A SEMINAR REPORT

ON

PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF MASER

BY

OJAMERUAYE EGUONO PRECIOUS

MATRIC NO:

1909098067

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS,

FACULTY OF SCIENCE, EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY, ADO-EKITI,

NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.S.C HONS)

DEGREE IN PHYSICS

FEBRUARY, 2024

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this seminar on Principles and Applications of Maser was written by
OJAMERUAYE EGUONO PRECIOUS, with matriculation number 1909098067, of the
Department of Physics, the Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University (EKSU), Ado Ekiti.

……………………………….. ………………………..

PROF. I. A. MUKOLU DATE

Supervisor

………………………………... ………………………

DR. OYEDELE

Head of Department Date

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 DEDICATION

This seminar report is dedicated to the Almighty God, and my supervisor in person of Prof. I. A.
Mukolu for his endless supports. This is also dedicated to my dear parents, Mr and Mrs.
Ojameruaye for their unending support and encouragement.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely appreciate the Almighty God for His unconditional love and care. I acknowledge my
beloved parents, in persons of Mr. and Mrs. Ojameruaye for being there for me to support me
financially and prayerfully, as well as my siblings. I love you all.

My special appreciation goes to my great supervisor Prof. I. A. Mukolu for his love, advice and
guidance. You really did so well Sir.

I will also like to appreciate all the lecturers in the Department of Physics for their love and support,
you really impacted me.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page ......................................................................................................................................... i

Certification… ................................................................................................................................ ii

Dedication… .................................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgements… .................................................................................................................... iv

Abstract… ..................................................................................................................................... vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of Research.............................................................................................................2

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review.......................................................................................................................3

2.1 Types of Masers .........................................................................................................................4

2.1.1 Gas Masers ............................................................................................................................. 4

2.1.2 Solid-State Masers...................................................................................................................5

2.1.3 Astronomical Masers...............................................................................................................6

2.1.4 Dual Noble Gas Maser.............................................................................................................6

2.1.5 Astrophysical Maser................................................................................................................7

2.1.6 Hydrogen Maser......................................................................................................................7

2.2 Characteristics of Maser Radiation ......................................................................................... 11

2.3 Principle of Maser ................................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Applications of Maser...............................................................................................................15

3.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 17

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REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 18

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 ABSTRACT

Masers, an acronym for "microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation," are

devices that amplify electromagnetic waves at microwave frequencies. Originally proposed by
Charles Townes in 1954, masers laid the groundwork for the development of lasers, which operate
at higher frequencies in the optical range. Understanding the principles underlying masers is
crucial for grasping their significance in various scientific and technological applications.

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A maser is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves (microwaves), through
amplification by stimulated emission. The term is an acronym for microwave amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation (McGuire et al., 2012). First suggested by Joseph Weber, the first
maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger at Columbia
University in 1953. Townes, Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964
Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser. Masers are also used as the
timekeeping device in atomic clocks, and as extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio
telescopes and deep space spacecraft communication ground stations (Liu and Ren-Bao, 2018).

Fig.1 A hydrogen radio frequency discharge, the first element inside a hydrogen maser

Modern masers can be designed to generate electromagnetic waves at not only microwave
frequencies but also radio and infrared frequencies. For this reason, Townes suggested replacing
"microwave" with "molecular" as the first word in the acronym "maser" (Neufeld et al., 1991).

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The laser works by the same principle as the maser but produces higher frequency coherent
radiation at visible wavelengths. The maser was the precursor to the laser, inspiring theoretical
work by Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow that led to the invention of the laser in 1960 by
Theodore Maiman. When the coherent optical oscillator was first imagined in 1957, it was
originally called the "optical maser". This was ultimately changed to laser, for "light amplification
by stimulated emission of radiation". Gordon Gould is credited with creating this acronym in 1957
(Brumfiel, 2012).

1.1 BACKGROUND OF RESEARCH

The theoretical principles governing the operation of a maser were first described by Joseph Weber
of the University of Maryland, College Park at the Electron Tube Research Conference in June
1952 in Ottawa, (Brumfiel, 2012) with a summary published in the June 1953 Transactions of the
Institute of Radio Engineers Professional Group on Electron Devices, (Liu and Ren-Bao, 2018)
and simultaneously by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov from Lebedev Institute of
Physics, at an All-Union Conference on Radio-Spectroscopy held by the USSR Academy of
Sciences in May 1952, subsequently published in October 1954. Independently, Charles Hard
Townes, James P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger built the first ammonia maser at Columbia University
in 1953. This device used stimulated emission in a stream of energized ammonia molecules to
produce amplification of microwaves at a frequency of about 24.0 gigahertz. Townes later worked
with Arthur L. Schawlow to describe the principle of the optical maser, or laser, (Palmer and Jason,
2012) of which Theodore H. Maiman created the first working model in 1960. For their research
in the field of stimulated emission, Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1964 (Brumfiel, 2012). The maser is based on the principle of stimulated emission
proposed by Albert Technology Einstein in 1917. When atoms have been induced into an excited
energy state, they can amplify radiation at a frequency particular to the element or molecule used
as the masing medium (similar to what occurs in the lasing medium in a laser). By putting such an
amplifying medium in a resonant cavity, feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation
(Brumfiel, 2012).

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

A device for coherent amplification or generation of electromagnetic waves by use of excitation

energy in resonant atomic or molecular systems. ―Maser‖ is an acronym for microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (Belloni et al., 2011). The device uses an
unstable ensemble of atoms or molecules that may be stimulated by an electromagnetic wave to
radiate energy at the same frequency and phase as the stimulating wave, thus providing coherent
amplification. Amplifiers and oscillators operating on the same principle as the maser exist in many
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Those operating in the optical region were once called
optical masers, but they are now universally called lasers (the ―l‖ stands for ―light‖). Amplification
by maser action is also observed arising naturally from interstellar gases (Belyaev et al., 2018).

Maser amplifiers can have exceptionally low internally generated noise, approaching the limiting
effective input power of one-half quantum of energy per unit bandwidth (Belyaev et al., 2019).
Their inherently low noise makes maser oscillators that use a narrow atomic or molecular
resonance extremely monochromatic, providing a basis for frequency standards. The hydrogen
maser, which uses a hyperfine resonance of a gas of hydrogen atoms as the amplification source,
is the prime example of this use. Also, because of their low noise and consequent high sensitivity,
maser amplifiers are particularly useful for reception and detection of very weak signals in radio
astronomy, microwave radiometry, and the like (Bernier et al., 1997). A maser amplifier was used
in the experiments that detected the cosmic microwave radiation left over from the big bang that
created the universe (Border and Robert Kursinski, 1991).

The quantum theory describes discrete particles such as atoms or molecules as existing in one or
more members of a discrete set of energy levels, corresponding to the various possible internal
motions of the particle (vibrations, rotations, and so forth). Thermal equilibrium of an ensemble
of such particles requires that the number of particles n1 in a lower energy level 1 be related to the
number of particles n2 in a higher energy level 2 by the Boltzmann distribution, given by the
equation below (Brumfiel, 2012).

N1 = exp (E2 – E1)

N2 kT

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where E1 and E2 are the respective energies of the two levels, k is Boltzmann's constant, and T is
the absolute (Kelvin) temperature.

Particles may be stimulated by an electromagnetic wave to make transitions from a lower energy
level to a higher one, thereby absorbing energy from the wave and decreasing its amplitude, or
from a higher energy level to a lower one, thereby giving energy to the wave and increasing its
amplitude (Brunthaler et al., 2005). These two processes are inverses of each other, and their
effects on the stimulating wave add together. The upward and downward transition rates are the
same, so that, for example, if the number of particles in the upper and lower energy states is the
same, the stimulated emission and absorption processes just cancel. For any substance in thermal
equilibrium at a positive (ordinary) temperature, the Boltzmann distribution requires that n1 be
greater than n2, resulting in net absorption of the wave. If n2 is greater than n1, however, there are
more particles that emit than those that absorb, so that the particles amplify the wave. In such a
case, the ensemble of particles is said to have a negative temperature T, to be consistent with the
Boltzmann condition. If there are not too many counterbalancing losses from other sources, this
condition allows net amplification (Cosmovici et al., 1995). This is the basic description of how a
maser amplifies an electromagnetic wave. An energy source is required to create the negative
temperature distribution of particles needed for a maser. This source is called the pump. (Busca et
al., 2003).

2.1 TYPES OF MASERS

2.1.1 Gas Masers

In the first known maser of any kind, the amplifying medium was a beam of ammonia (NH3)
molecules, and the molecular resonance used was the strongest of the rotation-inversion lines, at a
frequency near 23.87 GHz (1.26-cm wavelength) (Dai and Lin, 2007). Molecules from a
pressurized tank of ammonia issued through an array of small orifices to form a molecular beam
in a metre-long vacuum chamber. Spatially varying electric fields in the vacuum chamber created
by a cylindrical array of electrodes formed a focusing device, which ejected from the beam the
molecules in the lower energy level and directed the molecules in the upper energy level into a
metal-walled electromagnetic cavity resonator. When the cavity resonator was tuned to the
molecular transition frequency, the number of molecules was sufficiently large to produce net
amplification and self-sustained oscillation (Demidov, 2007). This type of maser is particularly

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useful as a frequency or time standard because of the relative sharpness and invariance of the
resonance frequencies of molecules in a dilute gas (Fish et al., 2005).

2.1.2 Solid-State Masers

Solid-state masers usually involve the electrons of paramagnetic ions in crystalline media
immersed in a magnetic field. At least three energy levels are needed for continuous maser action.
The energy levels are determined both by the interaction of the electrons with the internal electric
fields of the crystal and by the interaction of the magnetic moments of the electrons with the
externally applied magnetic field (Ginsburg et al., 2019). The resonant frequencies of these
materials can be tuned to a desired condition by changing the strength of the applied magnetic field
and the orientation of the crystal in the field. An external oscillator, the pump, excites the transition
between levels 1 and 3 [at the frequency and ngr;31 = (E3 - E1)/h], equalizing their populations.
Then, depending on other conditions, the population of the intermediate level 2 may be greater or
less than that of levels 1 and 3. If greater, maser amplification can occur at the frequency and
ngr;21, or if less, at the frequency &ngr;32. Favorable conditions for this type of maser are
obtained only at very low temperature, as in a liquid-helium cryostat. A typical material is synthetic
ruby, which contains paramagnetic chromium ions (Cr3+) and has four pertinent energy levels. The
important feature of solid-state masers is their sensitivity when used as amplifiers (Gordon et al.,
1955).

2.1.3 Astronomical Masers

Powerful, naturally occurring masers have probably existed since the earliest stages of the
universe, though that was not realized until a few years after masers were invented and built on
Earth (Goujon et al., 2010). Their existence was first proven by discovery of rather intense 18-cm-
wavelength microwave radiation of the free radical hydroxyl (OH) molecule coming from very
localized regions of the Milky Way Galaxy. Masers in astronomical objects differ from those
generally used on Earth in that they involve no resonators or slow-wave structures to contain the
radiation and so increase its interaction with the amplifying medium. Instead, the electromagnetic
waves in astronomical masers simply travel a very long distance through astronomical clouds of

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gas, far enough to amplify the waves enormously even on a single pass through the cloud. It is
believed that usually these clouds are large enough in all directions that a wave passing through
them in any direction can be strongly amplified, and hence astronomical maser radiation emerges
from them in all directions (Herrnstein et al., 1999).

Naturally occurring masers have been important tools for obtaining information about
astronomical objects. Since they are very intense localized sources of microwave radiation, their
positions around stars or other objects can be determined very accurately with microwave antennas
separated by long distances and used as interferometers (Hoffman et al., 2003). This provides
information about the location of stars themselves as well as that of the masers often closely
surrounding them. The masers' velocity of motion can also be determined by Doppler shifts in their
wavelengths. The location and motion of masers surrounding black holes at the centers of galaxies
have also provided information on the impressively large mass of these black holes. Astronomical
masers often vary in power on time scales of days to years, indicating changing conditions in the
regions where they are located. Such masers also give information on likely gas densities,
temperature, motions, or other conditions in the rarefied gas of which they are a part (Howe et al.,
1979).

2.1.4 Dual Noble Gas Maser

A dual noble gas maser (DNGM) is a type of maser that uses two different noble gases as the active
medium. The DNGM is the first device to simultaneously sustain active maser oscillations on two
distinct transitions in different atomic species. The DNGM allows for improved frequency stability
and has found applications in fundamental symmetry tests and precision measurements. The first
DNGM was developed in the late 1990s, and since then, there have been several studies aimed at
improving its performance and stability (Husein, 2006). For instance, a study reported improved
frequency stability of the DNGM, demonstrating its ability to measure very small changes in
frequency. Another study focused on the development of a DNGM for fundamental symmetry
tests, utilizing a 129Xe/3He mixture as the active medium The DNGM has several advantages
over other types of masers, including its ability to operate at room temperature and its low
sensitivity to external magnetic fields (Jornod et al., 2003). These features make it a promising
candidate for precision measurements and fundamental symmetry tests. The DNGM is a unique

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type of maser that utilizes two different noble gases as the active medium, allowing for improved
frequency stability and precision measurements. Its applications in fundamental symmetry tests
and precision measurements underscore its importance as a fundamental tool for modern scientific
investigations (Kleppner et al., 1965).

2.1.5 Astrophysical Maser

An astrophysical maser is a naturally occurring source of stimulated spectral line emission,

typically in the microwave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. This emission may arise in
molecular clouds, comets, planetary atmospheres, stellar atmospheres, or various other conditions
in interstellar space (Kleppner et al., 1965). Due to the differences between engineered and
naturally occurring masers, it is often stated that astrophysical masers are not "true" masers
because they lack oscillation cavities. However, the distinction between oscillator-based lasers and
single-pass lasers was intentionally disregarded by the laser community in the early years of the
technology (Kleppner et al., 1962). This fundamental incongruency in language has resulted in the
use of other paradoxical definitions in the field. For example, if the gain medium of a (misaligned)
laser is emission-seeded but non-oscillating radiation, it is said to emit amplified spontaneous
emission or ASE. The emission from astrophysical masers is, in fact, ASE but is sometimes termed
super-radiant emission to differentiate it from the laboratory phenomenon. This simply adds to the
confusion, since both sources are super-radiant. In some laboratory lasers, such as a single pass
through a regeneratively amplified Ti-Sapph stage, the physics is directly analogous to an
amplified ray in an astrophysical maser (Korotkov et al., 1994).

2.1.6 Hydrogen Maser

The hydrogen microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (H-maser) is an atomic

frequency standard widely used in ground and on-board-based settings. Rather than focusing only
on comparing the H-maser to the other two well-developed atomic frequency standards; namely,
the cesium beam atomic frequency and rubidium frequency standards, this review discusses the
frequency accuracy and stability performance (Kuhnle and Sydnor, 1981), the volume and mass
weight for particular applications, and the power consumption of the H-maser. We also review

7
some of its fields of application. The H-maser is larger in volume than the other two frequency
standards. The frequency accuracy of the H-maser is approximately 1 × 10−12, which is not
sufficient for a primary frequency standard compared to the 1 × 10−13 accuracy of the Cesium beam
standard. The stability of the frequency output of the H-maser is typically a few parts in 1015 for
an average time interval, τ, of the order of 103 –105 s. The accuracy and stability performance of
the H-maser are mainly limited by factors such as the relaxation time, thermal noise, wall shift,
second-order Doppler shift, and second order Zeeman effect, depending on the particular design
(Lo, 2005).

Like other frequency sources, the frequency signals of the H-maser occur due to the periodic
motion of H atoms. The principles can be roughly summarized as follows: first, the H-maser obeys
the theory of conservation of energy, in which the interactions between atoms and electromagnetic
waves are expressed by the formula below. Second, a resonant oscillation leads to the amplification
of the useful atomic signal (Maleki, 1980).

Following these principles, the H-maser is mainly composed of a physical unit, which provides a
high-quality reference signal in form of an electromagnetic emission through hyperfine transitions
of ground atomic hydrogen, as well as an electrical unit that includes a quartz crystal oscillator
that is locked to the physical output to provide the stable frequency signal outputs of the H-maser.

The normal optional standard frequency outputs of the H-maser are 5, 10, 20,..., 100 MHz, and 1
pps. While any possible transitional radiation can theoretically be used as a reference signal to lock
the quartz crystal oscillator in the electrical unit, since the transitional frequencies are sensitive to
environmental effects, the reference signal must be the one between two least-sensitive energy
levels. For the H-maser a useful transition is that of the ground hydrogen (n = 1) from state (F = 1,
mF = 0) to a lower state (F = 0, mF = 0), as shown in the figure below. However, although both
spontaneous transitions and transitions induced by perturbations can happen in principle in the
physical unit, and the corresponding electromagnetic radiation will be emitted, the signal quality
of the spontaneous transition is not sufficient for use in the electrical unit (Mattison and Vessot,
1987). Due to the low number of such transitions, they likely disappear in the background noise
of the environment. To make the signal-to-noise ratio high enough for the electrical unit, large

8
numbers of simultaneous transitions are required. Since the transitional signal magnitude is
proportional to the population difference of the energy levels, the solution is induced transitions.
In other words, by gathering (F = 1, mF = 0) atoms in a container and increasing their fractional
population, a sufficiently large number of transitions from (F = 1, mF = 0) to (F = 0, mF = 0) can
be simultaneously induced by a stimulating signal, with a corresponding radiation emission of
around 1.420405751 GHz (McGuire et al., 2012).

Fig.2 A. Schematic diagram of the standard active H-maser; B. Energy requirements for the
hyperfine ground S-state hydrogen on the magnetic field

A large amount of pure hydrogen is required to provide a sustained oscillation and ensure a
sufficient source of hydrogen for the entire H-maser working period. First, the hydrogen source
was designed as a bottle with a high H2 gas pressure (Menon et al., 2005).

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However, this was soon replaced by a design that utilized a reversal chemical reaction of H2 with
alloys such as the rare Earth elements, LaNi5. The replacement extended the working lifetime of
the H-maser not only by increasing the storage capacity for the same bottle volume but also by
reducing hydrogen leakage. Since hydrogen atoms are small in dimension, they can penetrate
through the bottle wall, which is made of steel. The speed of penetration is proportional to the
pressure difference. The upgraded design reduced the pressure and, hence, the pressure difference
between the two sides of the wall. In addition, by adjusting the components of the alloy
compounds, the hydrogen source can output H2 with an approximately constant pressure. The
output pressure of H2 can be adjusted by varying the container temperature. Thus, it became easier
to regulate the H2 flux compared to the previous design (Neufeld et al., 1991).

Fig.3 Schematic diagram of the standard active H-maser

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 Fig.4 Flight model passive H-maser

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF MASER RADIATION

The amplification or gain of radiation passing through a maser cloud is exponential. This has
consequences for the radiation it produces (Pogrebenko et al., 2009):

i. Beaming: Small path differences across the irregularly shaped maser cloud become greatly
distorted by exponential gain. Part of the cloud that has a slightly longer path length than
the rest will appear much brighter (as it is the exponent of the path length that is relevant),
and so maser spots are typically much smaller than their parent clouds. The majority of the
radiation will emerge along this line of greatest path length in a "beam"; this is termed
beaming (Pogrebenko et al., 2009).
ii. Rapid variability: As the gain of a maser depends exponentially on the population
inversion and the velocity-coherent path length, any variation of either will itself result in
exponential change of the maser output (Polyakov et al., 2021).
iii. Line narrowing: Exponential gain also amplifies the centre of the line shape (Gaussian or
Lorentzian, etc.) more than the edges or wings. This results in an emission line shape that
is much taller but not much wider. This makes the line appear narrower relative to the
unamplified line (Polyakov et al., 2021).

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 iv. Saturation: The exponential growth in intensity of radiation passing through a maser cloud
continues as long as pumping processes can maintain the population inversion against the
growing losses by stimulated emission. While this is so the maser is said to be unsaturated.
However, after a point the population inversion cannot be maintained any longer and the
maser becomes saturated. In a saturated maser, amplification of radiation depends linearly
on the size of population inversion and the path length. Saturation of one transition in a
maser can affect the degree of inversion in other transitions in the same maser, an effect
known as competitive gain (Polyakov et al., 2021).
v. High brightness: The brightness temperature of a maser is the temperature a black body
would have if producing the same emission brightness at the wavelength of the maser. That
is, if an object had a temperature of about 109K it would produce as much 1665-MHz
radiation as a strong interstellar OH maser. Of course, at 109K the OH molecule would
dissociate (kT is greater than the bond energy), so the brightness temperature is not
indicative of the kinetic temperature of the maser gas but is nevertheless useful in
describing maser emission. Masers have incredibly effective temperatures, many around
109K, but some of up to 1012K and even 1014K (Popa et al., 1976).
vi. Polarisation: An important aspect of maser study is polarisation of the emission.
Astronomical masers are often very highly polarised, sometimes 100% (in the case of some
OH masers) in a circular fashion, and to a lesser degree in a linear fashion. This polarisation
is due to some combination of the Zeeman effect, magnetic beaming of the maser radiation,
and anisotropic pumping which favours certain magnetic-state transitions. Many of the
characteristics of mega-maser emission are different (Popa et al., 1976).

2.3 PRINCIPLE OF MASER

2.3.1 Stimulated Emission

Masers rely on stimulated emission between two hyperfine energy levels of atomic hydrogen. A
beam of atomic hydrogen is produced, and the atoms are put into an excited energy state. By
placing the atoms in a resonant cavity, feedback is created that can produce coherent radiation (Qi
et al., 2022). At the heart of maser operation lies the process of stimulated emission. In a maser,
atoms or molecules are stimulated to emit coherent microwave radiation by external energy

12
sources. When an atom or molecule in an excited state encounters a passing microwave photon
with the same energy as the energy difference between the excited state and a lower energy state,
it can emit a second photon of the same frequency, phase, and direction as the incident photon.
This process amplifies the microwave signal and results in coherent emission (Qi et al., 2022).

2.3.2 Population Inversion

Achieving population inversion is essential for efficient maser operation. In a typical thermal
equilibrium, more atoms or molecules reside in lower energy states than in higher energy states.
However, to facilitate stimulated emission and achieve amplification, the population of the higher
energy states must exceed that of the lower energy states—a condition known as population
inversion. This inversion can be achieved through external pumping mechanisms such as optical
or microwave excitation, which elevate a significant portion of the atoms or molecules to higher
energy states (Ramsey, 1965).

2.3.3 Resonant Cavity

Masers employ resonant cavities to confine and enhance the microwave radiation. These cavities
consist of reflective surfaces that form an enclosed space where the microwave radiation bounces
back and forth, interacting with the atoms or molecules inside. The dimensions of the cavity are
designed to match the wavelength of the microwave radiation, allowing for constructive
interference and maximizing the interaction between the radiation and the active medium. This
interaction promotes stimulated emission and amplification of the microwave signal (Schawlow
and Townes, 1958).

2.3.4 Active Medium

The active medium within a maser refers to the material that undergoes stimulated emission and
amplifies the microwave radiation. Commonly used materials include gases such as ammonia
(NH3) or hydrogen (H2), as well as solid-state materials like ruby crystals doped with chromium
ions. These materials possess specific energy level structures that facilitate stimulated emission

13
and population inversion when subjected to external excitation. The choice of active medium
depends on factors such as operating frequency, power requirements, and environmental
conditions (Strelnitski and Vladimir, 1997).

2.3.5 Feedback Mechanism

A crucial aspect of maser design is the incorporation of a feedback mechanism to sustain and
control the amplification process. Feedback is achieved by introducing a portion of the output
radiation back into the resonant cavity, where it interacts with the active medium and reinforces
the stimulated emission process. By adjusting the feedback mechanism, the maser's output power
and stability can be controlled to meet specific application requirements. Additionally, feedback
ensures that the maser operates in a coherent manner, with all emitted photons having the same
frequency and phase (Strelnitski and Vladimir, 1997).

External pumping mechanisms are employed to maintain population inversion within the active
medium and sustain the maser operation. These mechanisms provide the energy required to elevate
a significant portion of the atoms or molecules to higher energy states, thus ensuring that stimulated
emission continues to occur. Depending on the maser's design and active medium, pumping
mechanisms may involve optical excitation, microwave excitation, or electrical discharge. The
efficiency and effectiveness of the pumping mechanism are critical factors in determining the
overall performance of the maser (Taylor and Nick, 2000).

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 APPLICATIONS OF MASER

Masers find applications in various scientific, industrial, and technological fields. In astronomy,
masers are utilized as sensitive probes for studying molecular clouds, star-forming regions, and
distant galaxies. They also play a vital role in atomic clocks, precision spectroscopy, and satellite
communication systems, where stable and coherent microwave signals are required. Additionally,
masers are integral components in radar systems, medical imaging devices, and high-speed data
transmission networks, highlighting their versatility and importance in modern technology
(Tennyson and Jonathan, 2013).

i. Atomic Clocks

Masers serve as the foundation for highly accurate atomic clocks, which are essential for precise
timekeeping in various applications, including global navigation systems, telecommunications
networks, and scientific experiments. Hydrogen masers, in particular, are capable of maintaining
stability and accuracy at the level of nanoseconds over extended periods, surpassing the
performance of traditional quartz crystal oscillators. Atomic clocks based on maser technology
provide the timing precision required for synchronization in modern communication systems and
satellite navigation (Theodore Maiman, 1960).

ii. Radio Astronomy

Masers serve as powerful probes for studying astronomical phenomena, particularly in regions
where stars form. Hydroxyl (OH) and water (H2O) masers, emitted by dense molecular clouds
surrounding newly formed stars, provide valuable insights into the dynamics of star-forming
regions, the structure of interstellar matter, and the distribution of molecular gas in galaxies. These
masers act as natural amplifiers of faint microwave signals, allowing astronomers to map out
regions of star formation and trace the motions of gas and dust within galaxies (Vanier and Claude,
2022).

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 iii. Precision Spectroscopy

Masers play a crucial role in precision spectroscopy experiments, where stable and coherent
microwave signals are essential for analyzing the spectral properties of atoms and molecules with
high resolution. By generating narrowband microwave radiation, masers enable researchers to
probe the fine structure and hyperfine structure of atomic transitions, measure fundamental
constants, and investigate molecular dynamics with unparalleled precision (van Schreven and
Belloni, 2016). This precision spectroscopy has applications in fundamental physics, quantum
mechanics, and metrology.

iv. Satellite Communication

In satellite communication systems, masers are used as stable frequency references for generating
and transmitting microwave signals over long distances. The coherence and stability of maser-
generated signals ensure reliable communication links between satellites and ground stations, even
in adverse environmental conditions. Masers also play a role in Doppler radar systems used for
weather monitoring, remote sensing, and aircraft navigation, providing accurate velocity
measurements based on the Doppler shift of microwave signals (Vessot et al., 1967).

v. Medical Imaging

Masers contribute to medical imaging technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
where they serve as key components in the generation and detection of radiofrequency signals. In
MRI systems, masers are used to generate the radiofrequency pulses necessary for exciting nuclear
spins in the human body, which produce the signals used to create detailed images of internal
tissues and organs. The stability and coherence of maser-generated signals are critical for achieving
high-resolution imaging and accurate diagnosis in medical applications (Vessot et al., 1967).

Masers play diverse and vital roles in advancing scientific research, technological innovation, and
industrial applications. From probing the depths of the cosmos to enabling precision timekeeping
and medical diagnostics, masers continue to drive progress in various fields. As technology

16
advances and new applications emerge, the versatility and reliability of masers will remain
essential for addressing the challenges of the modern world (van Schreven and Belloni, 2016).

3.1 CONCLUSION

Masers play diverse and vital roles in advancing scientific research, technological innovation, and
industrial applications. From probing the depths of the cosmos to enabling precision timekeeping
and medical diagnostics, masers continue to drive progress in various fields. As technology
advances and new applications emerge, the versatility and reliability of masers will remain
essential for addressing the challenges of the modern world.

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