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 Southwest Asia
7
and North Africa
Learning Objectives

• Explain how latitude and topography produce the region’s distinctive patterns of climate.
• Describe how the region’s fragile, often arid setting shapes contemporary environmental
challenges.
• Describe four distinctive ways in which people have learned to adapt their agricultural
practices to the region’s arid environment.
• Summarize the major forces shaping recent migration patterns within the region.
• List the major characteristics and patterns of diffusion of Islam.
• Identify the key modern religions and language families that dominate the region.
• Identify the role of cultural variables in understanding key regional conflicts in North Africa,
Israel, Syria, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.
• Summarize the geography of oil and gas reserves in the region.
• Describe traditional roles for Islamic women and provide examples of recent changes.

Chapter Outline

I. Introduction: Southwest Asia and North Africa is an awkward term and complex
region; sometimes called “Middle East”; problems with identifying geographical limits
of region; diverse social milieu; region is a key culture hearth—produced many new
cultural ideas that diffused widely; many key members of Organization of the Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) are located here; Islamic Fundamentalism in region
advocates return to more traditional practices; a related political movement is
Islamism—challenges the encroachment of global popular culture and blames Western
society for political, social, and economic problems; Cairo’s Tahrir Square was a
gathering point in the Arab Spring movement—a series of public protests, strikes, and
rebellions that called for fundamental government and economic reforms; the place of
Tahrir Square became a symbol

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II. Physical Geography and Environmental Issues: Life in a Fragile Word: a complex
physical setting that belies the stereotype of shifting sands; a fragile environment that
faces difficult ecological problems
A. Regional Landforms: in North Africa, the Maghreb (“western island”) includes
Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia—is dominated near Mediterranean coastline by
Atlas Mountains; interior North Africa varies between rocky plateaus and
extensive desert lowlands; Southwest Asia is more mountainous; the Levant—
eastern Mediterranean; Arabian Peninsula is massive tilted plateau; north and east
of Arabian Peninsula are two upland areas: the Iranian and Anatolian plateaus
(Anatolia refers to peninsula of Turkey—sometimes called Asia Minor); smaller
lowlands in other parts of Southwest Asia, especially the Tigris and Euphrates
river valleys and the Jordan River valley
B. Patterns of Climate: complex pattern resultant from latitude and altitude; aridity
dominates much of region—nearly continuous belt of desert land stretches across
North Africa through Arabian Peninsula into Iran—plant and animal life has
adapted to extreme conditions; elsewhere, altitude produces climatic variety;
Atlas Mountains and nearby lowlands experience Mediterranean climate, also
found along Levant coastline and Anatolian plateaus and Elburz Mountains
C. Legacies of a Vulnerable Landscape: environmental history reflects both short-
sighted and resourceful practices; reveals hazards of lengthy human settlement on
marginal lands; island of Socotra illustrates fragile and vulnerable environment
and shows how processes of globalization threaten area’s ecological health
a. Deforestation and Overgrazing: an ancient problem in region; human
activities combined with natural conditions have reduce most of region’s
forests to grass and scrubs; several governments have launched
reforestation schemes
b. Salinization: the buildup of toxic salts in the soil is long problem;
resultant from irrigation practices; problem especially severe in Iraq
c. Managing Water: occupants have modified drainage systems and water
flows for thousands of years—usually at local level; scope of
environmental change in recent years has been magnified, with
construction of major dams, leading to additional problems of silting,
salinization, and collapse of fishing industries; in some places, water-
harvesting strategies have proven useful; fossil water—water supplies
stored underground, have been utilized; some countries investing in
seawater desalination projects; hydropolitics—interplay of water
resource issues and politics—has raised tensions between countries that
share drainage basins; region’s physical geography produced choke
points—where narrow waterways are vulnerable to military blockade
or disruption
D. Climate Change in Southwest Asia and North Africa: projected changes will
aggravate environmental issues; temperature change will likely impact region—
warmer temperatures will produce higher evaporation rates and lower overall soil
moisture thus stressing crops, grasslands, vegetation; may adversely affect
hydroelectric potential; sea-level changes will threaten Nile Delta, thus harming

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agriculture; climate change may augment political tensions; three aspects of the
IPCC 2014 report: higher evaporation and lower soil moisture; warmer
temperatures reduced runoff and hydroelectric potential; more extreme
summertime temperature records
III. Population and Settlement: Changing Rural and Urban Worlds: human geography
of region demonstrates intimate tie between water and life; some areas sparsely
populated, others suffer from crowding and overpopulation
A. The Geography of Population: approximately 500 million people in region,
distribution is varied; dense populations along coasts of Atlas Mountains; much of
Egypt is sparsely populated except along Nile River; in Southwest Asia, many
people live in coastal zones; high population densities in better-watered areas of
eastern Mediterranean, Turkey, and Iran; physiological density—number of
people per unit area of arable land—is very high by global standards
B. Water and Life: Rural Settlement Patterns: Southwest Asia is one of world’s
earliest hearths of domestication—the purposeful selection and breeding of plants
and animals; beginning 10,000 years ago, cattle, sheep, and goats were
domesticated, as well as wheat and barley; much activity focused on Fertile
Crescent—ecologically diverse zone stretches from Levant inland through
northern Syria and into Iraq; knowledge of irrigation and also emergence of
political states contributed to diffusion of agriculture into Tigris and Euphrates
valleys (Mesopotamia) and North Africa’s Nile Valley
a. Pastoral Nomadism: a traditional form of subsistence agriculture where
people move livestock seasonally; nomads practice transhumance—
seasonally moving livestock to cooler, greener high-country pastures in
summer and returning to valleys and lowlands for fall and winter
grazing—practiced in Atlas Mountains and Anatolian Plateau
b. Oasis Life: permanent oases exist where high groundwater levels or
modest deep-water wells provide reliable water; tightly clustered, often
walled villages, with intensely utilized fields located near oases; usually
produce for subsistence—but increased demands for some products (e.g.,
figs and dates) have incorporated these isolated locations into global
economy
c. Exotic Rivers: historically, most dense settlements tied to irrigated river
valleys; here, exotic rivers transport river from humid regions to arid
regions; important in Nile Valley, Jordan River, foothills of Atlas
Mountains, and Anatolian and Iranian plateaus
d. The Challenge of Dryland Agriculture: Mediterranean climates permit
dryland agriculture that depends on seasonal moisture; mechanization,
crop specialization, fertilizer use are transforming agricultural settings
C. Many-Layered Landscapes: The Urban Imprint: cities have played key role
in human geography of region for centuries
a. A Long Urban Legacy: cities historically as centers of political and
religious authority; urbanization in Mesopotamia began by 3500 BCE; early
cities of Eridu and Ur; other cities along trade routes; Islam left enduring
mark on cities; traditional Islamic city includes walled core (medina)

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dominated by central mosque, nearby bazaar (suq) which serves as market,

housing districts as maze of narrow streets for shade and privacy; European
colonialism shaped some cities with westernized architecture
b. Signatures of Globalization: since 1950s cities in region have become
gateways to global economy; new investment, industrialization, tourism—
expanded airports, commercial/financial districts, industrial parks, luxury
tourist facilities; oil-rich states of Persian Gulf have displayed greatest
changes in urban landscape
D. A Region on the Move: new patterns of migration reflect global economy and
recent political events; foreign workers have migrated to areas with large labor
demands—with economic, social, and demographic implications; political forces
have affected migration, including refugee movements; the Syrian conflict has
impacted both neighboring states (Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan) and Europe as a
preferred destination despite the distance
E. Shifting Demographic Patterns: high population growth remains critical issue in
region; currently exhibits varied regional patterns of growth rates; patterns
associated with urbanization and religion
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: Signatures of Complexity: although defined as
Islamic and Arab “world”—religious and linguistic diversity characterize region
A. Patterns of Religion: very important part of lives of most people in region
a. Hearth of the Judeo-Christian Tradition: both Jews and Christians
trace religious roots to eastern Mediterranean hearth; monotheism—belief
in one God; Christianity as outgrowth of Judaism emerged in vicinity of
modern-day Israel
b. The Emergence of Islam: Islam originated in the same general region in
622 CE Islam diffused widely but remains centered in Southwest Asia;
Islam follows religious teachings of Muhammad, founder of Islam, who
was born in Mecca in 570 CE and taught in Medina; parallel Judeo-
Christian traditions but hold that Quran—book of teachings received by
Muhammad from Allah (God)—represents God’s highest religious and
moral revelations to humanity; Islam offers blueprint for leading ethical
and religious life; Islam means “submission to the will of God”; five
essential activities: repeating basic creed; praying facing Mecca five times
daily, giving alms or donations to charities, fasting during Ramadan, and
making at least one pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca; Islamic fundamentalists
argue for theocratic state—in which religious leaders (ayatollahs) shape
government policy; major religion division occurred in 632 CE after death
of Muhammad—Shiites favored passing on power within Muhammad’s
family, while most Muslims, later known as Sunnis, advocated power
passed through clergy; Sunni Islam remains mainstream branch; Islam
diffused along caravan routes and military campaigns; Ottoman Empire
was focus of Muslim political power between 16th and 20th centuries
c. Modern Religious Diversity: Muslims form majority of population in all
countries except Israel—where Judaism dominates; divisions within Islam
create regional cultural differences; most of region dominated by Sunni

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Muslims; but Shiites remain key in some locations, including Iraq, Iran,
and Bahrain—also substantial minorities in Syria, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia,
Yemen, Egypt; other variations of Islam include Sufism, which is
prominent in Atlas Mountains, parts of Turkey; the Druze of Lebanon also
another variant; many non-Islamic communities in region, including
Christians in Lebanon; Jerusalem—Israel’s capital—holds special
significance for Muslims, Jews, and Christians
B. Geographies of Language: although referred to as “Arab World,” linguistic
complexity is present
a. Semites and Berbers: Afro-Asiatic languages dominate region; Arabic-
speaking Semitic peoples found throughout; Arabic language was sacred
language in which God delivered message to Muhammad; Hebrew is
Semitic language—originated in Levant and used by ancient Israelites;
older Afro-Asiatic languages survive in remote locations—collectively
known as Berber, these languages are related but not mutually intelligible
b. Persians and Kurds: much of Iranian Plateau and nearby mountains
dominated by older Indo-European languages; principal tongue is Persian
(standardized modern Persian is usually called Farsi); Kurdish dominates
in northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, northwestern Iran, and eastern
Turkey; Kurds have strong sense of shared cultural identity and are
attempting to gain more political autonomy
c. The Turkish Imprint: Turkish languages are part of larger Altaic language
family; Turkey is core for language, but also present in Central Asia
C. Regional Cultures in Global Context: Islam links region with global Muslim
population; religion’s tradition of pilgrimage is material connection; people
struggle to retain traditional culture values with benefits of global economic
growth; Islamic fundamentalism is reaction to threat posed by external cultural
influences; technology contributes to cultural and political change—Internet, cell
phones, television; hybrid forms of popular culture reflect globalization—e.g.,
Arab hip-hop music
a. Islamic Internationalism: fast growing religion and despite divisions,
there a strong sense of unity both in the region and beyond; the inherent
place-based center of Makkah (Mecca) provides another example of how
globalization has made the city and the Hajj easier to visit
b. Globalization and Technology: struggles with the introduction of
technology and communication innovations as they are often integrated
with western culture, the use of these same elements for recruiting and
propagandizing for terrorist networks highlights the contradictions
c. The Role of Sports: soccer is the dominate sports activity with national
teams participating in regional and world competitions
V. Geopolitical Framework: Never-Ending Tensions: tensions remain high; recent Arab
Spring rebellions led to downfall of governments in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Yemen;
protests also in Bahrain; protracted civil war in Syria; uprisings focused on: charges of
widespread government corruption, limited opportunities for democracy and free
elections, rising food prices, and enduring poverty and high unemployment; other on-

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going issues include future of Israeli-Palestinian relations, Iran’s nuclear ambitions, and
Iraq; some tensions related to colonial past, religious diversity, poverty, and
environmental resources
A. The Colonial Legacy: between 1550 and 1850 region dominated by Ottoman
Empire; later European colonialism, especially France and Great Britain;
construction of Suez Canal linked Mediterranean and Red Seas in 1869—greater
incorporation to world economy; Persia and Turkey never directly occupied by
Europeans—most other places were; European withdrawal began prior to Second
World War, intensified in 1950s—many post-colonial tensions following
independence
B. Modern Geopolitical Issues: on-going geopolitical instability
a. Across North Africa: site of recent dramatic political changes; in Tunisia,
moderate Islamist government replaced deposed dictator; in Libya former
dictator replaced; in Egypt former president replaced; all regions exhibit
complex interplay of religion and politics; Islamist political movements
elsewhere in North Africa—especially Algeria and Morocco; Sudan facing
problems, including split between Sudan and South Sudan; Sudan’s
western Darfur region still site of conflict
b. The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Israel as state created in 1948; zone of
enduring political tensions; Arab Palestinians continue to demand
independent state; Israel’s relations with neighbors remain tense;
agreements for provisional Palestinian state governed by Palestinian
Authority have been proposed—but ongoing violence jeopardizes any
solution; heightened conflict surrounding expansion of Jewish settlements
into Palestinian territories, as erection of security barrier (wall); political
fragmentation of Palestinians compounds problems
c. Instability in Syria and Iraq: political instability (civil war) in Syria—
larger Arab community suspended Syria from Arab League—a regional
political and economic organization focused on Arab unity and
development; Iraq as multinational state and remains unstable following
invasion and occupation by U.S.-led coalition—on-going tensions
between Shiites and Sunnis, as well as Kurds; the emergence of the
Islamic State (ISIL/ISIS) which has semi-governed the adjacent Sunni
dominated areas in both Syria and Iraq
d. Politics in the Arabian Peninsula: Saudi royal family is in transition as a
younger generation of leaders assume control; protests elsewhere in
region, including Bahrain that have both Arab Spring and Saudi-Iran
tension; the emergence of all out warfare in Yemen has pulled the Saudis
and Gulf states into combat and tested the regional alliances (including
U.S. security arrangements as the Syrian War continues)
e. Iran Ascendant? Iran continues to pose problems with nuclear ambitions
and its support of Shiite Islamist elements elsewhere—viewed as threat by
moderate Arab states; the diplomatic agreement with the United Nations has
eased the isolation and economic embargo led by the United States, but as
reform inside the country is matched by an assertion of regional power status

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f. Tensions in Turkey: Turkey, with its connections to the west (NATO

member and EU applicant), has become more of a question mark as
internal politics and regional aspirations seem to contradict themselves;
the Kurds as a large minority is another dimension of the tension
VI. Economic and Social Development: Lands of Wealth and Poverty: extremes of
wealth and poverty; some states very rich because of oil, others are among least-
developed; political instability contributes to region’s overall struggling economy
A. The Geography of Fossil Fuels: global geographies of oil and natural gas reveal
region’s importance to global economy; also reflects uneven distribution of
resources within region; the Persian Gulf stands out with Saudi, Iran, and the Gulf
states playing a disproportionate role in energy
B. Global Economic Relationships: region shares close economic ties with rest of
world—especially but not limited to oil and gas; manufacturing and tourism also
important
a. OPEC’s Changing Fortunes: OPEC does not control oil and gas prices,
but influences cost and availability; many regions (especially Western
Europe, United States, Japan, China) depend on access to resources and
products; other global connections beyond OPEC, including Turkey’s
manufactures and Israeli’s exports
b. Other Global and Regional Linkages: future connections depend on
cooperative economic initiatives apart from OPEC; most Arab states,
though, wary of too much European influence; in 2005 Greater Arab Free
Trade Area (GAFTA) was formed—designed to eliminate intra-regional
trade barriers and to spur economic cooperation; tourism is key link to
global economy
C. Regional Economic Patterns: remarkable economic differences characterize
region
a. Higher-Income Oil Exporters: richest countries of region—Saudi
Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates—owe their wealth
to massive oil reserves; large investments in infrastructure; problems
remain—fluctuations in world oil markets, and also specter of depleting
reserves (especially Bahrain and Oman)
b. Lower-Income Oil Exporters: some countries with reserves of fossil
fuels—but political and economic variables hinder sustained growth—
Algeria for example; also Iraq and Iran
c. Prospering Without Oil: some states have prospered without fossil
fuels—Israel (productive agricultural and industrial base); Turkey
(diversified economy)
d. Regional Patterns of Poverty: Sudan, Syria, Egypt, and Yemen face
unique economic challenges—in part associated with political instability
and minimal resources; poor infrastructure; Egypt suffers from brain
drain; Yemen is poorest country—mostly rural, dominated by marginally
productive subsistence agriculture, high unemployment is widespread;
made worse by civil war

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D. Gender, Culture, and Politics: A Woman’s Changing World: role of women

remains major social issue in region; female labor participation rates among
lowest in world; in conservative parts, women’s access to education, other social
activities limited and actual legal restrictions on women as separate from cultural
restrictions; in some places, women’s roles are changing—some are playing
greater political role; on-going issue over the wearing of the niqab (face veil) or
chador (full-body veil); challenges to driving restrictions as well as participation
in public activities

Summary

• Region has played critical role in world history and process of globalization
• Historically, region was home to early examples of crop and livestock domestication; also
site of some of world’s earliest urban centers; three of world’s great religions—Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam—emerged in region
• Despite rich legacy of global influence and power, peoples of region are currently struggling
because of significant economic problems and political uncertainties. The region has
encountered difficulties and high costs in trying to expand limited supplies of agricultural
land and water resources amid fast-growing populations.
• Political conflicts have disrupted economic development across the region. Civil wars,
conflicts between states, and regional tensions have worked against plans for greater
cooperation and trade. Most importantly, the region must deal with basic inconsistencies
between Western civilization and more fundamentalist interpretations of Islam. The on-going
Israel-Palestinian issue requires a solution.
• As recent Arab Spring movements demonstrate, future cultural and political change is
difficult to anticipate. It will be guided by a complex response to Western influences, a mix
of fascination and suspicion that will produce its own unique regional geography. Southwest
Asia and North Africa will retain its distinctive regional identity, a character defined by its
environmental setting, the rich cultural legacy of its history, the selective abundance of its
natural resources, and its continuing political problems.

Key Terms

Arab League Fertile Crescent

Arab Spring fossil water
brain drain Greater Arab Free Trade Area
choke point Hajj
culture hearth Hydropolitics
domestication ISIL (also ISIS)
exotic river Islamic Fundamentalism

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Islamism physiological density

Levant Quran
Maghreb salinization
Medina sectarian violence
monotheism Shiite
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Suez Canal
Countries (OPEC) Sunni
Ottoman Empire theocratic state
Palestinian Authority transhumance
pastoral nomadism

Reading Review Questions

1. Describe the climatic changes you might experience as you travel on a line from the eastern
Mediterranean coast at Beirut to the highlands of Yemen. What are some of the key climatic
variables that explain these variations?

As you travel from the eastern Mediterranean to the highlands of Yemen you will pass through a
Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and cooler winters, through a tropical/sub-
tropical desert environment, and then a tropical and sub-tropical steppe environment. In the more
highland regions, temperatures will be notably cooler. The two most significant climate variables
are latitude and altitude. Also significant is the influence of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian
Ocean.

2. Discuss five important human modifications of the Southwest Asian and North African
environment, and assess whether these changes have benefited the region.

Five key modifications include irrigation, deforestation, construction of dams, desalination

projects, and urbanization. Some of these include both positive and negative aspects. Irrigation,
for example, helps expand agriculture into more arid locations, but contributes to the salinization
of soils. The construction of dams provides hydroelectricity but has also contributed to the
increased siltation of reservoirs and rivers.

3. Discuss how pastoral nomadism, oasis agriculture, and dryland wheat farming represent
distinctive adaptations to the regional environments of Southwest Asia and North Africa.
How do these rural lifestyles create distinctive patterns of settlement?

Pastoral nomadism is a practice of subsistence agriculture predicated on the seasonal movement

of livestock. Oasis agriculture exists when intensive agricultural practices are established in
places where high groundwater levels or modern deep-water wells provide reliable water.
Dryland agriculture depends on seasonal moisture to support farming and is located in better-
watered valleys of coast lowlands of the region. For the latter two practices, dense (though not
numerically high) population settlements may be found; for the former, nomadism is the
characteristic way of life.

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4. Describe the distinctive contributions of (a) Islam, (b) European colonialism, and (c) recent
globalization to the region’s urban landscape.

Many of the region’s urban centers are historically Muslim cities; these have a distinctive walled
core, or medina, that is surrounded by administrative, religious, and other educational buildings.
Nearby is the suq, or bazaar—an often cosmopolitan marketplace. Housing districts were, and
are, typified by narrow, winding streets affording both shade and privacy. European colonialism
transformed some architectural elements (e.g. Victorian building styles) and selectively altered
existing infrastructure. Recent processes of globalization have expanded infrastructure (e.g.,
airports, industrial parks, luxury tourist hotels) and have modified existing building styles.

5. Summarize the key patterns and drivers of migration into and out of the region.

Two basic elements have affected migration in the region. Economic growth associated with the
oil industry—as well as relative labor shortages—have resulted in widespread in-migration of
foreign workers into places such as Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and the United Arab
Emirates. Some countries, such as Egypt, are also experiencing brain drains, as the more
educated leave for both better economic opportunities and to move away from political
instability. Political instability has also generated substantial refugee flows, such as the
movement of people out of conflict-prone Sudan.

6. Describe the key characteristics of Islam and explain why distinctive Sunni and Shiite
branches exist today.

Islam originated in Southwest Asia in 622 CE. It is based on the teachings of the prophet
Muhammad, who received these from Allah (God); they are contained in the Quran. All
Muslims are expected to follow five essential activities: repeating the basic creed; praying facing
Mecca five times daily; giving charitable contributions; fasting during the month of Ramadan;
and making at least one pilgrimage (Hajj) to Muhammad’s birthplace of Mecca. The two main
divisions of Islam originated and followed the death of Muhammad; at issue was the question of
who would inherit his religious power. The Shiites favored passing power within Muhammad’s
family while a second branch, the Sunnis, believed that power should be passed down through
established clergy.

7. Compare the modern maps of religion and language for the region, and identify three major
non-Arabic speaking areas where Islam dominates. Explain why that is the case.

Islam is pervasive throughout the region; Judaism remains dominant in Israel and Christianity is
important in Lebanon. Most of the region is also dominated by Arabic, an Afro-Asiatic language.
However, in Turkey, Iran, and parts of northern Iraq (all places where Islam is prevalent), other
non-Arabic languages are dominant. This “mis-match” between Arabic and Islamic worlds is
related to the diffusion of Islam into non-Arabic regions and the influence of the former Ottoman
Empire.

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8. Describe the role played by the French and British in shaping the modern political map of
Southwest Asia and North Africa. Provide specific examples of their lasting legacy.

Both France and Great Britain influenced the region through the colonial occupation. Britain for
example incorporated regions such as Kuwait and Bahrain into their empire to control vital sea
routes; France developed much of North Africa to exploit natural resources. Most political
borders today are the result of European colonialism and conflicts and negotiations following
decolonization. The contributions of the British to the split between Israel and Palestine—dating
to decisions made in the early twentieth-century—is most notable.

9. Discuss how the Sunni-Shiite split has recently played out in sectarian violence across the
region.

The religious split has been a proxy for Iran—Saudi Arabian geopolitics. Tensions in Iraq, Syria,
and Yemen all have the religious divide as well as regional geopolitics. Iraq currently has a
political system dominated by Shiites who are the majority with ISIL in the minority Sunni
areas; Syrian rebels as well as ISIL are in the majority Sunni areas, meanwhile, the government
is led by the minority Alawites (Shiite); Yemen’s generally recognized government is primarily
Sunni, with Saudi support, and the Houthis that expanded and evicted the government are Shiite.

10. Explain how ethnic differences have shaped Iraq’s political conflicts in the past 50 years.

Iraq has historically been dominated by Sunni Arabs; yet, the Shiites Arabs were always present
and actually the majority, as well as a sizeable minority of Kurds (also Sunni) located in the
northern portion of the country. Following the recent war and overthrow of the former dictator,
Shiite Arabs have gained political power in the south (and the capital of Baghdad) while Sunni
Arabs remain politically dominant in central and western provinces. The Kurds remain dominant
in the north.

11. Describe the basic geography of oil reserves across the region, and compare the pattern with
the geography of natural gas reserves.

Within the region, the most extensive reserves of oil are concentrated in Saudi Arabia, followed
by Iran, Iraq, United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait. The most extensive reserves of natural gas are
located in Iran and Qatar, with much smaller reserves found in Saudi Arabia, United Arab
Emirates, and Algeria.

12. Identify different strategies for economic development recently employed by nations such as
Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Israel, and Egypt? How successful have they been, and how are they
related to globalization?

Throughout the twentieth-century, Saudi Arabia has relied heavily on its extensive deposits of oil
as an economic strategy. Both Turkey and Israel have developed diversified economies, with
both agricultural and industrial products developed for global consumption. Egypt has a
relatively mixed economy, although tourism is a very important component. The success of any
of these strategies is related to fluctuations in the global price of commodities and existent
political instabilities. Egypt, because of ongoing instability, has seen a downturn in tourism and
an increase in its brain drain.

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Working Toward Sustainability: Desalination in the Desert at Dubai’s Jebel Ali Plant (p.225)

1. While the desalination plant in Dubai may work well, what special challenges might there be
in constructing similar plants elsewhere in the region?

The most obvious challenge is cost. Gulf states are wealthy and can use that to compensate. The
other issue is that these plants are energy intensive, so they work against climate change policies.

2. Where does your daily drinking water come from?

Answers will vary. For example, my tap water comes from an aquifer, and as far as I know it is
relatively clean and the aquifer isn’t being overdrawn.

Exploring Global Connections: The Libyan Highway to Europe (p. 234)

1. From the diverse list of migrant source areas mentioned above, choose two countries and
write a paragraph on each that explains why residents of these areas are willing to make the
journey.

Various combinations are possible. One source of migrants is Syria with its ongoing civil war
that has become a regional crisis. Escaping war and economic and societal collapse is the push
factor. Somalia is a failed state, so trying to find another location to reestablish a sense of a
normal life.

2. Should Europe welcome or curtail these diverse migrants? Defend your answer.

Answers will vary by opinion and argument. Nuanced answer might argue for being allowed in a
legal sense but discouraged because of the risk of migration on the open seas.

Everyday Globalization: Popping Pills from Israel (p. 247)

1. For the American public, describe some of the benefits and drawbacks of depending on a
global geography of prescription drugs.

The benefits of a global drug regime is that generics and essentials produced for less wealthy
consumers are likely to change the cost for Americans downward. A possible side-effect is loss
of quality control and innovation of the drug industry that relies on drug profits to develop the
next generation of drugs.

2. Visit a local pharmacy and select two over-the-counter medications. Can you find out who
manufactured them and where they came from?

Answers will vary by choice of drugs and their origin stories; the Teva example might be
demonstrated but also Canada and Mexico could be possibilities.

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Geographers at Work: How Do We Define “Middle East”? (p. 244)

1. On a blank map of Southwest Asia and North Africa, draw a line around your definition of the
“Middle East” and then write a paragraph defending your answer. Compare your map with
those of classmates.

Answers and arguments will vary. U.S. State Department maps typically show Egypt, Israel,
Turkey, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the Levant excluding the Maghreb and Afghanistan.

2. Select a regional term used locally (“New England,” “Southern California,” “the
Panhandle,” etc.). Have five friends/classmates identify the area on a blank map of the
region and defend their answers. Then summarize and explain their responses.

Answers will vary and the technique/instructions might influence the overall result and
conclusions that are possible.

Other reading questions:

Figure 7.27 Population Pyramids: Egypt, Iran, and United Arab Emirates, 2015:
For each example, cite a related demographic or cultural issue that you might potentially find in
these countries.

Egypt still has a young population that experience population growth despite lowering of birth
rates and fertility rates; Iran has stabilized its growth but has a prominent bulge that will age and
create specific issues; UAE is unique because of the guest worker program that makes a gender
and age distortion.

Figure 7.32 Language Map of Southwest Asia and North Africa:

Cite examples where Islam (see Figure 7.30) dominates in non-Arabic-speaking regions.

The diffusion of Islam into non-Arabic speaking areas is most prominent in Southwest Asia:
modern day Turkey and Iran.

Figure 7.39 West Bank:

Look carefully at the scale of the map. Measure the approximate distance between Jerusalem
and Hebron, and find two local towns in your area that are a similar distance apart.

Approximately 20 miles; answers will vary.

Figure 7.44 Childhood Mortality:

Why might it be argued that childhood mortality is a reliable measure of development?

As an indicator of wealth and health care, childhood mortality is one of many. Underlying the
health care is the socioeconomic conditions that perpetuate high birth rates; three of the four in
the highest category are in a state of conflict.

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Instructor Engagement Ideas

This part of the Instructor Resource Manual contains ideas and suggestions for active learning,
deeper engagement, and expansion of textbook concepts; some are legacies of past editions of
the textbook.

For Thought and Discussion

This section provides questions and topics that can be used to initiate classroom discussion.

1. The allocation of water resources is a problem around the world. The Nile River flows
through many countries. How can the Nile be shared by these different countries? What
agreements exist to regulate the river?

2. Jews, Christians, and Muslims all believe in the same God (Abrahamic religions). In what
other ways are these religions similar? How are they different? What could be some possible
courses of conflict?

3. In some ways, the Arab Spring greatly altered the political landscape of Southwest Asia and
North Africa. However, in other respects, “the more things change, the more they stay the
same.” Think about both the continuities and discontinuities of the Arab Spring. Who has
benefited from these changes? Who has not? Did the civil wars emerge from the Arab Spring?

Exercise/Activity

This section provides exercises and activities that the instructor can integrate into their
classroom lectures.

1. Undertake library and Internet research to learn more about the Kurds. What are their cultural
characteristics? What are their concerns? How are they treated in the countries where they
live? What strategies are they using to achieve greater political autonomy?

2. Conduct research to learn more about OPEC. Discuss how the organization contributed to the
oil embargo of 1973. How important is OPEC for the functioning of the global economy
today?

3. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets
for Southwest Asia and North Africa, activate the generalized tectonics layer under the
physical environment theme. What areas are most seismically active? How might the
physical geography of the region be different in the distant future?

4. Using Pearson’s MapMaster Interactive Maps in MasteringGeography, select the map sets
for Southwest Asia and North Africa, activate the women’s mobility layer under the cultural
theme. In what areas are women most vulnerable to violence? Conduct library research to
learn more about the condition of women in these countries. What strategies have been used
to improve the condition of women’s lives in these places?

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 Chapter 7: Southwest Asia and North Africa

Thinking Geographically

This section provides ideas about chapter topics and concepts.

1. How might a major project for transferring water from Turkey to the Arabian Peninsula
affect the development of Saudi Arabia? What would be some of the potential political and
ecological ramifications of such a project?

Such a project might provide needed water to an arid region, thereby increasing its agricultural
potential. However, such a project would pass through some politically unstable locations, such
as Syria or Iraq. Given that these locations are largely arid, they would demand access to water
as well. Ecologically such a project might increase the salinization of agricultural areas.

2. Why are birthrates declining in some countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa? Despite
the cultural differences with North America, what common processes seem to be at work in
both regions that have contributed to this demographic transition?

Birthrates have declined most in Tunisia, Iran, and Turkey. Many factors explain this trend,
including an increased urbanization of the population—and hence a desire for smaller families;
women likewise have increased both their education and have delayed marriage. Family
planning initiatives are expanding, providing greater access to birth control. These trends have
been in evidence in North American for decades.

3. Imagine being the ruler of a conservative Islamist Arab state. What might be the advantages
and disadvantages of opening up your country to the Internet? Divide into opposing groups
and debate both sides of the argument.

Answers will vary. The advantages include access to knowledge and information from other
parts of the world. Also, these technologies might be used to spread one’s message to the masses.
These advantages, however, are potentially disadvantages, in that such exposure to especially
Western ideals is anathema to many conservative Islamist rulers.

4. Form groups of several students and investigate the different local causes and consequences
of the Arab Spring rebellions within different countries of the region.

Answers will vary, but in general the causes include political corruption, poverty,
unemployment, rising food prices, and a lack of democratic freedoms. The consequences have
been varied; in some locations, free political elections have taken place, although in others there
has been a return to more authoritarian control. Poverty and high unemployment remain
pervasive.

5. What economic changes could occur if Israel and the Palestinians were to reach a lasting
peace? What kinds of general connections might be found between political conflict and
economic conditions throughout the region?

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Globalization and Diversity: Geography of a Changing World

For the Palestinians, a peace with justice would assure that they would once again have access to
jobs, schools, and other opportunities that create economic improvements. For the Israelis, a
smaller portion of their government expenditures would need to go to security (e.g., weapons,
walled barriers). In general, in this region and elsewhere, political conflict usually has a negative
influence on economic conditions. Political conflict discourses investment and hinders tourism.
It creates military expenditures that divert monies from productive activities such as education,
health care, and infrastructure. Political conflict, but especially armed conflict, causes injury and
death and damages infrastructure, which is yet an additional non-monetized economic cost.

Chapter 7 Review

Physical Geography and Environmental Issues

7.1 Explain how latitude and topography produce the region’s distinctive patterns of climate.
7.2 Describe how the region’s fragile, often arid setting shapes contemporary environmental
challenges.
7.3 Describe four distinctive ways in which people have learned to adapt their agricultural
practices to the region’s arid environment.
(A) Photo of oasis settlement in Morocco.
Students should be able to discuss the subtropical high that produces the Sahara and Arabian
dry areas, and the pattern of water, especially exotic rivers as well as oasis sites that permit
agriculture in all its regional forms.

Population and Settlement

7.4 Summarize the major forces shaping recent migration patterns within the region.
(B) Map of population density in Arabian Peninsula.
Students should be able to describe the movement of people away from conflict, e.g.,
Palestinians and Syrians but also the skilled workers from Egypt and elsewhere coming into
other countries, and unskilled laborers into the wealthy oil states.

Cultural Coherence and Diversity

7.5 List the major characteristics and patterns of diffusion of Islam.
7.6 Identify the key modern religions and language families that dominate the region.
7.7 Identify the role of cultural variables in understanding key regional conflicts in North Africa,
Israel, Syria, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula
(C) Photo of Mosque in Kuwait.
Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the origins and relatedness of the
western religions, but how their divisions are often an important dimension to the conflicts:
for example, Arab—Israeli, Sunni—Shiite, etc.

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 Chapter 7: Southwest Asia and North Africa

Geopolitical Framework
7.8 Summarize the geography of oil and gas reserves in the region.
(D) Photo of security checkpoint in Iraq.
Students should be able to describe the pattern of oil and gas around the region but especially
the Persian Gulf and the significance of OPEC and the concentration of proven reserves in
the region.

Economic and Social Development

7.9. Describe traditional roles for Islamic women and provide examples of recent changes.
(E) Air photo of Istanbul, Turkey.
Students should be able to depict some of the images as well as distinguish between
stereotypes of women; prominent examples include the driving bans in Saudi, male-female
interactions, and voting and serving in parliament.

Data Analysis

Health care is often considered a basic human right in more developed portions of the world, but
large parts of Southwest Asia and North Africa are poorly served by health-care providers. The
World Health Organization (WHO) gathers data on the number of physicians per 1000
population, which can be used as a measure of access to health care as well as social
development. According to recent data, the United States had about 2.5 physicians per 1000 and
Germany about 3.9. Go to the WHO website (www.who.int) and access the data/interactive atlas
page on physicians per 1000 population.

1. Make your own data table and map showing the regional pattern of health-care access
across Southwest Asia and North Africa.

State Physician ratio (1000)

Egypt 2.83
Iran 0.89
Turkey 1.711
Saudi 2.491
Israel 3.344
Sample Table

2. In a few sentences, summarize the general patterns and trends you see. How would you
explain some of the major variations you observe across the region?

Wealth as in oil exporting and economic development in general corresponds with higher
rankings. Israel has the highest in region. However, Egypt’s relative high is more likely linked to

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Globalization and Diversity: Geography of a Changing World

educational attainment (medical schools); meanwhile, Iran’s relative low ranking is probably
related to the sanctions.

3. Compare the pattern you see for physicians with the map in the text on childhood mortality
(Figure 7.44). What similarities and differences do you see? How might these two indicators
be a good measure of future social development? How might they predict political stability?

The patterns are mostly similar. Places associated with conflict, Iraq, Yemen, and Sudan are all
high as well as Morocco. Saudi, Israel, Lebanon are all in the lowest rates. Iran is not as bad as
its ranking would suggest, and Egypt is slightly worse than its ranking would suggest. In tandem,
these two are good measures of future development. War and political instability are related but
not sure about predictability.

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Another random document with
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 METEOROLOGICAL TABLE.

Date. Hours. Faht. Bar.

1825. Badagry.
Dec. 2 6 A.M. 80°. 29°.813 Calm and hazy.
Noon. 91 .705 South-west winds.
3 P.M. 91½ .653
3 6 A.M. 78 .912 Cloudy and calm.
Noon. 92 .631 South, fine breezes.
3 P.M. 91 .515
4 6 A.M. 77 .854 Calm.
Noon. 90 .568 South, fine breeze.
3 P.M. 90 .532 Moderate.
5 6 A.M. 79 .786 Thin showers.
Noon. 89 .623 South-east, fine breezes.
3 P.M. 86 .578 Cloudy, thick weather.
6 6 A.M. 76 .829 ⎱
Thin rain, light breezes, and cloudy.
Noon. 90 .524 ⎰
1826. Chiado.
Jan. 10 3 P.M. 89 28.700 Hazy.
6 85 .700 South south-west light air.
11 6 A.M. 75 .750 Calm and clear.
9 82 .750 Same.
Noon. 90 .695 Light airs.
3 P.M. 94 .675 Ditto and clear.
5 90 .675
Koosoo.
14 6 P.M. 89 .800 Calm.
15 6 A.M. 75 Strong breezes, east by north Harmattan.
Noon. 89
3 P.M. 90 .709
Atepa.
20 1 P.M. 91 .696 ⎫
2 91 ⎪
3 93 .646 ⎬North north-east strong Harmattan.
4 92 ⎪
5 84 ⎭
Katunga or Eyeo.
25 6 A.M. 83 28.640 North north-west, clear.
Noon. 89½ .580 Strong breeze, fine, north-east.
3 P.M. 90 .549 East.
26 6 A.M. 70 Clear, light breezes, and cool.
 Date. Hours. Faht. Bar.
9 83 .587 Fresh breezes, north north-east.
Noon. 89 .524 Light ditto.
3 P.M. 90 .519 Mild ditto.
27 Noon. 81 .552 Tube broke.
Feb. 3 6 A.M. 74 .560 Dull and hazy.
9 82 .516
Noon. 88 .606
4 6 A.M. 79 .510
9 89 .510
Noon. 89 .458
3 P.M. 77 .458 Thunder storm.
5 6 A.M. 77 .510 Cloudy, and strong breeze.
6 6 77 .458 Fresh breeze and clear.
9 89 .558
Noon. 91 .500 Moderate breezes.
3 P.M. 91½ .488 Calm and clear.
7 6 A.M. 78 .500 Fresh breeze during the night.
9 88 .555 Moderate, north-east.
Noon. 94 .517 Calm.
3 P.M. 91 .480 Light airs.
8 6 A.M. 75 .552 Light airs and hazy.
9 84 .611 Ditto and flying clouds.
Noon. 89 .568 Mild, east-north-east.
3 P.M. 90 .484
9 6 A.M. 72 .497 Fresh breeze, clear and cool, south-west.
9 87 .521 West-north-west.
Noon. 91 Light airs.
3 P.M. 89 .449 Calm.
10 6 A.M. 76 .524 Moderate and clear.
9 82 .568 West-north-west, flying clouds.
Noon. 92 .515 Light airs, east-north-east.
3 P.M. 88 .475
11 6 A.M. 75 .535 Light breezes and clear.
9 85 .543
Noon. 90 .472
3 P.M. 93 .455 Calm.
12 6 A.M. 76 .506 Fresh breezes, north-west.
9 86 .544 Light airs.
Noon. 92 .509 Squally, north-east.
3 P.M. 94 .420 Fresh breeze.
13 6 A.M. 78 .472 Strong breeze and cloudy.
Date. Hours. Faht. Bar.
9 86 .540 Moderate and cloudy, north-east.
Noon. 97 .475 Light airs and clear.
3 P.M. 94 .435 Ditto and cloudy.
14 6 A.M. 80 .505 Strong breeze and cloudy.
9 84 .550 Moderate breeze.
Noon. 91 .504 Light airs.
3 P.M. 94½ .440 ⎱
Cloudy—midnight, fresh breeze and cloudy.
15 6 A.M. 75 .537 ⎰
9 84 .591 Clear and moderate.
Noon. 91 .539
3 P.M. 91½ .420
16 6 A.M. 80 .590 ⎱
Harmattan from north-east all day.
3 P.M. 91 .537 ⎰
17 6 A.M. 74 .612 Strong ditto from north-east.
9 83 .696
Noon. 89 .628
3 P.M. 89¾ .568
18 6 A.M. 75 .600 Harmattan from north-east.
9 84 .708
Noon. 89 .635
3 P.M. 92 .515 ⎫
19 6 A.M. 70 .500 ⎪
Noon. 84 .534 ⎬Strong Harmattan from north-east, with thick fog.
3 P.M. 88 .426 ⎪
20 6 A.M. 70 .510 ⎭
9 82 .580 ⎫
Noon. 88 .530 ⎬Harmattan continued.
3 P.M. 88 .475 ⎭
21 6 A.M. 70 .568 ⎫
Noon. 80 .602 ⎬The same.
3 P.M. 89 .572 ⎭
22 6 A.M. 70 .520 ⎫
9 80 .580 ⎪
⎬The same.
Noon. 85 .534 ⎪
3 P.M. 86 .460 ⎭
23 6 A.M. 70 .535 ⎫
9 79 .552 ⎪
⎬The same.
Noon. 84 .520 ⎪
3 P.M. 86 .482 ⎭
24 6 A.M. 69 .545 ⎫The same.
⎬
 ⎬
Date. Hours. Faht. Bar.
⎭
9 78 .571
Noon. 88 .500
25 6 A.M. 72 .442 ⎫
9 80 .571 ⎪
⎬The same.
Noon. 88 .510 ⎪
3 P.M. 89 .430 ⎭

AT VARIOUS PLACES ON THE ROUTE.

Week, Mo. Time of Therm.

Barometer. REMARKS, &c.
Days. observation. Faht.
1826.
March 14 Noon. 94° 28°.420 ⎰City of Kiama in Borgoo. Fresh breezes
3 P.M. 94 .529 ⎱ and clear, wind north-east.
6 91
6 A.M. 78 .580 Fresh breezes, wind east-north-east.
9 88 .634 Fresh breezes, with light flying clouds.
15 Noon. 91 .604 The same.
3 P.M. 94 .510
6 91 .548 Calm and cloudy.
6 A.M. 74 .586 Calm, with light clouds.
9 85 .651 Light breezes from the east-north-east.
16 Noon. 91 .610 The same, with light flying clouds.
3 P.M. 93 .550 The same.
6 91 .540 The same.
6 A.M. 74 .595 Light airs and clear, wind-north-east.
Freshening breezes, with a slight haze,
9 82 .696
wind north-east.
17 Noon. 89 .625 Moderate and hazy.
3 P.M. 91 .575 Hazy and sultry, with little wind.
Village of Comie, in Wawaw province,
and kingdom of Borgoo, about 50 feet
April 7 8 A.M. 86 .411
above the river Quorra, on the west
bank.
Fresh breezes from the eastward, with a
9 89 .377
slight haze.
10 89½ .400 Cloudy, with fresh breezes.
Week, Mo. Time of Therm.
Barometer. REMARKS, &c.
Days. observation. Faht.
Noon. 93 .375 The same.
Strong breezes, and dark cloudy
3 P.M. 90
weather.
Moderate breezes, with dark cloudy
5 89 .300
weather.
Dull cloudy weather, with little wind from
6 A.M. 79 29.320
the south-west.
9 82 .368 The same.
8 Noon. 90 .375 The same.
3 P.M. 99 .320 Clear, with light airs from the south-west.
6 93 .280 Calm and clear.
Town of Tabra in Nyffé. Cloudy, with
10 A.M. 89 29.85
moderate breezes, wind south-west.
17 Noon. 95 .60 The same, with light flying clouds.
3 P.M. 98 .45 Moderate breezes.
5 91 28.992 Calm, with light clouds.
City of Tabra in Nyffé. Calm with light
6 A.M. 74 .967
clouds.
Light breezes, flying clouds, wind south-
9 86 29.80
west.
18 Noon. 96 28.920 Moderate breezes, with light clouds.
3 P.M. 97½ .866 Light airs, wind south-west.
6 95 Light breezes and clear, wind south-west.
6 A.M. 80 .943 Dull and cloudy, with fresh breezes.
9 88 29.11 Fresh breezes, wind south-west.
19 Noon.
3 P.M. 97 28.953 Moderate and clear.
Light airs and cloudy, with thunder and
July 5 4 P.M. 80 27.862 lightning. City of Guari. During night a
tornado.
Moderate breezes, with dark cloudy
6 A.M. 73 .986
weather, wind south-west.
9 78 .942 Light airs and cloudy.
6 Noon. 85 .985 The same, with light flying clouds.
Light breezes, with thunder clouds to
3 P.M. 85 .940
eastward.
6 84 .952 Light airs and cloudy.
Week, Mo. Time of Therm.
Barometer. REMARKS, &c.
Days. observation. Faht.
Dull and cloudy, with light breezes from
6 A.M. 75 28.011
the south-west.
9 77 .067 A little rain, with light airs from the south.
7 Noon. 85 .124 Moderate, with thick clouds.
3 P.M. 28. The same, wind south-west.
City of Zaria, the capital of the province
10 A.M. 79 27.917 of Zegzeg. Dull and cloudy, with light
airs from the south.
12 Noon. 81 .888 Light airs, with dull cloudy weather.
3 P.M. 83 .858 The same, wind south-west.
6 81 .785 Cloudy.
6 A.M. 75 28.820 Cloudy, with a fresh breeze.
9 77 .820 The same.
13 Noon. 84 .815 Cloudy, with light dull airs from the south.
Moderate breezes and cloudy, thunder
3 P.M. 85 .780
clouds to the south-east.
6 80 .785 Calm.
Fresh breezes and cloudy from the east,
6 A.M. 75 .805
with low clouds.
9 77 .842 Fresh breezes, and dark cloudy weather.
Strong breezes and squally, with thick
14 Noon. 80 .771
cloudy weather, wind west.
3 P.M. 82 .751 Thick cloudy weather.
Moderate breezes, with dull cloudy
6 80 .735
weather, wind south-west.
A single observation taken at the town of
Aushin, province of Zegzeg. Dull
17 6 P.M. 74 27.765
cloudy weather, with a fresh breeze
from the west-south-west.
Town of Baebaegie, province of Kano.
20 10 A.M. 75 .438
Calm and cloudy, with a little rain.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, wind south-
Noon. 78 .354
west.
3 P.M. 80 .289 Light airs and cloudy.
6 80 .260 Calm and cloudy.
City of Kano. Fresh breezes and cloudy,
Aug. 9 3 P.M. 85½ 28.252
threatening rain.
Moderate breezes and cloudy, wind
6 81 .237
south-east.
Week, Mo. Time of Therm.
Barometer. REMARKS, &c.
Days. observation. Faht.
6 A.M. 76 .269 Light breezes with rain.
9 78½ .269 Fair; at 10 A.M. rain.
Fresh breezes from the south-west, with
10 Noon. 79 .251
rain; at 1 P.M. fair.
Fresh gales and cloudy, wind west-south-
3 P.M. 79 .199
west.
6 78 .191 Moderate and cloudy.
Moderate and cloudy, wind south; it had
6 A.M. 76 .192
rained all night.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, wind south-
9 79½ .234
west.
Fresh gales, with flying clouds, and a few
11 Noon. 81 .212
drops of rain.
Fresh gales and cloudy, rain, heavy
3 P.M. 84 .202
thunder clouds.
6 P.M. 80 .227 Moderate breezes, with light clouds.
Light airs, with light clouds; during the
6 A.M. 76 .320
night, cloudy.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, wind west-
9 79 .371
south-west.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, thunder and
12 Noon. 83 .346
rain, wind south-west.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, with a light
3 P.M. 82½ .305
haze.
6 81 .280 Light airs and light clouds.
Light breezes, cloudy, wind south-south-
6 A.M. 78½ .344
west.
Moderate and cloudy, with slight rain at
9 81 .375
times; at 11 A.M. heavy rain.
13 Noon. 76 .318 Heavy rain, thunder and lightning.
3 P.M. 77 .273 Light winds and heavy rain, wind south.
6 79 .240 Moderate breezes and cloudy.
Moderate and clear, with light flying
6 A.M. 75 .291 clouds; during night, cloudy, with a few
drops of rain.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, threatening
9 79 .368
rain.
Moderate breezes, with clouds and
14 Noon. 82½ .311
sunshine.
Week, Mo. Time of Therm.
Barometer. REMARKS, &c.
Days. observation. Faht.
3 P.M. 86½ .220 Moderate and fine, wind south-west.
Variable, with dark cloudy weather,
6 84 .270
thunder and lightning.
Fresh breezes and cloudy, wind south-
9 A.M. 78 .364
west.
Moderate breezes, with light white
15 Noon. 83 .344
clouds, wind west-south-west.
3 P.M. 85 .270 The same.
6 86 .246 Light airs and fine.
Dull and cloudy, wind south by south-
6 A.M. 73 .325 west, with thunder, lightning, and rain;
during the night a tornado.
Moderate and cloudy, with a light haze,
9 79 .337
wind south-west.
Fresh breezes and cloudy from the
16 Noon. 83½ .329
south-west.
3 P.M. 85 .269 Moderate, with a light haze.
Moderate breezes, with light flying
6 83½ .329
clouds.

HEIGHT OF THERMOMETER IN KANO, AS OBSERVED BY

RICHARD LANDER, AUGUST 25, 1826.

6 3
Aug. Noon.
A.M. P.M.
25. Dull morning, 6 A.M.; 12 noon, clear; 3 P.M. clear 76° 84° 85°
26. A thunder storm and heavy rain; 12 noon, dull; 3 P.M. do. 75 79 79
27. 6 A.M. clear light air; 12 noon, clear; 3 P.M. clear 76 81 84
28. Clear at 6 A.M.; 12 noon, calm and cloudy; 3 P.M. light airs 77 81 85
29. 6 A.M. heavy rain; 12 noon, clear and calm; 3 P.M. clear and
calm 73 82 83
30. 6 A.M. clear; 12 noon, a thunder storm and heavy rain 72 79 79
31. Clear and cold; 12 noon, clear and cold 73 80 84
Sept.
1. Dull morning; 12 noon, dull; 3 P.M. dull and cloudy 77 81 80
8. Dull morning; 12 noon, clear; 3 P.M. clear 76 83 82
10. Dull morning; 12 noon, dull; 3 P.M. heavy rain 77 80 79
 11. Clear and calm 77 85 86
12. Clear and calm 80 85 86
13. Clear and light air 79 84 83
14. Clear and light air 77 86 85
15. Clear and light air 80 85 86
16. Clear and light air 75 85 86
17. Clear and light air 77 85 84
18. Clear until noon; 3 P.M. a thunder storm and rain 79 86 83
19. Clear and calm 78 84 88
20. Clear and calm until 3 P.M. and light air 78 84 87
21. Clear and calm 77 84 88
22. Clear and calm until 12 noon, light air 76 85 88
23. Clear, light air 79 90 90
24. Clear and calm; 12 noon, and light air 80 89 89
25. Clear and calm 79 86 88
26. Clear; 12 noon, light breezes 79 86 89
27. Clear, light air 79 86 89
28. Clear; 12 noon, light rain 80 86 90
29. Clear; 3 P.M. heavy rain 79 86 89
30. Dull and foggy; 3 P.M. heavy rain and wind 79 85 87
Oct.
1. Heavy rain and a thunder storm 70 76 79
2. Clear and cold, light breezes 70 80 80
3. Clear and cold, light breezes 70 83 85
4. Clear, light air, and cold 71 84 84
5. Clear and light breezes 70 83 85
6. Clear and calm 80 88 88
7. Clear, light air 80 87 87
8. Clear and calm 75 89 89
9. Clear and light breezes 80 87 88
10. Clear and light breezes 75 88 88
11. Clear and calm 75 87 87
12. Clear and fine breezes 75 88 88
13. Clear, light air 76 89 89
14. Clear, light breezes 76 87 87
24. Clear and cold 75 86 86
25. Clear light breezes 75 83 87
26. Clear and cold, light air 75 84 83
27. Clear and cold, light air 75 87 86
 28. Clear and cold, light breezes 75 85 85
29. Clear and light breezes 75 86 85
30. Clear; 12 at noon, light breeze from east 75 84 85
31. Clear; 12 noon, light breeze 76 85 86
Nov.
1. Clear and calm 76 84 85
2. Clear; 12 noon, light air 76 88 88
3. Clear; 12 noon, light breeze 76 85 86
4. Dull and hazy 76 86 86
5. Clear; 12 noon, a light breeze 75 87 86
6. Clear; 12 noon, light breeze 75 85 86
7. Clear; 12 noon, light breeze 75 85 86
8. Clear at 8; 12 noon, hazy and light breeze 75 85 86
9. Clear at 9; 12 noon, cloudy, and light breeze 75 86 87
10. Clear at 8; 12, light breezes 75 88 88
11. Clear at 9; 12, light breezes 75 85 86
12. Clear at 8; 12, light breezes 77 86 87
13. Clear at 9; 12, light air 76 85 86
14. Clear; 12, light breezes 75 85 87
15. Clear; 12 at noon, a light breeze 75 86 86
16. Clear; 12, light breezes 76 84 85
17. Clear; 12 noon, a light breeze 77 85 87
18. Clear; 12 noon, a light air 76 86 86
19. Clear; 12 noon, a light breeze 76 85 85
20. Clear, strong breeze, wind east 75 85 85
21. Clear, light breezes 75 89 89

SOCKATOO, JANUARY 7, 1827.

Jan.
7. Strong breeze from east-north-east, clear 70 90 92
8. Monday, 6 A.M. light breeze, hazy; 12 noon, wind east-
north-east 70 90 92
9. 6 A.M. cold and clear, a strong wind east-north-east; 12,
clear, light air 65 89 90
10. 6 A.M. cold and hazy; 12, strong breezes, clear, north-east
wind; 3 P.M. clear 60 90 90
11. Cold and hazy; 12, a fine breeze, wind north-east, clear,
light breeze 60 89 90
12. 6 A.M. cold and hazy; 12, light breeze, wind north-east, 64 86 85
 clear; 3 P.M. clear
13. Clear and cold, wind north-east; 12 at noon, clear and cold;
3 P.M. clear 62 89 89
14. 6 A.M. hazy, calm; 12, strong breezes, wind north-east; 3
P.M. clear 62 88 88
15. Clear, cold, wind north-east; 12, strong breezes; 3 P.M. clear 62 86 86
16. Clear and cold, wind north-east, strong breeze, clear; 3 P.M.
clear 60 80 80
17. Hazy calm; 12 noon, strong breeze and clear, wind north-
east 62 80 80
18. Thursday, clear and cold, wind north-east; 12 noon, clear,
strong breeze, wind north-east 62 81 83
19. Clear and cold, a strong breeze from north-east 65 84 86
20. Clear; 12 at noon, strong breeze, wind east, 3 P.M. clear 64 88 89
21. Sunday, clear and calm; 12 noon, light breeze, wind east; 3
P.M. clear 64 88 89
22. Morning hazy, a light air; 12 noon, clear, light breeze, wind
east 62 89 90
23. Morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear, wind north-
east 65 90 93
24. Wednesday, morning hazy, calm; 12 noon, clear, fine
breeze, east; 3 P.M. clear 72 96 98
25. Morning hazy, calm; 12 noon, clear, a light breeze, wind
east; 3 P.M. clear 70 96 98
26. Hazy, calm; 12 noon, clear, a light breeze, wind north-east;
3 P.M. clear 72 94 95
27. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breezes, clear, wind
north-east; 3 P.M. clear 62 83 90
28. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze; 3 P.M. clear,
wind east 65 93 96
29. Morning clear, a light air; 12 noon, light breeze, clear, wind
east; 3 P.M. clear 75 99 100
30. Hazy and a light air; 12 noon, clear, light breeze, wind north-
east; 3 P.M. clear 74 98 99
31. Wednesday, clear; 12 noon, clear, light breeze, wind south-
east; 3 P.M. clear 75 98 99
Feb.
1. Thursday, morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze,
wind south-east, clear; 3 P.M. clear 75 98 100
2. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, a light breeze, wind north-
east; 3 P.M. clear 75 99 100
3. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze, wind north- 75 97 99
 east; 3 P.M. clear
4. Sunday, morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze and
clear, wind north-east 75 98 99
5. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze, clear, wind
north-east 75 100 104
20. Morning hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze, clear, wind
ditto 75 95 100
21. Morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear, wind north-
east 75 100 100
22. Thursday, morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear,
wind north-east 75 100 100
23. Morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear, wind north-
east 77 100 100
24. Saturday, morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze, clear, wind
north-east 75 95 100
25. Morning hazy; 12 noon, a fine breeze, wind north-east 75 100 100
26. Morning hazy, calm; 12 noon, light breeze, wind north-east;
3 P.M. clear 75 100 100
27. Tuesday, morning hazy, calm; 12 noon, light breeze, clear,
north-east wind 65 85 85
28. Strong gales, hazy; 12 noon, strong gales; 3 P.M. strong
gales, north-east wind 65 85 85
During a whirlwind at 2 P.M. the thermometer fell from 100½
to 98, and at 3 P.M. rose to 101.
March.
1. Strong gales during the day, and hazy, north-east wind 85 85 100
2. Strong gales and hazy during the day, north-east wind 65 85 85
3. Strong gales and cloudy during the day, north-east wind 65 85 85
4. Sundry light breezes during the day, north-east wind 74 89 90
5. Morning hazy; 12 noon, light breeze, north-east 72 95 98
6. Calm and hazy; 12 noon, clear, east wind; 3 P.M. hazy, light
air 71 96 96
7. 6 A.M. hazy, calm; 12 noon, cloudy, a light breeze, east
wind; 3 P.M. cloudy 72 95 96
8. Hazy, calm; 12 noon, hazy, a light breeze; 3 P.M. hazy, light
air 70 96 95
9. Friday, 6 A.M. hazy, calm; 12 noon, light breeze, clear, east
wind 70 95 96
10. 6 A.M. hazy and calm; 12 noon, strong breeze, clear; 3 P.M.
clear 70 99 96
11. Hazy and calm; 12 noon, a light breeze, clear; 3 P.M. clear,
east wind 70 98 96
 12. Hazy and calm; 12 noon, fine breeze and clear, east wind 70 95 96
13. 6 A.M. strong breeze, south-by-east wind; 12 noon, strong
breezes, south-by-east wind; 3 P.M. a fine breeze 70 99 97
14. Hazy, light air; 12 noon, strong breeze, south-by-east wind,
clear 70 95 96
15. Hazy and calm; 12 noon, strong breezes, south-by-east
wind, clear; 3 P.M. clear 70 96 95
16. Light breeze and hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear; 3
P.M. clear 70 100 98
17. Hazy and calm; 12 noon, a light breeze, clear, east-north-
east wind; 3 P.M. clear 70 98 99
18. Sunday, calm and hazy; 12 noon, light breeze and clear,
east wind 70 100 100
19. 6 A.M. calm and clear; 12 noon, calm and clear; 3 P.M. light
wind 73 101 101
20. Calm and clear; 3 P.M. a light breeze, west wind 71 102 102
21. Calm and clear until 3 P.M., a fine breeze, west wind 75 102 103
22. 6 A.M. calm and clear; 12 noon, a strong breeze, east wind 75 104 105
23. 6 A.M. calm and clear; 12 noon, light breeze; 3 P.M. light
breeze, clear 74 101 100
24. 6 A.M. calm and hazy; 12 noon, light breeze, hazy; 3 P.M.
light air, east wind 74 100 100
25. Sunday, 6 A.M. calm and hazy; 12 noon, hazy, light breeze,
east wind 74 104 103
26. 6 A.M. a clear light breeze; 12 noon, hazy, a light breeze,
east wind; 3 P.M. a light breeze 74 101 100
27. 6 A.M. a light breeze; 12 noon, hazy, a light breeze, east
wind; 3 P.M. light breeze 73 104 101
28. 6 A.M. light breeze; 12 noon, a light breeze, clear, south-
east wind; 3 P.M. clear 72 100 100
29. 6 A.M. strong breeze, clear, south-east wind; 12 noon, light
air; 3 P.M. light air 72 99 100
30. 6 A.M. hazy, a light air; 12 noon, hazy, a light breeze, east
wind; 3 P.M. a light air 72 101 100
31. 6 A.M. hazy, a light south-east wind; 12 noon, hazy, light
south-east wind; 3 P.M. hazy, light air 57 106 105
April.
1. Sunday, sultry and hazy, calm; 12 noon, sultry and hazy 74 101 102
2. Hazy during the day, light air 70 101 105
3. Hazy and calm; 12 noon, light breeze, south-east wind, light
air 74 103 107
4. Calm and hazy; 12 noon, light breeze, south-west wind; 3 78 104 104
 P.M. hazy, light breeze
5. A dull hazy day, light breezes 78 110 108
6. Dull and hazy; 3 P.M. a light breeze from west 77 100 100
7. Dull and hazy; 3 P.M. light breezes, south-west wind 79 100 100
8. Sunday, dull and hazy, light air during the day 77 102 103
9. Clear day and light breezes, south-west wind 77 103 104
10. Tuesday, clear day and light breezes, south-west wind 77 104 107
11. Clear, and light breezes from the south-west 77 104 103
12. Clear morning, and light breezes 3 P.M. 77 104 104
14. Clear morning, calm; 12 noon, light breezes, south-west
wind 77 105 106
15. Clear morning, calm; 3 P.M. light breezes, south-west wind,
clear 80 105 106
16. 6 A.M. misty and calm; 12 noon, light breezes, south-west
wind; 3 P.M. light breezes, south-west wind 79 106 106
17. 6 A.M. misty, west wind; 12 noon, light air; 3 P.M. calm and
misty 80 109 108
23. 6 A.M. clear morning, a fine breeze from the west; 3 P.M.
calm 76 105 106
24. Cloudy day, a fine breeze from the west 77 102 103
25. Cloudy and calm; 12 noon, a strong breeze from the west; 3
P.M. calm and clear; 6 P.M. a thunder storm 78 102 104
26. Clear and calm; 12 noon, light breeze from the west, and
clear; 3 P.M. calm and misty 77 103 105
27. Clear and calm; 12 noon, light breeze from the west; 3 P.M.
clear 78 105 106
28. Clear morning, light air; 12 noon, a fine breeze from the
west; 3 P.M. fine breeze 77 103 105
29. Sunday, morning clear and calm; 12 noon, cloudy, light
breeze; 3 P.M. a gale of wind, with thunder storm 76 100 90
30. Morning calm and clear; 12 noon, light breeze from the
west; 3 P.M. light breezes and clear 78 100 100
May.
1. Tuesday, cloudy during the day, light breeze from the west 77 100 102

THE END.
 LONDON:
PRINTED BY THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFRIARS.
 Transcriber's note:

Moved table of Contents from: after Introduction to: after title-page

pg 10 Changed: yams, alavances to: calavances
pg 21 Changed: from W.N.W. to to E.S.E. to: W.N.W. to E.S.E.
pg 89 Changed: with th agreement to: the
pg 90 Changed: I mut go to Boussa to: must
pg 128 Changed: carrying my baggge to: baggage
pg 145 Changed: miradania, or butter tree to: micadania
pg 216 Changed: small millet or calavanees to: calavances
pg 222 Changed: Tauricks of the west to: Tuaricks
pg 235 Changed: old Ben Gusmo to: Gumso
pg 251 Changed: Taurick being hanged to: Tuarick
Minor changes in punctuation and fixes of typographical errors have been done
silently.
Other spelling inconsistencies have been left unchanged.
New original cover art included with this eBook is granted to the public domain.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOURNAL OF A
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THE BIGHT OF BENIN TO SOCCATOO ***

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