Basic Input Output System
BIPS Billions of Instructions Per Second
B-ISDN Broadband ISDN
BLOBs Binary Large OBjects
BMP Basic Multilingual Plan
BNA Burroughs Network Architecture
BOT Beginning-Of-Tape
BPI Bytes Per Inch
BPS Bytes Per Second
BSD Berkeley Software Distribution
BSNL Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited

C
C# C sharp
CA Certification Authority
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAE Computer Aided Engineering
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAN Campus Area Network
CASE Computer Aided Software Engineering
CAV Constant Angular Velocity
CBC Cipher Block Chaining
CBQ Content Based Querying
CBR Content Based Retrieval
CCITT Consultative Committee for International Telephony and
Telegraphy
CD Compact Disk
C-DAC Centre for Development of Advanced Computing
CDC Control Data Corporation
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CDPD Cellular Digital Packet Data
CD-R CD-Recordable
CD- Compact Disk Read Only Memory
ROM
CD-RW CD Read/Write
CERT Computer Emergency Response Team
CGA Color Graphics Adapter
CGI Common Gateway Interface
CHS Cylinder Head Sector
CISC Complex Instruction Set Computer
CL Command Language
CLI Common Language Infrastructure; Command Line
Interface
CLR Common Language Runtime
CLV Constant Linear Velocity
CNC Computer Numeric Control
COBOL COmmon Business Oriented Language
CODAS Conference On DAta SYstems Languages
YL
COM Computer Output Microfilm; Component Object Model
CORBA Common Object Request Broker Architecture
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