Frank Columbus - Cement and Concrete - Design, Performance and Structure-Nova (2023)

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Kong Fah Tee
Siew Choo Chin
and Koorosh Gharehbaghi
Editors
Cement and Concrete

Design, Performance and Structure
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Contents
Preface .......................................................................................... vii

Chapter 1 The Performance of Green Self-Compacting
Concrete Using Industrial Wastes....................................1
Pawan Kumar and Navdeep Singh
Chapter 2 Infrared Thermography Analysis
of Sulfur Polymer Concrete Exposed
to Accelerated Aging .......................................................45
Milica Vlahović and Tatjana Volkov Husović
Chapter 3 The Structural and Environmental
Performance of Fly Ash Amended Cement ...................93
Lokeshappa Basappa and Anil Kumar Dikshit
Chapter 4 The Effect of Nanomaterials (Nano SiO2
and Nano Al2O3) on the Strength Properties
of Self-Compacting Concretes ......................................117
Sarella Venkateswara Rao, Padakanti Rakesh
and Nandipati S. M. Ravi Kumar
Chapter 5 Pertinency of Geopolymer Concrete for
the Australian Construction Industry:
A Broader Contextual Appraisal .................................153
Koorosh Gharehbaghi, Kong Fah Tee,
Ken Farnes and Laura Blackburne
Chapter 6 A Novel Method of Improving the Gradation
of Multi-Recycled Aggregate Using the Particle
Packing Approach .........................................................191
Madhavi Latha Kasulanati
and Rathish Kumar Pancharathi
vi Contents
Chapter 7 Bamboo Fibre Composites:

Potential and Challenges ...............................................213
Yu Xuan Liew, Sheh Ching Khong,
Jia Jun Yee, Siew Choo Chin
and Kong Fah Tee
Index .........................................................................................257
Editors' Contact Information ..................................................................265
Preface
Cement and Concrete: Design, Performance, and Structure presents advances

in cement and concrete research and development. In dealing with cement and
concrete, this book investigates different aspects of their design, performance,
and structure. The covered topics include green concrete and tomography-
based concrete ageing analysis, as well as the use of natural fibres,
geopolymers, and nanomaterials in concrete.
The book is intended for academics, researchers, and engineers, and will
serve as an invaluable guide or reference that encourages undergraduate and
postgraduate students to look beyond normal procedures when developing and
constructing innovative and sustainable building materials.
This edited book is divided into the following seven chapters. In Chapter
1, the utilization of industrial waste is employed to evaluate the performance
of green and self-compacting concrete. While Chapter 2 deals with infrared
thermography analysis of sulfur polymer concrete exposed to accelerated
ageing, in Chapter 3 various structural and environmental performances of fly
ash-amended cement are evaluated and presented. The mechanical properties
of concrete are carefully examined in Chapter 4 through the determination of
the effect of nanomaterials on the strength properties of self-compacting
concrete. To understand the current practices of geopolymer concrete, Chapter
5 deals with the pertinency of geopolymer concrete for the Australian
construction industry. In Chapter 6, a novel method of improving the gradation
of multi-recycled aggregate using a particle packing approach is prudently
presented. Finally, in Chapter 7, bamboo fibre composites are dealt with to
better understand their overall potential and challenges.
Chapter 1
The Performance of Green Self-Compacting

Concrete Using Industrial Wastes
Pawan Kumar
and Navdeep Singh*
Department of Civil Engineering,
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Abstract
Encompassing waste by-products in concrete such as recycled concrete

aggregates (RCA), fly ash (FA) and coal bottom ash (CBA) are nowadays
one of the most critical approaches, essential for green and sustainable
development. To meet the necessities of green and sustainable
development in concrete engineering construction, an attempt has been
made to prepare high volume fly ash-coal bottom ash self-compacting
concrete (HVFA-CBA-SCC) combinations with the inclusion of RCA
(0% to 100%). In total five numbers of SCC mixes were prepared in
which different substitution levels of natural coarse aggregates (NCA)
with RCA (0%-100%) were used. In parallel, for the same mixes a
constant substitution level of natural fine aggregates (NFA) and Portland
cement (PC) with CBA (10%) and FA (50%) was introduced
respectively.
This study presents an experimental finding on the mechanical as
well as durability properties such as compressive strength, tensile
strength and flexural strength, initial surface absorption test, accelerated
carbonation and capillary suction absorption test of proposed HVFA-
CBA-SCC mixes prepared with recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: navdeeps@nitj.ac.in.
In: Cement and Concrete

Editors: Kong Fah Tee, Siew Choo Chin and Koorosh Gharehbaghi
ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
© 2023 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
2 Pawan Kumar and Navdeep Singh
The outcomes revealed that, despite of the noticed decrement(s) in

the overall performance due to the involvement of RCA, all the mixes
have reasonable strengths comparable with the reference SCC mix such
as after 28 days of curing the maximum decrement of 40% in overall
strength has been experienced in HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes having RCA
in relation to the reference mix without RCA. In addition to the above,
lesser carbon emissions were noticed for the mixes containing RCA in
relation to mixes containing NCA resulting in the promotion of green
SCC.
Keywords: coal bottom ash, high volume fly ash, recycled concrete
aggregates, self-compacting concrete
1. Introduction
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has been truly phenomenal since coming in

limelight from the past two decades as it is a type of concrete that compacts
under its own weight. Usually, the superiority of the concrete depends/relies
on its compaction and curing process (Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh,
Kumar, and Goyal 2019; Navdeep Singh and Singh 2018). Recently,
sustainability has become a major problem for Civil Engineers, due to the
large usage of Natural resources (NR) by the building/construction sector
further resulting in significant amount of construction and demolition waste
(Cachim 2009; Ghorbani et al. 2018; Kwan et al. 2012). The construction
sector is regarded as one of the primary consumers of raw materials. The large
utilization/consumption of NR substantially causes pollution and affects
environmental degradation (Ghorbani et al. 2019; Tabsh and Abdelfatah
2009).
With the growth of the concrete sector in recent times, the production of
construction and demolition waste (C&DW) has increased. Nowadays without
any doubt, C&DW is the main emphasis for the researchers to make green and
sustainable concrete (Soares et al. 2014). Reusing and recycling C&DW in
various applications can be regarded as the most effective path of diminishing
environmental impacts and consumption of NR. The recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA) obtained using C&DW can be utilized in various civil
engineering practices. India is among the largest producer of C&D waste. As
per the data reported by Central Pollution Control Board, India generates more
than 45 million tons of solid waste out of which around 12–15 million tons
have been generated by construction industry. According to a report published
The Performance of Green Self-Compacting Concrete … 3
in 2010 the production of C&D waste was around 12 million tons which
accounts for 8.3–10 kg per capita per year. Whereas the metro cities of India
like Chennai alone produce 175 kg per capita per year of C&D waste. The
case is worst with the developed countries like USA which alone produces
around 484 million tons of C&D waste (Joshi and Ahmed 2016; De Brito,
Agrela, and Silva 2018; Shrivastava and Chini 2005; Saini and Singh 2020).
One of the most commonly used supplementary cement materials (SCMs)
in concrete is fly ash (FA), which is a primary by-product of coal combustion
in thermal power plants. Usually, concretes prepared with ≥ 30% of FA are
described as High-volume fly ash (HVFA) based concretes. In the year 2012
it has been reported that countries like China, India, Japan and Russia, etc.
consumes near about 50.2%, 11.7%, 8.0% and 3.3% of coal (Yao et al. 2015).
India, China, and Australia are projected to contribute 64% of the world coal
production in 2040, a growth of about 4% compared to the 2012 coal
production (Rafieizonooz et al. 2016). Due to the increase in demand of coal,
the industrial waste has also been generated at a rapid rate. Fly ash makes up
70–80% of the total coal ash wastes, and the remaining 10–20% is bottom ash
(Yao et al. 2015; Rafieizonooz et al. 2016; Navdeep Singh, Shehnazdeep, and
Bhardwaj 2020). Of the millions of tons of coal ash waste generated annually,
100 million metric tons (Mt) is bottom ash, and the remainder is fly ash
(Ahmaruzzaman 2010). The World of Coal Ash (WOCA) estimated that coal
thermal power plants generate 780 million metric tons of coal bottom ash
(CBA), of which 66% is by Asian countries, followed by Europe and the
United States (Heidrich, Feuerborn, and Weir 2013).
Also in 2012, the worldwide generation of FA per year was roughly about
750 million tons (Blissett and Rowson 2012), but only about one-fourth of FA
has been recycled or reused. In the year 2015, 130 million tons of FA were
produced in the United States yet only 50% is utilized (Yao et al. 2015). A low
consumption rate of FA means that material might end up in landfills and
further results in soil and water pollution (Yao et al. 2015). Generally, FA act
as a pozzolanic material (Zhang and Canmet 1995), typically contributing to
enhancing the workability and cost economy of concrete. Usually, the unburnt
matter of coal incineration is regarded considered as coal bottom ash (CBA)
(Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh, Kumar, and Goyal 2019). It is
produced at a boiler and constitutes nearly about 10-20% of coal ash. This ash
is a complicated blend of metal carbonates and oxides in terms of chemical
composition. As CBA is treated as a waste material, it is also thrown in ponds
and landfills (Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya 2018; Navdeep Singh,
Kumar, and Goyal 2019; Navdeep Singh, Shehnazdeep, and Bhardwaj 2020).
The disposal of coal ashes (FA and CBA) in the open air poses a threat to both
the environment and humans (Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya 2018;
Kumar and Singh 2020). Kumar & Singh, 2020; Singh et al., 2019, 2020
further explains the increased risk of health problems such as lung, bladder,
and skin cancer due to the presence of coal bottom ash linked to skin, lung,
and bladder cancer.
The thorough predictions are already present in literature wherein NCA
has been successfully replaced with RCA. Also, the literature dictates that the
mechanical and durability characteristics are significantly affected by the
behavior/performance of SCC containing RCA at various proportions
(Khodair and Bommareddy 2017; Khodair and Luqman 2017; Kurda, de Brito,
and Silvestre 2017; Navdeep Singh and Singh 2016a).
In most of the earlier studies, the addition of RCA instead of NCA has
reduced compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength, etc.
of concretes (Evangelista et al. 2015; Gesoǧlu et al. 2014; Zoran et al. 2010).
A decrement of up to 30% has been noted in the mechanical properties with
full/fractional alteration of NCA in place of RCA (Akabari, Parikh, and Tejas
2016; Panda and Bal 2013). The usage of non-conventional aggregates (RCA)
has led to comparable conduct in mechanical properties in some studies
(Nischay T G, S Vijaya, and B Shiva Kumaraswamy 2015), while minor
improvements in mechanical properties have also been noticed in some cases.
In a few cases, an increase in compressive strength and tensile strength has
been experienced with the involvement of RCA in place of NCA (Faisal et al.
2018; S. C. Kou and Poon 2009; Tuyan, Mardani-Aghabaglou, and Ramyar
2014a). Further with the involvement of RCA, the adverse effect has been
noted in the case of long-term properties of SCC. For example, with the
introduction of fine RCA, the chloride ion intrusion has been inflated (S. C.
Kou and Poon 2009; Tuyan, Mardani-Aghabaglou, and Ramyar 2014b). On
the other hand, the absorption/sorptivity values in the case of capillary water
absorption have been improved with the addition of RCA (Gesoǧlu et al. 2014;
Pereira-De-Oliveira et al. 2014). Due to additional pozzolanic properties and
identical particle size as that of NFA, the use of CBA is in high demand in the
construction sector (Aggarwal and Siddique 2014). Several successful SCC
investigations have been performed to replace NFA with CBA (Ibrahim et al.
2015; Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya 2018).
The existing literature indicates that a common replacement range of
substitution of CBA varied from 10-30% in place of NFA (Siddiquea,
Aggarwalb, and Aggarwalb 2012). Also, it has been observed that a
substitution level of 10% (by weight) is an ideal alteration level of NFA with
CBA for fulfilling the essential fresh, mechanical, and durability requirements
(Ibrahim et al. 2015; Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and
Arya 2018). In a few of the studies, the beneficial outcome of CBA has been
observed as most of the mechanical properties have been enhanced for SCC
mixes containing 10%-20% of CBA as substitution of NFA (Abidin et al.
2014; Ibrahim et al. 2015; Paul and P.U 2014). Likewise, with 10% inclusion
of CBA in place of NFA, an enhancement in long-term behavior such as
carbonation resistance, chloride ion penetration, water absorption, capillary
water absorption, etc. has also been witnessed (Abidin et al. 2014;
Kasemchaisiri and Tangtermsirikul 2008; Rafieizonooz et al. 2017).
2. Research Significance
The principal objective of this experimental program is to study the impact of

RCA on HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes. This experimental study includes different
mechanical (Compressive strength, Tensile strength, and Flexural strength)
and durability properties (Accelerated carbonation and Capillary suction
absorption test) of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA. Also, different
parameters such as cost analysis and global warming potential have been
performed. In other terms, the current investigation used a practically oriented
criterion in minimizing the degradation of natural resources and preventing
excessive landfilling by using entirely waste materials. The outcomes
observed in this study provide a quantitative information to understand the
potential use of RCA in HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes as less CO2 emissions are
detected while using non-conventional aggregates (RCA) in relation to
conventional aggregates (NCA).
3. Industrial Wastes
3.1. Fly Ash
Fly ash is a waste by-product attained from coal thermal power plants
(Khodair and Luqman 2017; Hyeong Ki Kim 2015). Previous observations
have revealed that the existence of FA significantly distresses/affects the
abrasion resistance, strength and further helps in overcoming the moisture
barriers already present in concrete pavements. This effect is imposed by the
reaction between cement hydrates and FA, which further alters the concrete
microstructure (Navdeep Singh and Singh 2016b; Kumar and Singh 2020).
The consumption of FA in the concrete industry is also a significant energy
saving and sustainable activity. The disadvantages of using fly ash concrete
relative to traditional concrete may be attributed to its low alkalinity. Low
alkalinity might lead to interference in the passivation film on the steel
reinforcement bar in both NVC (normal vibrating concrete) and SCC.
FA is primarily used as a binder as an alteration of PC in low as well as
high volume. The principal benefits of its use are the reduction of CO2
emissions from the cement industry and the improvement in the workability
of concrete (Anjos, Camões, and Jesus 2014; Rashad 2015). Also, the usage
of high-volume FA precisely in mass concreting applications such as bridge
abutments, piers and dams, etc. results in low hydration heat in comparison to
PC based concretes (Khalifah et al. 2016; S.-G. Kim 2010; Moser, n.d.). As
per ASTM C618-12(a), FA is classified as either Class C or Class F and its
classification mainly depends on the chemical composition. Usually, Class F-
FA comprises calcium (1% to 12%) in the form of calcium hydroxide, calcium
sulfate, etc., whereas Class C-FA has high levels of calcium oxide (30% to
40%) (Moser, n.d.; Ledbetter et al. 1981). The most familiar use, apart from
different FA applications, is its usage in the manufacture of concrete and
cement. Apart from this, FA has also been effectively integrated into the
making of geopolymer concrete and backfilling, etc.
The key benefit of using FA in SCC is its capability to decrease the
superplasticizer amount needed to achieve the desired workability. In general,
FA practice promotes rheological activity and curtails the risk of cracking at
later ages due to lower hydration heat (Khalifah et al. 2016; S.-G. Kim 2010;
Moser, n.d.).
3.2. Coal Bottom Ash
Coal is a primary source of generating heat and electricity through the

combustion process. Coal ash is a residue arising from the thermal power plant
(Baite et al. 2016; Nikbin et al. 2016). The burned coal causes smoke that goes
into the air and is collected as fly ash. The burned coal left at the bottom is
thereafter cooled and recognized as bottom ash (H. K. Kim and Lee 2015).
CBA is a waste product produced at Thermal plants. Near about 65-70% of
electricity is still generated in India from thermal power plants based on coal.
The combustion of nearly 20 tons of coal typically generates around 1 MW of
electricity, along with the generation of 15%-20% of CBA (Navdeep Singh,

Mithulraj, and Arya 2018).
The ampleness of CBA has led to different concerns such as dumping and
utilization due to land deficiency (Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh,
Kumar, and Goyal 2019). Due to similar size with fine aggregates, CBA has
been successfully used as an alternative material in both normally vibrated and
self-compacting concretes from the last couple of decades. CBA also
embraces pozzolanic content (Navdeep Singh, Shehnazdeep, and Bhardwaj
2020; Kumar and Singh 2020) when produced/formed from other products
such as lignite, sub-bituminous and anthracite, etc. The benefit of additional
pozzolanic character facilitates its use in the concrete industry, which focuses
mainly on minimizing carbon footprints. Generally, the size of the CBA
depends on the source of the coal produced or the quality of the coal. The
overall concrete behavior varies with the varying size of the CBA (British
Standard 1992; Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya 2018).
3.3. Recycled Concrete Aggregates
The safety of the environment is a fundamental aspect, which is interconnected

with the survival of humans. Parameters such as sustainability, environmental
awareness, and the conservation of natural resources play an important role in
modern construction requirements. In our lives, construction materials are
very important because we invest 90% of our time on buildings or facilities
(roads, highways, bridges, etc.). Usually, the construction sector (Mane et al.
2018) harms the nearby surroundings by:
• Creating 50% of total waste.

• Consuming 40% of total energy.
• Taking 50% of raw materials from nature.
The key reasons for the rise in concrete wastes are the demolition of many
old buildings, generation of building waste from natural disasters such as
earthquakes, storms, etc. The rough quantity of several construction materials
in demolition waste is demonstrated in Figure 1.
Ceramic
10%
Concrete
10% 30%
Metal
5%
5% Plastic
Wood
40% Various
Figure 1. Approximation data of demolition waste.
Nowadays in construction works, the use of RCA is a subject of higher

priority throughout the globe. In Great Britain, 10% of the used aggregates are
generally RCA (Collins RJ 1996) whereas in 1994 approximately 80,000 tons
of RCA has been used in Holland (de Vries 1996). Further, the experts
acknowledged that usage of 20% of RCA (coarse RCA) results accordingly
on fresh and hardened properties. One of the key reasons for using RCA in
structural concrete is to make the environment green and eco-friendly. As
reported by Oikonomou 2005 (Oikonomou 2005) few major environmental
problems are connected with construction as “construction consumes nearly
half (50 percent) of raw materials from nature, takes 40 percent of total energy
and produces 50 percent of total waste.” The consumption of RCA might help
in reducing the effects of construction and stopping natural aggregates from
being harvested.
4. Environmental and Health Issues
Fly ash is released in the environment from the combustion of fossil fuels. The
raised fly ash particles are generally irregular in shape and comprise various
elements like thallium, selenium, cadmium, calcium, iron, silica, and
aluminum, etc. (Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya 2018; Navdeep Singh,
Kumar, and Goyal 2019). Depending upon the harmfulness/morbidity,
concentration in air, and chemical properties, FA particles might cause an
inhalation threat to exposed workers which further leads to birth defects,
permanent mutilation/defacement to respiratory systems and lungs, etc.
(Lockwood et al., n.d.). Similarly, CBA encompasses a variable quantity of
heavy metals which are characterized as ‘Group-I human carcinogenic

metals’.
The occurrence of such metals is the main source for bladder, lung, and
skin cancers. After coming in contact with the surface water, the coal ashes
percolate and fuse with surface water. Also, the rise in urbanization has put a
great burden on the available natural resources (Ruhl et al. 2009; L. F. O. Silva
and Da Boit 2011). The development of new Infrastructure schemes has
contributed to creating the new structures instead of renovating the older
structures which further leads to an increase of construction and demolition
waste. Furthermore, sustainability in the construction sector has upstretched
an extra worry/concern to mankind. The growing rate of landfills and the lack
of available natural resources have forced the researchers/investigators to
reuse the C&DW and solve the aforesaid worries (Akhtar and Sarmah 2018;
Durmisevic 2009; Jain, Singhal, and Jain 2018). The superlative management
of this increasing quantity of C&DW wastes will help in resolving the
ecological imbalance.
5. Materials
In all the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes, Portland cement (PC) 43-Grade was the
main binder, and it was combined with Class F FA. The reference SCC mix
was prepared by using 50% PC + 50% FA along with 90% NFA + 10% CBA
and 100% NCA. SCC combinations encompassing RCA were attained by
substituting NCA with RCA at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% levels. The RCA
used (maximum of 10 mm size) during the investigation was gained by
crushing the left-over waste specimens from the author’s institute.
5.1. SCC Mix Proportions
The proportions of various HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes are mentioned in

Table 1. The mix design of the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes including the RCA
and CBA as replacement of NCA and NFA was achieved using equivalent mix
proportions (Table 2). All the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes were prepared with a
binder content of 615 Kg/m3 and a constant water/binder of 0.45 after meeting
the EFNARC guidelines. The conventional (natural aggregates), as well as
non-conventional aggregates (recycled aggregates), were soaked in water for
a period of 24 hours before casting. By using a tilting drum mixer, all the
HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes were prepared.
Table 1. Mix designations and description of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
S no Mix Mix explanation in detail

designation
1. CHFB-0R PC50%+FA50%+CBA10%+NFA90%+RCA0%+NCA100%
(Reference)
5. CHFB- PC50%+FA50%+CBA10%+NFA90%+RCA100%+NCA0%
100R
Table 2. Detailed proportions used in HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
Mix W/B SP Water FA RCA CBA PC NCA NFA

designation Kg/m3
CHFB-0R 0.45 2.1 277 232 0 62 308 652 738
(Reference)
CHFB-25R 0.45 2.41 277 232 151 62 308 489 738
CHFB-50R 0.45 2.62 277 232 301 62 308 326 738
CHFB-75R 0.45 3.04 277 232 452 62 308 163 738
CHFB- 0.45 3.36 277 232 602 62 308 0 738
100R
In order to obtain the desired workability superplasticizer of the brand

name ‘Sika A (Sika Viscocrete 2002)’ was added. For estimating the
mechanical and durability behavior sufficient number of specimens were cast:
100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm cubes were cast for compressive
strength, accelerated carbonation tests. Tensile strength was performed on
cylindrical specimens having a diameter of 100 mm and a length of 200 mm.
Flexural strength test was done on 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm size beams.
Initial surface absorption test (ISAT) was performed on cubes having
dimensions 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm. For performing the Capillary
suction absorption test (CSAT), cylindrical specimens having a size of 100 ±
6 mm Ø with a length of 50 ± 3 mm were used. After 24 hours, the specimens
were demolded and henceforth moist cured for their respective period.
5.2. Details and Curing Methods
The number of the specimens casted for different tests and curing period for
each test are presented in Table 3. Table 3 also presents the exposure period
to CO2 in case of carbonation tests. The specimens were cured in ‘Temperature
controlled curing tanks’ having temperature of 27 ± 2°C for the desired curing
period. Figure 2 shows the temperature-controlled curing tank used in the
investigation.
Table 3. Specimen details and curing and exposure periods for different tests
Test Number of Curing period Exposure period

specimens (days) (weeks)
Compressive strength 81 7, 28, 56, 90 -
Tensile strength 81 7, 28, 56, 90 -
Flexural strength 54 28, 90 -
Initial surface 54 28, 90
-
absorption test
Accelerated 108 28, 90 28 and 90 days
carbonation (exposure of 28 and
90 days)
Capillary suction 54 28, 90
-
absorption test
Figure 2. Temperature controlled curing tank.

6. Test Methods
6.1. Compressive Strength
As recommended by Indian Standard 516-1959 on a 2000 KN ‘Compression

Testing Machine’, compressive strength tests of all the HVFA-CBA-SCC
mixes were performed after curing ages of 7, 28, 56, and 90 days. The
approximate load was applied at a rate of 14 N/mm2/minute until the failure.
Figure 3 (a) showing compressive strength on 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm
size cubes.
6.2. Tensile Strength
According to Indian Standard 5816:1999 on a 2000 KN ‘Compression Testing

Machine’, the tensile strength of all HVFA-CBA-SCC combinations was
performed after the curing age of 7, 28, 56, and 90 days on cylindrical
specimens. The approximate load was applied at a rate of 1.2 N/mm2/minute
to 2.4 N/mm2/minute until the failure. Figure 3 (b) presentation tensile strength
on cylindrical specimens having a diameter of 100 mm and a length of 200
mm.
6.3. Flexural Strength
As recommended by ASTM C293/C293M, a flexural strength test was

performed on beams specimens after curing ages of 28 and 90 days. Flexural
tests evaluate the tensile strength of concrete indirectly. It tests the ability of
unreinforced concrete beam or slab to withstand failure in bending. Figure 3
(c) showing flexural strength on 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm size beams.
6.4. Initial Surface Absorption Test
As recommended by BS 1881- 208:1996, the Initial Surface Absorption Test

of all the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes was performed after curing ages of 28 and
90 days. The initial surface absorption test gives the rate of flow of water into
concrete per unit area at a stated interval from the start of the test and at a
constant applied head. The water contact area is defined by a plastic cell sealed
onto the concrete surface of the test specimen and is not kept less than 5000
mm2. Water is introduced into the cell via a connecting point and pressure is
maintained at a head of 200 mm using a filter. A second connection point to
the cap leads to a horizontal capillary tube. The readings are taken at intervals
of 10 min, 30 min and 60 min from the start of the test. Figure 3 (d)
demonstrating ISAT values on cubes having dimensions 150 mm x 150 mm x
150 mm.
6.5. Accelerated Carbonation
In accordance with RILEM CPC-18, accelerated carbonation tests were

performed on cubical specimens. Further, the specimens were introduced to a
carbonation chamber where the concentration of CO2 was kept at 4% for 4 and
12 weeks after curing time of 28 and 90 days. During the exposure period,
relative humidity was kept between 40 percent and 70 percent. The
carbonation phenomenon increases with increase in temperature, and it
generally varies from 25 ± 2°C. Figure 3 (e) showing carbonation chamber
having cubes of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm.
6.6. Capillary Suction Absorption Test
In compliance with ASTM - C - 1585 – 04, the initial rate of absorption (IRA)
and secondary rate of absorption (SRA) values were assessed. Capillary
suction test is used to determine the rate of absorption (sorptivity) of water by
hydraulic cement concrete by measuring the increase in the mass of a
specimen resulting from absorption of water as a function of time when only
one surface of the specimen is exposed to water. Discs of 100 mm diameter
and 50 mm thickness will be cut from the 100 mm × 200 mm cylinders and
kept for oven drying till constant mass is achieved. The sides of the specimens
must be suitably sealed. The mass of the specimen will be recorded with a
precision balance. During the course of the tests the specimens must be
supported in such a way that the exposed end of each specimen will be in touch
with water. The setup used is shown in Figure 3 (f).
(a) Compressive strength (b) Tensile strength
(c) Flexural strength (d) Initial Surface absorption test
(e) Accelerated carbonation (f) Capillary suction

absorption test
Figure 3. Pictorial view of the test (s) performed.

7. Outcomes and Discussion
The following segment represents the observed findings of the HVFA-CBA-

SCC mixes. The HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes have been tested at several curing
periods prepared with the constant amount of CBA, FA, and a varying amount
of RCA. The findings of the different conducted tests such as compressive
strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, initial surface absorption test
accelerated carbonation and capillary suction absorption test are mentioned
below.
Compressive strength is usually the most common and fundamental property

of concrete examined in almost every research on concrete (Fan et al. 2015;
Pin, Ashraf, and Cao 2018; Navdeep Singh, M, and Arya 2019) (Fan et al.
2015; Pin et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2019b). The compressive strength is
performed after curing ages of 7, 28, 56, and 90 days respectively. After a
curing period of 28 days, the reference mix CHFB-0R revealed the most
compressive strength among the remaining mixes. The fundamental test was
performed to study the behavior of RCA as a substitution of NCA on several
SCC combinations. The average compressive strength of reference SCC mix
(CHFB-0R) and SCC mixes comprising RCA (CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R,
CHFB-75R, and CHFB-100R) increased from 19.5-31.2 MPa and 16.2-30.4
MPa respectively. Compared to 28 days, the compressive strength of reference
SCC mix and SCC mixes encompassing RCA increased by 45% to 60% [i.e.,
28.4 and 31.2 MPa] and 44% to 62% [i.e., 24.6 and 30.4 MPa] respectively,
after curing time of 56 and 90 days. The variation in compressive strength of
HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes is represented in Figure 4.
Usually, compressive strength is related to the microstructure of the
hardened concrete (Behera et al. 2014; Evangelista et al. 2015; Rafieizonooz
et al. 2017). The strength of any concrete also depends on the strength of the
aggregate, cement matrix, and the ITZ between the matrix and the aggregate
(Behera et al. 2014; Mohammed, Dawson, and Thom 2014; Nassar and
Soroushian 2012; Wu, Shi, and Khayat 2016).
35
Compressive strength (N/mm2)
30 7 Days 28 Days 56 Days 90 Days
25
20
15
10
5
0
CHFB-0R CHFB-25R CHFB-50R CHFB-75R CHFB-100R
Mix designation
Figure 4. Compressive strength values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA.
The experienced loss in compressive strength of SCC mixes containing

RCA when related to reference mix CHFB-0R might be due to the availability
of weak characters like porous nature, micro and macro cracks, higher
absorption rates, and old Interfacial Transfer Zone (ITZ), etc. Also,
compressive strength is disturbed by the size and types of aggregates, water-
to-cement ratio, and the addition of mineral and chemical admixtures (Kumar
and Singh 2020; Navdeep Singh, Kumar, and Goyal 2019; Navdeep Singh, M,
and Arya 2019).
Despite the decrements in the compressive strength due to the
involvement of RCA, all the mixes have reasonable strengths compatible with
the reference SCC mix. For example, the SCC mix prepared with 100% RCA
showed a compressive strength of 22.7 MPa after 28 days of curing i.e., 14%
lower than the reference mix (26.7 MPa). Further, the presence of CBA as a
replacement of NFA leads to weak and porous interfacial transition zone and
higher water absorption. However, at prolonged curing ages, the pozzolanic
activity of CBA comes into consideration that leads to the formation of CSH
gel and filling the voids (M. Singh and Siddique 2015; Kumar and Singh
2020).
Apart from the above-mentioned, tensile strength is another important

mechanical property of concrete that significantly distress/distracts the size
and extent of cracking in concrete structures (Gesoglu et al. 2015; Siddiquea,
Aggarwalb, and Aggarwalb 2012; Navdeep Singh, M, and Arya 2019; Tuyan,
Mardani-Aghabaglou, and Ramyar 2014a). As concretes are frequently poor
in tension, therefore, the valuation of tensile strength of concretes is of great
importance. The variation in tensile strength of the different HVFA-CBA-SCC
mixes at curing times of 7, 28, 56, and 90 days are presented in Figure 5.
Tensile strength was executed to assess the performance of RCA on HVFA-
CBA-SCC mixes. Similar to the compressive test, the tensile strength for all
SCC combinations has also been enhanced with time but the same has been
declined when compared with the reference SCC mix CHFB-0R.
8
7 Days 28 Days 56 Days 90 Days
Tensile strength (N/mm2)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Mix designation
Figure 5. Tensile strength values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA.
For example, the tensile strength rises from 4.6-6.7 MPa and 3.1-6 MPa
for the reference SCC mix and SCC mixes encompassing RCA respectively
but when compared to reference mix maximum decrement of 33% has been
witnessed for SCC mix CHFB-100R. Comparable performance has been
noticed for SCC mix CHFB-25R containing 25% of RCA with a maximum
decrement of 13% at all curing ages. Former investigations have already
concluded that fusion of FA with PC results in a disadvantageous effect on
tensile strength at different curing periods (Nehdi, Pardhan, and Koshowski
2004). The decline in tensile strength might be due to free and porous hydrates
of RCA (Kapoor, Singh, and Singh 2018; Navdeep Singh, Mithulraj, and Arya
2018; Navdeep Singh and Singh 2019). Split tensile strength also depends
largely on the superiority of the paste, which is worsening due to the physical
nature of CBA (Over and States 1996; M. Singh and Siddique 2014).
The primary/main reason for the reduction in the values of HVFA-CBA-
SCC mixes is principally due to the existence of a high amount of RCA which
leads to the occurrence of weak intrinsic parameters between new and old ITZ
along with weak microstructure (Behera et al. 2014; Nassar and Soroushian
2012; Wu, Shi, and Khayat 2016). The already present pores in non-
conventional aggregates (RCA) astonishes/overcome/dismantle the pore
refining action of CBA at all ages and further promoting the expansion of the
cracks thus reducing the split tensile strength (Over and States 1996; M. Singh
and Siddique 2014; Navdeep Singh and Singh 2016b).
A flexural test is commonly used for determining the modulus of rupture of

specimens (Mastali and Dalvand 2016; Wu, Shi, and Khayat 2016). The
flexural strength was achieved after curing ages of 28 and 90 days
respectively. The distinction in flexural strength for HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
at several substitution levels of NCA in place of RCA (0% to 100% with an
increase of 25% throughout) together with the same amount of binder
(PC+FA) and CBA as substitution of NFA respectively was recognized. The
witnessed results directly specify that with the inclusion of RCA in HVFA-
CBA-SCC mixes the flexural strength has been declined. The flexural strength
rises from 7.11-8.69 MPa and 4.67-7.03 MPa for the reference HVFA-CBA-
SCC mix and HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes containing RCA respectively. The
maximum decrement of 41% has been observed in SCC mix CHFB-100R
comprising 100% of RCA whereas a minimum reduction of 19% has been
noticed for SCC mix CHFB-25R after 90 days of curing.
Similar to the compressive strength, all the SCC mixes have reasonable
strength compatible to reference SCC mix CHFB-0R despite the continuous
reduction in flexural strength due to the presence of RCA. The distinction in
flexural strength of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes prepared with RCA and CBA at
different curing periods is presented in Figure 6. The trends of all the
mechanical properties are analogous as all the values of SCC mix comprising
RCA keep on decreasing when related to reference SCC mix containing NCA.
Also, the reasons behind the decrement in flexural strength are similar to that
are observed for compressive strength and split tensile strength (Behera et al.
2014; Nassar and Soroushian 2012; Otsuki, Miyazato, and Yodsudjai 2003;
Xiao et al. 2013).
10
Flexural strength (N/mm2)
28 Days 90 Days
8
0
Mix designation
Figure 6. Flexural strength values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA.
7.4. Initial Surface Absorption Test
Initial surface absorption test exhibits the flow rate of water in concrete per
unit area for a given time interval (Kapoor, Singh, and Singh 2018; 2016). The
ISA values were evaluated by testing standard size cubes having dimensions
150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm at a curing period of 28 and 90 days. Before the
start of testing, the specimens were oven-dried to a constant weight and left in
a desiccator to cool. During testing water is introduced into the cell and
pressure was maintained at 200 mm head using a filter funnel. Figure 7 shows
the ISA 10, ISA 30, ISA 60 values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising
RCA after 28 days of curing.
To determine the influence of RCA on CBA-based SCC, an absorption
test has been performed. The surface absorption is increased with an increment
in the levels of RCA (25% - 100%). For example, after a curing time of 28
days, ISA 10 values have been increased by about 15%, 23%, 38% and 58%
for all the SCC mixes CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R, CHFB-75R, and CHFB-100R
respectively in relation to mix CHFB-0R. Similarly, increments were noticed
for ISA 30 values (Figure 7). Following the earlier trends, ISA 60 values were
further increased by about 10%, 32%, 36%, and 45% for the aforesaid mixes
in comparison to the control HVFA-CBA-SCC mix. Higher ISA values
designate higher advancements in surface porosity. The noticed behavior
allocates to the poor performance of the RCA (specifically due to weak
residual mortar and formation of additional boundaries) which further convert
the matrix into a more permeable form consequently become vulnerable to
water permeation (Mcneil and Kang 2013; Otsuki, Miyazato, and Yodsudjai
2003; Yaragal 2017).
0.9
0.8 10 min 30 min 60 min
0.7
Initial surface absorption
0.6
(ml/m2.se)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Mix designation
Figure 7. ISAT values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 28 days

of curing.
Likewise, the ISA 10, ISA 30, ISA 60 values of CBA-SCC after a curing
time of 90 days are represented in Figure 8. The observations indicate that
RCA is having a damaging as well as the dominant effect on ISA values of all
CBA-SCC mixes. Also, the outcomes of the surface absorption indicate a
direct relation with RCA. As RCA increases the absorption also starts
increasing (Evangelista et al. 2015; Kurda, de Brito, and Silvestre 2019; Zoran
et al. 2010). The least ISA values have been obtained for the SCC mix
containing 25% RCA (CHFB-25R), while maximum values have been
experienced for the SCC mix containing 100% RCA (CHFB-100R) in
comparison with the control SCC mix.
0.6
Initial surface absorption (ml/m2.sec)
10 min 30 min 60 min
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Mix designation
Figure 8. ISAT values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 90 days

of curing.
7.5. Accelerated Carbonation
After an exposure period of 4 and 12 weeks of accelerated carbonation, the

cured specimens (cured for 28 and 90 days of curing) were split about 50 mm
from the edge perpendicular to the exposed surface to measure carbonation
depth. Further, carbonation depth was estimated by spraying phenolphthalein
solution on the recently broken surfaces (Kumar and Singh 2020; Navdeep
Singh, Shehnazdeep, and Bhardwaj 2020). The test results attained after 4 and
12 weeks of CO2 treatment at 28 days of curing are represented in Figure 9.
The increment in carbonation depth has been quite significant in all the
HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes prepared with alteration of NCA with RCA after the
same curing time. The maximum increase of 43% and 40% in carbonation
depths has been observed for mix CHFB-100R after 4 and 12 weeks of
exposure in comparison with reference SCC mix CHFB-0R. The results of
carbonation depths observed after curing time of 90 days having exposure
period of 4 and 12 weeks are presented in Figure 10.
The observed findings demonstrate that the gap between CHFB-0R and
CHFB-25R is minimal/slight as maximum increase in carbonation depth has
been limited up to 8% and 10% after 4 and 12 weeks of exposure at 90 days
of curing time. The increment in carbonation depth is substantial when >25%
RCA has been replaced with NCA as the maximum increase of 35% and 33%
in carbonation depth have been noticed after 4 and 12 weeks of exposure at 90

days of curing time. The poorer behavior has been noted for SCC mixes having
≥ 75% of RCA (CHFB-75R and CHFB-100R) in place of NCA in comparison
to reference SCC mix CHFB-0R.
60.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
50.0
Carbonation depth (mm)
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Mix designation
Figure 9. Carbonation depth of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 28

days of curing.
35.0
Carbonation depth (mm)
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Mix designation
Figure 10. Carbonation depth of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 90

days of curing.
After experimental investigation, it has been concluded that after extended

exposure periods (12 weeks), the increase in carbonation depth has been
experienced to more comparable than noticed at initial exposure periods (4
weeks). The observed trends of HVFA-CBA-SCC are somewhat similar to the
trends noticed for NVC prepared with NCA (Arredondo-Rea et al. 2012; Shi
Cong Kou and Poon 2013; Thomas et al. 2013). The primary cause for this
low carbonation resistance might be due to the water content of cementitious
matrix, physical nature, and pore structure of RCA (N Singh and Singh 2016;
Navdeep Singh and Singh 2016b; Navdeep Singh, Kumar, and Goyal 2019).
Also, the more the porosity, the more will be the dispersion rate of CO2. Other
factors like, low density of CBA (Siddiquea, Aggarwalb, and Aggarwalb
2012; Navdeep Singh, Kumar, and Goyal 2019; Ankur and Singh 2021), a
higher water absorption rate of RCA in comparison to NFA and NCA are also
responsible for such trends.
7.6. Capillary Suction Absorption Test
Capillary suction absorption test was executed to assess the absorptivity

coefficient (I in mm) of several HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes at curing times of 28
and 90 days respectively. The lower the absorption, the greater is the resistance
of concrete towards the absorption of water. The observations up to 6 hours
were considered for evaluation of initial absorption rates (IRA) while after 6
hours, the observations were noted to assess the secondary rate of absorption
(SRA). Figure 11 and Figure 12 demonstrate the absorption resistance of
HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes after 28 days and 90 days of curing respectively.
It has been experienced from the outcomes that with the enhancement in
the levels of RCA instead of NCA, there is a further decrement in the
resistance of capillary water penetration. The water absorption has been
increased proportionally for each HVFA-CBA-SCC mix compared to
reference SCC mix CHFB-0R. The IRA values after 28 days have been
noticed to be increased by 28%, 66%, 33% for HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R, and CHFB-75R in comparison to control SCC mix
CHFB-0R. The IRA value for SCC mix CHFB-100R was 2.3 times higher
than the value observed for control HVFA-CBA-SCC mix CHFB-0R for the
same curing period.
Correspondingly, after 90 days, the IRA values were increased by 15%,
19% and 24% for HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R, and
CHFB-75R in comparison to control HVFA-CBA-SCC mix CHFB-0R.
Further, IRA value was increased by 39% for HVFA-CBA-SCC mix CHFB-
100R compared to the control CHFB-0R mix (Figure 12).
12
CHFB-0R CHFB-25R CHFB-50R
Absorption coefficient (I in mm)
10
CHFB-75R CHFB-100R
0
0 8 17 24 35 42 60 85 104 120 134 147 294 416 510 587
(Time in sec) ^ 1/2
Figure 11. CSAT values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 28 days
of curing.
10
Absorption coefficient (I in mm)
CHFB-0R CHFB-25R
8
CHFB-50R CHFB-75R
0
0 8 17 24 35 42 60 85 104 120 134 147 294 416 510 587
(Time in sec) ^ 1/2
Figure 12. CSAT values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA after 90 days
of curing.
The SRA values (obtained after 4 days) for all the HVFA-CBA-SCC
mixes CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R, CHFB-75R, and CHFB-100R were increased
further by a maximum of 48% after 28 days of curing. However, after 90 days
the increments were restricted to merely 15% in SRA values when compared
to the reference HVFA-CBA-SCC mix. The porous network of RCA
composed of old cement paste was characterized with higher porosity and was
probably responsible for such IRA and SRA rates (Kumar and Singh 2020; Y.
F. Silva et al. 2016; Navdeep Singh, M, and Arya 2019). In fact, the water-
accessible porosity is interrelated with the water/binder ratio and the porosity
of RCA which subsequently leads towards a highly porous microstructure
(Yüksel, Bilir, and Özkan 2007).
7.7. Co-Relation between Mechanical and Durability Properties
Usually, the performance of concrete can be also well assessed by co-relating

mechanical properties (compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural
strength) with durability properties [water absorption (surface absorption) and
accelerated carbonation]. Regression analysis is a general technique of
statistical modeling that is used to evaluate the relationship between known
variables (Navdeep Singh and Singh 2016a). The said approach is commonly
used for prediction and forecasting, where there are substantial risks of
overlapping experimental findings. Further, the observed co-relations in the
midst of independent and dependent variables can be effectively obtained
using regression analysis (Scott 2012). Several proposals like linear,
exponential, and power equation relationships amongst these properties can
be put forward in the literature.
In the present study, a finite number of unknown parameters were
considered from the experimental data with more accuracy related to other
approaches through the linear regression process (Cook 1982). To generalize
relationship (s) amid these parameters, the results of the compressive strength,
tensile strength, and flexural strength with water absorption and accelerated
carbonation of all HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes were used. The linear relationship
of compressive strength/tensile strength/flexural strength with water
absorption and accelerated carbonation are presented in Table 4, Table 5, and
Table 6 respectively.
From the observations, it has been found that mechanical properties have
a strong relationship with water absorption (surface absorption) and
accelerated carbonation as most of the R2 values (Figure 13-21) are observed
to be more than 0.8 for all the above-said properties.
Table 4. Co-relation of compressive strength and durability properties
Compressive 28 days curing (ISA 30) 90 days curing (ISA 30)

strength vs
Water y = -0.0594x + 1.9948 y = -0.0322x + 1.3022
absorption
Compressive 28 days curing 90 days curing
strength vs 4 weeks 12 weeks 4 weeks 12 weeks
exposure exposure exposure exposure
Accelerated y = -2.5894x y = -3.5839x y=- y = -1.4151x +
carbonation + 92.674 + 131.94 0.9461x + 68.681
44.253
Table 5. Co-relation of tensile strength and durability properties
Tensile strength vs 28 days curing (ISA 30) 90 days curing (ISA 30)
Water absorption y = -0.1134x + 1.0723 y = -0.0892x + 0.8699
Tensile strength vs 28 days curing 90 days curing
4 weeks 12 weeks 4 weeks 12 weeks
Accelerated y=- y = -7.0113x + y = -2.659x y = -4.0577x
carbonation 5.0762x + 77.074 + 31.81 + 50.527
53.084
Table 6. Co-relation of flexural strength and durability properties
Flexural strength vs 28 days curing (ISA 30) 90 days curing (ISA 30)
Water absorption y = -0.0818x + 0.9994 y = -0.0472x + 0.677
Flexural strength vs 28 days curing 90 days curing
4 weeks 12 weeks 4 weeks 12 weeks
Accelerated y = -3.5234x y = -4.9218x y=- y=-
carbonation + 49.023 + 71.782 1.4234x + 2.1889x +
26.166 42.024
60.0
50.0 R² = 0.9543
40.0
30.0
R² = 0.9611
20.0
10.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
0.0
22 23 24 25 26 27
Figure 13. Correlation amongst compressive strength and accelerated carbonation

after 28 days of curing.
36.0
31.0
26.0 R² = 0.9083
21.0
16.0
R² = 0.9359
11.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
6.0
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Figure 14. Correlation amongst compressive strength and accelerated carbonation

after 90 days of curing.
0.7
R² = 0.9819
0.6
0.5
0.4 R² = 0.9541
0.3 28 Days 90 Days
0.2
22 24 26 28 30 32
Figure 15. Correlation amongst compressive strength and water absorption.
53.0
48.0
R² = 0.9871
43.0
38.0
33.0
28.0 R² = 0.9982
23.0 4 Weeks 12 Weeks

18.0
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Figure 16. Correlation amongst tensile strength and accelerated carbonation after
28 days of curing.
40.0
30.0
R² = 0.9922
20.0
R² = 0.9821
10.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
0.0
4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Figure 17. Correlation amongst tensile strength and accelerated carbonation after
90 days of curing.
0.7
0.6 R² = 0.9675
0.5
0.4
R² = 0.9698
0.3
28 Days 90 Days
0.2
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
Figure 18. Correlation amongst tensile strength and water absorption.

60.0
50.0
R² = 0.9161
40.0
30.0
R² = 0.9058
20.0
10.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
0.0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
Figure 19. Correlation amongst flexural strength and accelerated carbonation after
28 days of curing.
35.0
R² = 0.9704
30.0
25.0
20.0 R² = 0.9459
15.0
4 Weeks 12 Weeks
10.0
4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5
Figure 20. Correlation amongst flexural strength and accelerated carbonation after
90 days of curing.
0.7
0.6 R² = 0.9488
0.5
0.4
R² = 0.9133
0.3
28 Days 90 Days
0.2
4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 21. Correlation amongst flexural strength and water absorption.
7.8. Cost Analysis
Usually, coarse aggregates (NCA) obtained from NR are used to produce

concrete which upon demolition is further dumped in landfills. The present
study largely focuses on attaining sustainable HVFA-CBA-SCC that
comprises supplementary materials either in the form of non-conventional and
binders. In other words, the current investigation used a practice-oriented
criterion in minimizing the degradation of natural resources and preventing
excessive landfilling. The non-conventional aggregates (RCA) were acquired
by mashing the remaining left-over concretes available in the testing
laboratory.
The equivalent volume (per cubic meter) approach has been applied for
the cost analysis for all the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes. The analysis includes the
cost of the material (including taxes) and transport charges. The free-of-cost
(only transportation charges) industrial by-products (FA and CBA) are
obtained from Thermal power plant Ropar, Punjab. Table 7 highlights the cost
of all the HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes. The optimum cost value has been observed
for the SCC mix CHFB-0R having 100% of NCA in comparison to all other
SCC mixes (Table 7). The difference in the cost is due to involvement of labor
and machinery required to convert C&DW waste into comparable size of
natural aggregates (NCA). Based on the cost analysis the mixes can be
arranged in decreasing order as CFHB-R100 > CFHB-R75 > CFHB-R50 >

CFHB-R25 > CFHB-R0.
Table 7. Cost analysis of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
Cost SCC mix Combinations

S
Materials (Rs per CHFB- CHFB- CHFB- CHFB- CHFB-
no
Kg) 0R 25R 50R 75R 100R
1. OPC 7.5 2310 2310 2310 2310 2310
2. FA 0.52 120.6 120.6 120.6 120.6 120.6
3. CBA 0.52 32.2 32.2 32.2 32.2 32.2
4. NCA 1.31 854.1 640.6 427.1 213.50 0
5. RCA 1.95 0 294.5 587 881.4 1173.9
6. NFA 1.45 1070.1 1070.1 1070.1 1070.1 1070.1
7. SP 200 420 482 524 608 672
8. Water 0.05 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9
Total 4821 4963.9 5084.8 5249.8 5392.7
7.9. Global Warming Potential (GWP)
The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was matured/advanced to allow

comparisons of the global warming impacts of different gases. Precisely, it is
a measure of Greenhouse gas (GHG) contribution to the processing of a
material in terms of CO2 equivalent. The larger the GWP, the more that a given
gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period. Usually, the CO2
equivalent is the count of gases formed in terms of carbon dioxide during the
processing of machinery, material, and transportation, etc. The distinction in
GWP usually depends upon various aspects such as boundary condition,
country, and other factors considered/examined for the processing of
ingredients of concrete (Mastali et al. 2018; Mithun and Narasimhan 2016).
The values of CO2 equivalent for the different SCC ingredients have been
taken from previous literature (Kurad et al. 2017; Pavlu, Kocí, and Hájek
2019; Roh et al. 2020; Simalti and Singh 2021) as presented in Table 8.
The main emphasis of recognizing the GWP was to just relate the effect
of NCA and RCA on HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes. It is visible from the figure
(Figure 22) that SCC mix CHFB-0R comprising 100% of NCA highlights the
maximum value (309.7 Kg CO2 e/m3) of carbon emission. Further, the value
of carbon emission kept on decreasing as the amount of RCA is increasing in
the remaining SCC mixes. The minimum value of 292.1 Kg CO2 e/m3 has
been observed for SCC mix CHFB-100R having the full replacement of NCA.
The preceding information shows that using RCA in place of NCA in HVFA-
CBA-SCC mixes is a sustainable solution as less CO2 emissions are observed
for SCC mixes having RCA (CHFB-25R to CHFB-100R) when related to
reference SCC mix CHFB-0R.
Table 8. Global warming potential of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes
S Materials Co2 SCC mix combinations

no (Rs per CHFB- CHFB- CHFB- CHFB- CHFB-
Kg) 0R 25R 50R 75R 100R
1. OPC 0.93 286.4 286.4 286.4 286.4 286.4
2. FA 0.004 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
3. CBA 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4. NCA 0.0282 18.4 13.8 9.2 4.6 0.0
5. RCA 0.0012 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7
6. NFA 0.0051 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8
7. SP 0.0019 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
8. W 0.0008 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Total CO2 equivalent 309.7 305.3 300.9 296.5 292.1
315
309.7
310 305.3
305 300.9
Axis Title
300 296.5
295 292.1
290
285
280
Axis Title
Figure 22. Global warming potential of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes for per m3.
Conclusion
The average compressive strength of reference SCC mix (CHFB-0R) and SCC
mixes comprising RCA (CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R, CHFB-75R, and CHFB-
100R) increased from 19.5-31.2 MPa and 16.2-30.4 MPa respectively. The
tensile strength rises from 4.6-6.7 MPa and 3.1-6 MPa for the reference SCC
mix and SCC mixes encompassing RCA respectively but when compared to
reference mix maximum decrement of 33% has been witnessed for SCC mix
CHFB-100R. The maximum decrement of flexural strength for 41% has been
observed in SCC mix CHFB-100R comprising 100% of RCA whereas a
minimum reduction of 19% has been noticed for SCC mix CHFB-0R after 90
days of curing.
Similar to the compressive and tensile strengths, all the SCC mixes have
reasonable strength compatible to reference SCC mix CHFB-0R despite
continuous reduction in flexural strength due to the presence of RCA. The
surface absorption is increased with increment in the levels of RCA (25% -
100%). For example, after a curing time of 28 days, ISA 10 values have been
increased by about 15%, 23%, 38% and 58% for all the SCC mixes CHFB-
25R, CHFB-50R, CHFB-75R, and CHFB-100R respectively in relation to mix
CHFB-0R. A maximum increase of 43% and 40% in carbonation depths has
been observed for mix CHFB-100R after 4 and 12 weeks of exposure in
comparison with reference SCC mix CHFB-0R. The observed findings
demonstrate that the gap between CHFB-0R and CHFB-25R is minimal/slight
as maximum increase in carbonation depth has been limited up to 8% and 10%
after 4 and 12 weeks of exposure at 90 days of curing time.
The IRA value for SCC mix CHFB-100R was 2.3 times higher than the
value observed for control HVFA-CBA-SCC mix CHFB-0R for the same
curing period. Correspondingly, after 90 days, the IRA values were increased
by 15%, 19% and 24% for HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes CHFB-25R, CHFB-50R,
and CHFB-75R in comparison to control HVFA-CBA-SCC mix CHFB-0R.
However, after 90 days the increments were restricted to merely 15% in SRA
values when compared to the reference HVFA-CBA-SCC mix. It has been
noticed that the mechanical properties in relation to durability properties
represent overall strong linear relationships as most of the regression
coefficients (R2) are observed to be more than 0.8 which further validates an
agreeable performance of CBA-based SCC mixes.
The optimum cost value (Rs 4821) has been observed for the SCC mix
CHFB-0R having 100% of NCA in comparison to all other SCC mixes. The
preceding information shows that using RCA in place of NCA in HVFA-
CBA-SCC mixes is a sustainable solution as less CO2 emissions are observed
for SCC mixes having RCA (CHFB-25R to CHFB-100R) when related to
reference SCC mix CHFB-0R.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Department of Civil Engineering of Dr B R

Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India for all kinds of
support.
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Chapter 2
Infrared Thermography Analysis

of Sulfur Polymer Concrete Exposed
to Accelerated Aging
Milica Vlahović1,*
and Tatjana Volkov Husović2
1 Department of Electrochemistry,
Institute of Chemistry, Technology and Metallurgy,
National Institute of the Republic of Serbia,
University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
2 Department of Metallurgical Engineering,
Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy,

University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
Abstract
In the presented research, secondary sulfur was used as a binding agent

in concrete. The starting point was that sulfur is known as a binder and
that it can quite possibly be used as a binding agent in building materials.
The next step was the development of technology, i.e., the process of
sulfur polymer concrete manufacturing in order to optimize the
technological parameters for producing high-quality material. Sulfur
polymer composites, concretes and mortars, are high-performance
environmentally sustainable and durable thermoplastic materials made of
mineral aggregates, filler and modified sulfur binder which replaces
cement and water in conventional Portland cement composite at
temperatures above the hardening point of sulfur (120°C). Various
additives were used to modify sulfur by its polymerization, whereby one
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: m.vlahovic@ihtm.bg.ac.rs.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
46 Milica Vlahović and Tatjana Volkov Husović
of them is dicyclopentadiene which reacts with elemental sulfur thus

forming long-chain polymeric polysulfides.
Unlike conventional Portland cement-based concrete, sulfur
polymer concrete is produced without water and achieves its final
strength in a few days. State-of-the-art research indicates that composite
materials with modified sulfur binder instead of cement and water have
significant chemical and physico- mechanical advantages compared with
Portland cement-based composites.
The technological procedure for sulfur polymer concrete synthesis
is followed by the research related to the examination of the material’s
properties as well as testing the new material quality during the
exploitation, which is far more important due to the fact that the influence
of various environmental factors causes a certain degree of destruction
and, therefore, degradation of the basic properties of all materials,
including the building materials.
These processes of accelerated corrosion or aging processes are
caused by high atmospheric, water, and soil pollution, so the
investigation of the newly obtained material- sulfur polymer concrete is
directed towards the analysis of its behavior in the presence of the
induced destruction agent. One of the key elements is a selection of
methodologies for monitoring the resulting changes.
For testing the material behavior under the influence of the induced
destruction agent, more precisely for examining its thermal properties,
infrared thermography was applied. The infrared thermography analysis
results pointed out significant structural differences among the sulfur
polymer concrete samples treated by the accelerated aging agent during
the different time periods. Also, the same analysis showed noticeable
differences in thermal properties between sulfur polymer concrete and
Portland cement concrete samples owing to the structural changes during
the exposure to the agent.
Keywords: sulfur polymer concrete, modified sulfur, Portland cement

concrete, infrared thermography
1. Introduction
1.1. Safety and Environmental Management of Secondary Sulfur
Sulfur is an element that was being removed from the atmosphere by slow
natural processes during eons whereby it was binding to metals giving ores or
to organic materials through food chains leading to its storage in crude oil.
Infrared Thermography Analysis of Sulfur Polymer Concrete Exposed … 47
This made sulfur the 16th most abundant element in nature. Due to the
technological revolution in the last 200 years, these natural processes were
reversed towards restoring extremely huge amounts of sulfur to the
environment mainly by exploiting minerals and crude oil.
Now, the people and the planet are facing a serious problem regarding the
treatment of waste sulfur. Unfortunately, the global trends in environmental
protection put the focus on solving the problem of carbon dioxide emissions
and greenhouse effects (Vlahović, 2012a).
During the 1960s, there was a remarkable investment in environmental
protection against sulfur deposal into the atmosphere, thus making sulfur a
surplus commodity on the market, particularly in the United States of America
and Canada. Therefore, extensive research programs concerning further
development of using sulfur as a structural binder as well as characteristics of
the obtained material including durability were initiated.
The rapidly expanding world economies required a sharp increase in
energy demand which still dominantly comes from oil. The sulfur content in
crude oil principally varies from <0.1 wt. % to >5 wt. %. Crudes with
approximately up to 0.5 wt. % sulfur are considered sweet, and those with
more than 0.5 wt. % sulfur are considered "sour." High-sulfur crudes,
especially those with a sulfur content >0.5 wt. %, complicate and make
refining more expensive. At the same time the world’s regulatory agencies are
enacting increasingly stringent environmental regulations. These regulations
not only apply to emissions from the refining complex itself, but on the
products produced by the refinery as well. These regulatory and market
dynamics have created a challenging environment for a refiner to operate in,
especially with respect to recovery and disposition of sulfur (sulfur
management) (Vlahović et al., 2013; Gracia, Vàzquez and Cramona, 2004).
Mostly owing to the current strict global environmental regulations
regarding the petroleum and gas refining processes limiting the maximum
quantity of sulfur present in combustibles, the availability of sulfur has
considerably grown in many countries during the last decades, so it is evident
that there will be a continuous abundant supply of sulfur in the future.
There has been a significant increase in sulfur availability in many parts
of the world during the last few decades. The main reasons for that are strict
environmental regulations limiting allowable sulfur content in combustibles
during the oil and gas refining, which leads to future permanent and enormous
sulfur supply.
Waste sulfur from oil refining is stored, while waste sulfur from ore
processing, in the form of gaseous sulfur oxides, is usually converted into
sulfuric acid which is afterward used for the artificial fertilizers production.
Modern industrial production still requires further development of
technologies that would provide incorporating waste sulfur into useful
products. In all cases of producing large quantities of waste, building materials
represent media that should be examined as potential waste acceptors. The fact
is that a wide range of hazardous waste can be inerted by their incorporating
into usable building materials. Building materials are preferred recipients
because of large amounts of secondary sulfur and, on the other hand, because
of their enormous practical application. Consuming sulfur for the production
of sulfur polymer composites- concretes and mortars is a relatively new
technology that has to be proven in practice. These materials are already in
use, but improving their quality for further application is still needed. They
have a relatively simple composition and manufacture, and interesting
properties; also, they continue to receive more attention since they are
environmentally friendly and cost-effective. Due to their mechanical strength,
fast hardening and corrosion resistance, they belong to high performance
materials suitable for numerous applications, especially those in which other
materials fail (Vlahović and Martinović, 2018).
From another point of view, polymeric materials based on inorganic
components can have an important role in various technological processes.
Although their production on an industrial scale is still problematic, inorganic
polymers combined with other materials can generate sustainable high-quality
and usable composite materials. Among inorganic materials that are able to
form polymer chains under certain conditions, special attention should be paid
to sulfur. Sulfur itself tends to polymerize to a large extent while chemical
modification increases this tendency or prolongs the time required for the
polymerization.
Owing to its physico-chemical characteristics such as chemical passivity,
excellent resistance to aggressive agents (acids and salt solutions) and
hydrophobicity, sulfur can replace Portland cement to form a new, stable, hard
composite product (Vlahović, 2012a). Although composites with sulfur as a
binder have to be heated during manufacturing, they release far fewer
greenhouse gas emissions compared with Portland cement composites.
Namely, the Portland cement composite production process achieves nearly
zero carbon emissions, but, when it comes to carbon footprint the true problem
is the Portland cement. The gases liberated in the calcination during clinker
fabrication at temperature of 1450°C as well as the combustion emissions
generated to supply heat to the calcination process are avoided if sulfur binder
is used (Vlahović et al., 2013).
1.2. Development of Using a Sulfur Binder

for Composite Materials Production
Introducing sulfur for composites production has started with elemental sulfur
as a binder. However, in spite of the excellent mechanical properties after
production, the material showed low stability, so spalling and failure occurred
after a short period. Also, exposure to repeated cycles of freezing and
defrosting in terms of high humidity or immersion into water caused its
degradation and failure. This can be explained by sulfur transformation.
Namely, on cooling of casted liquid mixture, sulfur crystallizes as monoclinic
Sβ at 114°C with volume contraction of 7%. Below 95.5°C, it transforms
entirely to rhombic Sα within 20 hours. Higher density of Sα compared with Sβ
provokes stresses and micro-cracking within the material. This causes easier
moisture penetration into the material that therefore fails quickly (Mohamed
and El Gamal, 2010).
The development of a modified sulfur binder contributed to better
endurance of sulfur polymer composite, which focused its application for
roads construction and repairing and as a building material (Diehl, 1976;
Beaudoin and Feldmant, 1984; Sullivan, McBee and Blue, 1975; Gregor and
Hackl, 1978). Except the prevention of sulfur transformation from monoclinic
to orthorhombic form, the degree of sulfur polymerization is increased and
long chains are created due to modification. Modified sulfur has much lower
thermal expansion coefficient compared with elemental one, therefore
shrinkage and residual stresses upon cooling are lower. The polymer prevents
the growth of macro- sulfur crystals. Long-term durability of modified sulfur
polymer composite lies in the stability of microcrystalline sulfur (Vlahović
and Martinović, 2018).
Sulfur polymer composites, concretes and mortars, are high performance
thermoplastic materials made of mineral aggregates, filler, and modified sulfur
binder, instead of cement and water as in conventional Portland cement
composites at temperatures above the hardening point of sulfur (120°C). Using
sulfur to make modified sulfur binder is based on its physico-chemical
characteristics. According to our own terminology, the term modified sulfur
binder means a mixture of elemental sulfur and modified sulfur- sulfur
polymer. Recent experience all over the world shows that composite materials
produced with modified sulfur binder instead of cement and water have
significant chemical and physico-mechanical advantages comparing with
Portland cement composites (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
Although sulfur polymer composite is a commercial product in the United

States of America, Canada, and Poland, neither its production is precisely
defined process, nor its composition determined accurately. In general, beside
sulfur, sulfur polymer composites contain mineral aggregates (rock,
limestone, gravel, slag, dolomite, crushed concrete with Portland cement,
calcium silicate, fibers of glass wool, sand, synthetic aggregates, volcanic
material, ceramic material, etc.), filler (sand, fly ash, coal, dolomite, gypsum,
limestone, pyrite, ground granite, calcite, barite, etc.), and various additives
for polymerization or modification of sulfur, suppression of crystallization,
suppression of forming and releasing sulfur gases, removing the odor of the
composite material, increasing mechanical strength, etc.
For a given aggregate, which is selected to be the closest to the application
place, it is necessary to define the size and shape of particles, the optimal
amount of sulfur in the mixture and the amount and type of additives and
fillers. The production of sulfur polymer composite does not include water that
is somewhere in deficiency (the Middle East) or available but contaminated
and with an excess of mineral salts, which negatively affects the properties of
Portland cement composite (Vlahović and Martinović, 2018; Diehl, 1976).
1.3. Sulfur Polymer Concrete Mixture Design

and Manufacturing Procedures
Contemporary tendencies desire production of materials with required

characteristics based on combining constituents with different properties and
in various proportions, as well as on the application of diverse manufacturing
procedures and additional material processing.
The mixture of sulfur polymer composite has to be designed to provide
the best balance between mechanical strength, density, and workability. A
limited absorption into the solidified material will lead to good durability even
in extreme conditions.
In order to obtain sulfur polymer composite with appropriate physico-
chemical and mechanical properties depending on the application, the initial
components should satisfy certain requirements:
• Precisely defined grain size distribution to provide maximal dense

packing of aggregates grains and minimize the amount of binder;
• Spherical shape of aggregates grains to achieve maximal dense

particle packing with the reduced number of voids and pores, and
therefore greater strength of the material;
• High resistance to aggressive chemical agents and sudden
temperature changes enabling good stability of the material;
• Low porosity in order to provide low absorption of moisture.
The function of fillers in concrete is based mainly on their size and shape.
Small fraction (≤ 75 μm) of filler improves particle packing by fulfilling free
space among aggregates grains, thus increasing homogeneity and fluency of
mixture which leads to obtaining dense product with a minimum content of
voids and pores. They provide better properties of composite, even reducing
the amount of binder without strength loss. During cooling and hardening,
filler prevents forming large cyclic sulfur crystals thus improving mechanical
properties of the composite (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2009; Report 548.2R-
93, 1993; Dotto et al., 2004; Moosberg-Bustnes, Lagerblad and Forssberg,
2004).
Sulfur polymer concrete is produced by mixing aggregate, filler, and
binder in the temperature range 130°-150°C. Mechanical mixers that can keep
required temperature are adequate for this purpose. The proportion of
aggregate, filler, and binder for the preparation of sulfur polymer concretes
may vary depending on the application. Different procedures for sulfur
polymer concrete production are schematically presented in Figures 1-6
(Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010):
1) Aggregate and filler are preheated and the molten modified sulfur is
added, Figure 1.
Figure 1. Early Chempruf mixing scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).

2) All components are mixed at ambient temperature and then stirred

along with heating until melting, Figure 2.
Figure 2. Sulkret mixing scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
3) Aggregate and filler are preheated and solid modified sulfur is added,
Figure 3.
Figure 3. 4K A/S mixing scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
4) Aggregate is preheated and mixed with simoultaneous adding filler

and modified sulfur, Figure 4.
Figure 4. Later Chempruf scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
5) Aggregate is preheated. Solid modified sulfur is added and stirred

until molten state is achieved and aggregate is completely covered
with sulfur. Cold filler is added in the flowing mixture, heated and
stirred continuously, until the concrete is homogenous, Figure 5.
Figure 5. ACI mixing scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
6) Elemental sulfur and modifiers are heated at temperature 130°-150°C.

Molten sulfur is mixed with modifier forming modified sulfur. Filler
is preheated to higher temperature, compared with the temperature of
sulfur mixing, and transferred to form sulfur cement after mixing it
with modified sulfur. Aggregate is preheated similarly to filler and
mixed with sulfur cement forming homogenous product, Figure 6.
Figure 6. Mohamed and El Gamal mixing scheme (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010).
1.4. Application of Sulfur Polymer Concrete
Sulfur polymer concrete can be used as a highly durable replacement for

constructional materials at places within the industrial plants where the acids
and salts cause premature destruction and cracking, as well as at locations with
frequent cyclic freezing and melting. It has the most frequent usage: in food
processing plants and chemical industry where aggressive materials are
produced and stored, in plants for sewage treatment, on farms for domestic
animals, for elements designed for sea area, drainage channels and sewage
pipes, paving the pedestrian paths, curbs, sidewalks, roof tiles, railway and
tramway sleepers, etc. (Vlahović et al., 2011). Sulfur polymer concrete can be
used for solidification and encapsulation of different waste materials, such are
fly ash, cement kiln dust, phosphogypsum, mercury, thus obtaining the
sustainable development of construction and industrial sectors and for
corrosion protection of reinforcing steel and concrete (Mohamed and El
Gamal, 2012; Mohamed and El Gamal, 2011; Lopez et al., 2011; Adams,
Bowerman and Kalb, 2001).
1.5. Infrared Thermography for Real Time Inspection

of Composite Materials
During the service life of all materials, including composites, various

environmental conditions affect them thus causing a certain degree of
destruction and therefore degradation of their basic properties. In examining
the properties of the material and quantifying their changes resulting from
these processes of accelerated corrosion or aging, various non-destructive
methods can be successfully implemented.
Knowledge of the thermal processes can be of great significance because
thermal phenomena are a rich source of information about various processes
and changes or irregularities occurring during them, which allows for the
control of these processes and the necessary modification. In non-destructive
testing, temperature is usually assessed by analyzing the thermal, or infrared,
radiation released by investigated specimens.
Infrared thermography is a non-invasive, non-contact and inexpensive
method of detecting, registering, processing, and afterward visualizing
infrared radiation. The obtained thermogram represents the temperature
distribution on the surface of the investigated material or object. The non-
destructive and contactless measurement of the observed objects in most
applications is the basic criterion for the use of thermal imaging techniques.
When it comes to the early history of infrared science, there are some
dilemmas, but it is certainly known that the ideas about the practical
application of infrared radiation appeared in the late nineteenth century and
the first applications of infrared technology date from the beginning of the
twentieth century.
Thermal non-destructive testing is gaining in importance due to its wide
range of applications, high inspection rate and relatively affordable prices, so
that infrared thermographic diagnostics and thermal non-destructive testing
today represent a developed technology area that brings together advances in
heat conductivity, materials science, infrared technology and computer data
processing.
In order to overcome the lack of every non-destructive method, it is
possible to assemble them, so that thermal non-destructive testing can be
complemented by the other techniques such as ultrasonic, eddy current, and
laser, whereby similar physical principles and hardware may be implemented.
Thermal non-destructive testing is usually compiled with ultrasonic testing
particularly when the later has problems with detection. Principally, this
technique is applicable to all types of materials, which makes it very flexible
and versatile compared to other conventional non-destructive technologies

(Vavilov and Burleigh, 2020; Jorge Aldave et al., 2013).
The thermal non-destructive testing method can detect different types of
faults in composite materials including voids, porosity, delaminations, foreign
matter inclusions, trapped water, variations in thermal and physical properties
as well as in thickness and other geometric features. The clear correlation
between the thermal properties measurement and the detection of defects lies
in the fact that a certain fault, like delamination, provokes a modification of
the local characteristics of the material, whereby the disseminated
concentration of micro-defects, like porosity, produces changes in the bulk
thermal properties (Vavilov and Burleigh, 2020).
The first reported researches in active thermal non-destructive testing
appeared in the sixties of the 20th century in reviews written by Willburn
(1961) and a few years later by Mc Gonnagle and Park (1964). Pulsed thermal
non-destructive testing of composites was summarized twenty years later by
Milne and Reynolds (1984), while a literature survey and bibliography on
thermal non-destructive testing of composite materials was prepared by
Burleigh in (1987). Periodic thermal waves in application to thermal non-
destructive testing were reported by Almond and Patel (1996). General
principles of active thermal non-destructive testing of composites were
described by Vavilov and Taylor (1982) and Maldague (2001) and
summarized in the ASNT IR handbook (2001). The recent papers covering
thermal non-destructive testing were written by Vavilov (2007, 2014) and
Vavilov and Burleigh (2015).
The principle of infrared thermography is based on the physical
phenomenon that any body that is at a temperature above absolute zero emits
electromagnetic radiation in the range of wavelengths of 0.1-100 m known
as thermal radiation. The surface of an object and the intensity and spectral
composition of the radiation that it emits are in an understandable relationship.
All areas of the electromagnetic spectrum carry certain information about
the object or process where they were generated, Figure 7.
While the visible portion of the spectrum provides data on the
morphological properties of objects, as well as colors, the thermal properties
of processes or objects are manifested in the infrared part of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Infrared thermography or thermovision is
a traditional method for temperature mapping of objects, i.e., for visualization
of temperature distributions (Grinzato, Bison and Marinetti, 2002).
Figure 7. Electromagnetic radiation spectrum (Scribrr, no date).
The electromagnetic spectrum is arbitrarily divided into a large number of

parts, strips, with reference to the wavelengths. The bands differ depending on
the methods used to cause and detect radiation. There are no significant
variations between radiations in various bands of the spectrum; everything is
subject to the same laws and the only difference is in the wavelengths.
As mentioned, thermography uses the infrared part of the spectrum,
Figure 8. At shorter wavelengths of the infrared part of the spectrum, the end
of the spectrum lies in the visible region, and at longer wavelengths, the
infrared end of the spectrum borders microwaves. For practical reasons, the
infrared part of the spectrum is divided into four smaller areas, with the border
being chosen arbitrarily.
The infrared spectrum includes the following spectral regions:
• Near-infrared (wavelengths from 0.75 to 3 m),

• Mid-infrared (wavelengths grom 3 to 6 m),
• Far-infrared (wavelengths from 6 to 15 m), and
• Extreme-infrared (wavelengths from 15 to 100 m).
Figure 8. Electromagnetic spectrum with its IR part used for thermal imaging
(Meléndez, 2010).
Thermal imaging takes place in the infrared range of 7.5-13 m, with a
spectral resolution of 1.3 mrad. The infrared spectrum in this area provides
information on the temperature distribution on the surface of the observed
object or process. Unlike other infrared analyses, the result of these analyses
is an image, visual information, whereby the intensities of the measured
infrared radiation are represented by color. It should be noted that the obtained
thermal images (thermograms) are pseudo images, delivered using the
appropriate LUT tables, i.e., by programmatically correlating the temperature
to the paints or color valers. In this way, current information on the
temperature distribution on the observed object is obtained in the form of
visual information, Figure 9.
Infrared thermography or thermal imaging as a non-destructive and
contactless testing method is applicable for the detection of subsurface
features, that is, subsurface defects, anomalies, etc., owing to temperature
differences observed on the examined surface during monitoring by an
infrared camera. It can offer information about the precise physical location
of an occurring defect, which enables the subsequent electrical identification
of an issue. This measurement technique is based on the detection of the
emitted radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum,
usually in the 2-5.6 m and 8-14 m regions, because of the low atmosphere
absorption of these two spectral bands. This corresponds to wavelengths
longer than the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 9. Thermal imaging of ceramic cups during firing.
Today's thermal imaging systems use the third generation of

microbolometric semiconductor sensors that do not require cooling, which is
a significant improvement when used in various applications. The new
detectors enable recording at higher wavelengths, which enables better image
quality, measurements of higher precision and elimination of the solar
reflection influence. The resolution of the obtained image is 640x480 pixels,
which corresponds to modern image processing systems. Contactless
measurement in the temperature range from -40° to 2000°C is enabled, with
an average measurement accuracy of ±2°C. The emissivity of an object can be
defined either by a special set of measurements or it can be selected
automatically from the emissivity list of the most frequently analyzed
materials (Balaras and Argiriou, 2002; Albatici and Tonelli, 2010).
The material testing using infrared thermography methodology
encompasses measurement and analysis of the temperature field. The infrared
camera as a detecting device accepts varying amounts of infrared radiation
from the surface of the material and forms a thermographic image or
thermogram that presents a map of its distribution.
The inconsistent interior structure or presence of defects produce a various
thermal conduction in the investigated material, thus having an influence on
the heat flow, which means that it will cool down or warm up at different ratio.
Consequently, the definitely acquired thermographic image will exhibit
various thermal contrasts.
As a simple and inexpensive imaging technique, infrared thermography is
widely applicable in a variety of research fields and industries. In most of its
applications, testing is carried out in a passive way, that is, the camera detects
the thermal radiation emitted by objects.
Detection of defects by means of infrared thermography is an active
method, which implies that the heat flow required to produce the temperature
differences in the tested material is enabled by providing additional energy.
Active infrared thermography applies few excitation methods for producing
thermal waves in the material without destruction, which rely on optical,
mechanical, and inductive processes. The selection of the excitation method
is determined by the type of defect or investigated material (Jorge Aldave et
al., 2013).
1.6. Research Objectives
Having in mind that while in service use, all materials are exposed to different
external impacts that provoke some type of response, the idea of this study
was to examine the quality of manufactured sulfur polymer concrete in
extreme conditions, during the accelerated aging testing in hydrochloric acid
solution. Since sulfur polymer concretes are relatively new building materials
that can possibly replace conventional material made with Portland cement as
a binder in many branches of construction, it was found plausible to choose
Portland cement concrete as a reference material. In order to quantify the
changes in the material structure as its response to the specific imposed
stimulus, one non-destructive technique, infrared thermography testing, as a
very fast non-destructive tool for examination of a wide range of materials,
including composites, was applied as an addition to previous analyses that
included image analysis, mathematical morphological analysis, ultrasonic
pulse velocity testing, and SEM analysis.
2. Background Research
The research started with series of experiments performed in the laboratory

conditions with the aim to conquer basic techniques and to define the order of
operations in the process of mixing sulfur, aggregate and fillers, as well as to
establish proportions in the consumption of sulfur and aggregate for the
synthesis of sulfur polymer concrete. The fine fraction of the classical building
mixture of sand and gravel, as well as a variety of other materials, such as slag,
ash, and coal dust were used as an aggregate. At the same time, different types
of fillers were used. Application of the modified sulfur is of exceptional
importance for obtaining sulfur polymer concrete because it provides
solidification of sulfur in open, entangled long chains thereby preventing
brittleness of the composite material. For the selection of modifier decisive
factor was the market availability and price.
Although the literature dealing with sulfur polymer concrete production
already exists, the performed experimental work provided developing our own
technologies for sulfur polymer concrete manufacture as well as for sulfur
modification. Also, the applied terminology differs from the one offered in the
literature.
Modified sulfur means polymerized sulfur, which is obtained by the
addition of chemical additives- modifiers to elemental sulfur.
Modified sulfur binder means a mixture of elemental and modified sulfur.
By mixing it with a mineral aggregate of a suitable composition, and filler
added, at sulfur melting point temperature, during solidification sulfur
polymer concrete is obtained.
After obtaining the material, very important in defining the applicability
of sulfur polymer concrete is the examination of its properties. In the presented
research, the emphasis is placed on modern methods and methodologies for
quantifying the properties of materials based primarily on the principles of
planning experiments and defining working models. In essence, the
engineering approach to analysis is applied- the development potentials of
materials are determined while the phenomena that occur within the material
are not defined. Experiment planning is a methodology that defines in advance
the purpose of setting up experiments so that experiments are performed with
a clearly defined goal. In addition to defining the experiments, it was necessary
to determine the procedures as well as the methodology for quantifying the
properties that need to be examined. The basis of the plan was a selection
experiment that defined the parameters of the material, as well as the ways of
examining its changes during the time.
Initial methods were based on methods applied to the same or similar
group of materials to which sulfur polymer concrete belongs. It was quite
logical to choose Portland cement concrete, produced with the same aggregate
and Portland cement binder, as a referent material. The reason for this is in the
fact that characterizations of sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement
concrete are quite the same because of their similar possible applications.
With the aim to assess durability, or quality of the obtained sulfur polymer
concrete, in other words its life cycle, accelerated destruction technique was
applied. This methodology is based on the influence of an agent which may

cause material damage, i.e., the change of physical, chemical, and mechanical
properties. Accelerated destruction agent is used in increased concentrations
in order to cause changes as quickly as possible.
Therefore, the destruction of the sulfur polymer concrete with various
fillers in three different aggressive environments during a period of one year
was monitored. Change of mass, compressive strength, and apparent porosity
served as parameters for estimating destruction of the material (Vlahović et
al., 2011; Vlahović et al., 2010). These examinations represented the selection
experiments. Based on the results of selection experiments, the composition
of the sulfur polymer concrete in terms of filler choice, as well as the
aggressive agent for further investigation was determined. Accordingly, in the
experiments that followed, sulfur polymer concrete samples with alumina as
filler were immersed in 10% hydrochloric acid solution as an accelerated
destruction agent.
The next step was the choice of adequate methods for monitoring changes.
Since destructive test methods are not reliable for non-homogenous systems,
methods based on non-destructive testing of changes in the material were
selected.
The use of non-destructive methods requires the existence of a standard,
material, or system whose properties are known, or which can be used for
making comparisons with a new material (system).
Further activity was focused on defining changes in the structure of the
investigated material, sulfur polymer concrete, and their comparing with the
referent material Portland cement concrete.
Macroscopic observation of the sulfur polymer concrete samples after six
months of accelerated aging in the solution of hydrochloric acid confirmed the
absence of any signs of surface damage or deterioration. There was also no
significant mass loss or surface roughness.
On the contrary, Portland cement concrete samples exhibited strong
damage after 60 days, so further accelerated destruction testing in the same
solution was not possible. Therefore, the examination of the Portland concrete
was performed on the samples after up to 21 days of immersion (Vlahović et
al., 2014).
Image analysis of microphotographs taken through a microscope was
applied as a conventional way of these examinations, whereby the samples
were cut and changes of the obtained slices were quantified. The question of
the resolution necessary for observing the surface or the interior of the samples
in this case was solved by using two types of microscopes, optical and
scanning electron microscope (SEM).
Image analysis of the sample surface is an important non-destructive method
for assessing the damage of the materials. Due to image analysis, more systematic
and more accurate measurements have become possible (Vlahović et al., 2012b).
Therefore, more objective characterization of concrete from the aspect of material
properties is provided. Evaluation of various properties, as well as the effect of
external influences on the microstructure of composite materials, can be
investigated using these non-destructive methodologies. This methodology
was successfully applied to quantify the damages of the composite materials
exposed to different extreme conditions (Vlahović et al., 2013; Martinović et
al., 2013; Martinović et al., 2014, Martinović et al., 2015). Surface defects are
expressed as damage level, which presents the ratio of the damaged area and
the initial ideal area. All synthesized composite samples have a certain damage
level before exposure to various external influences and its value increases
during the treatment. The image analysis results showed a very low destruction
level of sulfur polymer concrete and indicated that the detected places of
defects did not have a significant influence on macro destruction, whereby the
destruction level of Portland cement concrete was very high (Vlahović et al.,
2012b).
In addition, a mathematical morphological analysis of the materials’
structures was performed. For that purpose, the samples were cut into slices
which were analyzed in order to define the way of accelerated destruction
agent influence throughout the entire volume of the material. Examinations
were directed towards choosing structure parameters that would adequately
represent changes throughout the volume. According to the trends of selected
parameters variations throughout the volume of the samples, it was concluded
that homogenization of sulfur polymer concrete sample occurred during the
time of accelerated destruction. The greatest homogeneity increase happened
on the 21st day of treatment. The influence of the accelerated destruction agent
was towards rearranging sulfur, which was the main factor of homogeneity
changes.
On the contrary, according to a similar analysis, the homogeneity of the
Portland cement concrete samples decreased. Changes in both materials were
observed after 21 days of the agent action. After this period, it can be assumed
that the complete penetration of accelerated destruction agent occurred
through the volume of the samples. Mutually opposite materials’ responses to
the influence of the accelerated destruction agent can be explained by structure
rearranging and by the enhanced influence of sulfur as a binder on the
properties of sulfur polymer concrete after a certain time, while the existence
of the initial Portland cement composite samples is questionable (Vlahović
and Martinović, 2018).
The analysis of SEM microphotographs indicated evident structural
differences between sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement concrete
samples and their quite the opposite responses to changes caused by the action
of the accelerated destruction agent. Accelerated destruction agent provoked
changes on micro scale in the structure of both materials (Figure 10).
Figure 10. SEM images: a) Sulfur polymer concrete untreated, b) Sulfur polymer
concrete after 21 days of accelerated aging, c) Portland cement concrete untreated,
d) Portland cement concrete after 21 days of accelerated aging.
In the case of sulfur polymer concrete, binder phase- sulfur rearranged and
conditionally homogenized the structure. As a result of the treatment,
secondary bonding of the aggregate, which additionally homogenized the
material, was noticed. It can be concluded that introducing an external
disturbance leads to a new quality of the material in terms of its exploitation.
Chemical activation of sulfur polymer concrete, precisely sulfur as a binder,
resulted in structural changes of the material. On the contrary, unlike sulfur
polymer concrete, the treated structure of Portland cement concrete was
completely degraded, whereby the binder phase was destroyed owing to the
accelerated destruction agent influence (Vlahović, Martinović and Volkov
Husović, 2015).
This methodology is good for homogeneous structures but does not satisfy
completely when analyzing composite inhomogeneous materials such as
sulfur and Portland cement concretes. Therefore, two other available non-
destructive methods were applied in these tests. One of these methods, the
ultrasonic pulse velocity testing is based on measuring the change in the
properties of the input signal in all three directions (x, y, z). Homogeneity of
the material can be discussed based on mutual differences in values of
ultrasonic pulse velocities in three directions thus providing insight into the
levels of inhomogeneity variation of the examined and reference material
during treatment (Martinović et al., 2015).
Differences between maximum and minimum values of ultrasonic pulse
velocities for sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement concrete,
longitudinal (Vp) and transverse (Vs) are presented in Figure 11.
It indicated a homogeneity change after a certain period of exposure to
accelerated destruction agent influence (Vidojković et al., 2014).
Bigger differences between the highest and the lowest values of ultrasonic
pulse velocities of untreated sulfur polymer concrete samples compared to
those treated for 180 days indicate that material after acid treatment became
more homogeneous (Figure 11a). Since those differences for the treatment
period of 21 days are negligible, the material can conditionally be considered
as homogenous. For that treatment period compressive strength was the
highest (Vlahović et al., 2011). All observed homogeneity changes are the
result of material structure rearrangement caused by the influence of acid.
The differences increase during Portland cement concrete treatment up to
a time of 14 days, which means that homogeneity decreases during this period
(Figure 11b). After 14 days there is a slight increase in homogeneity. It can be
concluded that the observed changes in homogeneity, as well as the reduced
homogeneity of the samples after 21 days of treatment in relation to untreated
samples are the consequences of evident degradation of the material due to the
action of acid.
Figure 11. Differences between maximum and minimum values of ultrasonic pulse
velocities: a) Sulfur polymer concrete, b) Portland cement concrete.
The results of the other used method, infrared thermography where

materials, sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement concrete, are excited
and themselves represent sources of information about changes within them,
will be presented in the following text.
3. Experimental Methodology
Experimental work encompassed preparation of sulfur polymer concrete

samples and the reference Portland cement concrete samples followed by their
characterization. Both materials were afterward subjected to accelerated aging
testing in acid solution during six months. Thermal properties of the materials
were performed using infrared thermography measurements.
3.1. Samples Preparation
Starting components used in the technological procedure of sulfur polymer

concrete synthesis were aggregate, modified sulfur binder, and filler. The
same aggregate, cement, and water were used for Portland cement concrete
synthesis.
3.1.1. Aggregate
Locally available classic mixture of sand and gravel sieved to a maximum
grain size of 2 mm was used as an aggregate. Chemical analysis of the
aggregate indicated that it mainly consisted of silicon oxide (89.98%),
aluminum oxide (3.61%), calcium oxide (0.84%), iron oxide (0.62%),
potassium oxide (0.59%), sodium oxide (0.57%), and magnesium oxide
(0.19%).
3.1.2. Sulfur
Sulfur, the basic component for the preparation of a modified sulfur binder,
was a by-product from the oil refining process in the NIS Pančevo Oil
Refinery, Serbia according to the Claus’s procedure and its purity was 99.9%.
Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD), a cyclic hydrocarbon, was used for sulfur
modification. The modification procedure was performed according to the
literature [46] and consisted of mixing DCPD with molten sulfur in the
temperature range from 120° to 140°C at ambient pressure for 30 min,
followed by rapid cooling and solidification of the resulting product.
Elementary sulfur and the obtained product were investigated by scanning
electron microscope (SEM), type JEOL JSM-5800 with EDX, Figure 12.
Figure 12. SEM images of: (a) Elementary sulfur, (b) Sulfur polymer
(Vlahović et al., 2013).
The analysis of the obtained SEM images revealed significant differences
in their microstructures. Namely, elementary sulfur consisted of dense
orthorhombic crystals of the alpha form (Sα), Figure 12a, while plate
monoclinic crystals of the beta form (Sβ), partially polymerized in zigzag
chains, constitute modified sulfur, Figure 12b. Thus, it was proved that
modification of sulfur was successful and that sulfur polymer was produced.
3.1.3. Filler
The filler used in this research was alumina (Almatis, Germany). The filler
and sulfur make a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The
predominant roles of filler are to control the viscosity of the sulfur- filler paste
and provide nucleation sites for crystal formation and growth, fill the voids in
the aggregate thus reducing the required amount of sulfur and shrinkage
during hardening as well as reinforcing the matrix which contributes the
strength increasing (Mohamed and El Gamal, 2010). To meet these
requirements, the filler particle size must be below 75 μm.
Chemical composition and density of applied filler is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical composition and density of alumina

Chemical composition (mass. %) Bulk density
Al2O3 Na2O SiO2 CaO K2O Fe2O3 TiO2 MgO (g/cm3)
99.3 0.40 0.15 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.004 3.86
3.1.4. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement composed of 65.5% CaO, 21.9% SiO2, 5.4% Al2O3,
2.2% Fe2O3, 1.1% K2O, 0.1% Na2O, 1.3% MgO, and 3.9% SO3 was used for
Portland cement concrete production.
3.2. Technological Procedure of Sulfur Polymer

Concrete Manufacturing
Sulfur polymer concrete was synthesized according to the described

manufacturing technological procedure (Vlahović, 2012a). This process
consisted of mixing both melted elemental sulfur and modified sulfur into
preheated and homogenized dry mixture of aggregate and filler at sulfur
melting temperature, 132-141°C. The heated aggregate and alumina filler
were then properly mixed with the molten modified sulfur binder until a
homogenous viscous mixture was obtained. The alumina filler content of 7%
was chosen in accordance with its influence on rheology, and to provide the
maximum density of the concrete mixture. The temperature control was
necessary because the viscosity of the concrete mixture had to allow its
workability and handling whereby at the same time the thermal degradation of
the thermoplastic material had to be avoided.
After two minutes of homogenization and mixing, the concrete mixture
was cast into molds preheated at 120°C and shaken on a vibration table for 10
seconds to compact the product in the molds. The samples surfaces were
finished and left to harden at room temperature in the molds for 3 hours.
Afterward, they were demolded and cured at room temperature for 24 hours.
The mechanical properties were measured after 75 hours.
For the purpose of this investigation, prism- shaped samples with
dimensions (4 x 4 x 16) cm and cube- shaped samples (4 cm) were prepared.
The applied technological procedure for sulfur polymer concrete
production is schematically presented in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Technological procedure for sulfur polymer concrete production.

3.3. Technological Procedure of Portland Cement

Concrete Manufacturing
The Portland cement concrete samples were made with the same aggregate as
sulfur polymer concrete, Portland cement and water to cement ratio w/c of 0.5.
The technological procedure consisted of mixing the aggregate with a certain
quantity of tap water in the Hobart mixer and afterward the cement and the
rest of the mixing water were added and the mixer was reoperated, whereby
the total mixing time was about 6 min. The Portland cement concrete mixture
was poured into molds and compacted by a vibrating table to settle the product
in the molds. The samples were removed from the molds 24 h after casting
and then cured in a moist room at a temperature of 20 ± 2°C with 95–98%
relative humidity for 27 additional days, before being subjected to the tests.
For this investigation, prism simples with dimensions (4 x 4 x 16) cm and
cube samples (4 cm) were prepared.
3.4. Characterization of Concrete Samples
For investigating physico-mechanical characteristics of the concrete materials

and further testing, prism samples with dimensions (4 x 4 x 16) cm were used.
Each reported value is the average of three readings obtained from three
different samples, to ensure the reliability of the test results.
Mechanical strength (compressive and flexural) of the composite samples
was conducted using the "Amsler" press with maximum load of 200 kN, and
method for testing the strength of concrete according to the standard (2008).
The composition and relevant starting physico-mechanical properties of
the prepared reference samples are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Composition and physico-mechanical properties

of reference sulfur polymer concrete samples after 3 days of curing
and Portland cement concrete samples after 28 days of curing
Sample Composition (%) Bulk Mechanical

Aggregate Binder Filler Water density strength (MPa)
(g/cm3) σc σf
SPC 63 30 7 - 2.34 49.2 8.4
PCC 63 24 - 13 2.18 46.3 6.9
SPC = sulfur polymer concrete, PCC = Portland cement concrete, σc = compressive strength,
σf = flexural strength.
The proper size distribution matching of the aggregate and filler, and the
right choice of the manufacturing technological process yielded sulfur
polymer concrete particulate material with extremely low porosity, a tight
microstructure and high compression and flexural strength.
3.5. Methods
3.5.1. Accelerated Aging Testing

Sulfur polymer concrete was subjected to different degrees of accelerated
aging by exposing five series of the samples to the same acid environment.
The various levels of accelerated destruction were provoked by immersing the
samples with dimensions of (4 x 4 x 16) cm in 10% HCl solution for 7, 14, 21,
60 and 180 days.
Portland cement concrete samples with identical dimensions were
subjected to the same acid environment for the reason of comparing. Since
serious deterioration was noticed on those samples, immersion tests were
terminated after 21 days.
3.5.2. Infrared Thermography Measurements

As a final investigation, an analysis of the thermal properties of sulfur polymer
concrete, which withstood a certain time of exposure to the accelerated aging
agent, was performed. An initial sulfur polymer concrete sample and samples
treated for 21 days and 180 days were analyzed, as well as an initial, untreated
sample of the reference, Portland cement concrete.
Active infrared thermography methodology consists of stimulating the
surface of the tested material by providing a heat source, t.e. thermal impulse
in a controlled manner or inducing this effect by means of acoustic activation,
including ultrasound or microwaves, and then observing the path of its
propagation by detecting the dynamic response of the generated thermal wave
along the material surface using a thermal imaging camera which records the
temperature evolution over time. This type of infrared thermography is
especially used in defectoscopy.
In this examination, an infrared camera GTS S100 Hotfind manufactured
by GORATEC, with a temperature range of -20° to 250°C and sensitivity of
±1°C, was used. The samples were tested in a hotplate chamber, shown in
Figure 14, and recorded over a period of 60 minutes, whereby the hotplate was
heated up to a temperature of 40 ± 5°C.
Figure 14. Scheme of the thermal imaging chamber (Vlahović, 2012a).
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Infrared Thermography Analysis
Modern thermal imaging systems use a new type of volumetric detectors thus
enabling their wide range of applications. Detectors that give a two-
dimensional temperature distribution on the surface of the object have a high
resolution (up to 0.01°C), which ensures adequate recording of the processes
that take place in the tested sample.
This type of non-destructive testing is based on the use of external stimuli
of materials, thermal, with known intensities and monitoring of material
responses to these stimuli. In that case, the material itself is a source of
information about the changes that are detected by measurements of
appropriate radiation.
The application of thermal imaging systems to monitor changes in

thermally excited systems such as sulfur polymer concrete and Portland
cement concrete is a very reliable method. Analogously, it can be considered
that the action of the accelerated destruction agent is in some way an external
excitation of the material so that monitoring structural changes on the material
surface can provide insight into the level of changes in the material itself
during the treatment.
The experimental paradigm in this research implies that the thermal load
would destroy the sulfur polymer concrete samples, which was based on the
hypothesis that sulfur was "grouped" within the structure, i.e., parts of the
structure with increased sulfur content were created during the action of the
accelerated aging agent. This led to a change in the mechanical properties of
the material.
It was assumed that under thermal loading, sulfur, as the most thermally
unstable part of the structure, would be degraded in a relatively short period
of time. The time changes were monitored by thermal recording, i.e., recording
the temperature distribution per sample, which was supposed to prove or deny
the presented hypothesis. The complete process was monitored through an
integrated thermal imaging system with real-time infrared thermal data
collection and designed software intelligence.
It should be observed that by applying thermal imaging, another
dimension, time, was added to the investigation; namely the samples,
chemically treated for some time, were afterward thermally loaded during a
certain period.
An example of a thermogram and profile analysis is shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15 shows the method of thermogram processing, i.e., the
possibility of different line temperature changes. This analysis is useful for
determining the parts of the surface where the greatest or smallest temperature
changes have occurred.
For the final analysis, it is best to use the overall two-dimensional analysis
of the distributions and temperature changes on the test sample. Recent
technical developments apply thermal infrared image (2D images) onto spatial
information (3D images) to obtain 3D temperature distribution model. In this
way, 3D-graphs that clearly indicate the level and character of changes are
obtained.
Figure 15. Thermogram and temperature profiles.
4.2. Analysis of Results Obtained for Sulfur Polymer Concrete
Figure 16 presents the behavior of the initial sulfur polymer concrete sample
during the heating period of 50 min when softening and deformation occurred,
which was the reason for terminating the recording.
Figure 16. Thermograms of the initial sample of sulfur polymer concrete during the
heating period of 50 min (temperature in °C).
Figure 17 shows the behavior of sulfur polymer concrete, previously

treated for 21 days by the accelerated aging agent, during 50 min of heating
when the sample softened and deformed and therefore the recording was
interrupted.
Figure 17. Thermograms of a sulfur polymer concrete sample treated for 21 days
during a heating period of 50 min (temperature in °C).
Thermograms reveal that after a heating time of 20 min, temperatures

above 40°C were detected, which indicates the fact that secondary, exothermic
reactions occurred within the mass of the sample thus causing its softening
and deformation.
Figure 18 illustrates the thermograms of a sulfur polymer concrete sample

treated for 180 days during a heating period of 25 min when the sample
softened and deformed and therefore further recording was suspended.
Figure 18. Thermograms of a sulfur polymer concrete sample treated for 180 days
during a heating period of 25 min (temperature in °C).
Increased temperatures compared with samples treated for 21 days are

observed. This can be explained by more intense secondary, exothermic
reactions due to rearrangement of sulfur or forming unstable sulfur compounds
during destruction under the action of the accelerated aging agent, which led
to faster destroying of samples under thermal load.
4.3. Analysis of Results Obtained for Portland Cement Concrete
Figure 19 presents the behavior of the initial Portland cement concrete sample
during the heating period of 60 min.
Figure 19. Thermograms of the initial sample of Portland cement concrete during the
heating period of 60 min (temperature in °C).
The given images do not show fields with elevated temperature, but point
inhomogeneities that most likely correspond to the components of Portland
cement concrete with different thermal conductivities. A temperature increase
in the mass of the sample over time is present as well, which also indicates the
existence of a certain number of secondary, exothermic reactions. These
changes are significantly less pronounced than with sulfur polymer concrete
and obviously without visible macro consequences. Unlike sulfur polymer
concrete, the Portland cement concrete sample shows higher thermal stability.
Since it is a reference material that did not exhibit any significant changes after
60 minutes of thermal loading, the recording was interrupted.
4.4. Comparison of Changes in Sulfur Polymer Concrete

and Portland Cement Concrete during Thermal Loading
Figures 20 and 21 illustrate the graphs of the measured maximum

temperatures of the tested sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement
concrete samples during the time of thermal loading, respectively.
The graphs show differences in the behavior of the samples, which is
understandable because there are actually four different materials.
Regarding sulfur polymer concrete, thermal imaging tests have shown that
the action of accelerated aging agent for different periods of acid exposure
induces transformations that lead to changes in the thermal properties of the
material.
The dependences obtained by regression analysis of the initial samples of
sulfur polymer concrete and those treated for 21 days are linear and with a
relatively low rate of thermal properties degradation. The fact is that after a
certain time of thermal loading (up to 50 min) a change in the material
structure occurs. This is manifested as softening of the samples and further
thermal imaging recordings are interrupted.
In samples treated for 180 days, the thermal load has an even more intense
effect on the change within the sample and its deformation in a shorter time.
In this case, the regression analysis showed a nonlinear degree dependence
with a relatively large gradient of changes in thermal properties within the
sample volume. Therefore, this sample was transformed faster; it was softened
compared to samples that were treated with an accelerated aging agent for a
shorter time.
Figure 20. Measured maximum temperatures of sulfur polymer concrete samples

during the thermal load time.
Figure 21. Measured maximum temperatures of Portland cement concrete samples

during the thermal load time.
Reference material, Portland cement concrete, showed good thermal

stability even after the time in which the sulfur polymer concrete samples were
deformed. Despite the observed local exothermic reactions, no deformation of
the Portland cement concrete sample occurred. The dependence obtained by
regression analysis is linear and it correlates with the dependences obtained
for sulfur polymer concrete samples treated for up to 21 days.
These tests also showed that after a certain time of treatment with the
accelerated aging agent, qualitative and quantitative changes in the structure
of the material occurred.
For easier comparison, a summary graph of the measured maximum
temperatures of all tested samples during the thermal load time is presented in
Figure 22.
Figure 22. Summary graph of measured maximum temperatures of sulfur polymer

concrete and Portland cement concrete samples during thermal loading time.
In order to determine, more precisely to quantify the changes in the

thermal properties of the material due to exposure to the agent of accelerated
aging, a regression analysis was performed, i.e., fitting of the obtained
maximum temperatures on the sample during the time of thermal load

recording. The fitting was done with the assumption that in the first
approximation it is possible to use a linear model to compare the rates of
change of the response of the material samples to the thermal load, i.e.,
gradients.
Figure 23 shows the gradient values for the tested samples.
Figure 23. Gradients of changes in sulfur polymer concrete and Portland cement
concrete samples due to thermal loading.
From the graph in Figure 23, it is clear that the gradients increase
significantly in samples that were previously treated with the accelerated aging
agent for a longer time. This means that a change due to the unit thermal load
occurred in a shorter time. This fact indicates the possible existence of
secondary reactions in the already rearranged structures of the samples
chemically treated for 21 and 180 days in relation to the untreated samples.
These considerations, in addition to their consistence with the fact that sulfur
polymer concrete is not thermally resistant unlike Portland cement concrete,
also indicate that after 21 days of chemical treatment, sulfur takes the lead in
changes.
4.5. 3D Temperature Distribution Graphs
The infrared thermography method made it possible to analyze the

temperature field of the impact surface.
The use of the infrared camera as a temperature transducer in various
applications is convenient and widespread. However, the infrared data are
available in the form of 2D images. The next stage of this analysis was
attempted to determine the 3D temperature distribution.
On the basis of the presented thermograms, the overall two-dimensional
analysis of temperature distributions and changes on the examined samples
was performed, and the results are given as 3D graphs. It means that the
surface temperature data obtained from an infrared camera are converted into
3D visualization. The method is based on feature extraction, i.e., extraction of
points.
Figures 24-27 show 3D graphs of temperature distribution in the sulfur
polymer concrete and Portland cement concrete samples, where the
temperature is given on z-axis, while the positions of the points is presented
on the x- and y- axes.
Figure 28 shows 3D graphs of the temperature distributions in the sulfur
polymer concrete and Portland cement concrete samples, whereby the heating
time of all samples was 20 min.
Figure 24. Temperature distribution in the initial, chemically untreated sulfur

polymer concrete sample thermally loaded for 50 min.
Figure 25. Temperature distribution in a sulfur polymer concrete sample chemically

treated for 21 days and thermally loaded for 50 min.
Figure 26. Temperature distribution in a sulfur polymer concrete sample chemically

treated for 180 days and thermally loaded for 25 min.
Figure 27. Temperature distribution in the initial, chemically untreated sample of

Portland cement concrete thermally loaded for 60 min.
Figure 28. Comparative presentation of temperature distributions in sulfur polymer

concrete and Portland cement concrete samples during a thermal load of 20 min.
The increase in temperature indicates a higher reactivity of the sample,

i.e., its weaker thermal stability. Essentially, a quantitative difference in the
behavior of the samples after treatment with the accelerated aging agent was
detected.
Conclusion
Technological procedure for sulfur polymer concrete manufacturing consisted

of mixing molten sulfur and modified sulfur at melting point temperature of
sulfur into a dry heated mixture of aggregates and fillers. Mixing lasted until
forming a homogeneous viscous mixture which was cast into preheated molds
and vibrated. Modification of sulfur was realized by mixing the molten sulfur
with cyclic hydrocarbon, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD). In that way, a material
with appropriate value-in-use was obtained, sulfur polymer concrete, from the
secondary, waste substance, sulfur originating from oil refining, which is in
line with modern tendencies in the world to utilize materials obtained from
alternative landfills as raw materials for new products (land mining).
In order to assess the quality of sulfur polymer concrete accelerated aging
method was applied, whereby the samples were immersed in 10%
hydrochloric acid solution as an accelerated destruction agent. Portland
cement concrete was chosen as reference material. The focus was put on
modern methods and methodologies for quantifying the properties of the
materials.
Based on the previously performed investigations, changes in both
materials were observed after 21 days of exposure to the impact of the
accelerated destruction agent. It can be assumed that after this period, total
penetration of the chemical agent throughout the volume of the samples is
happening. Namely, a homogenization of sulfur polymer concrete occurred
during the time of accelerated destruction. The greatest homogeneity increase
happened on the 21st day of treatment. The influence of the accelerated
destruction agent was towards rearranging sulfur, which was the main factor
of homogeneity changes. On the contrary, the homogeneity of the Portland
cement concrete decreased. The materials' responses to the influence of the
accelerated destruction agent were mutually opposite. This can be explained
by structure rearranging and by the enhanced influence of sulfur as a binder
on the properties of sulfur polymer concrete after a certain time. After 21 days
of treating Portland cement concrete samples, the existence of the initial
material is questionable.
This chapter presents the analysis of the thermal loading of sulfur polymer
concrete samples, where the thermal imaging analysis, i.e., the analysis of the
two- dimensional temperature distribution on the surface of the tested sample,
was used as the methodology for quantifying changes. The obtained results
indicated significant differences between the sulfur polymer concrete samples
treated for 0, 21 and 180 days, which showed the existence of structural
differences during this testing period. It should be mentioned that a softening
of the sulfur polymer concrete samples occurred during the thermal load
testing. Sulfur, as the most thermally unstable concrete ingredient, is
responsible for this softening.
The results of the analysis of the material behavior under thermal loading
verified the relevance of this methodology to obtain complementary
information about the investigated material.
In addition to confirming the well-known fact that sulfur polymer concrete
is not thermally stable, it was shown that the assumption of sulfur
concentration and rearrangement during the action of a accelerated aging agent
is reasonable.
Thermal imaging tests pointed out that the initial, untreated sulfur
polymer concrete sample, which didn’t undergo significant rearrangement of
sulfur is much more thermally stable compared with the sample in which the
rearrangement occurred (sample treated for 180 days). This confirms the
assumption that the chemical agent induces structural changes in the material,
which reflect on its mechanical properties.
The applied analyses on the micro-level revealed that the initial structure
of sulfur polymer concrete was rearranged. As a macro result, a material with
better resistance to accelerated aging compared with the reference material,
Portland cement concrete was obtained.
The results of thermal imaging tests have confirmed the assumption that
in the case of sulfur polymer concrete, the chemical agent of accelerated aging
can be considered an analogue of stress input to improve the properties of
prestressed concrete.
It is interesting to note that the processing of material before its use, the
so-called preprocessing, is increasingly present in the world. This trend is
particularly pronounced in case of recycled materials, as well as materials that
are officially declared as waste.
According to the presented research, it can be concluded that the
methodology of accelerated aging can be used to induce modifications in the
structure of materials and thus properties changes. The method used for this
investigation, infrared thermography, adequately demonstrates the possibility
of detecting accelerated destruction influence on the structure of sulfur

polymer concrete.
The performed analysis proves that in both sulfur polymer concrete and
Portland cement concrete structure changes on a micro-scale exist. These
changes are the result of interactions with the accelerated destruction agent,
which lead to different scenarios of sulfur polymer concrete and Portland
cement concrete service life.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science

and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (Grant No. 451-03-
47/2023-01/200026).
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Chapter 3
The Structural and Environmental

Performance of Fly Ash Amended Cement
Lokeshappa Basappa1
and Anil Kumar Dikshit2,
1 Department of Civil Engineering,
University BDT College of Engineering, Davangere, India
2 Environmental Science and Engineering Department,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai, Mumbai, India
Abstract
Fly ash is a byproduct from thermal power plants. It contains toxic metals
that are released into the environment through leaching during dry
disposal, wet storage and reuse of fly ash. To develop scientific basis for
optimal methods of disposal and reuse of fly ash, the studies are needed
for establishing the potential for the mobilization of metals as function of
the chemical speciation of fly ashes and also during its dry/wet disposal.
Comprehensive studies are also required in order to understand the
leaching of potentially harmful metals from fly ash-blended cement as
fly ashes are being extensively utilized in cement/construction industries.
The main scope of the present study was to assess the structral
strength as well leaching behaviour of toxic metals and metalloids
present in fly ashes as discharged and as used in blending cement. The
fly ash samples (A, B and C) from three thermal plants were collected
from three different thermal power plants located in Maharshtra, India.
A set of 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm mortar cubes were casted using
cement-fly ash in ratios as 100:0 (M0), 80:20 (M1), 60:40 (M2), 30:70

Corresponding Author’s Email: dikshit@iitb.ac.in.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
94 Lokeshappa Basappa and Anil Kumar Dikshit
(M3) and 5:95 (M4) for all three fly ashes using 43 grade Ordinary
Portland Cement (OPC) and Indian standard sand.
These cubes were cured in ultrapure water for period of 3, 7, 14, 28
and 90 days. Subsequentially, the cured cubes were tested for
compressive strengths while the curing waters were monitored for
variation in pH and metal leaching of As, Cr, Pb, Se and Zn. The fly ash
A and C being F class fly ashes showed compressive strengths of blended
mixes (M1, M2, M3 and M4) higher than those of pure cement cubes
casted with OPC alone (M0). However, compressive strengths of C class
fly ash blended cement cubes were lower than those of pure cement
cubes. Optimum blending of fly ash with ordinary Portland cement was
found to be up to 40% for class F ashes while C class fly ashes were not
at all fit to be used as a building material due to lack of bonding strength.
Also, it was found that the ultimate compressive strengths of F class fly
ash amended cubes were much more than those of unamended cubes
(M0).
Thus, the addition of fly ash led to enhancement in compressive
strength. pH of curing water reached to 11 soon after the immersion of
mortar cubes in curing water. Declining trend of pH was observed after
7 days up to 90 days. pH at the end of 90 days was in the range of 8.5-
9.5. Concentrations of As, Pb and Se in curing water was found to
increase with increase in the blending percentage of fly ashes for the first
three days and then decreased with curing age. Thus, pH of leaching
water became neutral and the leaching of metals decreased with the age
of cubes. Overall, substitution of up to 40% fly ash was observed to
beneficial both with respect to compressive strength as well as leaching
of metals.
Keywords: blended cement mix, fly ash, leaching, metals, mobility
1. Introduction
Forty percent of global electricity is generated from coal fired thermal power
plants that consume over 5 billion tons of coal annually (Mukherjee et al.,
2008). India is the world’s fourth largest economy and has a fast growing
energy market. Coal occupies an important position in energy sector in India
since it has vast reserves of thermal grade coal and is the third largest producer
of coal. Coal based thermal power plant installations contribute to about 70%
of the total installed capacity for power generation in India (Shivpuri et al.,
2011). These plants emit enormous amount of air pollutants and also generate
coal combustion solid residues such as bottom ash and fly ash, where fly ash
The Structural and Environmental Performance of Fly Ash … 95
is the major solid waste. Fly ash, having a complex heterogeneous mixture of
amorphous and crystalline phases, is generally fine powdered ferroalumino-
silicate material with Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and Si as the predominant elements
(Adriano et al., 1980; Aitken and Bell, 1985; Mattigod et al., 1990). Toxic
metals, such as lead, selenium, chromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc and mercury
that are naturally present in coal, are enriched in fly ash as a result of
combustion in the thernal power plants (Dayan et al., 2001; Sonmez et al.,
2005). The potential of readily leaching out of several of these metals out of
fly ash and contaminating exposed soils, surface waters and ground waters or
being otherwise bioavailable, leads to growing environmental concerns
regarding disposal and utilization of fly ashes (Singh, 2005).
Fly ash is a pozzolanic material and therefore, exhibits cementitious
properties when combined with water and/or calcium hydroxide. This property
of fly ash is widely used as a replacement for cement or an admixture in the
cement industry (Rostami and Brendley, 2003; Poon et al., 2006). This chapter
presents the behaviour of fly ash blended cement in various mix proportions
for the purpose of evaluating pH and leaching of metals in curing water vis-a-
vis the compressive strength of cement fly ash mortar cubes.
All assessments were done using fly ash samples collected from three
thermal power plants situated in Maharashtra, India. Fly ashes were mixed in
pre chosen ratios with Ordinary Portland Cement and Indian Stanard Sand and
curing was carried for duration of 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 days.
2. Alteration of Metals in Portland Cement Fly Ash Mixtures
Exploitation of resources of environment is the greed of human kind. Cement

is no exception for this. Domestic cement consumption in India is around 235
kg per capita against global average of 520 kg per capita. India stands second
in the world in the production of cement (Statista, 2022). Exploitation of raw
materials of cement is the concern of the day and the sustainability of the
cement industry requires the blending of mineral admixtures with OPC. Fly
ash has been found to be a major contributor in the cement industry in saving
resources of raw materials of cement.
The reuse provides an alternative to storing the coal combustion products
in ash ponds, ash dykes and landfills. Also, pozzolanic based stabilization/
solidification is an effective remediation technology to immobilize toxic
metals present in fly ash (Dermatas and Meng, 2003). The knowledge of
leaching behaviour of fly ash blended cement is important to know the amount
of leachable constituents of environmental importance, as their availability

may affect the biological system.
To understand the environmental risks associated with fly ash as a
replacement for cement, it is important to understand the mechanisms by
which the mobility of metals in the fly ash may be increased or decreased. The
binding mechanisms of the metals in the fly ash determine their mobility under
exposure to different solutions and conditions. These binding mechanisms
include the ion exchangeable, outer and inner sphere complexation,
precipitation and co-precipitation (Noel et al., 2007).
Portland cement and fly ash binder may solidify the toxic metals but the
subsequent chemical conditions may or may not result in long term
sequestration of these metals (Giammar et al., 2009). The metal speciation and
mobility that can occur might limit reuse of fly ash in cement production. The
trace metals in the fly ash are very immobile and could be extracted using the
most aggressive solution. Mixing metal rich materials with cement is actually
an established waste treatment technology (Means et al., 1995) and such
technologies use mixtures of cement and fly ash to permanently sequester
metal contaminants (Roy et al., 1991; Parsa et al., 1996). When nitrates of
metals are added to cement, the metals are expected to precipitate as insoluble
hydroxides due to the high pH of the binder (Roy et al., 1991). It can also
chemically react with the fly ash and binder. The carbon content in fly ash has
an adverse effect on workability, thus variation in carbon content may lead to
erratic behaviour with respect to workability and also air entraining agents
become absorbed by the porous particles (Shi and Spence, 2004). The amount
of trace metals leached from cement solidified by fly ash depends on the kind
of fly ash rather than their content in fly ash (Noel et al., 2007).
3. Characteristics of Fly Ashes, Ordinary Portland Cement

and Other Materials
3.1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Fly Ashes
3.1.1. Fly Ash Samples
Three fly ash materials, named as A-Ash, B-Ash and C-Ash, were collected
from dust hoppers of electrostatic precipitators of three full-scale thermal
power plants (TPP-A, TPP-B, TPP-C) situated in Maharashtra, India. These
power plants use bituminous and sub-bituminous coals from India and those
imported from Indonesia. The ashes were classified based on their calcium
oxide content. B-Ash belonged to class C being calcium-rich (greater than
10% calcium oxide) while A-Ash and C-Ash were silica-rich belonging to
class F (less than 10% calcium oxide). Characteristics of thermal power plants
considered in the study are given Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of thermal power plants
S. No. Name of Thermal Total Coal Avg. Ash Ash Generation

Power Plant (Type Consumption Content in (MT/year)
of Ash) (MT/year) Coal (%)
1 TPP-A (A-Ash) 2,394,315 24.96 578,714
2 TPP-B (B-Ash) 1,803,700 1.87 33,729
3 TPP-C (C-Ash) 10,284,627 38.57 3,966,423
Fly ash samples were analysed for various constituents and properties as
discussed below.
3.1.2. Physical Characteristics
3.1.2.1. Particle Size Distribution

Beckman Coulter Laser Diffraction Particle Analyser (Model LS 13320,
Japan) was used for particle size analysis of fly ash samples. Laser diffraction
technique for particle size analysis works on scattering of light at an angle that
is directly related to their size. As particle size decreases, the observed
scattering angle increases logarithmically. Scattering intensity also depends
on particle size, diminishing with particle volume. Large particles, therefore,
scatter light at narrow angles with high intensity whereas small particles
scatter at wider angles but with low intensity. All fly ashes were analysed for
the particle size distribution and mean particle diameters were observed to be
17.03 µm, 3.25 µm and 2.14 µm respectively for A, B and C-Ash.
3.1.2.2. Specific Surface Area

The surface area was determined with the help of BET surface area analyzer
(Smart Instruments, India) and was found as 0.65 m2/g, 1.2 m2/g and 0.97 m2/g
respectively for A, B, and C-Ashes. There was no correlation of surface area
with mean particle size.
3.1.2.3. pH
pH of the fly ash samples was measured as follows. The sample was prepared
by mixing fly ash with ultrapure water with a ratio 1:20 solid/solution ratio in
orbital shaker (Trishul Equipment, India) at 184 rpm. pH of the supernatant of
mixed sample was measured within 10 minutes of mixing using Thermo
Scientific pH meter (Orion, 3 Star, Singapore) and gave the representative pH
of fly ashes as 9.77, 11.54 and 9.75 respectively for A, B, and C-Ash.
Summary of the above parameters is tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2. Physical parameters of fly ashes
Parameters A-Ash B-Ash C-Ash

Mean particle size (µm) 17.03 3.25 2.14
Specific surface area (m2/g) 0.65 1.2 0.97
pH 9.77 11.54 9.75
Usually fly ashes are classified based on percent contents of silica and
calcium. Class C ashes are calcium-rich with greater than 10% calcium oxide
while class F ashes are silica-rich having less than 10% calcium oxide. Thus,
B-Ash belonged to class C and A-Ash and C-Ash were class F ashes.
3.1.3. Chemical Composition

Philips X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (Model 2404, Netherlands) was
used to ascertain chemical composition of the fly ash sample. Major oxides in
the fly ashes were evaluated on percent weight basis and are reported in Table
3. It can be observed that silica and alumina were the major oxides in all the
fly ashes. However, the amount of silica was almost double the amount of
alumina for A-Ash and C-Ash. Iron oxide was the third prominent oxide while
calcium oxide was only 1 to 2% in A-Ash and C-Ash. All other oxides were
in very trace amounts.
Table 3. Chemical composition of fly ashes in terms of major oxides

(% by weight)

SiO2 61.00 35.32 62.00
CaO 2.18 18.81 1.03
Al2O3 23.67 27.82 26.3
Fe2O3 7.51 10.64 5.50
MgO 1.02 3.00 0.75

Na2O 0.17 1.03 0.10
P2O5 0.25 0.14 0.35
TiO2 1.66 0.72 1.61
K2O 0.65 0.63 0.41
BaO 0.08 0.12 0.06
SrO 0.12 0.12 0.13
MnO 0.04 0.08 0.05
SO3 0.25 0.47 0.11
LOIa 1.40 1.10 1.60
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00
a
LOI is loss on ignition, which represents the unburned carbon content in the fly ash samples.
3.1.4. Mineralogy
Mineralogical studies of the fly ashes were analysed by Rigaku Geigerflex
Powder X-Rray Diffraction Spectrophotometer (Japan) with graphite
monochromator and Cu-Kα radiation with 0.02 to 20 steps and 1 second count
time per step to identify the crystalline phases present in fly ash for physical
characterization. XRD patterns for mineralogical analysis of all the fly ash
samples are shown in Figure 1. XRD patterns indicate several distinct peaks.
Amongst them, quartz (SiO2) was the most predominant crystalline phases
present in the all three fly ash samples. A-Ash and C-Ash contained mullite
(3Al2O3 2SiO2) while hematite and magnesia were additional minerals present
in B-Ash.
Figure 1. Crystalline phases in the XRD patterns of fly ashes.

3.1.5. Morphology
The microstructure characteristics of fly ash samples were studied using JOEL
Scanning Electron Microscope (Model JSM-5600, Japan) with Energy
Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis facility. Morphology of all fly
ash samples is shown in Figure 2. It is controlled by combustion temperature
and the cooling rate during their production. The variation in the size of
particles was observed to range from less than 1 µm to greater than 20 µm.
SEM-EDS reveals that the predominant elements in all fly ash samples were
silicon, aluminum, iron and calcium. Aluminum was primarily associated with
silicon. Lesser amounts of the elements like potassium, magnesium, sodium,
titanium and sulfur were observed with aluminum and silicon.
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 2. Morphology of (a) A-ash, (b) B-ash, and (c) C-ash.

Micrographs also showed that most of the particles were spherical in

shape and some of them were ceno-spherical in nature. Usually, smaller sized
particles adhered to bigger sized particles. The polarisation effect of particles
was seen from the pattern of spreading in the micrographs. The surfaces of fly
ash particles were observed to be very smooth. Hollow spears due to spherical
nature of fly ash particles could be responsible for high porosity.
3.1.6. Total Extractable Concentration of Toxic Metals

Jobin Yvon Horib Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (Model ULTIMA 2000, France) shown in Figure 3 was operated
with Argon as plasma and purge gas. The operating conditions maintained
during ICP analysis are referred in Table 4. Elements were determined with
suitable wavelength adjustments. Extract solutions were analyzed in the
instrument with an initial dilution factor of 1:20 for microwave digestion step
samples. Multi-element ICP standards in 2% nitric acid were used as base for
multi-point calibration of ICP-AES. Depending upon the sample matrix, ICP
was also calibrated with ICP standards prepared in identical matrix.
Figure 3. Horiba Jobin Yuan Ultma ICP-AES used for metal speciation.
Quality control (QC) samples were analysed as part of the ICP-AES

analytical runs to check for instrument drift, accuracy and precision. Spiked
blanks of the custom standard were used as surprise control for ICP-AES
during experiments. Secondary standards were also used frequently to check
accuracy. Extraction and analysis of blank samples and standard reference fly
ash material (NIST 1633b) were performed. All analytical and sampling
results recorded were the averages of at least two experiments. Minimum
detectable limit for the metals ranged from 0.01 ppb for minor metals to 1 ppb
for major metals.
Table 4. ICP-AES instrumental and operational conditions
Parameters Value/Type
RF generator power 1.0 kW
RF frequency 40 MHz
Plasma 12.0 L/minutes
Auxiliary 0.75 L/minutes
Nebulizer type V-type
Nebulizer make Glass concentric
Nebulizer pressure 2.90 bars
Nebulizer flow rate 0.85 L/min
Spectrometer Monochromator
Analyzer PMT
Data on all 25 elements viz. Ca, Mg, Mn, Na, K, Ag, Ba, Bi, Li, As, Fe,
Al, Si, Pb, Cd, Se, As, Zn, Hg, Ni, Cu, and Cr was provided by ICP-AES
analysis. However, As, Cr, Pb, Se and Zn as minor metal and Ca, Si, Fe and
Al as major metals were taken as metals of interest in the present study.
3.1.6.1 Total Extractable Metals

Milestone Microwave Digester (Model MLS 1200, USA) was used for the
determination of total extractable metals present in any fly ash sample (Figure
4). It represents the maximum amount of metals that was present in a sample
as the most aggressive acid environment ensured complete extraction. The
operational conditions of the digester are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Operating conditions of Milestone Microwave Digester
Steps Power (w) Pressure (bars) Time (minutes)

01 250 03 05
02 400 06 05
03 500 10 04
Ventilation - - 03
Figure 4. The Milestone Microwave Digester used for digestion.

0.5 g fly ash was digested with 4:1 mixture of concentrated HNO3 (10
mL) and HCl (2.5 mL) in pressure vessels for 14 minutes at high pressure and
temperature conditions as per details given in Table 5. Sample was ventilated
for 3 minutes and was allowed to cool down for 30 minutes. Digested sample
was opened in a fume chamber to vent away acid fumes. This sample was
diluted with 50 mL ultrapure water and the suspension was centrifuged for 10
minutes at 10,000 rpm. 10 mL supernatant was decanted and filtered with the
0.2 µm PTFE filter. Sample, thus, extracted was diluted to 1:20 for further
analysis of metals with ICP-AES. Table 6 lists the metal extracted using
microwave acid digestion technique in descending order of their concentration
for all the fly ashes under consideration.
Table 6. Total extractable metals in fly ashes

Metals Metal Concentration (µg/g)
A-Ash B-Ash C-Ash
Barium 621 419 638
Chromium 159 184 148
Zinc 152 156 144
Arsenic 137 140 129
Copper 135 140 138
Lithium 122 116 118
Selenium 104 144 153
Cadmium 83 84 81
Cobalt 76 90 92
Bismuth 70 79 95
Lead 61 59 72
Silver 50 43 95
Strontium 35 46 45
Nickel 31 50 101
It can be seen that Ba, Cr, Zn, As, Cu, Li, Se, Cd, Co were the toxic metals,
which were present in significant amounts (638 to 92 µg/g) in all ashes. There
would be serious concern should these leach out from fly ashes during the life
cycle of fly ash in storage, reuse and disposal. The effect of toxic metals viz.
As, Cr, Pb, Se and Zn should need attention as the fly ashes are stored on-site
in ash ponds for prolonged periods. At present, ashes are also being considered
as component of many alternative building materials.
3.2. Ordinary Portland Cement
Commercially available 43 grade Ordinary Portland cement (Vasadatta make,

India) conforming to IS: 8112-1989 was used for casting fly ash blended
cement cubes. Cement was stored as per standard procedure specified in IS
code.
3.3 Other Materials
3.3.1. Glassware
All glassware of Borosil make were used. Glassware was washed with
chromic acid, followed by neutralization with dilute alkali, followed by
deionised water and ultrapure water. Then, clean glassware was dried in an
oven prior to each experiment.
3.3.2. Chemicals
All chemicals used were of analytical reagent (AR) grade from Merck
Chemicals, India. Stock solutions of the reagents of 1000 mg/L were prepared.
The metallic grade (acids free from metals) nitric acid and hydrochloric acids
were used in the experiments and for the operating solutions for the ICP-AES.
Ultrapure water produced by Siemens Water Kit (Model TWF EDI UV TM,
Singapore) was used in all experiments.
3.3.3. ICP Standards

ICP-AES was calibrated using 25 element aqueous custom standard in 5%
HNO3 (ZOASIS 1004) from VHG Labs, Manchester, USA. Calibration
standards were prepared in the same matrices as that of the samples.
3.3.4. Indian Standard Sand

Indian standard sand procured from Tamil Nadu Minerals Ltd., Ennore,
Chennai, India conforming to IS: 650-1991 was used. Three different grades
of particle sizes viz., grade-1 (> 1 mm), grade-2 (1 mm to 500 µ) and grade-3
(90 to 500 µ) were provided. For cube experiments, equal proportions of each
grade were utilised.
4. Fly Ash Blended with Ordinary Portland Cement
The changes in metal speciation and leaching potential during blending of fly
ashes with cement were assessed and compared with those from fly ashes and
cement alone. Emphasis was also given to study the leaching of metals with
curing age ranging from 0 to 90 days.
To find optimum percentage of fly ashes for blending with cement, the
mix proportions as represented in Table 7 were chosen. The proportions used
here were in good agreement with other leaching and strength studies of
mortar (Jewell et al., 2009; Jain et al., 2009).
Table 7. Mix designs for fly ash blended with cement
Set Cement to fly Sand Cement Fly ash Water W/C

No. ash ratio (grams) (grams) (grams) (grams)
M0 100:0 600 200 0 83 0.42
M1 80:20 600 160 40 83 0.42
M2 60:40 600 120 80 83 0.42
M3 30:70 600 60 140 83 0.42
M4 5:95 600 10 190 83 0.42
The water to cement ratio was maintained at 0.42 for all mix proportions
based on the consistency of the cement. Blended cubes were prepared in
accordance with IS: 4031-1988 (part 6) as cubes of size 70.6 mm x 70.6 mm
x 70.6 mm conforming to IS: 10086-1992. Standard moulds were lined with
mould oil. Predetermined amounts of constituents viz., cement, fly ash, and
sand were correctly weighed and mixed with a trowel for about a minute till it
showed uniform colour. Calculated quantity of ultrapure water to maintain
water cement ratio of 0.42, as per IS: 4031–1998 (Part-6), was added and
mixed for 5 minutes. Mould was placed on a table vibrator conforming to IS:
4031-1988 and mortar, thus, prepared was filled in the moulds in three layers
with required tamping. A set of 3 moulds were filled for each mortar mix for
all three fly ashes. Moulds were kept in a humidity chamber for 24 h. After 24
h, all cubes were removed from moulds and were submerged in ultrapure water
for required curing period. The curing was continued for 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90
days in separate curing chambers. However, 0 and 1 day’s cubes were not
submerged in water since de-moulding period was 24 h.
The pH and the metals leached in curing water were monitored at the end
of each curing periods. The compressive strengths of blended cubes were also
determined for each curing period for each fly ash. Cement OPC cubes were
taken as control for comparing the impact of blended fly ashes on compressive
strength and metal leaching.
The experimental methodology of the protocol of the cement fly ash
blended cubes is shown in the Figure 5.
Figure 5. Experimental methodology for leaching protocol for blended cubes.
4.1. Curing of Fly Ash Blended Cement Mortar Cubes
Fly ash blended mortar cubes, casted as per schedule given in Table 4, were
cured in curing chambers filled with ultrapure water for 3 to 90 days. The
casted cubes were named as MA1, MB1, MC1; MA2, MB2, MC2; MA3,
MB3, MC3; and MA4, MB4, MC4 correponding to A-Ash, B-Ash, C-Ash,
with mortar cubes with only cement cubes (M0) being the reference. The cured
cubes were tested for compressive strength as per section 4.2 while curing
waters were tested for variation of pH and metals as discussed in section 4.3.
4.2. Compressive Strength of Fly ash Cement Mortar Cubes
Compressive strengths of cubes were measured using Compressive Testing

Machine (AIMIL, India) having least count of 10 kN. Specimen was gradually
loaded till its failure to calculate its compressive strength as given in equation
1. Care was taken to load the specimen axially. A set of three cubes were used
in all calculations for averaging compressive strength in each case.
Compressive Strength =
Load taken by the specimen at failure / Cross-section area (1)
4.2.1. Variation in Compressive Strengths

Gaining of compressive strength of cement blended with fly ash is represented
in Figures 6 to 9 respectively for 80:20 (M1), 60:40 (M2), 30:70 (M3), and
5:95 (M4) for all the fly ashes. The trend of compressive strength of cement
alone i.e., 100:0 (M0) was taken as reference to compare any given
combination of blending.
Figure 6 shows gain of compressive strength for combination of M1 mixes
for all ashes. With reference to cement strength of M0, all fly ash blended
cements showed lower strength up to 28 days of curing. However, the strength
gaining pattern with increasing curing time remained similar. A-Ash (MA1)
and C-Ash (MC1) showed increased strength beyond 28 days till 90 days as
compared to cement. In the case of B-Ash (MB1), the strength was found to
be lower than that of cement. It is also clear from the figure that A (MA1) and
C-Ashes (MC1) tended to gain strength beyond 90 days, but B-Ash (MB1)
and cement (M0) did not.
Hence, increasing the percentage of blending may achieve higher
strengths beyond 28 days. As stated earlier, silicates present in A and C-Ashes
might have reacted with calcium released from cement as well as calcium
available within fly ash itself. This might have resulted in a gain in strength in
MA1 and MC1 beyond 28 days.
M0 MA1 MB1 MC1

70
Compressive strength (N/mm 2) 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 Day 1 Day 3 Day 7 Day 14 Day 28 Day 90 Day
Curing age (days)
Figure 6. Comparison of compressive strengths of M1 mix (80% cement

and 20% fly ash) with respective to M0 (100% cement).
M0 MA2 MB2 MC2

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Curing age (days)
Figure 7. Comparison of compressive strengths of M2 mixes (60% cement

Figure 7 shows gain of compressive strength for combination of M2

(60:40) mixes for all ashes. With reference to cement strength (M0), all
blended cements for this combination showed lower strength up to 28 days of
curing like Figure 6. However, strength gained at the end of every curing
period was lower than that corresponding strength in case of M1 mixes. All
other observations were the same as those discussed above.
(30:70) mixes for all ashes. With reference to cement strength (M0), all
blended cements (MA3, MB3 and MC3) showed significantly lower strengths
at all curing periods including 90 days. It clearly indicates increased blending
was detrimental to strength. Hence, it can be inferred that the optimum
percentage of blending of cement with fly ash lies between 20 and 40%.
M0 MA3 MB3 MC3

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Curing age (days)
Figure 8. Comparison of compressive strengths of M3 mix (30% cement


(5:95) mixes for all fly ashes. With reference to cement strength (M0), all
blended cements did not develop any appreciable strength. It is expected as fly
ashes do not have binding property. Lack of cement in mixes was the main
cause of lack of compressive strengths in M4 mixes.
M0 MA4 MB4 MC4

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Curing age (days)
Figure 9. Comparison of compressive strengths of M4 mix (5% cement and 95% fly
ash) with respective to M0 (100% cement).
4.3. Curing Water Analysis for pH and Leaching of Metals
The water in curing tanks was monitored for pH and leached metals for each
corresponding mix design for fly ashes for each curing period. Care was taken
to measure its pH in every instance of sampling. Leaching of metals in the
curing water was evaluated by extracting 30 mL of samples from the curing
tanks maintained for 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 days for each of the mix proposed in
Table 7. A sample of 10 mL was filtered using 0.2 µm PTFE filter and
acidified to 2% by mass nitric acid for ICP-AES analysis.
4.3.1. Variation of pH
pH of the ultrapure water used for curing was 6.58. It was monitored after 3,
7, 14, 28 and 90 days of curing. Variations of pH with curing time for all mixes
M0, M1, M2, M3 and M4 for all three ashes are shown in Figure 10. pH was
found to reach to 11-11.5 immediately after imersion of fly ash blended cubes
for curing.
A declining trend of pH was observed significantly after 7 days. This

might be due to the release of alkalies from fly ash blended cubes during the
reaction with water. The pH of solution went on reducing with increase in
curing times. Drastic reduction in pH was observed at end of 90 days curing
to ~8.5-9.5.
Figure 10. Variations of pH in curing waters for various mix designs (M0, M1, M2,
M3 and M4) for all three fly ashes at the end of various curing periods.
4.3.2. Variation of Metals

Metal releasing patterns in the curing water is shown in Figures 11 to 15 for
the curing periods of 3, 7, 14, 28 and 90 days for As, Cr, Pb, Se and Zn.
Concentration of arsenic, lead and selenium increased with increase in the
blending percentage of fly ashes for the first three days and then, decreased
with increase in curing period. However, Zn showed increase in concentration
with curing period till 28 days, it completely disappeared at the end of 90 days
of curing. This pattern remained same for all the fly ashes.
In the case of chromium, trends of increased concentration were seen for
only cement (M0) but not for any blended mix for the entire curing period. It
may be concluded that fly ash blended cubes consumed / absorbed all the Cr
and Se at end of 90 days and made curing water free from Cr and Se.
Figure 11. Metals released in the curing water from fly ash blended cement mixes
(M0, M1, M2, M3, M4) for all fly ashes (A, B, C) after 3 days of curing.
MO MA1 MA2 MA3 MA4 MB1 MB2

MB3 MB4 MC1 MC2 MC3 MC4
60
50
Metal relese (µg/L)
40
30
20
10
0
As Cr Pb Se Zn
Conclusion
Based on the experiments carried out for the fate of metals in fly ash blended
with Ordinary Portland cement, the F class fly ash blended cement cubes with
fly ash A and C showed compressive strengths higher than those of pure
cement cubes (M0) at the end of 90 days. However, compressive strengths of
C class fly ash blended cement cubes with fly ash B were lower than those of
pure cement cubes.
The maximum blending of fly ash with ordinary Portland cement was
found to up to 40% for class F ashes i.e., fly ash A and C. Class C ash i.e., fly
ash B was not fit to be used as a building material due to lack of bonding
strength. Blended cements continued to gain strength beyond 28 days.
However, ordinary Portland cement did not gain strength after 28 days. The
ultimate compressive strength of F class fly ash amended cubes was much
more than that of unamended cubes.
Thus, the addition of fly ash led to enhancement in compressive strength.
Curing water pH reached to 11 after the commencement of curing of mortar
cubes. A declining trend of pH was observed from 7 days onwards.
Concentrations of As, Pb and Se increased with increase in the blending
percentage of fly ashes for the first three days and then decreased with curing
age.
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Mercury Flow Via Coal and Coal utilization Byproducts: A Global Perspective.
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Chapter 4
The Effect of Nanomaterials

(Nano SiO2 and Nano Al2O3) on the Strength
Properties of Self-Compacting Concretes
Sarella Venkateswara Rao

Padakanti Rakesh
and Nandipati S. M. Ravi Kumar
Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Warangal, Warangal, Telangana, India
Abstract
Utilizing nanoparticles in concrete improves many of the novel functions,

including the mechanical properties of specimens, besides improving the
microstructure and pore structure. Nanoparticles act as heterogeneous
nuclei for cement paste, accelerating cement hydration because of their
high reactivity. Because of the effective dispersion, the performance of
any concrete can be better with nano inclusions.
The demand for active finer particle additions to self-compacting
concrete (SCC) is also satisfied. This indirectly improves the mechanical
properties better than conventional concrete. In this study, three grades
of self-compacting concrete with characteristic strength 25, 40, 60 MPa
were developed using rational mix design (Modified Nan Su method). In
the present study, two nano inclusions, nanosilica in a colloidal state with
30% nano content and nanoalumina in an amorphous state, were
investigated. It was concluded from the study that the SCC containing
nanosilica and nanoalumina particles performed better than normal SCC.

Corresponding Author’s Email: svrao@nitw.ac.in.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
118 Sarella V. Rao, P. Rakesh and N. S. M. Ravi Kumar
Keywords: self-compacting concrete, nanoalumina, nanosilica
1. Introduction
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is flowable concrete and does not require any
compaction during casting. It has such a viscosity that the air bubbles can
migrate to the outer surface of the fresh concrete. The fundamental idea of
SCC is to lubricate the aggregate grains with a thin layer of cement paste so
that the shear stresses between them in the fresh mixture can be decreased, and
the mixture can become flowable (Okamura and Ouchi, 2003), (Jalal,
Teimortashlu, and Grasley, 2019).
The stability of SCC can be enhanced by incorporating fine materials such
as fly ash (FA) and silica fume as increase in cement content leads to a
significant rise in material cost. This has other negative effects on concrete
properties (Khayat and Guizani, 1997). The use of such admixtures may
provide greater cohesiveness by improving the grain-size distribution and
particle packing (Sonebi and Bartos, 1999). Alternatively, a Viscosity
Modifying Admixture (VMA) along with a Super Plasticizer (SP) may be used
to impart high fluidity accompanied by adequate viscosity (Khayat, 1999). Use
of chemical admixtures, increases the material cost and the savings in labour
cost might offset the increased cost. Use of mineral admixtures not only
reduces the material cost but also improves the fresh and hardened properties
of SCCs (Bouzoubaa and Lachemi, 2001).
Nanotechnology is a very active research field and has applications in a
number of areas. Nowadays nanomaterials are used in construction along with
the traditional building materials. Incorporation of nanomaterials in SCC is a
most promising concept for developing concrete having certain desirable
properties. The extremely fine size of the nanoparticles can alter the specific
surface area and hence the properties of SCC, better than micro level
properties as fly ash and silica fume. Nanoparticles added in cement
composites can increase the workability, strength and durability
characteristics (Li et al. 2004), (Askari Dolatabad, Kamgar, and Gouhari
Nezad, 2020). Nanoparticles can also improve the bond between the
aggregates and cement paste. There are a small number of studies that have
been performed on the incorporation of nanoparticles in SCCs to achieve
improved physical and mechanical properties. Nanoparticles can act as
heterogeneous nuclei for cement pastes, further accelerating cement hydration,
because of their high reactivity, as a nano-reinforcement, and as a nano-filler,
The Effect of Nanomaterials (Nano SiO2 and Nano Al2O3) … 119
making the microstructure denser, and thereby leading to a reduced porosity.

The most significant issue with the use of nanoparticles is effective dispersion.
In this study, two different types of nanoparticles, nanosilica and
nanoalumina were included in SCC. Nanosilica in colloidal state with 30%
nano content was added to SCC in three percentages (1%, 1.5% and 2%).
Nanoalumina in amorphous state was added in two percentages (0.25% and
0.5%). This study investigates influence of these nanoparticles in SCC. The
rheological and strength properties have been presented.
2. Research Significance
The use of nano inclusions in SCC solves the dual purpose of improving the
finer particles requirement in SCC and also improve the reactivity at the
hydration level, enhance the strength properties. The studies on use of nano
inclusions in SCC are rare and hence the present study gains good
significance.
3. Mechanism for Achieving Self-Compactability
Simply increasing the water content in a mix to achieve a flowable concrete

like SCC is obviously not a viable option. Instead, the challenge is to increase
the flowability of the particle suspension and at the same time avoid
segregation of the phases. The main mechanism controlling the balance
between higher flowability and stability are related to surface chemistry. The
development of SCC has thus been strongly dependent on surface active
admixtures as well as on the increased specific surface area obtained through
the used fillers.
The method for achieving self-compactability involves not only high
deformability of paste or mortar, but also resistance to segregation between
coarse aggregate and mortar when the concrete flows through the confined
zone of reinforcing bars. (Hajime et al. 2003 and Ozawa, 1989) have employed
the following methods to achieve self-compactability.
a. Limited aggregate content

b. Low water-powder ratio
c. Use of Super Plasticizer (SP)
The frequency of collision and contact between aggregate particles

increases as the relative distance between the particles decreases and the
internal stress increases when concrete is deformed, particularly near
obstacles. It has been revealed that the energy required for flowing is
consumed by the increased internal stresses, resulting in blockage of aggregate
particles. Limiting the coarse aggregate content, whose energy consumption
is particularly intense, to a level lower than normal proportions is effective in
avoiding this kind of blockage.
Highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the blockage of coarse
aggregate when concrete flows through obstacles. When concrete is deformed,
the paste with high viscosity also prevents localized increase in the internal
stress, due to the approach of coarse aggregate particles. High deformability
can be achieved only by the employment of a superplasticizer, keeping the
water-powder ratio at a very lower level.
4. Nanotechnology
“Nanotechnology is the art and science of manipulating matter at the nano

scale.” Nanotechnology is the creation of materials and devices by controlling
of matter at the levels of atoms, molecules, and super molecular (nano scale)
structures. In other words, it is the use of very small particles of materials to
create new large-scale materials.
4.1. Nanosilica (Nano SiO2)
Nanosilica (NS) is the first nano product that replaced the micro silica. It has
a specific surface area near to 1,00,000 m2/kg (micro silica has only 20,000
m2/kg) and a particle size of 5 nm to 250 nm. NS can contribute to efficient
‘Particle Packing’ in concretes by densifying the micro and nanostructure
leading to improved mechanical and durability properties.
NS can control degradation (through blocking of water entry on account
of pore refinement) of the fundamental binder system of hydrated cement i.e.,
C-S-H gel caused usually due to calcium leaching out when immersed in
water. NS improves behavior of freshly mixed cement concretes by imparting
segregation resistance and by enhancing both workability and cohesion of the
matrix.
4.1.1. Production Methods of Nanosilica

There are different methods to produce nanosilica products. One method is
based on a sol-gel process (organic or water route) at room temperature. In
this process, the starting materials (mainly Na2SiO4 and organometallics like
TMOS/TEOS) are added in a solvent, and then the pH of the solution is
changed, reaching the precipitation of silica gel. The produced gel is aged and
filtered to become a xerogel. This aerogel is dried and burned or dispersed
again with stabilized agent (Na, K, NH3, etc.) to produce a concentrated
dispersion (20 to 40% solid content) suitable for use in concrete industry.
An alternative production method is based on vaporization of silica
between 1500 to 2000°C by reducing quartz (SiO2) in an electric arc furnace.
Furthermore, nanosilica is produced as a byproduct of the manufacture of
silicon metals and ferro-silicon alloys, where it is collected by subsequent
condensation to fine particles in a cyclone. Nano-silica produced by this
method is a very fine powder consisting of spherical particles or microspheres
with a main diameter of 150 nm with high specific surface area (15 to 25 m2/g).
Finally, nanosilica can also be produced by precipitation method. In this
method, nanosilica is precipitated from a solution at temperatures between 50
to 100°C (precipitated silica). It was first developed by Iller in 1954. This
method uses different precursors like sodium silicates (Na2SiO3), burned rice
husk ash (RHA), semi-burned rice straw ash (SBRSA), magnesium silicate
and others.
In addition, nanosilica (NS) is being developed via an alternative
production route. Basically, olivine and sulphuric acid are combined, whereby
precipitated silica with extreme fineness but agglomerate form is synthesized
(nano-size with particles between 6 to 30 nm), and even cheaper than
contemporary micro-silica.
4.1.2. Effects of Nanosilica Addition in Concrete and Mortars

Micro-silica can fill the voids in the young and partially hydrated cement
paste, increasing its density. Some researchers found that the addition of 1 kg
of micro-silica permits a reduction of about 4 kg of cement, and this can be
higher if nanosilica is used. Optimizing the PSD will increase the properties
(strength, durability) of the concrete due to the acceleration effect of nanosilica
in cement paste.
Nanosilica addition in cement paste and concrete can result in different
effects. The accelerating effect in cement paste is one such effect. The main
mechanism of this working principle is related to the high surface area of
nanosilica, because it works as nucleation site for the precipitation of C-S-H
gel. Also, the accelerating effect of nanosilica addition was established

indirectly by measuring the viscosity change (rheology) of cement paste and
mortars. The viscosity test results have shown that cement paste and mortar
with nanosilica addition needs more water in order to keep the workability of
the mixtures constant.
4.1.3. Applications of Nanosilica
1. Nanosilica is only used in the High-Performance Concretes (HPC),

Eco-Concrete and Self-Compacting Concretes (SSC) because of their
high cost.
2. Nanosilica is applied in HPC and SCC concrete mainly as an
antibleeding agent.
3. It is also added to increase the cohesiveness of concrete and to reduce
the segregation tendency.
4. It is used as an additive in eco-concrete mixtures and tiles one of the
problems of these mixtures is their low compressive strength and long
setting period. This disadvantage is solved by adding nanosilica to
eco-concrete mixes to obtain an accelerated setting and higher
compressive strength.
5. The inclusion of nanosilica reduces the setting time and increases the
strength of the resulting cement.
4.2. Nanoalumina (Nano Al2O3)
Binders are made from Portland ‘clinker’ ground together with a little calcium
sulfate, and frequently also contain fine mineral powders such as limestone,
pozzolana (typically volcanic ash), fly ash (usually from coal burning power
plants) and granulated blast furnace slag. Such powders are referred to as
Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) since they are used to replace
some of the more expensive clinkers. Chemical admixtures such as super
plasticizers and air-entraining agents can be added in small amounts to modify
the properties of a concrete for specific applications. Another type of
admixtures recently used are nanoparticles.
The reason for using Al2O3 as a partial replacement by cement is the
C-A-H (lime alumina- calcium sulfate) gel formation in concrete. The major
constituent of a pozzolana is the alumina that can be amorphous or glassy.
This component reacts with calcium hydroxide produced from the hydration
of calcium aluminates. The rate of the pozzolanic reaction is proportional to

the amount of surface area available for reaction. Therefore, it is possible to
add nano-Al2O3 of a high purity (99.9%) and a high Blaine fineness value (60
m2/g) in order to improve the characteristics of cement mortars.
5. Mix Proportions of SCC
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has many benefits associated with the high
workability of fresh concrete. The high flow ability, good stability and low
blockage of the SCC are characteristics obtained with high fluidity, moderate
viscosity and cohesion. This depends on the components and their proportions
in the mixture. Nan Su method is the new mix design method for self-
compacting concrete (SCC). First, the amount of aggregates required is
determined and the paste of binders is then filled into the voids of aggregates
to ensure that the concrete thus obtained has flow ability, self-compacting
ability and other desired SCC properties.
As per Nan Su’s method of mix design of SCC, the parameters that
influence the mix proportions are packing factor, fine aggregate–total
aggregate ratio and powder content. However, as per Nan Su’s method
assumptions in lieu of packing factor, cement content, fly ash content and fine
aggregate/total aggregate ratio were made. From the strength and workability
studies conducted on SCC, it was noted that there is a significant change in
the mix proportions with respect to packing factor, effective size of aggregate,
fine aggregate–total aggregate ratio, fly ash content, cement content and water
content. It was hence felt that these parameters, which were otherwise
assumed, are of reasonable importance. Hence, it was felt that there is a need
for a rational mix design methodology for SCC. The existing Nan Su method
has been suitably modified based on experimental investigation.
5.1. Modified Nan Su Method: Rational Mix Design
The strength and workability studies conducted on SCC (Su, Hsu and Chai,
2001), confirmed that the parameters viz., packing factor, effective size of
aggregate, fine aggregate/total aggregate ratio, fly ash content, cement content
and water content influence the mix proportion to a great extent. It was hence
felt that these parameters, which were assumed in case of Nan Su method of
mix design, are of reasonable importance and a rational mix design
methodology modifying the existing Nan Su method was proposed (Su, Hsu
and Chai, 2001), (Venkateswara Rao, 2010).
This rational mix design procedure can be adopted for designing any grade
of self-compacting concrete. It is a simplified and direct mix design
methodology for SCC based on experimental observations. The concept of this
methodology is to develop various charts and equations that will help to arrive
at the mix proportion of SCC having particular strength. The problem in
selection of trial values such as packing factor, cement content, fly ash content
etc., as required in existing Nan Su method can be eliminated using the rational
mix design method (Venkateswara Rao, 2010).
6. Fresh Properties of SCC
6.1. Requirements of Self-Compacting Concrete
SCC mixes must meet three key properties:
1. Ability to flow into and completely fill intricate and complex forms
under its own weight.
2. Ability to pass through the congested reinforcement under its own
weight.
3. High resistance to aggregate segregation.
Due to the high powder content, SCC shows more plastic shrinkage or
creep than ordinary concrete mixes. These aspects should therefore be
considered during designing and specifying the SCC.
By definition of SCC, it is clear that fresh concrete has to fulfill various
properties. First, the SCC must be adequately free flowing so that the coarse
aggregate particles can float in mortar, but the air can still rise and escape
sufficiently. Second, sedimentation of the coarse aggregate particles and
upward movement of fine mortar, paste or water before the concrete sets must
be avoided. Otherwise, the SCC components will be resulting inhomogeneous
compositions that can adversely affect their durability and fitness for use.
Third, the paste volume and grading curve must be chosen so that the concrete
fills the form work and is not held back in front of the gaps between the
reinforcement. Suitable test methods by which the corresponding
requirements can be verified were developed to ensure that the SCC meets
these requirements.
Many different test methods have been developed to characterize the
properties of SCC. So far, no single way or combination of techniques has
achieved universal approval and most of them have their adherents. Similarly,
no single method has been found which characterizes all the relevant
workability aspects. Each mix design should be tested by more than one test
method for different workability parameters. The requisite test methods are
described in Table 1.
Table 1. List of test methods for fresh properties of SCC
S. Method Property
NO
1 Slump flow test Filling ability
2 T50cm Slump flow Filling ability
3 V-funnel test Filling ability
4 V-Funnel at T5 minutes Segregation resistance
5 L-Box test Passing ability
6 U – Box test Passing ability
7 Fill box apparatus test Passing ability
8 J-Ring Passing ability
9 Orimet test Filling ability
10 GTM screen stability test Segregation resistance
For the initial mix design of SCC all three workability parameters need to
be assessed to ensure that all aspects are fulfilled. A full-scale test should be
done to verify the self-compacting characteristics of the chosen design for a
particular application. For site quality control, two test methods are generally
sufficient to monitor production quality. Typical combinations are Slump-
flow and V-funnel or Slump-flow and J-ring.
6.2. Workability Criteria for the Fresh SCC
Filling ability, passing ability and segregation resistance are the requirements
for judging the workability criteria of fresh SCC. These requirements are to be
fulfilled at the time of placing of concrete. Typical acceptance criteria for Self-
compacting concrete with a maximum aggregate size up to 20 mm are shown
in Table 2.
Table 2. Acceptance criteria for self-compacting concrete
S. No Method Unit Typical range of values

Minimum Maximum
1. Slump flow test mm 650 800
2. T50 cm Slump flow sec 2 5
3. J – Ring mm 0 10
4. V – Funnel sec 6 12
5. V – Funnel at T5 minutes sec 6 15
6. L – Box h2/h1 0.8 1.0
7. U – Box (h2-h1) mm 0 30
8. Fill Box % 90 100
9. GTM Screen stability test % 0 15
10. Orimet test sec 0 5
6.3. Test Methods
It was observed that none of the test methods for SCC has yet been
standardized, and neither of the tests described are yet to be perfected or
definitive. Therefore, a brief description of the tests has been presented below.
They are mainly ad-hoc methods, which have been devised specifically for
SCC.
6.3.1. Slump Flow Test and T50cm Test

The slump flow is used to assess the horizontal free flow of SCC in the absence
of obstructions. It was first developed in Japan for use in assessment of
underwater concrete. The diameter of the concrete circle is a measure of the
filling ability of concrete.
Slump Flow is definitely one of the most commonly used SCC tests at
present. This test involves the use of slump cone with conventional concretes
as described in ASTM C 143 (Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-
Cement Concrete). The main difference between Slump Flow Test and ASTM
C 143 (Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete) is
that the Slump Flow Test measures the spread or flow of concrete sample,
once the cone is lifted rather than the traditional slump (drop in height) of the
concrete sample. The T50 test is also determined during the Slump Flow Test.
It is simply the amount of time that the concrete takes to flow to a diameter of
50 centimeters. The slump flow test procedure is as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Slump flow test procedure (SCC mixes).
6.3.1.1. Slump Flow Apparatus

The mould used is in the shape of a truncated cone with internal dimensions
200 mm diameter at the base, 100 mm diameter at the top and a height of
300 mm. The base plate is of a stiff non- absorbing material of at least
700 mm square, marked with center location for the slump cone, and further
concentric circle of 500 mm diameter. The other apparatus required are trowel,
scoop, ruler, and a stop watch.
6.3.1.2. Procedure
About 6 liters of concrete is needed to perform the test. First, the base plate
and the inside of the slump cone were moistened. Next, the base plate was
placed on level stable ground, and the slump cone was placed centrally on the
base plate and held down firmly. The concrete was filled into the cone with
the scoop without tamping. The excess material on the top of slump cone was
removed and leveled with a trowel. The surplus concrete around the base of
the cone was removed. The slump cone was raised vertically upwards,
allowing the concrete to flow out freely. The time taken for concrete to reach
the 500 mm spread circle was recorded using the stopwatch. This is the T50
time. After the flow of concrete was stopped, the final diameter of concrete in
two perpendicular directions was measured. The average of the two measured
diameters is called slump flow in mm.
6.3.2. L – Box Test

This test, based on a Japanese design for underwater concrete, has been
described by Peterson, 1999. This test assesses the flow of concrete, and also
the extent to which it is subjected to blocking by reinforcement. The apparatus

is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. L – Box test apparatus (SCC mixes).
The apparatus consists of a rectangular-section box in the shape of an ‘L’,

with a vertical and horizontal section, separated by a moveable gate, in front
of which, vertical lengths of reinforcement bars are fitted. The vertical section
is filled with concrete, and then the gate is lifted to let the concrete flow into
the horizontal section. When the flow has stopped, the height of the concrete
at the end of the horizontal section is expressed as a proportion of that
remaining in the vertical section called as H2/H1 ratio or blocking ratio. It
indicates the slope of the concrete when the concrete is at rest. This is an
indication of passing ability, or the degree to which the passage of concrete
through the bars is restricted.
The horizontal section of the box can be marked at 200mm and 400mm
from the gate and the time taken to reach these points measured. These are
known as the T20 and T40 times and are indicators of the filling ability.
6.3.2.1. Procedure
About 14 liters of concrete is needed to perform the test. The apparatus was
placed on the level ground. It was ensured that the sliding gate could open and
close freely. The inside surfaces of the apparatus were moistened and surplus
water was removed. The vertical section of the apparatus was filled with the
concrete sample. The sliding gate of the vertical section was lifted and
concrete has allowed flowing out into the horizontal section. The time taken
for concrete to reach the 200 and 400mm marks in the horizontal section was
measured simultaneously by using the stopwatch. The distances H1 and H2
were measured when the concrete stops flowing and the blocking ratio H2/H1is
calculated. The maximum time required for performing this L – box test is 5
minutes.
6.3.3. V – Funnel Test and V – Funnel Test at T5 Minutes

This test was developed in Japan and used by Ozawa et al, 1989. The
equipment consists of a V-shaped funnel, shown in Figure 3. The V-funnel
test is used to determine the filling ability of the concrete with a maximum
aggregate size of 20 mm. The funnel was filled with about 12 liters of concrete
and the time taken for it to flow through the apparatus measured. After this the
funnel was refilled concrete and left for 5 minutes to settle. If the concrete
shows segregation, then the flow time increases significantly.
Figure 3. V – funnel test apparatus (SCC mixes).
6.3.3.1. Procedure for Flow Time

About 12 liters of concrete was needed to perform this test. The V-funnel
apparatus was placed on the firm ground. The inside surfaces of the V – funnel
was moistened and the surplus water in funnel was drained through trap door
by opening it. Before starting the test, the trap door was closed and a bucket
was placed underneath. The V – funnel apparatus was completely filled with
concrete without any compaction. The top surface was leveled with the trowel.
The trap door was opened and concrete was allowed to flow out under gravity.
By using the stopwatch, the time taken for the complete discharge of concrete
from the funnel was measured. The whole test has to be performed within 5
minutes.
6.3.3.2. Procedure for Flow Time at T5 Minutes

After measuring the flow time, the trap door of the V-funnel was closed and a
bucket was placed underneath. Again, the concrete was filled into the
apparatus completely without any compaction. The top surface was leveled
with the trowel. The trap door was opened after 5 minutes and the concrete
was allowed to flow out under gravity. The time for the complete discharge of
concrete from the funnel was recovered.
6.3.4. J – Ring Test

The J – Ring test has been developed at the University of Paisley. The test is
used to determine the passing ability of the concrete. The equipment consists
of a rectangular section (30 mm x 25 mm) open steel ring, drilled vertically
with holes to accept threaded sections of reinforcement bar. These sections of
bar can be of different diameters and spaced at different intervals in
accordance with normal reinforcement considerations. The diameter of the
ring of vertical bars is 300mm, and the height 100 mm as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. J – Ring apparatus (SCC mixes).
The J – Ring can be used in conjunction with the Slump flow test. These
combinations judge the flowing ability and the passing ability of the concrete.
The slump flow spread was measured to assess flow characteristics. The J –
Ring bars can be set at any spacing to impose a more or less severe test of the
passing ability of the concrete. After the test, the difference in height between
the concrete inside and that just outside the J – Ring is measured. This is an
indication of passing ability, or the degree to which the passage of concrete

through the bars is restricted.
6.3.4.1. Equipment
The mould used is in the shape of a truncated cone with the internal
dimensions 200mm diameter at the base, 100mm diameter at the top and a
height of 300mm. The base plate is of a stiff non- absorbing material, at least
700mm square, marked with center location for the slump cone, and further
concentric circle of 500mm diameter. A rectangular section (30mm x 25mm)
open steel ring, drilled vertically with holes is called as J - ring. The holes can
be screwed threaded sections of reinforcement bar. The other apparatus
required are trowel, scoop, ruler, and a stop watch.
6.3.4.2. Procedure
About 6 liters of concrete is needed to perform this test. Moisten the base plate
and inside of slump cone, place the baseplate on level stable ground. The
slump cone was placed on the level ground and the J – ring was placed
centrally inside the slump cone and was held down firmly. The concrete was
filled into the cone with the scoop without any compaction. The top surface of
the cone was leveled with the trowel. The surplus concrete around the base of
the cone was removed. The slump cone is raised vertically upwards to allow
the concrete to flow out freely through the rings. The difference in height
between the concrete just inside the bars and that just outside the bars was
measured. The average difference in height at four locations (in mm) was
measured.
6.3.5. U – Box Test

This test was developed by the Technology Research Centre of the Taisei
Corporation in Japan. This test is also called a box-shaped test. It is used to
measure the filling ability of self-compacting concrete. The apparatus consists
of a vessel that is divided by a middle wall into two compartments, shown by
R1 and R2 in Figure 5. An opening with a sliding gate was fitted between the
two sections. Reinforcing bars with nominal diameters of 13 mm are installed
at the gate with centre-to-centre spacings of 50 mm. This creates a clear
spacing of 35 mm between the bars. The left-hand section was filled with
about 20 liters of concrete. The gate was lifted and the concrete flows upwards
in the other section. The height of the concrete in both sections is measured.
Figure 5. U – Box apparatus (SCC mixes).
6.4. Size of Test Specimen Used
The self-compacting concrete mixes with nanomaterials, after having checked

for the satisfaction of the fresh properties of self-compacting specifications as
per EFNARC, 2005 was cast into cube moulds of size 150 mm x 150 mm x
150 mm, beam moulds of size 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm and cylindrical
moulds of 300 mm height x 150 mm diameter. The moulds were fabricated
with steel sheets. It is easy for assembling and removing the mould specimen
without damage. Moulds were provided with base plates, having smooth
surface to support. The mould is filled without leakage. Care was taken to
ensure that there were no leakages.
6.5. Curing of Test Specimens
After 24 hours of casting, the specimens were removed from the moulds and
immediately dipped in clean fresh water. The specimens were cured for 3 days,
7 days and 28 days respectively depending on the requirement of age of curing.
The fresh water tanks used for the curing of the specimens were emptied and
cleaned once in every fifteen days and were filled once again. All the
specimens under immersion were always kept well under water and it was
seen that at least about 15 cm of water was above the top of the specimens as
shown in Figure 6.
Fig.6.
Figure 6. Demoulded specimens and curing process.
7. Tests on Hardened Concrete
Testing of hardened concrete plays an important role in controlling and

confirming the quality of self-compacting concrete with nanomaterials.
Compressive strength of a material is defined as the value of uniaxial

compressive stress reached when the material fails completely. In this
investigation, the cube specimens of size 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm are
tested in accordance with IS 516 – 1969 (method of test for strength of
concrete). The testing was done on a compression testing machine of 300-
tonne capacity. The machine can control the rate of loading with a control
valve. The machine has been calibrated to the required standards. The plates
are cleaned; oil level was checked and kept ready, in all respects for testing.
After 28 days of curing, cube specimens were removed from the curing
tank and cleaned to wipe off the surface water. The specimens were transferred
on to the swiveling head of the machine such that the load was applied
centrally. The smooth surfaces of the specimen are placed on the bearing
surfaces. The top plate was brought in contact with the specimen by rotating
the handle. The oil pressure valve was closed and the machine was switched
on. A uniform rate of loading 140 kg/cm2/min was maintained. The maximum
load to failure at which the specimen breaks and the pointer starts moving back
was noted. The test was repeated for the three specimens and the average value
was taken as the mean strength. The test set up is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Compressive strength test setup.
Standard beam test (Modulus of rupture) was carried out on the beams of size
100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm as per IS: 516 (Method of test for strength of
concrete), by considering that material is homogeneous. The beams were
tested on a span of 400 mm for 100 mm specimen by applying two equal loads
placed at third points. To get these loads, a central point load has applied on a
beam supported on steel rollers placed at third point as shown in Figure 8 (a)
and (b). The rate of loading is 1.8 kN/minute for 100 mm specimens and the
load was increased until the beam failed. Depending on the type of failure,
appearance of fracture and fracture load, the flexural tensile strength of the
sample was estimated.
If ‘a’ be the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support,
then for finding the modulus of rupture, these cases should be considered.
• When a > 133 mm for 100 mm specimen

, where P = total load applied on the beam
• When 110 mm < a < 133 mm,

• When a < 110 mm, the result should be discarded.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. (a) Schematic diagram for flexure test setup; (b) Flexural strength test.
7.3. Split Tensile Strength
This is also sometimes referred as “Brazilian Test” as this test was developed
in Brazil in 1943. This comes under indirect tension test methods. The test was
carried out by placing a cylindrical specimen horizontally between the loading
faces of a compression testing machine and the load was applied until failure
of the cylinder, along the vertical diameter as shown in Figure 9. A concrete
cylinder of size 150mm diameter and 300mm height was subjected to the
action of a compressive force along two opposite edges. The cylinder was
subjected to compression near the loaded region and the length of cylinder is
subjected to uniform tensile stress.
Figure 9. Split tensile strength test.
where P= Compressive load on the cylinder.

L= Length of cylinder.
D= Diameter of cylinder.
8. Materials
The materials used in the experimental investigation are locally available

cement, sand, coarse aggregate, mineral and chemical admixtures. The
chemicals used in the present investigation are of commercial grade.
8.1. Cement
Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade (IS: 12269-1987, Specifications for 53

Grade Ordinary Portland cement) has been used in the study. It was procured
from a single source and stored as per IS: 4032 – 1977. Care has been taken
to ensure that the cement of the same company and same grade is used
throughout the investigation. The cement thus procured was tested for physical
properties in accordance with the IS: 12269 – 1987.
Table 3 shows the physical characteristics of cement used, tested in

accordance with IS: 4031-1988 (methods of physical tests for hydraulic
cement).
Table 3. Physical properties of Ordinary Portland cement
S. No Property Test Method Test Results IS Standard

1. Normal Vicat Apparatus 29.5%
consistency (IS: 4031 Part - 4)
2. Specific gravity Sp. Gr bottle 3.10
(IS: 4031 Part - 4)
3. Initial setting time Vicat Apparatus 90 minutes Not less than
(IS: 4031 Part - 4) 30 minutes
Final setting time 220 Minutes Not less than
10 hours
4. Fineness Sieve test on sieve 1.6% 10%
no.9
Specific surface (IS: 4031 Part – 1) 2900 cm2/gm 2250 cm2/gm
area
5. Soundness Le-Chatlier method 1.8 mm Not more than
(IS: 4031 Part – 3) 10 mm
6. Compressive Mortar cubes (1:3)
Strength (IS: 4031.Part - 6
3 Days 29 M Pa
7 Days 43 M Pa
28 Days 53.3 M Pa
8.2. Fine Aggregates
The fine aggregate used was locally available river sand without any organic
impurities and conforming to IS: 383 – 1970 (methods of physical tests for
hydraulic cement). The fine aggregate was tested for its physical requirements
such as gradation, fineness modulus, specific gravity and bulk density in
accordance with IS: 2386 – 1963 (methods of test for aggregate for concrete)
and is shown in Table 4. The sand was surface dried before use.
8.3. Coarse Aggregate
The coarse aggregate chosen for SCC was typically round in shape, well-
graded and smaller in maximum size than conventional concrete. The size of
coarse aggregate used in self- compacting concrete was between 10 mm to

20mm. The rounded and smaller aggregate particles provide better flowability
and deformability of concrete and also prevent segregation. Graded aggregate
is also essential mainly to cast concrete in highly congested reinforcement or
formwork having small dimensions. Crushed granite metal of sizes 20 mm to
10 mm graded obtained from the locally available quarries was used in the
present investigation. These were tested as per IS 383-1970 (Methods of
physical tests for hydraulic cement). The physical properties like specific
gravity, bulk density, flakiness index, elongation index and fineness modulus
are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Physical properties of coarse and fine aggregate
S.No Property Method Fine Coarse

Aggregate Aggregate
1. Specific gravity Pycnometer 2.55 2.65
IS:2386 Part 3-1986
2. Bulk density IS:2386 Part 3-1986 1442 kg/m3
1567
Loose kg/m3
Compacted 1713
kg/m3
3. Bulking IS:2386 Part 3-1986 6% w c --
4. Flakiness index (IS:2386 Part 2-1963) -- 6.15%
5. Elongation (IS:2386 Part 2-1963) -- 7.1%
index
6. Fineness Sieve Analysis 2.19 7.16
modulus (IS:2386 Part 2-1963)
8.4. Water
Water used for mixing and curing was potable water, which was free from any
amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, sugar, salts and organic materials or other
substances that may be deleterious to concrete or steel confirming to IS: 3025
– 1964 part22, part 23 and IS: 456 – 2000 (code of practice for plain and
reinforced concrete). The pH value should not be less than 6. The solids
present were within the permissible limits as per clause 5.4 of IS: 456 – 2000.
8.5. Fly Ash
Fly ash is one of the most extensively used supplementary cementitious

materials in the construction field resembling, Portland cement. It is an
inorganic, non-combustible, finely divided residue collected or precipitated
from the exhaust gases of any industrial furnace. Most fly ash particles are
solid spheres and some particles, called cenospheres, are hollow and some are
the plerospheres, which contain smaller spheres inside.
The particle sizes in fly ash vary from less than 1 μm to more than 100
μm, with the typical particle size measuring less than 20 μm. Their surface
area is typically 300 to 500 m2/kg, although some fly ashes can have surface
areas as low as 200 m2/kg and as high as 700 m2/kg. Fly ash is primarily
silicate glass containing silica, alumina, iron, and calcium. Fly ash’s relative
density or specific gravity generally ranges between 1.9 and 2.8 and the color
is generally grey.
Fly ash used in this investigation was procured from National Thermal
Power Corporation, Ramagundam, Telangana State, India. It confirms with
grade I of IS: 3812 – 1981 (Specifications for fly ash for use as pozzolana and
admixture). It was tested in accordance with IS: 1727 –1967 (Methods of test
for pozzolana materials). A typical oxide composition of Indian fly ash is
shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Typical oxide composition of fly ash (Class – F)
S. Characteristics Percentage
No
1. Silica, SiO2 49-67
2. Alumina Al2O3 16-28
3. Iron oxide Fe2O3 4-10
4. Lime CaO 0.7-3.6
5. Magnesia MgO 0.3-2.6
6. Sulphar Trioxide SO3 0.1-2.1
7. Loss on Ignition 0.4-1.9
8. Surface area m2/kg 230-600
The chemical composition and physical characteristics of fly ash used in

the present investigation were given in Tables 6 and Table 7.
Table 6. Chemical requirements of fly ash
S Characteristics Requirements Fly Ash Used

No. (% by weight) (% by weight)
1. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus aluminium 70 (minimum) 94.46
oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide (Fe2O3)
2. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 35 (minimum) 62.94
3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 5 (max.) 0.60
4. Total sulphur as sulphur trioxide (SO3) 2.75 (max.) 0.23
5. Available alkalies as sodium oxide 1.5 (max.) 0.05
(Na2O)
6. Loss on ignition 12 (max.) 0.30
7. Chlorides 0.009
Table 7. Physical requirements of fly ash
S. Characteristics Requirements for Experimental

No Grade of Fly Ash Results
(IS:3812-1981)
Grade – I Grade – II
1. Fineness by Blain’s apparatus in 320 250 335
m2/kg
2. Lime reactivity (MPa) 4.0 3.0 9.8
3. Compressive strength at 28 days as Not less than 86%
percentage of strength of 80%
corresponding plain cement mortar
cubes
4. Soundness by autoclave expansion Nil
8.6. Silica Fume
Silica fume gives a very good improvement of the rheological, mechanical as

well as chemical properties. The particles of silica fume are spherical with
average size 0.1mm and its amorphous silica could exceed 90% of the total.
Thus, silica fume is one of the most common additives for producing high and
super high strength concretes.
Silica fume used in this investigation was a product of Elkem. The general
physical requirements and dosage are given in the Table 8.
Table 8. Physical requirements of silica fume
S. Property Result
No.
1. Form or state Ultra fine amorphous powder
2. Colour Gray
3. Odour Odourless
4. Melting point (°C) 1550 – 1570
5. Specific gravity 2.2 – 2.3
6. Bulk Density (kg/m3) 150 – 700
7. Specific Surface (m2/g) 15 – 30
8. Particle size, mean (µm) ≈0.5
9. Silicon Dioxide > 85%
8.7. Super Plasticizer
High range water reducing admixture called as super plasticizers are used for
improving the flow or workability for lower water-cement ratios without
sacrifice in the compressive strength. These admixtures when they disperse in
cement agglomerates significantly decrease the viscosity of the paste by
forming a thin film around the cement particles. In the present work, water-
reducing admixture Conplast SP 430 conforming to IS 9103: 1999
(specification for admixtures for concrete), ASTM C – 494 (Standard
Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete) types F, G and BS 5075
part.3 (British Standards Institution) was used. Conplast SP 430 is a
Sulphonated Naphthalene based Formaldehyde (SNF), super plasticizer and it
was manufactured by Fosroc.
9. Experimental Program
The experimental program consisted of casting and testing of SCC specimens.

Though basically modified Nan Su method of mix design (Venkateswara Rao,
2010) was adopted, number of trials was made in producing SCC satisfying
the EFNARC specifications (EFNARC, 2005). A total of three grades of
concrete viz. M25, M40 and M60 were investigated, representing ordinary,
standard and high strength concrete respectively as per IS 456-2000 (code of
practice for plain and reinforced concrete) (Arefi, Jahaveri and Mollaahmadi,
2011). The characteristic strengths of these concretes are respectively 25, 40,
60 MPa.
The properties of the constituent materials used in the present
investigation are given in Table 9. The adequate Super Plasticizer (SP) dosage
was used to improve the flowability, self-compacting ability and segregation
resistance of fresh SCC to meet the design requirements. The water content of
the SP can be regarded as part of the mixing water. In the present work,
Sulphonated Naphthalene Formaldehyde (SNF) based water-reducing
admixture (Super Plasticizer) was used. The dosage of SP was fixed based on
trial and error to suit the requirements of EFNARC Specifications (2005).
Table 9. Material property of ingredients used for SCC
Cement – OPC 53 grade Fly Ash

Specific gravity 3.10 Fineness 335 m2/kg
Normal consistency 29.5% Silicon Dioxide 62.94%
(SiO2)
Coarse aggregate Lime reactivity 9.8 MPa
Specific gravity 2.65 Fine aggregate
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1442 Specific gravity 2.5 5
Fineness modulus 7.16 Bulk density 1713
(kg/m3)
Super plasticizer – Conplast SP 430 Fineness modulus 2.19
Specific gravity 1.22
Chloride content Nil
For compressive strength, standard cube moulds of 150mm x 150mm x

150mm made of cast iron were used. For split tensile strength, standard
cylinder moulds of 150 mm φ x 300mmmade of cast iron were used. For
flexural strength 100 x 100 x 500 mm of standard prism moulds were used.
The program consisted of casting and testing M25, M40 and M60 grade
concrete specimens of SCC with addition of nanosilica, nanoalumina and
without nanoparticle additions. A total of 54 cubes, 36 cylinders and 36 prisms
were cast and tested. The parameters of investigation included, different types
of nano inclusions (silica and Alumina), grade of concrete (M25, M40 and
M60) and age of concrete (3, 7 and 28 days). Nanosilica (30% nano content)
with addition of 1, 1.5 and 2% by weight of cement and nanoalumina with
0.25%, 0.5% by weight of cement was adopted in the study.
9.1. Nanosilica (Nano SiO2)
Nanosilica (NS) is the first nano product that replaced the micro silica (Ozawa
et al. 1989). It has a specific surface area near to 1, 00,000 m2/kg (micro silica
has only 20,000 m2/kg) and a particle size of 5 nm to 250 nm. Nanosilica (NS)
can contribute to efficient ‘Particle Packing’ in concretes by densifying the
micro and nanostructure leading to improved mechanical and durability
properties.
9.2. Nanoalumina (Nano Al2O3)
The reason for using Al2O3 as a partial replacement by cement in SCC is the
C-A-H (lime alumina- calcium sulfate) gel formation in concrete (EFNARC,
2005). The principal constituent of a pozzolana is the alumina that can be
amorphous or glassy. This component reacts with the calcium hydroxide
produced from the hydration of calcium aluminates. The rate of the pozzolanic
reaction is proportional to the amount of surface area available for reaction.
Therefore, adding nano-Al2O3 of high purity (99.9%), particle size 15 ± 3 nm
and a high Blaine fineness value (165-175 m2/gm) improves the characteristics
of cement mortars.
The details of the mixed proportions of the three SCC mixes M25, M40
and 60 are shown in Table 10. SCC 1, SCC 2 and SCC 3 correspond to M25,
M40 and M60 grade concretes. In each of these three grades nanosilica (NS)
of 1, 1.5 and 2% additions and nanoalumina (NA) of 0.25% and 0.5%
additions were done.
Table 10. Mix proportions of SCC mixes
Type w/b Quantities (kg/m3)

of Cement Fly Fine Coarse Water S.P Silica
mix Ash Aggregate Aggregate Fume
SCC 0.36 315.12 330.25 1078.29 754.16 232.72 11.62 --
1
SCC2 0.30 468.00 353.05 946.48 794.08 244.71 14.78 --
SCC3 0.26 677.34 677.34 304.31 799.30 256.40 17.6 54
9.3. Fresh Properties of SCC Mixes
In order to validate the mixes designed, rheology studies have been conducted
and the details of the Slump flow, L – box, V funnel test, V funnel at 5 minutes
are shown in Tables 11, 12 and 13 for SCC mixes of grade M25, M40 and
M60 respectively.
Table 11. Fresh properties of M25 grade of SCC

Grade M 25 EFNARC
Type of test SCC1 *NS NS NS ** NA Specifications
1 1.5 2 NA 0.5
0.25
Slump Flow (mm) 770 760 740 660 710 670 650 – 800
T50 (sec) 2.6 2.85 3.54 4.87 3.78 4.83 2–5
V-Funnel (sec) 6.53 7.35 8.16 9.35 8.33 9.56 6 – 12
V-Funnel at 5 min 7.8 9.85 11.3 12.6 9.75 12.6 6 – 15
(sec)
H2/H1 ratio 1 1 1 0.97 1 0.95 0.8 – 1.0

Grade M 40 EFNARC
Type of test SCC2 *NS NS NS **NA NA Specifications
1 1.5 2 0.25 0.5
Slump Flow (mm) 740 727 710 690 725 690 650 – 800
T50 (sec) 2.4 2.5 3.12 4.59 3.78 4.75 2–5
V-Funnel (sec) 5.73 6.65 7.65 8.27 7.14 8.24 6 – 12
V-Funnel at 5 min 7.25 8.53 10.8 12.3 10.4 12.7 6 – 15
(sec)
H2/H1 ratio 1 1 1 0.98 1 0.98 0.8 – 1.0

Grade M 60 EFNARC
Type of test SCC3 *NS NS NS **NA NA Specifications
1 1.5 2 0.25 0.5
Slump Flow (mm) 780 770 750 675 725 680 650 – 800
T50 (sec) 2.6 2.85 3.54 4.87 3.78 4.83 2–5
V-Funnel (sec) 6.53 7.35 8.16 9.35 8.33 9.56 6 – 12
V-Funnel at 5 min 7.85 10.25 11.3 12.5 11.4 13.2 6 – 15
(sec)
H2/H1ratio 1 1 1 0.97 1 0.95 0.8 – 1.0
*
NS – nano-silica **NA – nano-alumina.
It can be noted that all the mixes are satisfying the EFNARC
specifications.
10. Discussion of Test Results
In the present study, hardened properties compressive strength, split tensile

and flexural strength were determined for all grades of SCC with and without
nano particle additions (SiO2 & Al2O3). The compressive strengths of SCC
were determined at the end of 3, 7 and 28 days and the results are shown in
Table 14. The spilt tensile and flexural strengths of SCC were conducted at
the end of 7 and 28 days and the results are shown in Table 15 and Table 16
respectively.
Table 14. Compressive strength of SCC

with and without nano additions
S. Type of Compressive Strength (MPa)

No Concrete M 25 M 40 M 60
3 7 28 3 7 28 3 7 28
Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days Days
1 SCC 17.06 25.23 32.48 18.12 32.34 48.61 28.40 44.00 67.50
2 NS 1 21.94 26.42 37.42 23.81 41.12 53.67 34.06 49.88 70.94
3 NS 1.5 23.65 28.33 39.47 23.90 44.19 60.14 36.10 52.38 75.45
4 NS 2 20.48 26.08 38.15 24.05 43.13 57.34 34.26 50.21 72.80
5 NA 0.25 22.79 25.76 34.00 24.80 34.32 52.04 32.61 49.44 69.52
6 NA 0.5 24.00 34.80 43.42 25.50 38.13 58.91 35.53 51.72 73.80
Table 15. Split tensile strength of SCC

with and without nanoparticle additions
S. No Type of Split tensile Strength (MPa)

Concrete M 25 M 40 M 60
7 Days 28 Days 7 Days 28 Days 7 Days 28 Days
1 SCC 1.7 2.77 1.98 3.6 2.3 4.03
2 NS 1 1.91 2.92 1.65 3.89 2.68 4.20
3 NS 1.5 1.73 3.01 1.82 4.10 2.83 4.42
4 NS 2 1.51 2.55 1.90 3.80 2.73 4.19
5 NA 0.25 1.65 2.58 1.82 3.21 2.66 4.0
6 NA 0.5 1.66 3.13 1.97 3.98 2.77 4.4
Table 16. Flexural strength of SCC with and without nanoparticle additions
S. No Type of Flexural Strength (MPa)

Concrete M 25 M 40 M 60
7 Days 28 Days 7 Days 28 Days 7 Days 28 Days
1 SCC 3.13 4.14 4.38 4.62 5.10 8.08
2 NS 1 3.04 4.54 5.12 5.35 5.56 8.30
3 NS 1.5 2.87 5.34 5.46 6.75 6.89 10.44
4 NS 2 2.57 4.34 5.62 6.18 5.72 8.74
5 NA 0.25 2.97 5.20 4.81 6.98 5.89 8.96
6 NA 0.5 3.04 6.30 5.02 7.12 6.83 10.30
From Figure 10 and 11, it can observe that the optimum dosage of
nanosilica is 1.5% and 0.5% in case of nanoalumina based on the 28 days
compressive strength. The percentage increase of compressive strength is
however more in nanosilica based SCC. This can be attributed to better
hydration with nanosilica.
Figure 12 shows the variation of the compressive strength vs the split
tensile strength for different types of concrete including SCC, SCC-NS and
SCC-NA. For comparison trend lines are drawn for NC on the same figure.
Figure 10. Compressive strengths of SCC with different dosages of nanosilica.

Figure 11. Compressive strengths of SCC with different dosages of nanoalumina.
The trend line for Normal Concrete (NC) shown in Figure 12 is based on
the assumption that the split tensile strength is 10% of the compressive
strength. It can be found that at higher grades the values of split tensile strength
are less than 10% of compressive strength values. The graphs seem to
converge at higher grades of concrete. The difference between NC and SCC
(different types) are diverging as the grades of concrete are increasing.
Figure 12. Compressive strength vs split tensile strength at age of 28 days.

Figure 13 shows the relationship between flexural and compressive

strength for different types of concretes including SCC, SCC-NS and SCC-
NA. As per IS: 456 – 2000 the flexural strength is 0.7 x (√characteristic
compressive strength). A trend line of the variation of the flexural strength and
compressive strength is plotted on the same figure. It can be noted from Figure
13 that SCC with nano-alumina (SCC-NA) performed better than the flexural
strength of SCC.
Figure 13. Compressive strength vs flexural strength at age of 28 days.
Conclusion
With the increase in the dosage of nanomaterials, the rate of increase of

compressive strength increased as compared to SCC of identical grade without
nano inclusions. This is true with both SiO2 and Al2O3 nano additions. The
early compressive strength (3 and 7 days) in case nano-based SCC is 20–40%
more compared to normal SCC. This may be due to the early age hydration of
cement. This is true with all the three grades of concrete.
The optimum dosage of nanosilica is 1.5% and 0.5% in case of
nanoalumina based on the 28 days compressive strength. The percentage
increase of compressive strength is however more in nanosilica based SCC.
This can be attributed to better hydration with nanosilica. It has been observed
that the 28 days split tensile and flexural strengths are more in case of 1.5%
addition of nanosilica and with 0.5% addition of nanoalumina in SCC. The

percentage of increase of these strengths are more in nanosilica based SCC.
A relationship between compressive strength and split tensile strength has
been established and it was noted that at higher grades of self-compacting
concrete the split tensile strength was less than 10% of the compressive
strength. A relationship between compressive strength and flexural strength
has been established and it was noted that of all the mixes SCC-NA performed
well.
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Chapter 5
Pertinency of Geopolymer Concrete for

the Australian Construction Industry:
A Broader Contextual Appraisal
Koorosh Gharehbaghi1
Kong Fah Tee2,3,
Ken Farnes1
and Laura Blackburne4
1 RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
3 Interdisciplinary Research Center for Construction and Building Materials,

4
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Abstract
Innovative engineering materials, such as geopolymer concrete, have

emerged with the potential to reduce carbon emissions globally and lead
to a sustainable concrete industry. Using polymers to supplement or
replace Portland cement as a binder, geopolymer concrete exhibits a
smaller greenhouse footprint when compared to Portland concrete
products. With the appropriate mix design and formulation, the material
can offer superior chemical and mechanical characteristics when
compared with Portland concrete for several applications at a competitive
cost.

Corresponding Author’s Email: tee.fah@kfupm.edu.sa.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
154 Koorosh Gharehbaghi, Kong Fah Tee, Ken Farnes et al.
However, despite the potentially advantageous engineering

properties and commercial attributes and the potential benefits of
geopolymer concrete, many challenges and obstacles await such as
market resistance before this type of concrete can be acknowledged as a
conventional building material. As with any revolutionary product, the
successful implementation of geopolymer concrete in the Australian
construction industry is influenced by a variety of technical,
environmental, and commercial factors, that will be investigated in this
chapter.
The objective of this chapter is to explore the applicability of
geopolymer concrete in the Australian construction and engineering
industry. It is found that, although geopolymer concrete has been
gradually utilized within the Australian construction sector, particularly
for high-rise buildings, more encouragement is needed for the general
acceptance of geopolymer concrete in the construction sector. Therefore,
the main considerations that will contribute to the implementation of
more geopolymer concrete usage within the Australian industry, will be
investigated.
Keywords: geopolymer concrete, Portland concrete, construction industry
1. Introduction
The main aim of this chapter is to explore the future of geopolymer concrete
within the Australian construction industry. The investigation will consider
areas such as the history of the material, its advantages, and disadvantages in
commercial applications, other alternative materials that must be regarded as
substitutes to geopolymer concrete, and barriers to its successful
implementation in the construction and engineering industry. Through this
chapter, the Australian construction industry has the potential to gain valuable
insight into the benefits of geopolymer concrete as an alternative to other
materials.
Innovative engineering materials, such as geopolymer concrete, have
emerged with the potential to influence the future of an environmentally
sustainable construction product industry by using geopolymers to supplement
or replace Portland cement as a binder. Geopolymer concrete exhibits a
smaller greenhouse footprint when compared to Portland concrete products.
With the appropriate mix design (commonly incorporating monomers and
resins such as polyester-styrene, acrylics, and epoxies) and formulation
development, the material can offer superior chemical and mechanical
Pertinency of Geopolymer Concrete … 155
characteristics (compared with Portland cement) for several applications, at a

competitive cost. However, despite the potentially advantageous engineering
properties and commercial and potential benefits of geopolymer concrete,
many challenges and obstacles await, such as more complex commercial
production, some physical and chemical properties being substantially
different, and market resistance before this type of concrete can be
acknowledged as a conventional building material. As with any revolutionary
(as opposed to evolutionary) product, the successful implementation of
geopolymer concrete in the Australian construction industry will be influenced
by a variety of technical, environmental, and commercial factors, as will be
investigated in this chapter. The overall process of this chapter is shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. The overall process of the chapter.
The chapter is aimed at the Australian construction industry, presenting

the target audience with the potential to gain valuable insight into the benefits
of geopolymer concrete as an alternative to Portland cement. Furthermore, the
potential advantages of this research to the construction industry may be to
inform future business decisions (i.e., considerations into alternative material
selections), assist in policy formation (such as an Australian standard for the
specification and supply of geopolymer concrete), and encourage further
research into the applications and benefits of this material. Furthermore, an
inductive research approach was undertaken as a result of the degree of
uncertainty that the answer to the research question will deliver, and due to the
conclusion most likely being based on a premise (i.e., argument or theory
building). A representation of the inductive research approach is shown in

Figure 2.
Figure 2. The method of the research - inductive approach.
Research undertaken for this chapter utilized a qualitative method using

secondary data collected from journals, articles, books, and primary data from
an interview with a recognized industry expert. This research method was
employed to gain insight into various aspects of the construction industry, such
as the cultures, attitudes, values, concerns, and motivations that will
potentially influence the future of geopolymer concrete in Australia.
2. Background of Geopolymer Concrete
Geopolymer technology is a rapidly developing field of development with

many commercial applications including in the construction industry.
Geopolymer is the generic name for a wide range of engineered
aluminosilicate products that have the potential for use as a replacement for
Portland cement in the production of structural and non-structural concretes.
Geopolymer concrete is one of the building materials that has become more
popular in recent years due to the perception that these materials are more
environmentally friendly and that they have potentially advantageous
engineering properties and commercial attributes in comparison to Portland
concrete.
Globally, the construction industry is becoming more frequently focused

on creating buildings that meet the need for more space on limited land while
having an environmentally low impact (Hirvonen et al., 2019; Charalambides
et al., 2019; Blackburne et al., 2023). The increase in population results in a
higher demand for buildings that have been getting taller and more sustainable
as technology and innovation proves that it is possible to create more available
space while meeting environmental, economic, and societal sustainability
demands (Iacovidou et al., 2017; Dumlao-Tan and Halog, 2017; Dimitriou et
al., 2020) on a smaller footprint (Harris et al., 2023).
Over the past decade, as environmental regulations begin to overlay
building design, it has become popular to use greener materials in
construction, swapping non-renewable materials for materials that can be re-
grown in just 10-30 years whilst reducing CO2 and its footprint across the
globe (De Luca et al., 2021; Gharehbaghi et al., 2022a) or using recovered by-
products of commercial processes. Figures 3a and 3b represent the CO2
emission by the industry sector and environmental predicaments of waste
diminution in construction projects.
Figure 3a. The CO2 emission by industry sector (Warburton, 2019).

Figure 3b. The environmental predicaments of waste diminution in construction projects (Gharehbaghi and Scott-Young, 2018).
Within the construction industry, the use of green building materials is

one of the most common strategies to reduce CO2 (Bovea and Powell, 2016;
Samad et al, 2017; Tee et al, 2019; Gharehbaghi et al., 2022b). Green building
materials very often have nontoxic properties and are made from recycled
materials. This means they are in most cases created from renewable resources
in comparison to non-renewable resources. The use of recycled concrete and
the use of sustainable materials is also gaining support within the construction
industry (Hahladakis et al., 2020). The use of recycled concrete aggregates
and similar strategies needs to be constantly reviewed as a strategy for the
reduction of CO2 and conserving energy (Maduabuchukwu et al., 2020;
Iacovidou and Purnell, 2016; Samad et al, 2018). Braga et al., (2017)
highlighted that one way to conserve energy during concrete production is
using recycled concrete aggregate.
Further, in their research, Gharehbaghi et al., (2020a) compared fibre-
reinforced concrete and geopolymer concrete for high-rise construction. They
determined that geopolymer concrete has some environmental advantages
when compared with traditional binders which are used in Portland cement. In
his experimental research, Davidovits (2002) extensively highlights the geo-
polymeric binders and their composite applications. Davidovits (2002)
particularly notes that a new grade of materials is expected to have a wide-
ranging impact on construction, architectural, and engineering applications.
He further demonstrated that quazite which is a mixture of mineral aggregates
together with polymers and monomers is used to form the first breakthrough
in history called Geopolymer concrete. This was also supported by a private
company Zeobond and the ACO Group, who credit their success in being a
world leader in modern large-scale geopolymer concrete production to
Davidovits’ research and invention (Zeobond, 2010; ACO Group, 2021).
Figure 4 presents the Poly structures according to Davidovits.
Regarding the chemical designation of Geopolymer, the name
“polysialates” was suggested by Davidovits, in which sialate is an
abbreviation for aluminosilicate. Zeobond quoted their success and
development of Geopolymer concrete to Davidovits’ research and invention.
However, Zeobond mentioned that a similar composite to Geopolymer
concrete was first trailed in some concrete applications by G.V. Glukhovsky
and co-workers in the Soviet Union post-World War Two, around 1954.
Figure 4. Poly (sialates) structures according to Davidovits

(Pacheo-Torgal, et al., 2007).
This was an alkali-activated slag and not the geopolymer concrete formula
developed by Davidovits (Domone and Illston, 2010). Rafi (2019) noted that
alkali-activation was performed using corrosive chemicals for the making of
concrete known as ‘soil cement’ and not sold to third parties as commercial
cement. Geopolymer technology on the alternative side from the beginning
was aimed at manufacturing binders and cement for various types of
applications throughout the concrete industry (Geopolymer Institute, 2021).
2.1. Alternatives and Innovations in the Concrete Industry
2.1.1. The Need for Alternatives and Innovations

Widely used for its advantageous features such as durability, versatility, high
compressive strength, cost-effectiveness, and availability, it cannot be denied
that concrete will continue to be an essential material required to satisfy global
construction and infrastructure needs. As a result, the concrete industry
worldwide is confronted with many growing challenges, including the
preservation and management of material and energy resources, along with
minimizing associated CO2 emissions (Schneider et al., 2011l Blackburne et

al., 2022). Juenger et al., (2010) also agree that the construction materials
industry, in particular manufacturers of concrete, is under increasing pressure
to reduce the energy consumption of concrete production and the related
environmental impacts, i.e., greenhouse gas emissions. This issue is further
highlighted by Yang et al., (2010) who emphasize that the negative
environmental effects of concrete originate from matters such as the depletion
of reserves of natural resources, high energy consumption, and disposal
concerns.
Hence, there are apparent consistencies in the concerns that surround the
environmental impacts of Portland concrete, which justify the rising interest
in the development and implementation of alternative materials to Portland
cement as a binder in concrete. The following section will detail the alternative
cement binders currently available as a substitute to Portland cement, focusing
mainly on Calcium Aluminate cement, Calcium Sulfoaluminate cements,
Alkali-Activated Binders (Inorganic Polymers), and super sulfated cement.
Table 1 shows the comparison of Portland cement to alternative
cement/binders.
2.1.2. Calcium Aluminate Cement

Calcium aluminate cement is a unique category of cement that contains the
primary component of monocalcium aluminate. When compared to Portland
cement it offers superior early strength, fire resistance, abrasion resistance,
and acid resistance (Fentiman et al., 2008). The advantages of this type of
cement are further emphasized by Juenger et al., (2010) who highlight that the
production of calcium aluminate cement results in lower CO2, in comparison
with Portland cement.
The two current primary uses of calcium aluminate cement are in
refractory applications of concrete. They are typically used in industries
involving high temperatures (e.g., steel making), and other building
applications such as floor screeds and rapid-hardening mortars. Other diverse
areas of use for this type of cement also exist, such as the storage of toxic
wastes. Applications of calcium aluminate cement are typically selected for
their durability in severe conditions (Scrivener, et al., 1999; Wang, et al.,
2014).
Table 1. Comparison of Portland cement to alternative cement/binders (Juenger, et al., 2010)
Despite the numerous advantages of calcium aluminate concrete, Juenger

et al., (2010) state that it is not used as extensively as Portland cement, as it is
limited by two main barriers:
1. Through the process of “conversion” in calcium aluminate cement

(whereby metastable hydrates convert to stable hydrates), increases
in porosity and decrease in strength occur.
2. Cost efficiency is also an evident barrier, as calcium aluminate
cement is more expensive in comparison to Portland cement; with the
cost attributed to the limited supply of bauxite, the main source of
alumina in this type of cement’s production.
2.1.3. Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement

Calcium sulfoaluminate cement is gaining attention in the construction
industry, due to its capacity to provide a lower CO2 alternative to Portland
cement. This type of cement contains ye’elimite (C4A3Ŝ) a naturally
occurring form of calcium sulfoaluminate as a major component (generally
consisting of 30-70%), along with other materials for clinker production, such
as sulfoaluminate belite (containing primarily C4A3Ŝ and C2S) and
ferrialuminate clinker (containing primarily C4A3Ŝ and C4AF and C2S).
These clinkers are incorporated with different levels of calcium sulfate
through the grounding process, to produce rapid-hardening, high-strength,
expansive, or self-stressing cement (Juenger et al., 2010).
There are inconsistencies relating to the origins of this type of cement, as
Juenger et al., (2010) suggest that it was developed in the 1960s during which
time it was patented by Alexander Klein as an expansive or shrinkage
compensating addition to cementitious binders; referred to as “Klein’s
compound.” However, Pera and Ambroise (2004) and Shi, et al., (2011);
Jimenez and Palomo (2011) suggest that calcium sulfoaluminate cement was
developed by the China Building Materials Academy in the 1970s, with the
objective of manufacturing self-stressed concrete pipes, as a result of their
swelling properties. Furthermore, it is in China that calcium sulfoaluminate
cement has been commonly used, as evident in applications such as bridges,
leakage, and seepage prevention projects, concrete pipes, precast concrete
elements (e.g., columns and beams), pre-stressed concrete elements,
waterproof layers, glass fibre-reinforced cement products, low-temperature
construction, and shotcrete treatments (Juenger et al., 2010).
2.1.4. Alkali-Activated Binders (Inorganic Polymers)

Alkali-activated binders are composed of two primary constituents, including
a cementitious component and alkaline activators. Figure 5 shows a
diagrammatic representation of the geopolymer atom structure. The
cementitious binders in this form of concrete can take the form of several
industrial by-products and wastes, as well as aluminosilicate raw materials
such as granulated blast furnace slag, granulated phosphorus slag, steel slag,
coal fly ash, and volcanic glass among others (Shi et al., 2011).
Figure 5. Diagrammatic representation of the geopolymer atom structure.

Red: Oxygen, Purple: Aluminum, Yellow: Silicon, Green: Sodium
(Concrete Institute of Australia, 2021).
Like calcium sulfoaluminate cement, Juenger et al., (2010) state that

alkali-activated binders are gaining increasing attention as an alternative to
Portland cement, due to the material’s high strength and durability, and lower
environmental impact in comparison. This view is shared by Shi et al., (2011),
who further maintain that this form of cement is a necessary transition from
today’s Portland cement to the cement of the future. Although geopolymer
concrete is one form of alkali-activated binders, other alternatives include:
• Polymer-Impregnated concrete: Produced by “impregnating”

hydrated Portland cement, with a low viscosity monomer, such as
methyl methacrylate, which was later polymerized by radiation, or
other catalytic processes.
• Polymer-Modified concrete: Produced by combining Portland cement
with a polymer modifier such as acrylic, styrene-butadiene latex, or
polyvinyl acetate (Fowler, 1999; Behera, et al., Maiti 2014).
2.1.5. Super Sulfated Cement

Super sulfated cement is composed of various amounts of ground granulated
blast furnace slag, gypsum or heat-activated gypsum and Portland cement,
consequently, it is almost free of Portland cement, consisting primarily of
granulated blast furnace slag (70-90%), calcium sulfate (10-20%), and other
low quantities (generally <5%) of alkaline activators, such as Portland cement
(Juenger et al., 2010). The authors further state that the benefits of this form
of cement are not only its low CO2 emissions, but also its very low heat of
hydration, and its durability in chemically aggressive environments. The most
common uses of super sulfated cement are in applications such as rendering,
injection mortars, and injection mortars, where the cement’s high sulfate
resistance is a major advantage.
2.2. The Breakthrough of Geopolymer and Its Initial Uses
In August 1983, Davidovits together with James Sawyer, Head of Lone Star’s
research laboratory in Houston, Texas, developed early high-strength geo-
polymeric binders and cement based on both geo-polymeric and hydraulic
cement chemistries. Lone Star Industries Inc. formed the development
company, Pyrament, which was exclusively dedicated to the achievement of
this breakthrough cement (Davidovits, 2002; Tan, 2003; Hassan, et al., 2019).
It was discovered that the addition of ground blast furnace slag, which is a
hydraulic cementitious product, to the geopolymer accelerated the setting time
and significantly improved compressive and flexural strength. This is
supported by both Zeobond and ACO, Australia’s leaders’ in geopolymer
concrete production. The first Davidovits and Sawyer copyright to this
mixture was filed in the USA on 22nd February 1984 and titled ‘Early High-
Strength Mineral Polymer’ and the corresponding European copyright in
1985, titled ‘Early High-Strength Concrete Composition’ (Davidovits, 2002).
Unlike Portland cement, Sawyer and Davidovits adapted their geo-
polymeric cement formulation for the use in producing precast and prestressed
concrete (heat cured Pyrament), while also developing ultra-quick early high
strength cement with room temperature curing which once placed can allow
heavy traffic to use and traverse within as little as four hours (Davidovits,
2002; Wang, et al., 2014).
Geopolymer blended cement (Pyrament) was found to be the ideal
material for repairing areas made of concrete that can only be closed for short
periods such as runways made of concrete, industrial pavements, and freeway
roads (Rafi, 2018; Gharehbaghi et al., 2021). It was discovered by both

Davidovits and Sawyer that in the case of a runway repair, 4-6 hours of
hardening is enough to allow the landing of an Airbus or Boeing Airplane
(Geopolymer Institute, 2021; Davidovits, 2002; Husbands, et al., 1994). The
geo-polymeric cement reaches a compressive strength of 20 MPa after 4 hours,
compared to Portland cement which acquires this strength after several days
of curing (Geopolymer Institute, 2021; Davidovits, 2002; Husbands, Malone
and Wakely, 1994; Tee and Mostofizadeh, 2021a). Geopolymer cement is
recognized in the construction industry for its rapid ability to gain very high
early compressive strength and can strengthen up to between 60-70 MPa
within 28 days depending on the exact formulation (Davidovits, 2002; Tee and
Mostofizadeh, 2021b).
2.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Geopolymer Concrete
2.3.1. Environmental Aspects

Rafi (2018) notes that concrete is one of the most popular construction
materials but places a burden on natural resources such as water and mining
aggregates. Further, Rafi (2018) highlights that not all concrete produced
during the construction, renovation, and demolition activities is fully utilized,
thus resulting in large volumes of concrete waste being generated.
Further, research has shown that geopolymer concrete is more
environmentally sustainable than Portland concrete (Lloyd, and Rangan,
2010; Gharehbaghi et al., 2020b; Mostofizadeh and Tee, 2019). Geopolymer
concrete has been developed as an alternative to Portland concrete, research
shows that Portland concrete produces approximately 7% of the world’s
carbon emissions (Wallah, 2004; Djwantoro, et al., 2004; Braga, et al., 2017).
Geopolymer concrete is created by using by-product materials that replace
Portland cement as the binder, these materials include fly-ash, rice husk ash,
slag, and silica fume (Rafi, 2018), which eliminate the high carbon emission
of Portland cement. Thus, the high carbon emission can be reduced with the
continued development of geopolymer concrete to replace the use of
traditional Portland concrete.
If this product can be used effectively in Australia (Udawatta, et al., 2015),
it will become more widely spread and in turn replace the use and production
of Portland cement concrete and help contribute to sustainable construction
methods and materials. The increased rate of geopolymer concrete usage could
reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere by up to 80% when compared to
Portland concrete (Davidovits, 1994, NetBalance Foundation, 2007). The

overall comparison of CO2 emissions from concrete is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Comparison of CO2 emissions from concrete (Prusinski, et al., 2006).
One by-product that has been tested to be used in Geopolymer concrete is

coal bottom ash. This has not been well received as coal bottom ash needs
grinding (which will result in prolonged setting time & reduced workability)
and cannot be used to entirely replace Portland cement, it is also porous and
increases the amount of water required (Sathonsaowaphaka, et al., 2009). On
the other hand, fly ash is the fine particles that rise with flue gases whereas
bottom ash does not rise and is removed from the bottom of the furnace,
research has shown that fly ash has superior results when used in Geopolymer
concrete. Fly ash is produced in abundance, but its alternate use is limited
when compared to its production. Figure 7 shows the diagrammatic model of
the alkali-activation of fly ash.
As previously discussed, geopolymer concrete proves to be developing
outstanding results environmentally and in physical properties for
construction. Research from Wallah (2009) has also shown positive aspects
concerning economic benefits, “One ton of low calcium fly ash can be utilized
to produce about 2.5 cubic meters of high-quality geopolymer concrete”
(Wallah, 2009; Behera, et al., 2014). Many construction industry stakeholders
believe that moving to an environmentally friendly concrete industry is a
costly process, contradictory evidence shows that the cost of one ton of fly ash
is only a small fraction of the price of one ton of Portland cement and allows
for the alkaline liquids required to make the geopolymer concrete, fly ash-
based geopolymer concrete is 10 to 30% cheaper than Portland concrete, this
is partly because fly ash is an abundant by-product waste material from coal-
burning power stations (Lloyd, and Rangan, 2010; Mostofizadeh and Tee,
2021). It is estimated that the global fly ash production could be estimated at
more than 350 million tons annually post 2020 (Mostofizadeh et al., 2019).
Figure 7. Diagrammatic model of the alkali-activation of fly ash

(Pacheo-Torgal, et al., 2007).
2.3.2. Material Behavior Attributes: Strength and Shrinkage

For geopolymer concrete to replace Portland concrete, its attributes for
durability and strength need to be similar to or greater than those of Portland
cement. Mishra, et al., (2008) carried out tests on geopolymer concrete which
identified many advantages over Portland concrete, such as showing greater
resistance to fire and acid attack, fast or slow setting, low shrinkage, and that
it can reach up to 70% of its final compressive strength within 4-6 hours of
curing. This research is proving to be promising but the research also reminds
stakeholders that the results should not be considered universal and the
geopolymer concrete needs to be tailored by the correct mix and processing
design to maximize properties and or reduce costs for the application (Duxson
et al., 2006).
A further example of this regarding strength is from Hardjito, et al.,
(2004), and Wallah, et al., (2004) where it was realized that the reaction of
geopolymer paste is a fast polymerization process, and if cured for 24 hours
the compressive strength does not vary with age which contrasts to the
common behavior of Portland cement which undergoes a hydrations process

and therefore gains strength over time.
An attribute of Portland concrete products is shrinkage, which is the
decrease in volume over time independent of external actions occurring to the
concrete (Estanqueiro et al., 2018; Gharehbaghi et al., 2020b). Testing of
shrinkage of geopolymer cement concrete has been carried out, presented
below is the summary of the test and results from Davidovits (2008);
Geopolymer and Portland cement prisms were created (20x40x160mm) with
the same ratios of water to cement mortar and water to Geopolymer mortar.
They were cured at the same time and temperature and set into molds. The
specimens were measured after initial de-molding; the geopolymer subject
showed slightly less shrinkage, but even more so after 150 days where the
Portland cement mortar concrete was 0.091% and both specimens of
Geopolymer mortar concrete were 0.065% & 0.048%. Further, low calcium
fly ash can be used to produce high-quality Geopolymer concrete.
2.4. Impediments to Geopolymer Concrete Implementation

in Australia
2.4.1. The Construction Industry

Research into innovation and change in the construction industry suggests
client requirements, contractor inexperience, and cost to be the major factors
restricting innovation (Brandon and Lu, 2009; Lotfy and Al-Fayez, 2015) such
as the use of geopolymer concrete. In the Australian construction industry, it
is typically the client who initiates the designing and construction of a building
(Gharehbaghi and Chenery, 2017). Dulaimi (2005) explains that the
requirements and expectations of the client eventually shape the construction
services provided and the final product delivered. The author is suggesting that
the client plays a significant role in determining the possible implementation
of new or improved products and where the client plays a leading role, the
implementation of the innovation can be dependent upon the interplay
between the client and the construction organization.
Indeed, this is shown to be the case by Brandon and Lu (2009) who
explain that the client’s specification is set using different criteria to the
contractor but that contractors are reluctant to change their existing practices
and thus a requested implementation of the innovation may be unlikely. These
views are logical but only consider innovation as a cost and do not consider
that innovation can lead to cost savings and competitive advantage. The
biggest factor influencing a client’s decision in construction projects is cost

and the implications of changes to requirements on the total cost of a project
(Ivory, 2005; Senaratne, et al., 2016). This suggests that innovative
construction projects led by the client are exceptions rather than the norm due
to financial constraints.
An alternate view is offered by Murphy et al., (2011) through case study-
based research that forms the conclusion that the competencies of project
stakeholders have a larger effect on innovation in the construction industry
than factors such as client requirements and procurement processes. It
highlights the experience and expertise of stakeholders involved at various
stages of the project as critical, but it does not address the potential impact of
cost constraints which can outweigh competency when implementing
innovations, a point supported by McCoy et al., (2008). The majority of uses
for geopolymer concrete in the construction industry to date are in the field of
precast construction; however, the product is also well suited to cast-in-situ
applications. One of the key constraints in implementing innovations like
geopolymer concrete is the lack of contractors with the experience,
knowledge, and willingness to learn the special placement, finishing, and
curing requirements of geopolymer concrete (Recommended Practice –
Geopolymer Concrete, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2021).
Geopolymer Concrete Specific Barriers
Geopolymer concrete is seen as a potential alternative to Portland concrete. It

presents an opportunity to convert by-product waste into a useful product. One
key driver in geopolymer concrete development is the desire to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from concrete production. Some key challenges for
geopolymer concrete include the industry perception of the product,
economics, technical benefits, how widely the degree of benefits can vary, and
finally the statutory issues regarding Australian Standards and insurance
(McLellan, et al., 2011).
The study into energy consumption and costs by McLellan, et al., (2011)
forms a broad view that the benefits of geopolymer concrete over Portland
cement-based concrete can vary largely depending on location and therefore
transportation and the source of energy used in production. It is highlighted
that transport costs have been minimized for Portland concrete due to the scale
of the industry with batching plants conveniently located. The scale-up and
reduction in costs for geopolymer concrete will not occur until the volumes
produced are dramatically increased. The costs associated with geopolymer

concrete will be reduced as the level of acceptance and implementation are
increased. Various research shows financial costs for M30 grade geopolymer
concrete being marginally (1.7%) higher than Portland concrete of the same
grade whereas, for M50 grade, the cost of Portland concrete was 11% higher
than geopolymer concrete of the same grade (Thaarrini, and Dhivya, 2016) yet
Rajini, et al. (2020) found that the initial material cost of M45 Geopolymer
concrete was about 32% higher than that of Portland concrete of the same
grade.
This research is a good starting point for discussions on the comparative
costs of geopolymer concrete and Portland concrete, but the studies show little
conclusive evidence given many variables and unknowns. This is supported
by Duxson, et al., (2007) who found that environmental benefits could be
achieved. However, they also added that the lack of long-term durability data
(20+ years) and compliance issues needed to be addressed before geopolymer
concrete was a serious alternative to Portland cement.
3. Deliberation: A Broader Contextual Appraisal
This chapter investigated the future of geopolymer concrete in the Australian

construction industry. It thus explored and discussed the evidence that has
been collected throughout the research process. Through an extensive
literature review, and by interviewing an industry expert, the areas of interest
that are believed to contribute to the successful implementation of geopolymer
concrete in the Australian market, have been identified and supported below.
These include topics such as the environmental advantages and mechanical
properties that will benefit the construction industry, as well as the obstacles
to consider, that may influence the material’s future.
3.1. Environmental Benefits
In an industry in which there is an increasing demand for sustainable materials

and practices, the benefits of geopolymer concrete to the Australian
construction industry are obvious. Hence, with significant acceptance of
geopolymer concrete, the construction industry has the potential to reduce the
manufacture and use of Portland cement and by doing so, supplement and
support the concrete industry in maintaining concrete as the primary

construction material of choice. Below are two of the most significant
environmental drivers for the future of geopolymer concrete.
3.1.1. Greenhouse Gas Emission Reductions

From an environmental perspective, one of the major advantages of
geopolymer concrete over Portland cement is the lower rate of CO2 emissions
from the manufacturing process of geopolymer, as compared to the more
traditional variety. For instance, Portland cement production contributes
between 5 to 10% of global CO2 emissions (CIA, 2011).
This aspect relates to the manufacturing process of geopolymer concrete,
in which a high-temperature calcination stage is absent (due to ashes and/or
slags), alternatively, the calcination of cement clinker involves the
consumption of a large amount of fossil fuel obtained energy, while in addition
releasing CO2 as a reaction product. Through the calcining of limestone to
develop the calcium constituents of Portland cement, the production of 1 ton
of concrete, results in approximately the same weight (0.8 to 1 ton) of carbon
dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, reliant upon the type of fuel utilized.
Furthermore, although the consumption of alkaline hydroxide or silicate
activating solution for cement hydration (as opposed to water) does present
some greenhouse-related costs, these costs are minimal in comparison to the
overall CO2 saving resulting from geopolymer use (Geopolymer Alliance,
2021). Figures 8a and 8b show the past and future predictions for global
cement production and usage.
Globally, cement production and use are predicted to be ongoing as shown
in Figures 8a and 8b although at a lesser volume (worldwide), nonetheless it
is predicted to be a heavily utilized material (Figure 8b). To reduce CO2
emissions globally, alternate concretes are essential. By substituting Portland
cement concrete with geopolymer concrete, the CO2 emissions relating to
binder manufacturing would potentially be reduced by 80% or more
(Davidovits, 1994, NetBalance Foundation, 2007). If Portland concrete would
be entirely replaced by geopolymer concrete, it is predicted that current global
CO2 emissions would be reduced by approximately 4 to 8%, which would also
represent significant benefits to an industry continuously improving, while
demanding ‘greener’ innovations and alternatives (Duxson, et al., 2007;
Lockrey, et al., 2016).
Figure 8a. Past use of global cement production (Schneider, et al., 2011).
Figure 8b. Worldwide cement production in 2018 and forecast for 2030
(Aggregates Business Europe, 2019).
3.1.2. Waste Material Usage

In addition to the low greenhouse gas emissions attributed to the manufacture
and application of geopolymer concrete, this technology also provides the
potential for the utilization of waste materials and processing by-products that
are unsuitable in the manufacturing process of Portland concrete and would be
disposed of in solid waste landfills which occupy valuable land which could
have been used for other purposes.
Therefore, geopolymer concrete can be manufactured from some binders
that may have previously been regarded as waste products. Fly ash and bottom
ash produced in black coal-fired power stations, can be used as partial
replacement in Portland cement. Fly ash is a waste material that is significant
to both the Australian mining and construction industries, due to the
abundance of coal-fired power stations operating in the country (Duxson, et
al., 2007). This issue is highlighted by Professor Colin Ward of the
Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Coal in Sustainable Development and
the University of NSW who states, “Australia’s 40 power stations produce 12-
13 million tons of fly ash a year, only a sixth of which currently goes to
economic products like cement and concrete. Most of it is currently used as a
landfill and is both a cost and a lost opportunity, correctly handled it presents
little toxic risk and considerable value” (Science Alert, 2021).
Other waste materials with the potential to be implemented as geopolymer
concrete binders include ground granulated blast-furnace slags, bauxite
processing residues, kaolinitic clays, and other naturally occurring pozzolans,
with the possibility of manufacturing a strong and durable construction
material entirely from waste products (Ismail et al, 2020; Geopolymer
Alliance, 2021). Although this environmental benefit may be considered an
insignificant ‘niche’ justification for the use of geopolymer technology, it does
present additional environmental drivers for these materials to be used in
specific settings and environments where waste products are readily available
or problematic, such as Australia, potentially leading to reductions in
unnecessary landfill, as well as additional recycling and reuse of these
materials (Park, et al., 2017).
3.2. Strength Attributes
For geopolymer to obtain increased penetration in the Australian construction

industry, its strength properties need to be equal to or better than that of
Portland cement. Research shows that geopolymer concrete has comparable
performance to traditional cementitious binders in a range of applications and

demonstrates equal to better strength behavioral properties when compared to
Portland concrete about compressive and flexural strength and is also affected
by the curing period in addition to the added advantage of significantly
reduced greenhouse emissions (Gartner, E., 2004).
Figure 9. The compressive strength of geopolymer concrete at various

Na2SiO3/NaOH ratios (Thaarrini and Ramasamy, 2015).
Flexural strength is an important property of concrete and research carried

out supported that geopolymer concrete’s flexural strength and post-crack
residual flexural strength have a deflection rate that exceeds the Portland
concrete, both with steel fibers and synthetic fiber (De Luca et al., 2021).
Compressive strength for geopolymer concrete was demonstrated to be better
than Portland concrete during tests carried out on slender columns, and both
higher curing temperature and longer curing times influenced the
polymerization process which increased compressive strength (Sumajouw, et
al., 2005). Further, generally, in concrete composition, it is the steel (or
synthetic fiber) reinforcement that contributes to the tensile strength while the
concrete works in compression. However, keeping in mind that there is only
limited data on this aspect, and like with compression, the mix of ingredients
will affect results. Tensile strength in Geopolymer concrete has improved in
this property compared to Portland concrete (Rangan, 2008; Sofi, et al., 2007;
Behera, et al., 2014; Mostofizadeh and Tee, 2020). Figure 9 shows the
compressive strength of geopolymer concrete at various ratios.
The properties required for compression, flexural and tensile strength in
geopolymer concrete are up to the same standard as Portland concrete, and
with further studies, tests, and innovations there is the likelihood for even more
benefits in structural components to evolve. It is an exciting time for the
construction industry for this emerging product with environmental benefits
to be physically sound, and they can be assured that the main features of
concrete will not be compromised.
3.3. Curing Age
As already noted, Sumajouw, et al., (2005) highlighted that compressive

strength for Geopolymer concrete is generally to be better than Portland
concrete, for some specific structural elements. Figure 10 shows the effect of
curing temperature on compressive strength.
Figure 10. The effect of curing temperature on compressive strength (Concrete

Institute of Australia, 2021).
Geopolymer concrete also remains high in compression when there is an

increase in workability (when a naphthalene-based high-range water-reducing
mixture is added). Often increased workability gives the impression of a
thinner consistency concrete which can reduce compressive strength, however
with this ‘new’ additive to geopolymer concrete the compressive strength
remains relatively high (Sumajouw, et al., 2005). The water-reducing
admixture improved the workability while the concrete was wet but had little
effect on compressive strength once cured when only 2% of this admixture
was used.
Curing plays an important role in the result of compressive strength, for
instance, 90% of the final strength is reached within the first couple of hours
when heat-cured low calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete is cured at
80-90oC. If the same geopolymer concrete was to be cured at regular
temperatures, like traditional Portland cement it would gain strength over time
(Rangan, 2008; Lockrey, et al., 2016; Tee and Mostofizadeh, 2021c) and at a
higher temperature to gain strength faster but ultimately, they gain the same
compressive strength regardless of how they were cured.
3.4. Durability Characteristics
Geopolymer is a material resulting from the reaction of a source material that

is high in silica and alumina with an alkaline solution. This material promises
to serve as a greener alternative to Portland concrete. It has been found that
geopolymer concrete has very good engineering properties together with
greater durability than Portland concrete, as well as a reduced carbon footprint
resulting from zero Portland cement content. In comparison to Portland
cement, these greater engineering properties include high compressive
strength, greater resistance to acid attack and fire (up to 1320°C), and low
shrinkage creating a more durable product than Portland cement (Lodeiro et
al., 2007; Yang, et al., 2011; Wang, et al., 2014). Figure 11 shows the fracture
toughness of Geopolymer mortar.
Testing of the material composition is ongoing to continually improve the
mixture, however, initial results appear to be very promising. Tests show the
aluminosilicate Geopolymer phase is intrinsically highly resistant to acid
attack due to the high degree of cross-linking present and the formation of an
acid-resistant silica phase. The strong binding of the gel phase to aggregate
particles enhances flexural and tensile strength, which is very important in
aiding freeze-thaw resistance (Douglas et al., 2007; Estanqueiro, et al., 2018).
Figure 11. Fracture toughness of geopolymer mortar (Phoo-ngernkham et al., 2016).
While some early and inadequately designed geopolymer concrete

formulations were found to be susceptible to vast water loss as the excess
alkali present was gradually released from the pore solution and reacted with
atmospheric carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate crystals. This issue has
been overcome with accurate mix proportioning and adequate curing
(Thokchom, 2010; Dumlao-Tan and Halog, 2017). In conclusion, geopolymer
concrete is more appealing and greater in all aspects of durability compared to
Portland concrete, however, this product will take a considerable amount of
time to be fully implemented, pending further testing and the industry’s
resistance to change.
3.5. Safety Considerations
Although geopolymer concrete does not have the greenhouse effect as its
Portland cement counterpart does, its production processes must deal with
highly corrosive and toxic alkaline solutions. They must be transported,
stored, and removed as per Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs). MSDSs are
available from suppliers for all technical information and process
specifications, and quality assurance work instructions are to be written in
conjunction with these datasheets. For example, sodium hydroxide can be
prepared on-site, or solid sodium hydroxide can be added directly to the

concrete mixer.
3.6. The Geopolymer Concrete Barriers
The introduction of an innovative new product in the Australian construction

industry is never an easy or fast process. It takes time for the product to be
developed to a point where it is marketable and useable. It takes time for the
product to become recognized by statutory authorities. It takes time for the
product to prove its worth or value to each stakeholder. Finally, it takes time
for people to learn and be taught new ways of working with new products, and
this is certainly the case with geopolymer concrete and the Australian
construction industry.
3.6.1. The Industry Perception of Geopolymer Concrete

Different forms of geopolymer concrete have been in existence for over 60
years and the perception of these products has been blurred by many
companies and parties involved with both the geopolymer concrete and the
Portland cement industry. The Portland cement industry companies are
protecting their intellectual property, their company assets, and their market
share. The perception of geopolymer concrete has been that it is expensive,
hard to use, and unnecessary in the current construction industry. This
message has been sent out to prevent the use of geopolymer concrete as it
would ultimately reduce the use of Portland concrete and many companies
have invested millions in a plant, machinery, and intellectual property and now
risk those investments becoming obsolete and stranded assets (Estanqueiro et
al., 2018).
3.6.2. The Statutory and Regulatory Issues

A major issue for any new product is statutory compliance. The Australian
Standards system checks and approves products and methods to ensure the
safety and longevity of buildings and products produced and used in Australia.
These standards can be prescriptive, or performance-based.
In the case of geopolymer concrete, tests have already been performed to
study the flexure, shear, compression, and bonding properties of geopolymer
concrete. The studies are conducted to compare the behavior and properties of
geopolymer concrete and Portland concrete as the Australian Standards
relating to the concrete are based on the use of Portland cement concrete. The
results of the studies show superior to equivalent results for geopolymer in all
aspects. Therefore, the provision in Australian Standards such as AS3600 -
Concrete Structures can be used to design and engineer geopolymer concrete
members and structures (Gharehbaghi et al., 2020b).
In almost all instances, geopolymer concrete in both casts in-situ and
precast uses can be designed and manufactured to comply with the
specifications and performance requirements of the relevant Australian
Standards. This is a significant step towards the increased use of geopolymer
concretes in Australia. It is important now with many more sustainable and
low-carbon products becoming available that the Australian Standards be
updated to include more performance-based criteria and less prescriptive
criteria as this can become dated, restrictive, and irrelevant. In many cases, the
Australian Standards that cover the use and design of concrete products and
structures need only minor changes in materials sections to allow for the use
of geopolymer products as the standards are already mainly performance-
based.
3.6.3. The Experience and Expertise Issues

The forces that drive the adoption and use of new products in the construction
industry are many and varied. It could be the client demanding the use of a
groundbreaking product, the contractor trying to save time or reduce costs, the
community pushing for sustainability and efficiency, or a statutory authority
imposing new regulations and standards. Whatever the reason there will
always be resistance from other groups wishing to maintain the status quo. In
the construction industry, the risks and cost of mistakes can be extremely high
with peoples’ lives at risk, both through the construction process and the use
of the building. Therefore, introducing a new product such as a new type of
concrete carries with it a large amount of risk.
Many contractors, construction managers, and building designers will be
hesitant to implement geopolymer concrete regardless of how good the
product research has been. Also, for the contractor, there will be new methods
of designing, placement, working, finishing, and curing the concrete that needs
to be learned and understood properly before it can be used (Brandon and Lu,
2009; Hossain et al., 2016).
4. The Applicability of Geopolymer Concrete for

the Australian Construction Industry: Final Thoughts
Through the investigation of areas such as the history of geopolymer concrete,

the advantages and disadvantages of its use, and the barriers to its successful
implementation in the Australian market, the chapter aimed to explore the
future of geopolymer concrete in the Australian construction industry. In
addition, the goals of the chapter were to provide the construction industry
with the potential to gain valuable insight into the benefits of geopolymer
concrete as an alternative to other materials, by informing future business
decisions and encouraging further research into this topic by academia and
industry partners.
The research process commenced with the observation that although
concrete is the most used manufactured construction material in the world,
there is a need for a cheaper and more environmentally sustainable alternative.
The subsequent course of action involved assuming a research methodology
to direct the overall process, undertaking a literature review to explore relevant
areas of interest, carrying out a discussion to interpret and support the findings
that would influence the research question, and ultimately arriving at a
conclusive premise or theory – which were discussed in this chapter.
Moreover, as justified by its environmental benefits, mechanical
properties, and aspects of durability, it can be concluded that geopolymer
concrete is an alternative to Portland cement in the Australian construction
industry. Furthermore, the implication is that the use of geopolymer concrete
in the construction industry is steadily growing, to the extent that geopolymer
technology will no longer be considered a ‘special’ construction material, but
rather a vital element in the production of composite and sustainable
construction materials. With the strong advantages of geopolymer concrete
when compared to Portland concrete and its benefits to the construction
industry, it is not a question of ‘whether’ geopolymer concrete will be
successfully accepted in the Australian market in the future, but rather ‘when’
will its successful implementation occur. The key findings to support this
proposition include:
• From an environmental perspective, two of the major advantages of

geopolymer concrete over Portland concrete, are the lower rates of
CO2 emissions from the manufacturing process, and the ability to
utilize by-products and waste materials that are unusable in the
manufacture of Portland cement and consequently disposed of in the

landfill.
• Research shows that geopolymer concrete demonstrates equal to
better strength behavioral properties and durability attributes
compared to Portland cement.
• A better acceptance by the construction industry for using
geopolymer concrete is necessary. This includes the modification of
the statutory and regulatory requirements to consent to the
geopolymer concrete usage.
By developing and supporting the proposition that geopolymer concrete

does indeed have the potential to become a common alternative to Portland
concrete in Australia. Furthermore, it is believed that the research aims have
been achieved, through a methodology process that guided the research in both
a purposeful and systematic manner.
Conclusion
Through the undertaking of this chapter, the key recommendation that has
been identified for the benefit of the construction industry is to facilitate a
strong Australian geopolymer industry, it is necessary to gain greater
acceptance of the technology from a variety of stakeholders. This will involve
engaging parties including cement manufacturers, regulatory agencies,
construction engineers and architects, construction companies, and clients. By
engaging in a more collaborative approach between academia and industry, it
is essential to address the challenge of reducing energy and raw material
consumption, while at the same time complying with quality, technical and
cost constraints, in the context of a market experiencing a large demand for
concrete as a construction material.
Although the concrete industry is actively redeveloping its processes and
improving its environmental performance, in addition to further industry
education, research and development by academia and industry partners will
be required to investigate the inclusion of natural materials, and alternative
resources as construction materials that will be both durable and affordable for
buildings and infrastructure.
The study of geopolymer concrete for the Australian construction industry

poses questions, such as:
• Will the implementation of this material assist in reducing sector-

wide emissions, and deliver a quality and practical construction
alternative?
• Will the introduction of a carbon-taxation scheme in Australia,
encourage the uptake of new and alternative technologies in the
construction industry?
These questions, among others, are unanswerable at the time of writing,

but with the support of studies (such as the ones carried in this chapter),
significant contributions can be made to the research and industry debate, with
the vision of progressing the construction industry in the direction of a lower
emissions future. Nonetheless, further research by academia and industry
partners on geopolymer concrete within the construction industry may
potentially be directed towards issues such as:
• Case studies involving the implementation of geopolymer concrete in

Australia, to quantify the commercial, technical, and environmental
value of the technology over several years and in the use of various
applications.
• The regulatory issues and technical challenges that must be
confronted before geopolymer concrete can be successfully
implemented into the Australian market.
Finally, as this chapter discussed, the Australian construction industry is

generally skeptical about using new materials, leading to some opposition. The
above recommendations can alleviate some of these indispositions.
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Chapter 6
A Novel Method of Improving the Gradation

of Multi-Recycled Aggregate Using
the Particle Packing Approach
Madhavi Latha Kasulanati*

and Rathish Kumar Pancharathi
Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Warangal, India
Abstract
The use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) in the construction
industry has gained significant attention due to its focus on sustainability
and reduction of waste, thereby contributing to the preservation of natural
resources. RCA is obtained from the demolition of old structures or from
rejected concrete that does not meet standards. At the site, the aggregate
can be obtained by crushing either conventional concrete or recycled
concrete, resulting in the generation of either first- or second-generation
RCA. Studies on the utilization of multi-recycled concrete aggregate are
essential to ensure maximum benefits.
In this study, natural aggregate was fully replaced with recycled
aggregate. The concrete was crushed using a jaw crusher to produce first-
generation RCA (RCA 1), and the crushing of this RCA produced
second-generation RCA (RCA 2). To improve the properties of the multi-
recycled aggregate, various surface treatments were employed, such as
attrition, mineral admixture treatment, pre-wetting, and ultrasonic
treatment. The study considered 20 attrition time periods to improve the
surface properties and gradation of the aggregate. It was found that the
optimum gradation of RCA 1 was obtained after an attrition period of 20
minutes.
*
Corresponding Author’s Email: madhavi@student.nitw.ac.in.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
192 Madhavi Latha Kasulanati and Rathish Kumar Pancharathi
The gradation of the multi-recycled aggregate was improved through

the use of particle packing models (PPM) such as the Modified Toufar
Model (MTM), J.D. Dewar Model (JDD), and Compressible Packing
Model (CPM) for proportioning the aggregate. The gradation of natural
coarse and fine aggregate was improved using PPM compared to the IS
383:2016 guidelines. However, the Indian standard code of practice, IS
383:2016, does not provide sufficient guidelines for the proportioning of
RCA.
Thus, this study proposes the use of particle packing approach to
improve the gradation of multi-recycled concrete aggregate and increase
the packing density, thus reducing the void ratio and strengthening the
aggregate skeleton, which takes up the majority of the concrete’s volume.
The Compressible Packing Model was found to provide the minimum
variation between theoretical and experimental packing densities and was
considered the optimum method for the gradation of multi-recycled
concrete aggregate.
Keywords: multi-recycled aggregate, particle packing models, packing

density, surface treatment, attrition, aggregate gradation
1. Introduction
The need to conserve non-renewable energy sources, decrease waste disposal

and improve material sustainability has made it imperative to use recycled
materials in construction. The Ministry of Environment and Forest has made
it mandatory to use at least 20% recycled materials in construction (CPCB,
2015). However, these materials must be tested for their physical properties to
determine their quality and usability. The Central Pollution Control Board
estimates that the construction industry generates 10-12 million tons of waste
annually, with a large portion being recycled concrete (CPCB, 2017). The
Indian Standard Code IS 383:2016 states that natural aggregate can be
replaced by 25% in plain concrete, 20% in reinforced concrete with 25 MPa
strength, and 100% in lean concrete with strength less than 15 MPa (IS383,
2016).
Recycled aggregate is classified into three categories based on its origin
from masonry rubble, concrete rubble, or a blend of natural and recycled
aggregate (RILEM TC 121-DRG, 1994). The German standard DIN 4226-100
allows replacement of natural coarse aggregate by 35% and 25% in concrete
with strength class C25/30 and C30/37, respectively (DIN, 2002). Hong Kong
Technical Circular No.12/2002 allows natural coarse aggregate to be replaced
A Novel Method of Improving the Gradation … 193
by 20% recycled concrete aggregate for a strength class of 35 MPa and 100%
for non-structural concrete with 20 MPa strength (Hong Kong, 2002). British
standard BS 8500:2 allows up to 20% of natural aggregate to be replaced with
recycled aggregate for strength class C25-C50 (BS, 2002). However, there are
no guidelines for the proportioning of recycled concrete aggregate according
to size classes for recycled concrete production.
Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is the aggregate obtained by
crushing conventional concrete during the demolition of structures at the end
of their service life, or from rejected concrete of inferior quality. The natural
aggregate can be partially or completely replaced with RCA, depending on
availability and requirements (Khatib, 2005). The source of the aggregate for
new concrete can be from the end of life concrete or from recycled concrete
(Thomas, 2020). The type of recycled aggregate that can be used at a site can
be of first, second, or third generation, depending on the parent concrete
(Abreu et al., 2018). This variability in RCA and the need to use it multiple
times have led to the study and utilization of Multi-Recycled Aggregate in
construction. Concrete manufactured using RCA will have varying properties,
depending on the parent concrete from which the aggregate was recycled, and
the percentage of aggregate replacement (Huda et al., 2014). RCA is inferior
to natural aggregate in terms of surface properties and strength. Multi-
Recycled Aggregate will have further reduction in surface properties due to
increased adhered mortar content, increased water absorption, decreased bulk
density and specific gravity with each additional generation of recycling (Zhu
et al., 2012). The properties of MRA and Multi-Recycled Concrete also
ultimately depend on the strength and properties of the parent concrete from
which the aggregate is sourced (Abed et al., 2018).
Many previous studies have suggested methods for improving the
properties of concrete, such as surface coating of aggregate using mineral
admixtures and nanomaterials (Zhang et al., 2016), subjecting the aggregate
to a saturated surface dry condition, pre-soaking (Tam et al., 2007), abrasion
of the aggregate to remove adhered mortar, treatment of aggregate with CO2,
and ultra-sonic cleaning methods (Ghosh et al., 2001). Additionally, CO2
treatment (Xuan et al., 2016) and the generation of recycled aggregate from
high-strength parent concrete have been proposed. However, multi-recycled
concrete manufactured from recycled aggregate is found to have inferior
properties in both its fresh and hardened state due to adhered mortar on the
aggregate surface (Zhu et al., 2012). To overcome the decrease in performance
caused by inferior properties of recycled aggregate (Abed et al., 2018), the
aggregate skeleton within the concrete can be strengthened.
The particle packing methodology is based on equations developed by

various authors (Feret et al., 1892, Fuller et al., 1907, Andresen et al., 1930)
for determining the maximum packing degree of the aggregate skeleton. The
Modified Toufar Method (MTM), J.D. Dewar method (JDD), and
Compressible Packing Model (CPM) are discrete packing models that
consider the bulk density, specific gravity, size ratio of the aggregate, and
empirical relations to determine the maximum packing density and minimum
void ratio of the aggregate (Jones et al., 2002). The theoretical packing density
obtained from these three models is compared with the experimental packing
density, and the variation in results is analysed. The Compressible Packing
Model considers the wall effect, loosening effect, and compaction effect when
determining the packing density, which results in a smaller variation compared
to the MTM and JDD methods. As a result, the CPM method is used to
proportion the aggregate in recycled concrete manufacturing. The packing
density of the aggregate obtained using the CPM model is used to determine
the mix proportions of recycled concrete using the particle packing method
(Campos et al., 2020).
The present study also determines the optimum gradation of coarse
recycled aggregate that has been subjected to attrition for different time spans.
The maximum packing density and particle size distribution of natural, first,
and second-generation recycled aggregate are determined and compared. The
particle packing distribution curves of recycled coarse aggregate subjected to
attrition for various time spans are analysed to determine the optimum time
span.
2. Methodology
The physical properties of natural aggregate are determined and the
conventional concrete is cast according to IS 10262 (IS 10262: 2019)
stipulations. The first generation recycled concrete aggregate (RCA1) is then
obtained in the laboratory-based test samples by crushing the conventional
concrete using the jaw crusher. The physical properties of RCA1 are then
determined and the optimum packing density is determined similar to the
conventional concrete. The first generation recycled concrete (RC1) is then
cast using IS and particle packing methods. The second generation recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA2) and recycled concrete (RC2) are then obtained
similar to RCA1 and RC1.
The physical properties of Natural, first and second-generation recycled
aggregate are as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical properties of natural aggregate, first and second generation recycled concrete aggregate
NA RCA 1 RCA 2
Sieve size Bulk Water Bulk Water Bulk
Specific Specific Specific Water absorption
(mm) density absorption density absorption density
gravity gravity gravity (%)
(g/cc) (%) (g/cc) (%) (g/cc)
16-12.5 2.87 1395.00 0.83 2.52 1190.00 2.86 2.36 1055.44 6.08
12.5-10 2.92 1392.00 1.02 2.50 1206.00 3.21 2.33 1062.18 6.98
10-4.75 2.87 1360.00 1.06 2.30 1168.00 4.38 2.37 1184.16 9.59
4.75-2.36 2.45 1490.00 0.56 2.62 1143.00 1.53 2.38 1200.00 4.30
2.36-1.18 2.39 1516.00 0.63 2.39 1155.00 1.84 2.31 1114.85 4.65
1.18-0.6 2.41 1492.00 0.68 2.54 1147.00 1.88 2.35 1038.37 4.86
0.6-0.15 2.47 1454.00 0.70 2.55 1142.00 2.04 2.29 1209.90 5.02
Note: NA-Natural Aggregate; RCA1 - First generation Recycled Aggregate; RCA2 – Second generation Recycled Aggregate.
From Table 1, it can be observed that the physical properties of recycled

aggregate are found to deteriorate with increase in the generation of recycling.
The decrease in bulk density, specific gravity and the increase in the water
absorption with increase in generation of recycling is due to the increase in the
percentage of adhered mortar on the surface of the aggregate. These physical
properties of the aggregate are then used to determine the optimum packing
density using particle packing models. A brief idea about the empirical
relations used to determine the packing density using MTM, JDD and CPM
methods are detailed in the subsequent sections.
2.1. Modified Toufar Model
In this method, the bulk density and specific gravity of the aggregate are
used to determine the individual packing density of the aggregate. Then two
of the size fractions of the aggregate are considered each time and the binary
packing density of the aggregate is determined (Mangulkar et.al., 2013).
Packing density is determined by considering the coarse size to fine size. Each
time, the inclusion of finer aggregate size leads to an improvement in the
packing density of the aggregate. The maximum packing density of the
aggregate after all the size classes considered are determined using Equation
1 and is the optimum packing density, where the void ratio of the aggregate
will be the minimum.
1
ɸ= y1 𝑦2 1 (1)
[ + −𝑦2 ( −1)𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑠 ]
ɸ1 ɸ2 ɸ2
where, y1 and y2 are the percentage of volume fractions of finer size fraction
and coarser size fraction of the aggregate respectively.
ɸ1 and ɸ2 are the individual packing densities of the finer size fraction
and coarser size fraction of the aggregate.
𝐾𝑑 is the factor considering the diameter ratio and 𝐾𝑠 is the statistical
factor.
The proportions corresponding to this optimum packing density are used
in the determination of particle size distribution curves.
2.2. J.D. Dewar Model
This method considers the minimum void ratio of the aggregate for the various
size fractions and the optimum proportions are determined. The finer fraction
of aggregate is considered at first which is then blended with the next coarser
fraction to determine the minimum void ratio (Dewar, 1997). The same
procedure is repeated till the final size fraction of aggregate. The addition of a
finer fraction of aggregate each time resulted in a decrease in the void ratio of
the aggregate skeleton. The minimum void ratio of final size fraction of
aggregate is determined using Equation 2.
(1+𝑈 )×𝑈"
𝑈1" = (1+𝑈" )−(1+𝑍)
1 0
3 −1 (2)
0
where, 𝑈1" and 𝑈0" are the void ratios of finer and coarser size fraction of the
aggregate respectively. Z is the size ratio function.
2.3. Compressible Packing Model
This model is an extension of linear packing model also considers the wall
effect, loosening effect and the compaction effect to determine the packing
density. This is a multi-component model considering the blending of three or
more group of particles and uses the trial-and-error procedure to determine the
aggregate proportions. This method yields the packing densities with less
variation with respect to the experimental values of packing densities. The
virtual packing density of the aggregate is determined using Equation 3.
𝛽𝑖
𝛾𝑖 = 𝛽𝑖
(3)
1
1−∑𝑖−1 𝑛
𝑗=1[1−𝛽𝑖 +𝑏𝑖𝑗 𝛽𝑖 (1−𝛽 )]𝑦𝑗 −∑𝑗=𝑖+1[1−𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝛽 ]𝑦𝑗
𝑗 𝑗
where 𝑦𝑗 is the percentage of aggregate fraction, 𝛽𝑖 is the virtual packing

density of the individual size fraction.
𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are the interaction coefficients of loosening and wall effects
respectively.
The real packing density of the aggregate is calculated from the virtual
packing density using a compaction factor. Approximately 15 trials are
conducted each time to determine the optimal aggregate proportions, resulting
in the maximum packing density of the aggregate. The compressible packing

model is the flexible and accurate model as compared to MTM and JDD
models, as the proportions of the aggregate can be varied accordingly for the
same packing density of the aggregate and hence the mix proportions of
concrete are considered according to aggregate proportions and packing
density from the CPM model (Mohammed et.al., 2012). The size fraction
available at the site is also taken in to consideration and the proportions of the
aggregate can be altered accordingly by considering the dominant size fraction
of aggregate.
The proportions of the aggregate obtained using MTM, JDD and CPM
models are used for the determination of particle size distribution curves of
NA, RCA1 and RCA2 (Pradhan et.al., 2017). These are then compared with
the particle size distribution curves determined experimentally and according
to IS 383 for coarse and fine aggregate (IS 383, 2016).
The variation of aggregate properties after being subjected to attrition is
studied by considering a high strength parent concrete from which first
generation recycled coarse aggregate (RCA1) is obtained. The aggregate is
then subjected to attrition for different time spans and the physical properties
of the aggregate are determined for each of the attrition periods. The particle
size distribution curves are determined for about 10 different time spans of 2,
4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 minutes. The optimum time period for which
the aggregate is subjected to attrition can be determined by comparing the
curves. However, the attrition time period may vary based on the physical
properties of the aggregate, which are dependent on the source concrete from
which the recycled aggregate is obtained. The present study determines the
effect of the removal of adhered mortar content form the surface of recycled
concrete aggregate on the gradation of aggregate and surface properties of
recycled aggregate (De Juan et.al., 2009).
3. Results and Discussion
The optimum aggregate proportions determined using MTM, JDD and CPM
methods for NA, RCA 1 and RCA 2 are shown in Table 2. These proportions
of the aggregate are for the maximum packing density and minimum void ratio
of the aggregate.
Table 2. Aggregate proportions, maximum packing density and minimum void ratio of NA, RCA 1 and RCA 2
Sieve size NAC RCA 1 RCA 2

(mm) MTM JDD CPM MTM JDD CPM MTM JDD CPM
16-12.5 0.09 0.26 0.18 0.12 0.27 0.21 0.06 0.25 0.05
12.5-10 0.05 0.18 0.17 0.12 0.19 0.16 0.06 0.18 0.24
10-4.75 0.07 0.13 0.14 0.08 0.3 0.04 0.12 0.15 0.1
4.75-2.36 0.21 0.24 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.16 0.19 0.21 0.14
2.36-1.18 0.22 0.1 0.12 0.19 0.06 0.17 0.18 0.09 0.2
1.18-0.6 0.21 0.04 0.13 0.16 0.04 0.14 0.15 0.04 0.04
0.6-0.15 0.15 0.05 0.13 0.2 0.03 0.13 0.24 0.07 0.23
φmax 0.77 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.74 0.73
Umin 0.30 0.27 0.32 0.35 0.33 0.37 0.39 0.33 0.37
φmax- Maximum Packing density; Umin- Minimum void ratio.
From the table, it can be observed that the theoretical packing density of
the Natural, first- and second-generation recycled aggregate is highest for JD
Dewar packing model. Also, the Void ratio of the aggregate is minimum using
J D Dewar method. The packing density of the aggregate, determined using
these three methods, is validated experimentally. The packing model with the
least deviation from the experimental value is considered the most accurate.
The theoretical and experimental packing densities of NA, RCA 1 and RCA 2
are as shown in the following table.
From the table it can be observed that the maximum packing density of
the aggregate is found to decrease with increase in the generation of recycling.
This can be attributed to the deterioration of the aggregate’s physical
properties due to an increased percentage of adhered mortar with each
recycling generation. The aggregate also becomes flakier as the number of
recycling generations increases during the crushing process in the jaw crusher,
leading to an increase in the void ratio and a decrease in the packing density.
It can also be observed that the percentage variation of experimental and
theoretical packing density is maximum using MTM method and minimum
using compressible packing model (CPM) for natural, first-generation (RCA
1) and second-generation recycled aggregate (RCA 2). This is because the
model considers the correction factors for the wall effect, loosening effect, and
compaction effect, resulting in a more accurate outcome.
The Compressible Packing Model can therefore be preferred for the
gradation of aggregate over the other methods, as, the aggregate proportions
can be varied according to the required packing density from several trials,
considering different dominant fraction of aggregate based on the sizes of the
aggregate available at the site.
The proportions of natural, first and second-generation recycled aggregate
determined using the particle packing models are used for developing particle
size distribution curves and are compared with the gradation curves obtained
using the proportions according to IS 383:2016. The particle size distribution
curves are shown in Figure 1. The particle size distribution of natural fine and
coarse aggregate, obtained through the use of MTM, JDD, and CPM methods,
has been compared to the experimental gradation curve obtained through sieve
analysis of the aggregate and the gradation curve specified in IS 383:2016.
The results are displayed in Figure 1.
Table 3. Theoretical and experimental maximum packing density of NA, RCA 1 and RCA 2
NA RCA 1 RCA 2
Packing Density
MTM JDD CPM MTM JDD CPM MTM JDD CPM
MPD
0.77 0.79 0.76 0.74 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.74 0.71
(Theoretical)
MPD
0.70 0.73 0.73 0.66 0.69 0.70 0.62 0.68 0.66
(Experimental)
Percentage
9.09 7.59 3.95 10.81 8.00 4.11 13.89 9.33 7.04
variation
*
MPD- Maximum Packing Density.
Figure 1. Gradation curves for natural (a) Fine and (b) Coarse aggregate.
From Figure 1 (a), it can be observed that all the gradation curves nearly
follow the same trend with the proportioning of natural aggregate, but the
MTM method of gradation is nearer to the Indian standard gradation curve
compared to JDD and CPM methods and the JDD method of gradation is
nearer to the experimental gradation curve. Also, the MTM, JDD and
experimental method of proportioning showed well graded aggregate
compared to IS and CPM gradation curves. However, the maximum packing
density using JDD method is higher than the experimental value indicating
that this method is less accurate as compared to the other two methods. From
Figure 1 (b), it can be observed that all the gradation curves are showing well
graded aggregate. The experimental gradation curve shows a smaller deviation
compared to the other gradation curves. However, the proportions of coarse
aggregate can be selected based on the size availability and the desired
workability of concrete at the construction site. Similarly, the particle size
distribution curves are determined for first generation recycled concrete
aggregate (RCA 1) and are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Gradation curves for first generation recycled (a) Fine

and (b) Coarse aggregate.
From Figure 2 (a), it can be observed that the particle size distribution
curves for recycled fine aggregate of first generation developed nearly well
graded aggregate from the proportions obtained using MTM, JDD and CPM
methods and experimentally. The Indian standard code IS 383:2016 do not
specify the aggregate proportions for reycled concrete aggregate. It can be
observed that the proportions of aggregate using JDD method are nearer to the
proportions obtained experimentally. However, the J D Dewar packing model
over estimates the packing density of the aggregate as there are no correction
factors considered in this method. As seen in Figure 2 (b), the particle size
distribution of recycled coarse aggregate exhibits a nearly gap-graded
distribution, according to both the particle packing models and experimental
results. This is likely due to the variations in the shape of recycled aggregate,
as previously mentioned, caused by the crushing process. Nevertheless, all the
gradation curves show a similar trend for recycled aggregate. The particle size
distribution curves for second generation recycled concrete aggregate (RCA
2) are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Gradation curves for second generation recycled (a) Fine

and (b) Coarse aggregate.
From Figure 3 (a), it can be observed that the particle size distribution of
second generation recycled concrete coarse aggregate showed similar trend as
first-generation recycled aggregate. From Figure 3 (b), it can be observed that
CPM and JDD methods showed nearly gap gradation of particle size
distribution and the MTM method showed nearly well graded curve of
aggregate and also the similar trend with respect to the experimental gradation
curve. This is attributed to the greater proportion of fine aggregate considered
in MTM method compared to JDD and CPM models.
The physical properties of first generation recycled concrete aggregate
from high strength parent concrete at the end of each attrition period are
determined. Similarly, the weight loss and volume loss of the recycled
aggregate at the end of each attrition period is determined to estimate the
percentage of adhered mortar content on aggregate surface. The results are
presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Physical properties of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for different attrition periods
RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA RCA
Property NA RCA (20)
(0) (2) (4) (6) (8) (10) (12) (14) (16) (18)
Bulk density
1592 1522 1534 1549 1556 1565 1573 1584 1589 1591 1592 1592
(g/cc)
Specific gravity 2.65 2.59 2.62 2.63 2.62 2.63 2.62 2.63 2.62 2.63 2.62 2.62
Water absorption (%) 0.50 5.22 3.27 2.04 1.63 1.57 1.50 1.42 1.33 1.26 0.95 0.83
% weight loss after
removal of adhered - - 12.52 13.49 15.63 17.82 17.90 17.97 18.02 18.10 18.12 18.14
mortar
Volume loss after
removal of adhered - - 875 892 963 1087 1110 1115 1132 1145 1162 1164
mortar (cc)
Note: NA - Natural Aggregate; RCA - Recycled Concrete Aggregate for different attrition periods.
From the table, it can be observed that the physical properties are
deteriorated for RCA and are found to improve after being subjected to
attrition and with the optimum attrition period of 20 minutes, the bulk density
and specific gravity of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA (20)) are similar to
that of the Natural aggregate. Also, the water absorption of the aggregate is
maximum for RCA without being subjected to attrition and the water
absorption is found to decrease with the increase in the attrition periods.
At the optimum attrition period of 20 minutes, the water absorption value
is nearer to that of the natural aggregate. This is attributed to the decrease in
the adhered mortar on the aggregate surface which is responsible for higher
water absorption of aggregate. Also, the percentage weight loss due to the
removal of adhered mortar content is found to increase with the increase of
the attrition period and a maximum weight loss of 18.14% is observed for the
optimum attrition period of 20 minutes. Similarly, the volume loss is also
found to be maximum for 20 minutes period of attrition.
The particle size distribution curves are developed for the first generation
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA 1) for different time spans of attrition to
remove the adhered mortar content. In the present study, ten different time
spans of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 minutes of attrition are considered
and the sieve analysis is conducted after the process of attrition. The particle
size distribution of coarse recycled aggregate of first generation subjected to
lower attrition periods of 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 minutes compared to recycled
aggregate without being subjected to attrition (0 minutes) is shown in Figure
4.
As shown in Figure 4, it can be seen that with an increase in the attrition
period of the recycled aggregate, the particle size distribution of the aggregate
is transformed from a gap-graded to a uniformly graded aggregate with each
increase in attrition time period, compared to recycled aggregate that was not
subjected to attrition. This is attributed to the rounding of the aggregate during
the attrition process and removal of adhered mortar on the aggregate surface,
reducing the surface roughness contributing to the optimum gradation of
aggregate.
The gradation curves for higher values of attrition periods of 12, 14, 16,
18 and 20 minutes compared to aggregate not subjected to attrition (0 minutes)
are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 4. Gradation curves of first generation recycled coarse aggregate for different
attrition periods.
From Figure 5, it can be observed that there is a clear improvement in the

gradation of aggregate for higher attrition periods compared to aggregate
without being subjected to attrition (0 minutes). The optimum aggregate
gradation is obtained for the maximum attrition period of 20 minutes yielding
well graded aggregate. Attrition of recycled aggregate not only improves the
gradation of aggregate, but also improves the surface texture of aggregate
thereby, reducing the higher water absorption and porosity of the recycled and
multi-recycled aggregate by partial removal of adhered mortar content.
Figure 5. Gradation curves of first generation recycled coarse aggregate for different
attrition periods.
Conclusion
Recycling concrete leads to a decline in the physical properties of aggregate,

which further deteriorates with each subsequent recycling cycle due to the
accumulation of mortar on the surface of the aggregate. To mitigate this
decline in aggregate quality, efforts are underway to enhance the aggregate
structure within concrete through the use of particle packing models for
aggregate grading, such as the MTM, JDD, and CPM models, for various
recycling generations.
According to the J.D. Dewar packing model, the theoretical packing
density of aggregate was found to be 0.79, 0.75, and 0.74 for natural, first-
generation (RCA 1), and second-generation (RCA 2) recycled concrete
aggregate, respectively. These values are the highest among the various
packing models. The packing density of aggregate decreased by 5.06% and
6.33% for the first-generation (RCA 1) and second-generation (RCA 2)
recycled concrete aggregate, respectively, compared to the natural aggregate
due to the flakiness of the aggregate caused by the crushing process.
The Modified Toufar method of particle packing showed the greatest
variation in theoretical and experimental packing densities, with values of
9.09%, 10.81%, and 13.89% for the natural, first-generation, and second-
generation recycled concrete aggregate, respectively. In contrast, the
Compressible Packing Model showed the least variation between theoretical
and experimental packing densities, with values of 3.95%, 4.11%, and 7.04%
for the natural, first-generation, and second-generation recycled concrete
aggregate, respectively. This difference can be attributed to the accuracy of
the method, which considers correction factors for the wall effect, loosening
effect, and compaction effect.
The fine and coarse aggregate particle size distribution curves obtained
for natural, first, and second-generation recycled concrete aggregate using the
MTM, JDD, and CPM models showed a marked improvement in aggregate
gradation compared to the particle size distribution curves specified by Indian
Standards. The physical properties of recycled aggregate improved through
attrition, and water absorption was found to decrease by approximately 84.1%
for recycled concrete aggregate subjected to 20 minutes of attrition (RCA
(20)), compared to those without attrition (RCA (0)). The maximum weight
loss of 18.14% was observed for recycled concrete aggregate subjected to 20
minutes of attrition (RCA (20)).
The gradation of recycled concrete aggregate improved with attrition, as
it removed the adhered mortar content. The gradation of recycled aggregate
was found to change from gap-graded to well-graded with increasing attrition
periods. A clear improvement in aggregate gradation was observed for higher
attrition periods of 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 minutes, with the optimum gradation
being achieved after 20 minutes of attrition.
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Chapter 7
Bamboo Fibre Composites:

Potential and Challenges
Yu Xuan Liew1
Sheh Ching Khong1
Jia Jun Yee1
Siew Choo Chin2,
and Kong Fah Tee3,4,†
1 Faculty of Civil Engineering Technology,
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pahang, Malaysia
2 Centre for Research in Advanced Fluid and Processes (Fluid Centre),
Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia

3 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

4 Interdisciplinary Research Center for Construction and Building Materials,
Abstract
This chapter discusses the possible use of bamboo fibre composites in

structural applications, highlighting how the performance of the
composite can be modified by the bamboo species, fibre extraction
process, and composite fabrication method. Bamboo fibre composites are
affected by parameters such as species, age, and extraction processes.
Apart from that, the performance of bamboo fibre composites is
influenced by the matrix, which consists of thermosetting and
thermoplastic resins.

Corresponding Author’s Email: scchin@ump.edu.my.
†
Corresponding Author’s Email: tee.fah@kfupm.edu.sa.

ISBN: 979-8-88697-831-5
214 Yu Xuan Liew, Sheh Ching Khong, Jia Jun Yee et al.
Additionally, this chapter discusses various processes for fabricating

bamboo fibre composites. Furthermore, the matrix-to-fibre ratio in terms
of fibre volume fraction is examined. Following that, the mechanical
properties of bamboo fibre composites such as tensile strength,
compressive strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity are
shown and discussed. The application of bamboo fibre composites is
discussed in further detail, including the reinforcement of structural
components and a comparison to other natural fibre composites. The final
section of this study discusses the future trends and issues associated with
bamboo fibre composites.
Keywords: bamboo fibre composites, potential, challenges, mechanical

properties
1. Introduction
1.1. History of Bamboo Applications as a Building Material
Concrete has been widely used as a building material around the world.
Alternative materials have been explored for their potential usage as
construction materials in recent years, as awareness of sustainable building
materials has grown. Bamboo is one of these environmentally friendly
building materials. Bamboo has been used in building construction,
particularly in residential construction, since ancient times. Bamboo has been
used extensively in ancient times to construct structures and numerous forms
of furniture in countries throughout Africa, Asia, America, and Oceania, most
notably China. All of these countries are located in tropical, subtropical, or
mild climate zones. China, in particular, has a long history of employing
bamboo as a building material. In Qian County, a modest suspension bridge
was constructed entirely of bamboo, and the bridge has writings dating back
to 960 AD as historical evidence of its age. In today's world, there are a few
notable buildings that use bamboo as the primary structural or ornamental
material. Among these structures are the Yangzhou Bamboo Courtyard
Treehouse designed by HWCD Associates in China, the Kontum Indochine
Café in Vietnam designed by Vo Trong Nghia Architects, and the Bamboo
Theatre in Hong Kong designed by William Lim.
Bamboo Fibre Composites 215
1.2. Advantages of Bamboo as a Building Material
Bamboo was chosen as a sustainable building material because of its rapid

growth rate. Bamboo is one of the fastest-growing renewable building
materials, expanding at a pace of approximately 7.5 cm to 40 cm per day (Raj
and Agarwal, 2014). There is also a global record for the fastest growth rate
in Japan, where it was recorded at 1.2 million each day (Sharma et al., 2014).
Additionally, bamboo can reach full growth in four to five years and can
swiftly revert to its previous form following interval harvesting (Shu et al.,
2020). This also implies that it is readily available and environmentally
beneficial, as a bamboo jungle can be harvested in a fraction of the time it
takes other species of timber to reach their maximum growth rate (Shu et al.,
2020). As a result, bamboo requires less time and energy to grow than other
timbers.
Additionally, bamboo can be utilized as stand-alone material. This
indicates that bamboo may be a viable substitute for steel, concrete, and
masonry (Raj and Agrawal, 2014; Kaur, 2018). Steel's supply is limited,
despite its widespread use in other sectors, which implies that its price and
supplementation are inconsistent. In the event of a steel supplement shortage
or an increase in steel demand, the project's cost will increase. Concrete is
manufactured using a variety of procedures and ingredients; as a result, the
cost of concrete varies over time. The primary component of concrete is
aggregate, which comprises around 80% of the total weight of a standard
concrete mix (Babor et al., 2009). Nature provides aggregates. This means that
each country's adequate natural aggregate supply is limited, and its
supplements are diminishing as time passes, while future demand growth may
pose a concern. Additionally, the concrete manufacturing process is regarded
to be energy-intensive. This is mostly due to the cement manufacturing
process, which is one of the most energy-intensive in the building industry and
creates a significant quantity of carbon dioxide (Babor et al., 2009).
Furthermore, when compared to reinforced concrete, architects and
engineers can use bamboo as a building material to construct structures at a
lower cost. Bamboo is also a simple material to deal with when constructing a
sufficient-scale structure. Additionally, because bamboo's behavior is elastic
by nature, it may be advantageous in areas with a high danger of earthquakes
(Kaur, 2018). Bamboo has the property of being easily bent and forming the
appropriate shape that corresponds to the architect's plan. Finally, bamboo is
a locally available material in select places in Asia, the Americas, and Africa
where the climate is conducive to bamboo cultivation (Huang, 2019). Thus,

the bamboo resource in this region is sufficient to suit local needs.
Bamboo was formerly classified as a member of the family Poaceae's
Bambusoideae and was later separated into two distinct categories: herbaceous
and woody bamboo (Huang, 2019). Additionally, it is discovered that there
are approximately 1575 species of bamboo globally, with approximately 1200
species being woody. Only about 20 to 38 kinds of bamboo, however, are
appropriate for use as building materials. Among the strongest and most
widely used bamboo species are the Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis),
which is native to China, Japan, and Taiwan; the Guadua Bamboo (Guadua
angustifolia Kunth), which is the largest neotropical bamboo; and the Giant
bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper), which is native to Southeast Asia
(Manandhar et al., 2019).
1.3. Applications of Bamboo in the Modern Era
Bamboo is used as a building material in a variety of ways in the current day,

including as a foundation, structure, floor, wall, decoration, furniture, and roof
system. Bamboo's application as a foundation is limited due to the bamboo's
inherent decomposition rate when it comes into contact with the damp ground,
which results in failure, particularly when used as a foundation. However, with
proper preventative measures, bamboo can still be used as a foundation
material. Bamboo is utilized in foundation construction in a variety of
methods, including direct contact with the ground, placement of bamboo on
the footing or rock, integration of bamboo into concrete footings, combining
bamboo and concrete columns, and bamboo piles.
Due to bamboo's depreciation resistance and resilience, it can be adjusted
and applied to the floor system. Connecting little bamboo culms, dividing
bamboo, flattening bamboo in the form of mats, mixing bamboo fibre with
plastics, and creating a bamboo composite were all steps in the process. Apart
from that, bamboo was a popular material for constructing walls and
partitions. It will be fixed to a structural framework or frame and transformed
into a wall. For wind, rain, and privacy protection, this sort of wall or partition
requires infill material in the frame. Additionally, the infill material can be
designed to meet structural requirements, acting as bracing and providing the
structure with exterior horizontal resistance. Additionally, bamboo can be
used to construct a door or window by combining a bamboo frame with
bamboo mat shutters.
Because of bamboo's low cost and versatility, countries such as China,

Hong Kong, and Nigeria use it to build scaffolding and give temporary access.
Bamboo also has a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes it an ideal
material for roof trusses and other roof components such as purlins, rafters,
and so on (Auwalu and Dickson, 2019).
Nurdiah (2016) discussed the use of bamboo as a building material in the
creation of organic-shaped structures. Bamboo is a flexible and low-
maintenance building material. The bamboo can be curved or bent into the
required shape using heat bending and cold bending methods. After then, it
can be employed in active structure systems, semi-active structure systems,
and non-active structure systems. Green School, located in Bali, Indonesia, is
primarily constructed of bamboo. Other examples of bamboo-structured
buildings include OBI Great Hall, Bamboe Koening, and Dodoha Mosintuwu.
1.4. Introduction of Composite Material
Composite materials are defined as materials that are created by combining

two or more basic components in a complex process. The engineer will
consider the intended chemical or physical qualities of the composite while
selecting the base material. Individual elements remain distinct and distinct in
the final products, distinguishing composites from mixtures and solid
solutions (Hasan et al., 2019; Balogun et al., 2022). Nowadays, composite
materials are frequently used in engineering, particularly as a substitute for
metal. In comparison to metal, it is lighter, has a lower manufacturing cost,
and is more resistant to chemical and weather influences (Balaban and Tee,
2019; Hsissou et al., 2021). Composite materials can be categorized into
several groups based on the fundamental material's properties. In general,
composites are classified into three types: particle-reinforced, fibre-
reinforced, and structural composite. There are several branches within each
of these three basic categories, depending on the fabrication methods and
characteristics of the reinforcement (Samad et al., 2017; Toygar et al., 2019).
The majority of composite materials are made up of two primary
components. They are the reinforcement phase, most commonly referred to as
the discontinuous phase, whereas the matrix phase is the continuous phase
(Hasan et al., 2019). When constructing a polymer composite material,
reinforcements are solid and rigid fibres. It is advised that the matrix be liquid
to completely cover the fibre and allow the applied force to be applied in all
directions within the composite. Fibre is well-known for its light, stiff, and
strong characteristics, and it is categorized chemically into organic and

inorganic fibres. When a polymer composite material is exposed to a matrix,
two prevalent types of the matrix are thermoset and thermoplastic. When a
resin system undergoes a series of irreversible chemical reactions, a thermoset
matrix is formed. However, the curing process of thermoplastic polymer does
not include any chemical transformations (Yuhazri et al., 2020).
Natural fibre is an organic fibre that is frequently used to strengthen
composite materials. The usage of natural fibre in composites dates back to
ancient Egypt, when a combination of straw and clay was used to construct
walls. For decades, the combination of natural fibre and polymer matrix drew
both industrial and academic interest due to natural fibre's unique qualities and
ease of availability. Natural fibres such as flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, and sisal are
well-known. The primary challenge with natural fibre polymer composites is
the incompatibility between the hydrophilic natural fibre and the hydrophilic
thermoplastic matrix (Rohit and Dixit, 2016). The term "composite" could be
applied to bamboo fibre, with the resulting material being categorized as
natural fibre composite. By mixing bamboo fibre and matrix, it is possible to
combine the outstanding properties of bamboo fibre and matrix to develop a
viable green building material. As a result, the following chapters will
summarize the effect of various factors on the properties of bamboo fibre
composites and discuss the bamboo fibre composite's future trends and
problems.
1.5. Chapter Preface
Hence, this chapter looks into studying the application of bamboo fibre
composite materials in the construction industry, summarizes the effect of
various factors on the properties of bamboo fibre composites and discusses the
bamboo fibre composite's future trends and problems. Bamboo grows rapidly
and its fibre is extremely strong and durable. However, before being able to
be used as a composite material, proper bamboo fibre selection and processing
techniques may enable it to be used as a green building material. To be used
as a green building material, mechanical properties are of utmost importance.
The mechanical properties of bamboo fibre composites are affected by a
number of factors, including the type of bamboo, its age, the matrix in the
composite, the technique used to fabricate the composite, and the fibre volume
percentage. Under sub-section 2 of the chapter, the details of the
aforementioned elements will be discussed.
Mechanical properties can be defined as the relationship between the

material reaction or deformation of the material when subjected to load and
force (Lavakumar, 2017). Engineers must identify the material spectrum of
utility and establish an expected service life. Therefore, before application, the
mechanical properties of the composite material should be established and
characterized. This is especially true for every novel composite combination.
In sub-section 3, with examples, the bamboo composite will be discussed on
the tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength as well as modulus
of elasticity of the composite.
Other than using composite as structural elements, the composite might
also be utilized to strengthen the reinforced concrete members such as
columns, beams, or connection joints. Compared with steel, aluminum or
concrete, composites are lightweight, have corrosion resistance and have
superior mechanical qualities. Moreover, this strengthening technology has
cheaper installation costs and aesthetically acceptable repairs. Bamboo fibre
composites are known as eco-products in the building business due to their
behaviour where it has lightweight, high strength, and abundant supplies.
Besides that, bamboo has low moisture resistance which draws the
construction sector to research the application of bamboo as a concrete
reinforcement in building (Song et al., 2017). There are numerous
strengthening strategies in reinforced concrete beams according to the parts
that are sought for strengthening. This approach mainly improves the load-
carrying capacity of reinforced concrete beams whether by flexural or shear
strengthening (Siddika et al., 2019). Hence, numerous forms of fibre
composite might be created and executed by following the target-
strengthening approach.
There are two forms of fibre composite installation which are wet lay-up
and precured system. In the wet lay-up procedure, the reinforcements such as
synthesized fibre fabrics or natural fibre fabrics are wet with resin and later
adhere to the target structural members. This approach is suitable to strengthen
most of the structural parts since it is flexible and could be fitted to any shape
of the structure. While for the pre-cured system, the composites were produced
in the form of plates, bars or any shapes. The cured composites will be bonded
to the structural parts by utilizing glue. The near-surface mounting technique
is an upgrade to install the composite at the structural members and it enhances
the bond performance between the composite and structural members’ surface
(Pravin and Syed Shah, 2016). Thus, sub-section 4 will focus on the
application of the various types of natural fibre composite as an exterior
strengthening material.
2. Preparation of Bamboo Fibre Composites
2.1. Type of Bamboo
Bamboo is a member of the grass family Poaceae, more precisely the

subfamily Bambusiodeae. There are currently 1575 species of bamboo
classified into 115 genera (Ramakrishnan et al., 2020; Boban et al., 2022).
However, only about 20 to 38 bamboo species are suitable for use as
construction material. Due to the diversity of bamboo species, the anatomical
structures and physical characteristics of bamboo also vary. As a result, the
mechanical and chemical treatments must be applied differently according to
the bamboo species employed. As a result, each bamboo species has
drastically distinct mechanical properties (Xie et al., 2016). Numerous studies
have been conducted to determine the effect of bamboo species on the
mechanical properties of bamboo fibre to develop the highest-performing
bamboo fibre.
The impacts of manufacturing density and bamboo species on the
physical-mechanical properties of bamboo fibre bundle-reinforced composites
were investigated by Xie et al. (2016). The author discusses five bamboo
species, including Neosinocalamus affinis (NA), Dendrocalamus latiflorus
(DL), Phyllostachys heterocycla (PE), Dendrocalamus farinosus (DF), and
Bambusa pervariabilis McClure X Dendrocalamopsis daii (BD). For each of
the five species, samples are obtained from four-year-old bamboo. Bamboo
fibres are taken from bamboo culms for all samples. The composite matrix is
made of commercial phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin. All bamboo is subjected
to mechanical treatment. Microstructure analysis, physical property testing,
and mechanical property testing are performed on all composite samples. The
bamboo species has a significant effect on the physical and mechanical
properties of bamboo fibre composites, as demonstrated in this article. In
general, recent research indicates that the NA bamboo fibre composite has the
highest shear strength while the PE bamboo fibre composite has the lowest
bending strength and modulus of elasticity. However, the PE bamboo fibre
composite has the lowest water absorption capacity.
Awalluddin et al. (2017) examined the mechanical properties of four
different bamboo species that are readily available in Malaysia. Bambusa
vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Schizostachyum grande, and Gigantochloa
scortechinii are the bamboo species. All bamboo samples are boric acid treated
to increase their durability and resistance to fungus attacks. All fibres were
taken from bamboo culms. Tensile, compression, and moisture content tests
were used to determine the mechanical properties of each bamboo species. In
conclusion, as the moisture content of bamboo degrades, the compression
strength of all samples increases. The strongest bamboo samples are Bambusa
vulgaris and Dendrocalamus asper, followed by Schizostachyum grande and
Gigantochloa scortechinii. The compressive strength, tensile strength, and
elastic modulus of treated bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) are all greater than
those of spruce wood. Its compressive strength, tensile strength, and elastic
modulus, however, are lower than those of steel.
Zakikhani et al. (2017) assessed the morphological, mechanical, and
physical attributes of four different bamboo species. Dendrocalamus pendulud
(DP), Dendrocalamus asper (DA), Gigantochloa levis (GL), and
Gigantochloa scortechinii were the bamboo species (GS). Each bamboo
species has a unique arrangement of fibres along the culm. The bamboo
Dendrocalamus pendulud (DP) has the highest water content and absorption
properties but the poorest mechanical properties. Among these four samples,
Dendrocalamus asper (DA) bamboo has the best mechanical and physical
qualities. Simultaneously, the fibre obtained from the underside of each
bamboo species has the highest aspect ratio and tensile strength.
As a result of the above review, it can be concluded that the physical and
mechanical qualities of bamboo vary according to species due to their
anatomical structure differences. Only a few bamboo species that have been
properly treated offer comparable mechanical qualities to other materials such
as wood and hardwood. Thus, when engineers are considering bamboo as a
construction material, it is critical for them to understand the unique features
of each species of bamboo.
2.2. Age of Bamboo
Bamboo's age has an effect on its mechanical qualities. Throughout the

bamboo growth cycle, the bamboo fibre taken from the culms exhibited a
range of physical and mechanical characteristics.
Huang et al. (2018) investigated the effect of bamboo maturation on the
physical-mechanical qualities of bamboo scrimbers with various physical-
mechanical properties. This is to determine the optimal bamboo age for
manufacturing high-performance bamboo fibre composites. The bamboo
chosen for research ranges in age from two to five years. The optimal volume
content of the phenol-formaldehyde resin is 11%, and the bamboo species is
Bambusa rigida. The composite is manufactured using the hot pressing

method. The physical and mechanical properties of the composite were
determined. Physical properties tests include thickness swelling and width
selling, whilst mechanical properties tests include compressive strength
testing, horizontal shear strength testing, modulus of rupture testing, and
modulus of elasticity testing. The results indicate that the bamboo fibre
composites with the highest compressive and horizontal shear strengths are
those aged four years. However, for three-year-old fibre, the bamboo fibre
composite exhibits the least swelling in terms of thickness and width.
Meanwhile, the maximum rupture modulus and the modulus of elasticity of
the bamboo fibre composite are the highest for five-year-old fibre. The authors
conclude that bamboo fibre from four-year-old bamboo is the most ideal for
manufacturing bamboo fibre composites, owing to the bamboo fibre
composite's superior performance in terms of water resistance and mechanical
qualities while maintaining low moisture content. Ren et al. (2014) assessed
the influence of bamboo's age, which ranged from one to six years, on the
fibre's tensile strength. The results indicate that after one year of age, the
bamboo fibre retains its mechanical properties and that further increasing age
has a statistically minor effect on the bamboo fibre's tensile strength.
Vivas et al. (2019) discussed the factors that affect bamboo's mechanical
qualities. According to reports, bamboo between the ages of three and four
years is ideal for usage as a building material. This explains why the culm is
mature at this stage and has reached its maximum physical and mechanical
qualities. Bamboo that is less than one year old is not advised for usage,
whereas bamboo that is more than five years old is lighter, less dense, and
brittle. Estimating the age of bamboo is one of the difficulties in selecting
acceptable bamboo for composite fabrication, particularly wild bamboo.
Kamruzzaman et al. (2008) also showed that while the height and age of
bamboo have an effect on the water content of certain varieties of bamboo,
they have almost no effect on the modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture.
According to the aforementioned review, mature ageing has a negligible
effect on the bamboo's and bamboo fibre's mechanical qualities. However,
bamboo that has reached an age of at least one year above can be harvested
for use as a building material, as bamboo fibre acquires its optimal mechanical
characteristics after one year. Additionally, it is recommended to use bamboo
or to extract bamboo fibre from bamboo that is between three and four years
old.
2.3. Extraction of Bamboo Fibre
Bamboo fibre extraction is a critical step in preparing the bamboo fibre-

reinforced composite. This is because the extraction procedure may contribute
to the improvement of the bamboo fibre's mechanical qualities. Natural fibres
are intricate structures composed of helical-wrapped cellulose microfibrils
suspended in an amorphous matrix of lignin and hemicelluloses (Zwawi,
2021). The purpose of this step is to decrease the lignin content of the fibre, as
a high lignin content results in decreased fibre strength (Pramudi et al., 2021).
Apart from that, lowering the lignin content improves the interfacial adherence
of the fibre to the matrix. The extraction of fibre can be classified into three
distinct processes: mechanical extraction, chemical extraction, and a
combination of mechanical and chemical extraction.
2.3.1. Mechanical Extraction

Mechanical extraction techniques include compressive milling, rolling
milling, water retting, and steam explosion. The crushing, grinding, and
rolling milling processes are similar in that the bamboo culm is removed from
the plant and soaked or fried in water to soften the fibre. Following that, the
soaked culm bamboo will be broken into fibre and dried in an oven or the sun.
There are two types of retting methods used to extract fibre: aerobic retting
and anaerobic retting.
Rocky and Thompson (2020) extracted bamboo fibre using the rolling
mill process. The bamboo culm was broken into bamboo strips and then
crushed many times with light pressure in the rolling mill machine. Scherer et
al. (2020) also used the rolling mill method to manufacture bamboo fibre for
use in the fabrication of bamboo fibre-reinforced epoxy resin composites.
Weynshet (2018) extracted bamboo fibre using the retting process. Bamboo
culms were harvested from mature bamboo and peeled into strips. Following
that, the bamboo strips were steeped for seven days in water. To remove the
bamboo fibre from the soaking strips, they were progressively pounded,
scraped, and combed. Adel Salih et al. (2020) retrieved bamboo fibre by a
procedure called water retting. Following the retting process, the bamboo fibre
was dried and manually removed. The steam explosion procedure was the
most suitable method for removing the plant's separate lignin, as it requires
little energy (Juwono, 2020). Numerous studies have been conducted to
demonstrate the efficiency of the steam explosion procedure for treating
bamboo fibre. In comparison to isocyanate silane-treated composites, steam
explosion-processed bamboo fibre-reinforced polypropylene exhibits an
increase in tensile strength (Tung et al., 2004). Tensile strength and Young's
modulus of bamboo fibre composites treated by steam explosion technique
were increased by approximately 15% and 30%, respectively when compared
to other mechanically extracted fibres (Okubo et al., 2004).
In comparison to the water retting and steam explosion methods, the
rolling mill process takes less equipment and time to harvest bamboo fibre
from raw bamboo. However, it has been claimed that the steam explosion
procedure may improve the mechanical properties of bamboo fibre composites
more than conventional mechanical extraction methods (Okubo et al., 2004).
2.3.2. Chemical Extraction

Chemical extraction is used to eliminate the fibre's lignin content (Zakikhani
et al., 2014). Simultaneously, chemical extraction has an effect on other
elements of the fibre, such as pectin and hemicellulose (Juwono, 2020).
Chemical retting, alkaline retting, and acid retting are all examples of chemical
extraction.
2.3.2.1. Chemical Retting

Before beginning the chemical retting procedure, the bamboo samples were
sliced into strips of 2 mm × 2 mm × 20 mm (width × height × length) and
soaked in a chemical solution. The solution contains 10% hydrogen peroxide,
40% distilled water, and 50% glacial acetic acid. The solution was held at
60°C for 42 hours. As a result, bamboo fibre that has been chemically treated
has a higher tensile strength than bamboo fibre that has been mechanically
isolated. However, chemically treated bamboo fibres have a lower modulus of
elongation (Chen et al., 2015).
The bamboo was selected between the ages of two and three years old for
the investigation by Kaur et al. (2013), and the culm was taken and afterwards
cut into strips of 15 to 20 cm in length and 1.5 to 2 mm in thickness. After
soaking for 116 hours in a liquor ratio 1:20 Zn(NO3)2 solution at a temperature
of 40°C with a neutral pH in a BOD incubator, the cut bamboo strips were
boiled in water for an hour. The experiment utilizes Zn(NO3)2 at three distinct
concentrations: 1%, 2%, and 3%. The greatest removal of lignin occurs in
bamboo fibres that undergo natural retting aided by chemicals (Kaur et al.,
2013).
2.3.2.2. Alkali Treatment

Bamboo culms were sliced into 10 cm-long strips and cleaned with water
before being dehydrated in an oven set to 80°C for four hours. It is then steeped
for three days at room temperature in 0.5M NaOH in 1 dm3 water. After
applying pressure to the bamboo strips to release the fibre, a scraper is used to
collect the fibre. The fibres were dried once again in an oven set to 50°C for
24 hours. The fibres were observed in fibrillation or outgrowths, which
contributes to the rough appearance of the surface. The treatment reduces the
lignin, wax, and hemicellulose content of the fibre composite, which increases
the interfacial adhesion and, ultimately, the strength of the composite
(Daramola, 2019).
Strips about 15 cm to 20 cm in length and 1.5 mm to 2 mm in thickness
were separated from the bamboo culm. The strips were immersed in a solution
of 0.5% Lissapol D and 2 gpl Na2CCO3 for 20 minutes. The material liquor
ratio is 1:20 for 45 minutes at an ambient temperature of 80°C. It is then
washed and dried in the shade (Kaur et al., 2013). Zhang et al. (2018) treated
bamboo fibre with various concentrations of NaOH solution, including 2%,
6%, and 10%, and then built a composite from the treated bamboo fibre. The
authors believe that the optimal treatment was soaking the fibre in a 6% NaOH
solution based on the composite's performance in the single fibre tensile test,
single fibre pull-out test, FTIR, and SEM analysis.
2.3.3. Chemical-Mechanical Extraction

The chemical-mechanical extraction method's overarching concept is to
remove the fibre utilizing both chemical and mechanical extraction methods.
Chemical treatment, such as alkaline treatment or chemical retting, was
performed prior to the mechanical extraction process, compression molding or
roller mill procedure. Rocky and Thompson (2020) treated bamboo fibre taken
from one - four-year-old bamboo using physical and chemical treatments. The
bamboo fibre was obtained by splitting fresh bamboo culms. The bamboo fibre
was then broken and steeped for three to five days in either water, sodium
hydroxide solution, or sulfate acid solution. Following that, the bamboo fibre
was crushed and combed once more before being studied further. Hu et al.
(2019) also extracted bamboo fibre using a physical-chemical combination
extraction approach. For 24 hours, the bamboo strips were steeped in a sodium
hydroxide solution at room temperature. The alkaline solution's optimal
concentration is 50 g/L. Following that, the soaked bamboo strips were
cleaned and resoaked for one hour in hot water. Bamboo strips were divided
into fibres using a pressure roller and combed in one direction. Weynshet
(2018) and Adel Salih et al. (2020) prepared bamboo fibre for use as
reinforcement in a composite using a mix of retting and alkaline treatment.
In recent studies, a mix of mechanical and chemical extraction methods
have been widely used to extract and treat bamboo fibre. Mechanical
extraction could more successfully separate the bamboo fibre from the
bamboo strips. While the chemical treatment procedure decreases the amount
of lignin in the bamboo fibre and increases the interfacial adhesion between
the fibre and resin. As a result, this combination is recommended for future
use in producing bamboo fibre for use as reinforcement in composites.
2.4. Matrix in Composite
The matrix is critical in a composite material. The matrix is a component of

the composite that is responsible for the reinforcement's adhesion. Apart from
binding, the matrix also acts as an additional layer of protection for the
reinforcement. By tying the reinforcement media together and providing an
additional layer of protection for the reinforcement, it is possible to improve
the composite's mechanical and physical qualities.
The matrix can be categorized into three broad categories: polymer
matrix, ceramic matrix, and metal matrix. The term "polymer matrix"
encompasses both thermosetting and thermoplastic matrix. Due to their ease
of handling and straightforward manufacturing techniques, polymer matrix
composites are commonly employed for their cost-effectiveness (Rajak et al.,
2019). In the case of ceramic matrix composites, the term "ceramic matrix
composite" refers to the combination of a ceramic matrix with fibres of
aluminum oxide, carbon, silicon carbide, or silicon nitride. The matrix has a
more brittle behavior than the fibres, and hence the fibre is developed to
overcome the disadvantages of ceramic. Metal matrix composites are
composed of metal matrix materials such as aluminum, magnesium, copper,
and titanium, with reinforcement materials such as dispersed ceramics or
metals. This subsection will concentrate on the polymer matrix due to its ease
of fabrication.
2.4.1. Thermosetting Resin

Thermosets are low-molecular-weight and viscosity monomers that undergo a
transformation during curing. Thermosets have an insoluble and infusible
chemical structure (Campbell, 2010). The molecules in thermoset resin
undergo a crosslinking reaction during the curing process, resulting in the
formation of three-dimensional networks after the curing period. Heat,

oxidizers, and UV light all have the potential to initiate the cross-linking
reaction in resin (Fan and Fu, 2016). As the chemical reaction progresses, the
viscosity of the thermoset resin increases, eventually becoming a solid that
cannot be remelted. Bismaleimides, cyanate esters, epoxies, vinyl esters,
phenolics, polyesters, and polyimides are all examples of thermoset resins.
Although epoxy resin, vinyl ester, and polyesters are commonly utilized in
commercial applications due to their ability to operate at low and moderate
temperatures, vinyl ester and polyester have inferior mechanical qualities and
are less resistant to environmental conditions. The resin from Polyimide is
appropriate for use in temperatures ranging from 290 to 315°C.
Thermoset plastics have the advantage of retaining their strength and
structure when heated, which means they will not lose considerable strength
when working at elevated temperatures. Additionally, because it is in liquid
form prior to curing, it will be available in any mold size or shape. Thermoset
plastic is available in a range of colors and surface finishes. Because of their
excellent strength-to-weight ratio and resilience to environmental and
chemical attacks, thermoset polymers are an advantageous material to utilize.
However, thermoset plastic has some flaws that prevent it from being
recycled, remoulded, or molded after curing. Additionally, it discovered
difficulties with surface polishing and low heat conductivity, which makes it
unsuitable for some applications.
2.4.1.1. Comparison between Thermosetting Resin

Ujianto et al. (2020) investigated how fabrication procedures, resin types, and
fibre combinations affect the mechanical characteristics and morphology of
glass fibre composites. They employ a variety of manufacturing techniques,
two distinct resin types (epoxy and vinyl ester), and two distinct fibre
combinations. As evidence for the conclusion, these samples were examined
to determine their tensile modulus, compression strength, sample morphology,
and fracture surface result. The conclusion indicates that, in comparison to
other variables, only the manufacturing method has a substantial effect on the
tensile modulus. However, the sample's strength is considerably determined
by the resin type, with epoxy composites being stronger than vinyl ester
composites.
Gokce et al. (2019) studied the mechanical properties of a fibre-reinforced
polyester composite pipe in relation to the type of fibre and resin used. The
matrices are ortophthalic, isophthalic, and vinyl ester resins, whereas the
reinforcements include basalt fibre, chemical-resistant glass, and electrical
glass. All samples were manufactured using the centrifugal casting process.
After that, the samples were stiffened, and their longitudinal and
circumferential tensile strengths were determined. It concludes that a vinyl
ester resin and basalt fibre-reinforced pipe combination surpasses tophthalic
resin and electrical glass fibre-reinforced pipes in terms of mechanical
performance.
Ali et al. (2018) used statistical analysis and theoretical prediction to
investigate the effect of different resin types on the tensile strength retention
of glass fibre-reinforced polymer bars. Epoxy resin, polyester resin, and vinyl
ester resin were all employed in this investigation. The sample's durability is
determined by the alkaline solution's effect on its function time. To test the
reinforced bar's performance, the samples' physical and tensile parameters
were determined. The results indicate that the type of resin used has a
detrimental effect on the tensile strength of the samples. When a glass fibre-
reinforced polymer bar is exposed to moisture, the polyester sample exhibits
greater debonding at the fibre resin interface than the epoxy resin and vinyl
ester samples.
Benmokrane et al. (2017) evaluated the laboratory performance and
durability of glass fibre-reinforced polymer bars for concrete structures made
of vinyl ester, polyester, and epoxy. The mechanical and physical properties
of epoxy resin, isophthalic polyester, and vinyl ester-based glass fibre-
reinforced polymer were determined. After that, the samples were immersed
in an alkaline solution for 1000, 3000, or 5000 hours at a temperature of 60°C.
It is reported that polyester glass fibre-reinforced polymers have the best
mechanical and physical features, whereas vinyl ester and epoxy glass fibre-
reinforced polymers have the worst.
Biswas et al. (2015) examined the effect of various bamboo fibre weight
percentages in a bamboo fibre epoxy-based composite. Bamboo fibre has a
weight proportion of between 20% and 40%. The authors conclude that a
composite composed of 30% bamboo fibre and modified epoxy has the best
mechanical properties. This weight percentage of bamboo fibre composite has
a tensile strength of 45 MPa, a flexural strength of 42 MPa, and an impact
strength of 18.38 kJ/m2. Zhang et al. (2018) created the bamboo fibre
composite by combining treated short bamboo fibre with an epoxy resin
volume fraction of between 10% and 30%. The bamboo composite with 20%
bamboo fibre has the maximum flexural strength, 87.2 MPa, whereas the
bamboo composite with 30% bamboo fibre has the highest flexural modulus,
5.35 GPa. Huang and Young (2019) revealed that a bamboo fibre-reinforced
epoxy composite with a 42% alkaline treated bamboo fibre volume fraction
exhibited improved mechanical characteristics. This composite has a tensile

strength of 222.71 MPa, a Young modulus of 13.1 GPa, a flexural strand
length of 182.29 MPa, a flexural modulus of 17.23 GPa, and interfacial shear
strength of 16.28 MPa. Additionally, Chin et al. (2020b) observed that the
bamboo fibre composite composed of alkaline-treated bamboo fibre and
epoxy exhibited the highest tensile and flexural strengths when compared to
other combinations composed of polyester or vinyl ester.
2.4.2. Thermoplastic Resin

In comparison to thermosetting resins, thermoplastic resins have a high
molecular weight and do not cross-link during processing. Thus, it could be
recycled even after it had been cured for a brief period of time. This procedure
has no detrimental effect on the thermoplastic's physical qualities. Apart from
that, thermoplastic has a higher initial damage tolerance than thermosets;
nonetheless, thermosets have improved to the point where it is comparable to
thermoplastic in terms of toughness. The cure time of thermoplastic is
significantly less than that of thermosetting. Thermoplastics, in general, offer
great strength, resistance to shrinkage, and ease of flexibility. It is resistant to
caustic substances and environmental influences and is capable of transporting
any form of fluid. Polyethylene, PVC, and nylon are all well-known
thermoplastics. This compound adheres to metal, absorbs impact, is
electrically insulating, and is chemically resistant.
Liu et al. (2020) studied the effect of low- and high-velocity impact on
thermoset and thermoplastic carbon fibre composites. Carbon fibre was
employed for reinforcement, while ether-ether ketone serves as the
thermoplastic matrix and epoxy serves as the thermoset matrix. Both samples
were created using the same method. The results indicate that carbon fibre
reinforced with thermoplastic performed better at low and high speeds.
Bajurko (2021) compared the damage resistance of thermoplastic and
thermoset carbon fibre-reinforced polymers. The residual strength tests
include impact and static compression of samples following an impact, and
the findings were used to evaluate the matrix's performance. The finding
indicates that when the thermoplastic laminar was subjected to less impact
energy, it retained a higher residual strength. When the impact energy
increases, the difference reduces.
Nahar et al. (2012) investigated the mechanical and interfacial properties
of a polypropylene-based composite reinforced with bamboo fibres. The
volume fraction of bamboo fibre in the composite is fixed at 50%, and the
composite is formed via compression moulding. The tensile strength, bending
strength, tensile modulus, and bending modulus of this thermoplastic bamboo

fibre are 60, 76, 4210, and 6210 MPa, respectively. Additionally, the bamboo
fibre composite has a 4.91 MPa interfacial shear strength. Apart from Nahar,
Fuentes et al. (2012) used a variety of resins to create the bamboo fibre
thermoplastic composite. Polyvinylidene fluoride, polypropylene, and grafted
maleic anhydride polypropylene were the resins used. The bamboo fibre was
maintained at a volume fraction of 40%. When subjected to a high temperature
of 200°C, the bamboo fibre composite based on polyvinylidene fluoride
exhibits superior transverse and longitudinal flexural strengths compared to
others.
Bamboo fibre can be used in composites with thermosetting or
thermoplastic resins. However, each type of thermosetting or thermoplastic
resin has its own unique properties. For example, bamboo fibre reinforced
with epoxy has superior mechanical characteristics to other thermosetting
resins, while bamboo fibre reinforced with polyvinylidene fluoride has
superior mechanical properties to other thermoplastic resins. While
thermoplastic-based composites have the advantage of being recyclable, they
may soften while working in a high-temperature environment. Thus, the
temperature of the working environment is a critical component in deciding
the type of resin to utilize.
2.5. Fibre Composite Fabrication Technique
Various ways can be utilized to create the bamboo fibre-reinforced polymer

although each type of approach has its limitation and technical demand. Chin
et al. (2020b) studied the thermal and mechanical properties of the bamboo
fibre-reinforced composite. The bamboo fibre was produced from bamboo
culms and processed with sodium hydroxide solution. The optimal condition
of the chemical treatment was treating the bamboo fibre in 10% NaOH
solution for 48 hours. The resins that were employed were epoxy, unsaturated
polyester and vinyl ester. The fabrication process was the hand lay-up method
by employing a stainless-steel mould. The fibre was inserted at distinct times
into the mould which was filled with resin. Each layer of bamboo fibre was
arranged carefully and pushed gently to ensure each layer of bamboo fibre was
fully immersed in resin. This technique continued until the mould was filled
fully. The specimens were cured at room temperature for 24 hours and placed
in an oven at a temperature of 110°C for 4 hours before further testing. Lokesh
et al. (2020) utilized a similar process to make a bamboo fibre-reinforced
polymer composite. The composite samples contain epoxy resin, hardener and
bamboo fibre.
Okubo et al. (2005) employed a different fabrication method to make
bamboo fibre composite than Chin et al. (2020b). The reinforcements of the
composite were bamboo fibre and micro-fibrillated cellulose while the resin
is Poly-lactic acid. All components were combined in water for 15 minutes.
Then, the mixture is filtrated with the aid of vacuum pressure and the residual
sheet was dried in an oven at a temperature of 105°C. The dried sheets were
laminated and compacted at a temperature of 190°C under the pressure of 120
MPa for 3 minutes.
Xie et al. (2016) employed bamboo fibre bundles and phenolic resins to
manufacture the composites. Bamboo stems were harvested using mechanical
treatment. The bamboo bundles were soaked in phenolic resin which was
diluted with water earlier. The amount of resin was managed to roughly 12%
of the oven-dry weight of bamboo bundles and afterwards air-dried to a
moisture content of 9%. The bamboo fibre composite was pressed at a platen
temperature of 150°C under the pressure of 2.5 MPa with a holding period of
1.5 minutes/mm.
The bamboo fibre-reinforced epoxy composite was created by the resin
transfer moulding (RTM) process (Huang et al., 2018). The epoxy resin was
made with a resin-to-hardener ratio at 100:35 and poured into the pressure
cylinder. The bamboo fibre was inserted into the mould cavity in an aligned
direction. The epoxy resin was pumped into the mould cavity under pressure
and the mould was fixed on a hot press. The composite was cured at a
temperature of 140°C for 2 hours. The fibre volume fraction is maintained at
42%. In brief, the selection of the fabrication process for the bamboo fibre
composite should consider the elements such as equipment, product quality
and scale of production. Although the hand lay-up method requires lower
equipment and is easier to be carried out, nevertheless, the consistency of
bamboo fibre composite’s quality and production rate is limited. Technology
such as resin transfer moulding could be mass-produced and provides a
consistent quality product but required diverse equipment during the
production period.
2.6. Fibre Volume Fraction
The mechanical properties of the fibre-reinforced composite are substantially

controlled by the fibre volume percent. The tensile strength and stiffness of
the composite are predicted to climb as the fibre volume fraction increases;
yet, to avoid loss of wear resistance between fibre and resin, there will be a
limit to the fibre volume fraction. Bakar and Chin (2021) studied the
performance of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites in terms of mechanical
properties. To evaluate the mechanical properties of the samples, the bamboo
fibre-reinforced polymer was evaluated for its tensile strength and flexural
strength. The bamboo fibre volume fraction evaluated in the study was 30%,
35%, 40%, 45% and 50%. The matrix employed in the composite was epoxy
resin and vinyl ester resin. From the result, it was observed that BFREC has
the maximum tensile strength at 45% bamboo fibre volume whereas the
BFRVC sample reveals the highest tensile strength at a 40% bamboo fibre
volume fraction.
Figures 1a and 1b illustrates the comparison of ultimate tensile stress and
ultimate flexural stress for epoxy and vinyl ester resins, respectively. Both
graphs demonstrate a decline in trend with a 50% fibre volume ratio which
indicates brittle behaviour.
Figure 1. Comparison concerning epoxy and vinyl ester resins: a) Ultimate tensile
stress; b) Ultimate flexural stress (Bakar and Chin, 2021).
The research that was conducted by Zhang et al. (2018) evaluated the
thermal and mechanical properties of a bamboo fibre-reinforced epoxy
composite. In the first phase, the bamboo fibre was removed and treated with
varying concentrations of NaOH solution. After determining the appropriate

alkaline treatment, the treated fibre was blended with epoxy resin with variable
volume fractions which ranges from 10, 20 and 30%. The composites were
examined for flexural characteristics and fracture properties.
The conclusion demonstrates the composite that comprises 20% of
bamboo fibre has the highest flexural modulus, flexural strength and fracture
toughness. Banga et al. (2015) employed a different volume proportion to
construct the composite. The volume fraction was altered from 20, 30 and 40%
while the composite was epoxy resin. Mechanical tests such as tensile test,
flexural test, hardness test and impact test were carried out to evaluate the
composite. The 30% bamboo fibre blended epoxy has the optimum
mechanical qualities of other volume fractions. The suggested volume fraction
of bamboo fibre was confined to the range of 30% to 45%. In this range, the
tensile and flexural properties of bamboo fibre composite approach the
optimum strength. Moreover, the influence trend of the volume fraction to the
tensile as well as flexural properties of bamboo fibre composite is similar
while the bamboo fibre composite is constructed from a different resin.
3. Mechanical Properties of Bamboo Fibre Composites
Lokesh et al. (2020) found a relationship between the mechanical properties

of the composite with varied sizes of short bamboo by analyzing the
mechanical properties of bamboo fibre-reinforced polymer composite. Using
the hand lay-up approach, the bamboo composite was made by using bamboo
fibre as the reinforcement and epoxy resin as the matrix. According to the
ASTM D638 standard, a tensile test was done on the samples with a test speed
of 2 mm per min.
Retnam et al. (2014) experimented on hybrid bamboo and glass fibre
polymer composite to study the influence of the orientation of the fibre on the
mechanical properties of the composite. By employing methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide as a catalyst and polyester as the matrix, the bamboo fibre was treated
chemically with silane. Both the pure bamboo fibre and hybrid fibre composite
were made with the hand lay-up process. To fulfil the ASTM D 638 standard,
the cured composite was sliced into the size mentioned in the standard. A
computerized servo-controlled Universal Testing Machine (UTM) machine
was used to conduct the tensile test. The crosshead speed was 2 mm per minute
with a gauge length of 5 mm. The hybrid composite with fibre orientation at
450 achieved the maximum tensile strength.
Huang and Young (2019) evaluated the continuous bamboo fibre-
reinforced epoxy composite in terms of its hygral, interfacial and mechanical
strength. The bamboo fibre was removed and chopped into a size of 0.7 mm
× 0.7 mm × 160 mm (width × height × length) and then treated. Utilizing the
resin transfer moulding method, the bamboo fibre-reinforced epoxy
composites were manufactured with a 42% of fibre volume fraction. The
dimensions of samples that were produced for the tensile test were 160 mm ×
12 mm × 1.84 mm (length × width × height). Both ends of the tensile test
sample will be equipped with end tabs for protection. Utilizing a 250 kN
capacity universal material testing machine, the tensile test was carried out.
The tensile values of the plain epoxy were 79 MPa, 168.87 MPa for the
bamboo fibre composite and 222.71 MPa for the alkaline-treated bamboo fibre
composite. Table 1 summarizes the tensile properties of a bamboo fibre-
reinforced composite.
Table 1. Tensile properties of bamboo fibre composite
Reference Fibre type Volume Type of resin Dimension Tensile

fraction (mm) strength
(L x W x H) (MPa)
Chin et al. NaOH treated 0%, 10%, 20%, Epoxy 250 x 25 x 5 18.56, 48.06,
(2020b) bamboo fibre 30%, 40% 74.2, 103.03,
119.39
NaOH treated 0%, 10%, 20%, Polyester 250 x 25 x 5 22.73, 23.24,
bamboo fibre 30%, 40% 52.15, 70.58,
97.18
NaOH treated 0%, 10%, 20%, Vinyl ester 250 x 25 x 5 10.22, 21.63,
bamboo fibre 30%, 40% 42.57, 63.89,
96.02
Lokesh et Treated 1, 2, 3 layer Epoxy 250 x 25 7.81, 9.51,
al. (2020) bamboo fibre 18.07
Untreated 1, 2, 3 layer Epoxy 250 x 25 6.74, 4.35,
bamboo fibre 16.51
Aruchamy Bamboo fibre 30%, 35%, Epoxy 250 x 25 55.62, 63.17,
et al. 40%, 45%, 68.74, 85.37,
(2020) 50% 78.45
Long et al. Treated 20% Polyethylene 50 mm (L) x 65.462
(2019) bamboo fibre glycol 5mm (H)
Untreated 20% Polyethylene 50 mm (L) x 50.835
bamboo fibre glycol 5mm (H)
Reference Fibre type Volume Type of resin Dimension Tensile

(L x W x H) (MPa)
Qi et al. Dendrocalamus The amount of Phenol 450 X 160 x 57.54
(2015) farinose (Culm resin is about formaldehyde 15
node) 11 to 12%the
of dry bamboo
weight
Dendrocalamus The amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 286.65
farinose (Inter resin is about formaldehyde 15
node) 11 to 12%the
of dry bamboo
weight
Phyllostachys The amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 59.38
heterocycla resin is about formaldehyde 15
(Culm node) 11 to 12% of
the dry bamboo
weight
Phyllostachys The amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 191.68
heterocycla resin is about formaldehyde 15
(Inter node) 11 to 12% of
the dry bamboo
weight
Azwa and Treated 20% Polyester 300 x 25 x 5 20.03
Yousif bamboo fibre
(2019) Untreated 20% Polyester 300 x 25 x 5 18.97
bamboo fibre
Abhilash Treated 0%, 5%, 10%, Linear low- 16, 18, 16,
et al. bamboo fibre 15% density 12
(2020) polyethene
Hong et Treated 49% Polydopamine 160 x 20 x 4 13.62 -
Manalo et Alkaline 20% Polyester 140 x 12.75 19.0, 19.5,
al. (2015) treated bamboo x5 21.0, 16.1
fibre with
concentration
(0%, 4%, 6%,
8%)
From Table 1, the factors such as type of resin, treatment of the bamboo
fibre and fibre volume fraction influence the tensile strength of bamboo fibre
composite. The increase in the fibre volume fraction might improve the tensile
strength of composite where the research by Hong et al. (2017), Qi et al.
(2015), Chin et al. (2020b) and Aruchamy et al. (2020). The optimum
treatment process on the bamboo fibre also improves the tensile qualities of
the composite. Last but not least, the composite’s tensile qualities have also
been affected by the type of resin and a suitable selection of resin could
improve the composite’s tensile capabilities.
Mosisa and Batu (2021) examined the bamboo and sisal fibre-reinforced
hybrid composite material in terms of mechanical qualities. An alkaline
solution was employed to treat the bamboo fibre and sisal fibre. The composite
was manufactured using a compression machine having epoxy resin as the
matrix. The samples of the compression test were prepared according to the
ASTM D 3410 standards. The size of the samples was 25 mm × 25 mm × 3.17
mm (width × length × height) and the samples were evaluated using a
Universal Testing Machine. The sample with bamboo, sisal fibre weight ratio
at 25% and 15%, in stacking orientated had the highest ultimate compressive
strength, 47.44 MPa. The sample with bamboo, sisal fibre weight ratio at 25%
and 20%, fibre oriented 90 degrees exhibited the lowest compressive strength.
The authors also claim that the rising sisal fibre volume percentage will lead
to increasing compressive strength and the orientation of fibre will affect the
compression strength.
Yang et al. (2020) researched the bamboo fibre-reinforced polymer by
adopting the bamboo sandwich structure which was tested in terms of
mechanical properties. Using the compression moulding process, the BFRP-
bamboo sandwich structure samples were created. The preparation of the
compression test was referred to as ASTM D364 and flatwise compression
specimens with the size, 150 mm x 60 mm x 12/14 mm (height x breadth x
thickness) were tested. UTM with a maximum capacity of 300 kN with a
crosshead speed of 2 mm per min was used to examine the mechanical
properties. A linear variable displacement transformer was fitted at the center
point of the sample to measure transversal displacement. It was revealed that
the BFRP-bamboo sandwich increased the bearing capacity by 39.9% and
21.8%. Table 2 displays the comparison of the compressive strength of the
different types of bamboo fibre composite.
The form of bamboo fibre was considerably impacting the compressive
strength of the bamboo fibre composite (Yu et al., 2014). The composite that
incorporates long bamboo fibre or bamboo fibre bundles displays stronger
compressive strength than the short bamboo fibre. Besides that, the influence
of the bamboo fibre volume percent on the compressive properties of
composite has rarely been examined.
Table 2. Compression properties of bamboo fibre composite
Reference Fibre type Volume Type of resin Dimension Compression

(L x W x T) (MPa)
Yu et al. Bamboo fibre 87% Phenol 81.6 x 25 x 20 129.08,
(2014) bundles formaldehyde 143.73
resin, epoxy
resin
Bamboo short 87% Phenol 81.6 x 25 x 20 24.50, 41.30
fibre formaldehyde
resin, epoxy
resin
Bamboo long 87% Epoxy resin 81.6 x 25 x 20 129.0
fibre
Qi et al. Dendrocalamus Amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 15 94.27
(2015) farinosus (Culm resin is about formaldehyde
node) 11 to 12% of
the dry
bamboo weight
Dendrocalamus Amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 15 113.92
farinosus (Inter resin is about formaldehyde
node) 11 to 12% of
the dry
bamboo weight
Phyllostachys Amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 15 94.24
heterocycla resin is about formaldehyde
the dry
bamboo weight
the dry
bamboo weight
Manalo et Alkaline treated 20% Polyester 140 x 12.75 x 5 61.2, 84.6,
al. (2015) bamboo fibre 111.2, 64.1
with different
concentrations
(0%, 4%, 6%,
8%)
Sanchez Treated Macana 30% Vegetable- 100 x 50 x 7 21.39 to
at al. bamboo fibre based 32.20
(2020) polyurethane
Yang et Bamboo fibre Epoxy resin 150 x 60 x 12 42 to 55
al. (2020) laminate
Giridharan et al. (2019) conducted an experiment exploring how the tensile

characteristics and flexural properties of the bamboo fibre epoxy composite
are primarily affected by the fibre length and fibre content. Referring to the
ASTM D790 standard, the flexural strength of the composite was investigated
via a three-point bending test. UTM was used for the test with a crosshead
speed of 1.3 to 1.5 mm per minute. The results demonstrate that the composite
with 16 mm fibre length had the highest flexural strength at 42.1 MPa, but the
maximum modulus was 7.46 MPa from the composite with 16% fibre weight.
Besides that, the result of the tensile strength test also suggested that with the
increment in fibre length and weight ratio, the tensile strength of the composite
will improve until it reaches an optimal value, which in this case was 12%
weight with 15 mm fibre length. The reason behind the declination of the
mechanical characteristics of the composite is related to the clustering of fibres
generated by a weak interaction with the matrix.
Zhang et al. (2018) examined bamboo fibre-reinforced epoxy composite
in terms of thermal and mechanical properties. It was observed that the
optimum concentration of sodium hydroxide solution was 6%. The impact of
fibre length and fibre content on the mechanical characteristics of the
composite was examined. The Universal Instron Testing machine with a
crosshead speed of 0.1 mm/min was used to perform a flexural test. The size
of the samples was 80 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm (length × width × height). The
result revealed that increasing the fibre content and fibre length might improve
the composite flexural strength when an increment in the composite’s flexural
strength by 18%, 33% and 45% was seen.
Besides that, this article also mentioned that the minor fluctuation in the
flexural strength of the composite may be attributed to the inactive application
of bamboo fibre as reinforcement to the matrix. The reason for this problem
was bamboo fibre orientation which was haphazardly orientated in epoxy. By
strengthening the interfacial connection between reinforcement and matrix,
the mechanical properties of the composite improve as well. The preparation
method of the composite could also improve the mechanical properties of the
composite by strengthening the interfacial bonding between reinforcement and
matrix.
Table 3. Summary of the flexural strength of bamboo fibre composite
Reference Fibre type Volume Type of resin Dimension (mm) Flexural

fraction (%) (L x W x T) strength (MPa)
Chin et al. NaOH treated 0, 10, 20, Epoxy 250 x 25 x 5 65.52, 106.81,
(2020b) bamboo fibre 30, 40 120.76,
132.46, 161.58
NaOH treated 0, 10, 20 30, Polyester 250 x 25 x 5 38.85, 70.58,
bamboo fibre 40 105.65,
123.04, 157.20
NaOH treated 0, 10, 20, Vinyl ester 250 x 25 x 5 37.98, 89.17,
bamboo fibre 30, 40 100.07,
122.02, 149.81
Lokesh et Treated 1, 2, 3 layer Epoxy 250 x 25 0.93, 0.15,
Untreated 1, 2, 3 layer Epoxy 250 x 25 0.27, 0.21,
bamboo fibre 0.05
Zhang et NaOH treated 10, 20, 30 Epoxy 80 x 10 x 5 3.72, 3.90,
in 5 mm
NaOH treated 10, 20, 30 Epoxy 80 x 10 x 5 4.03, 4.78,
bamboo fibre 5.02
in 10 mm
NaOH treated 10, 20, 30 Epoxy 80 x 10 x 5 4.34, 4.91,
bamboo fibre 5.35
in 15 mm
Aruchamy Bamboo fibre 30%, 35%, Epoxy 65.78, 75.55,
et al. 40%, 45%, 87.85, 107.02,
(2020) 50% 99.06
Long et al. Treated 20% Polyethylene 80 x 10 x 4 93.42
(2019) bamboo fibre glycol
Untreated 20% Polyethylene 80 x 10 x 4 83.38
bamboo fibre glycol
Abhilash et Treated 0%, 5%, Linear low- 14.5, 16.2,
al. (2020) bamboo fibre 10%, 15% density 15.0, 8.9
polyethene
Hong et al. Treated 49% Polydopamine 80 x 13 x 4 31.38 - 42.14
(2017) bamboo fibre
Manalo et Alkaline 20% Polyester 140 x 12.75 x 5 44.2, 41.1,
al. (2015) treated 43.0, 21.1
bamboo fibre
with
concentration
(0%, 4%,
6%, 8%)
Yusof et al. (2019) evaluated the tensile, flexural, and biodegradability

tests of treated bamboo fibre-reinforced tapioca starch biodegradable
composite. Tapioca starch resin, which contains tapioca starch, glycerol, and
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) liquid, serves as the matrix for the composite. PVA
functioned as a stabiliser for the starch solution, while glycerol served as a
plasticizer to improve the starch-PVA solution compatibility. Alkaline and
permanganate treatments were given to the bamboo fibre. The crosshead speed
was 3 mm per minute. The composite with chemical treatment fibre had higher
strength than the composite with no treatment fibre and the alkaline treatment
bamboo fibre composite had the maximum flexural strength, which was 8.891
MPa, which was 2.6 times of the untreated bamboo fibre composite. Like the
flexural modulus, the alkaline treated fibre exhibited the highest flexural
modulus properties, 871.73 MPa. This may be attributed to the enhancement
in interfacial bonding between fibre and resin. Table 3 highlights the flexural
strength of the bamboo fibre composite from a prior investigation.
The bamboo fibre composite that has a volume fraction of bamboo fibre
of roughly 40% has a higher flexural strength. Besides that, the optimum
treatment method for the bamboo fibre and selecting a suitable resin such as
epoxy resin might improve the flexural strength of the bamboo fibre
composite.
3.4. Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of elasticity (MOE) of materials refers to the assessment of the

material resistance to being deformed elastically when subjected to stress.
Yvonne et al. (2018) examined the characteristics of an epoxy hybrid
composite manufactured from bamboo fibre and Salacca zalacca fruit skin
powder. The mechanical properties of the composite were examined by
referring to the result from density, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture,
water absorption and thickness swelling. The age of bamboo used varied
between 1, 3 and 5 years old. The composites were manufactured by
employing a compression moulding procedure. By referencing ASTM D790-
03, the Instron Electromechanical testing with the three-point bending method
is applied to determine the modulus of elasticity as well as the modulus of
rupture.
Due to the mechanical characteristics of bamboo fibre, when an increment

of bamboo fibre volume fraction in composite, the MOE of composite also
increased. Besides that, the region with a high concentration of bamboo fibre
and Salacca zalacca fruit skin had a lower fracture length. This was owing to
the gap between fibre and matrix being filled by the Salacca zalacca fruit skin
and improved the fibre matrix wetting capabilities.
Zhu et al. (2015) investigated to assess the physical and mechanical
properties of the bamboo fibre-reinforced composite during outdoor exposure
testing after two years. The samples were appraised based on their surface
colour, modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity, and swelling properties. The
bamboo fibre was separated from Sinocalamus affinis and Moso bamboo
which was three to four years old, and the matrix employed was phenol-
formaldehyde resin. The modulus of elasticity and modulus of rupture (MOR)
of the composite was assessed using GB/T 17657-2013 standards. The results
demonstrated that the outside condition influenced the MOE and MOR of
bamboo fibre composites. The MOE and MOR of composites dropped
steadily. Despite this, all composites showed high MOE and MOR values at
the end of the testing.
Kushwaha and Kumar (2010) examined the mechanical properties of
bamboo fibre epoxy composites and the influence of silanes on the composite.
Different silanes were employed to treat the alkaline treated and untreated
bamboo matting. The silanes employed were g-Aminopropyltriethoxy silane,
Vinyltris silane, 3-Aminopropyltrimethoxy silane, N-octyl Trimethoxy silane,
BIS Propyl Tetrasulfide and 3-trimethoxysilyl Propyl Methacrylate. The result
revealed that the composite with alkaline treatment fibre and then treated with
silane had a greater modulus of elasticity than the composite with simply
silane treatment. Alkaline treatment increased the vacancies on the fibre and
hence improved the efficacy of silane treatment. The lack of adhesion may be
due to the blocking of the impregnation of epoxy resin in the void. Sanitization
led to better chemical bonding and eventually increased stress transmission in
the composite.
From the summary shown in Table 4, the elements such as bamboo
species, the form of bamboo fibre, type of resin, treatment method on the
bamboo fibre and volume fraction would affect the mechanical properties of
bamboo fibre composite. Among these parameters, the bamboo species, the
type of bamboo fibre and the part of bamboo harvested impact the composite’s
MOE the most. Moreover, the change of the composite’s modulus of elasticity
is minimal in each factor.
Table 4. Modulus of elasticity properties of bamboo fibre composite
Reference Fibre type Volume Type of resin Dimension Modulus of

fraction (%) (mm) elasticity
(L x W x T) (GPa)
Qi et al. Dendrocalamus Amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 15 19.88
(2015) farinosus resin is about formaldehyde
the dry
bamboo
weight
Dendrocalamus Amount of Phenol 450 x 160 x 15 26.08
farinosus (Inter resin is about formaldehyde
node) 11 to 12% of
the dry
bamboo
weight
the dry
bamboo
weight
the dry
bamboo
weight
Azwa and Treated 20% Polyester 300 x 25 x 5 3.81
Yousif bamboo fibre
(2019) Untreated 20% Polyester 300 x 25 x 5 3.18
bamboo fibre
Sanchez at Treated 30% Vegetable- 100 x 50 x 7 3.77 to 9.17
al. (2020) Macana based
bamboo fibre polyurethane
Yu et al. Bamboo fibre 87% Phenol 81.6 x 25 x 20 31.65,
(2014) bundles formaldehyde 34.65
resin, epoxy
resin
Bamboo short 87% Phenol 81.6 x 25 x 20 2.92, 3.26
fibre formaldehyde
resin, epoxy
resin
Bamboo long 87% Epoxy resin 81.6 x 25 x 20 51.00
fibre
4. Application of Natural Fibre Composites

as External Strengthening Material
4.1. Strengthening of Structural Members

by Using Bamboo Fibre Composites
Chin et al. (2019) studied the use of bamboo fibre/epoxy composite plates to
enhance reinforced concrete beams in flexure. The bamboo fibre was derived
from the Dendrocalamus asper with a fibre-to-volume ratio of 2:5. The hand
lay-up technique was used to create a composite plate measuring 100 mm ×
450 mm × 6 mm (width x length x thickness). It is fastened to the reinforced
concrete beam's mid-span, and bottom soffit using Sikadur 30 as an adhesive
agent. Tensile and flexural tests were used to determine the mechanical
properties of the composite plate. Meanwhile, the reinforced strengthened
beam was subjected to a four-point loading test. The ultimate tensile strength
of the bamboo fibre composite plates was 64.48 MPa, and the flexural strength
was between 147.52 and 162.76 MPa, with the bamboo fibre composite plates
having more tensile and flexural strength than the pure epoxy samples. The
reinforced beam's structural capacity was increased by around 10% to 12%,
and the strengthening arrangement may transform a vertical fracture into a
diagonal crack along the composite's border. The detail of the strengthening
setup is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Detail of the strengthening configuration (Chin et al., 2019).

Chin et al. (2020a) studied the use of bamboo fibre-reinforced composites
for external reinforcement of reinforced concrete beams with openings. The
structural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with or without opening was
investigated in shear and flexural loads using a bamboo fibre composite plate.
The volume proportion of treated bamboo fibre varies between 0%, 10%, 20%,
30%, and 40% when epoxy, polyester, or vinyl ester was used as the matrix.
The combination of bamboo fibre composite plates with the best mechanical
qualities were tested using tensile and flexural tests and later utilised to
reinforce concrete beams.
There are two groups of beam specimens, the first of which is designated
as group A. The first group was assessed for the effect of shear. This group of
specimens includes a control beam, a beam that has not been strengthened,
and a strengthened beam. The control beam and the unstrengthened beam both
contain openings at shear spans, whereas the stronger beam does not. The
shear spans of group A specimens were increased by employing bamboo fibre
composite plates made of epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester. Beams classified
as group B undergo flexural strengthening at the mid-span soffit where the
composite plate was joined. All beams undergo a four-point loading test. At a
40% volume fraction of bamboo fibre, the bamboo fibre composite plates
constructed of epoxy or vinyl ester may restore the beam's capacity up to 85%.
Additionally, opening the shear span of the beam may result in a 52–55% drop
in beam capacity. The beam with the opening in the shear span that was
strengthened with an epoxy-based bamboo fibre composite plate had a
structural capacity that was approximately 32% to 36% greater than the beam
that was not enhanced. The beam that was strengthened flexibly with a
bamboo fibre epoxy-based composite plate had a larger beam capacity than
the control beam. Additionally, this study discovers that the addition of a
bamboo fibre composite plate reduces the formation of fractures in the
strengthened zone while increasing the beam's flexibility. All strengthening
configurations are detailed in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Detail of strengthening configuration: a) Strengthened in shear,

and b) Strengthened in flexural (Chin et al., 2020a).
Alam and Riyami (2018), Chin et al. (2018a), Bhutta et al. (2013), and
Chin et al. (2018b) strengthened the reinforced concrete beam using a precured
composite. The research on the usage of pre-cured natural fibre composites to
reinforce the RC beam is summarised in Table 5.
Table 5. Summary of the application of pre-cured composite

to strengthen the RC beam
Reference Composite Adhesive Strengthening Result

material method method
Chin et al. Bamboo fibre, Attached at Flexural An increment of 10 to
(2019) epoxy resin beam’s soffit by strengthening 12% of structural
using Sikadur-30 capacity.
Chin et al. Bamboo fibre, Attached at Shear The shear strengthening
(2020a) epoxy resin, beam’s soffit or strengthening method regains the
polyester resin, beam’s sides by Flexural beam’s capacity with
vinyl ester resin using Sikadur-30 strengthening openings of around 68
to 73% and reduces
deflection and the
number of cracks.
The flexural
strengthening method
regains the beam’s
capacity with openings
of around 98% and
changes the failure
mode of the beam.
Alam and Kenaf, jute, jute Attached at Shear The shear strengthening
Riyami rope, epoxy resin beam’s soffit by strengthening increases the failure
(2018) using Sikadur-30 load on the beam by
35% (kenaf), 36%
(jute) and 34% (jute
rope).
Chin et al. Mengkaung Attached at Flexural The strengthening
(2018a) leaves, epoxy beam’s soffit by strengthening configuration increases
resin using Sikadur-30 the beam strength by
10% and diverts the
flexural cracks to
diagonal shear cracks.
Bhutta et al. Kenaf fibre, Flexural The strengthening
(2013) epoxy resin, strengthening configuration increases
polyester resin, the specimen beam’s
vinyl ester resin ultimate load average
by 40% and reduced
the maximum
deflection by 24%.
Table 5. (Continued)
Reference Composite Adhesive Strengthening Result

material method method
Chin et al. Pineapple leave Attached at Flexural This method increases
(2018b) fibre, epoxy beam’s soffit by strengthening the beam’s strength and
resin using Sikadur-30 reduces the deflection
by up to 45% than the
control beam.
When compared to precured strengthening, the wet lay-up strengthening

procedure significantly increases the specimen's capacity. The summary of the
installation of the composite through the wet lay-up method is illustrated in
Table 6. The bonding force between the composite and the specimen can have
a significant effect on the strength of the specimen. Additionally, the region
of bonding between the composite and specimen has an effect on the
strengthening configuration's efficiency. Prior research on the strengthening
configuration of bamboo fibre composites has concentrated on pre-cured
reinforcement rather than wet lay-up. There is a void in the literature about the
investigation of the strengthening configuration of bamboo fibre composites
using the wet lay-up process.
Table 6. Summary of the installation of composite

through wet lay-up method to strengthen the RC beam
Reference Composite Reinforced Strengthening Result

material layer method
Siriluk et al. Hemp fibre, 1, 2 Shear Single-layer composite
(2018) epoxy resin strengthening increases 27% to 32% of the
either on both beam’s ultimate load
sides or U- capacity; second-layer
wrapped composite increases 46% to
50% of the beam’s ultimate
load capacity
Huang et al. Flax fibre, 4, 6 Flexural The flux fibre composite
(2016) epoxy resin strengthening increases the beam’s
either on both ultimate load from around
sides or beam’s 15.5% to 112.2% due to the
soffit increment in the
composite’s fibre layer
Reference Composite Reinforced Strengthening Result

material layer method
Sen and Jute fibre, 1 Flexural The full-wrapped
Reddy epoxy resin strengthening in strengthening technique
(2013) U-wrap either in increases the beam’s load-
the full length of carrying capacity by around
the span or in strip 62.5% while the strip jute
form fibre composite increases
the beam’s capacity by
around 25%.
Khan and Woven jute 1 Flexural A fully U-wrap flexural
Rahman fibre, epoxy strengthening in strengthening configuration
(2018) resin U-wrap either in a increases the beam’s load-
full wrap or in carrying capacity by around
strip form 40% which is higher than
the strip wrap which only
improves by 25%.
5. Future Trends and Challenges of Bamboo Fibre Composites
5.1. Future Trends
Solutions to reduce pollution and energy consumption are being discovered as

a result of the growing awareness of sustainability in buildings and the desire
to accomplish the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The
construction industry is claimed to be the world's second least environmentally
friendly business, owing mostly to high energy consumption, the use of non-
renewable minerals, and the industry's significant air pollution. As a result,
many studies have been conducted to identify alternative materials that can be
used to mitigate the negative environmental implications associated with this
'label.'
The use of bamboo fibre composite in real-life construction will continue
to rise as more research is undertaken on enhancing the bamboo fibre
composite and as more people become aware of the importance of
sustainability in construction. Indeed, in the modern world, more study is
being conducted on the usage of sustainable materials to completely replace
conventional building materials. This indicates that there is a possibility that
one day, construction sites will no longer use stones or cement, but will instead
use bamboo fibres and other ingredients regarded to be sustainable building
materials.
5.2. Challenges
The disadvantages of employing bamboo fibre composites include the fact that
not all countries have easy access to bamboo plants. This is because not all
weather conditions are conducive to bamboo plantations. Indeed, changing
climatic conditions alter the growth of the bamboo plant, reducing its potential
for use as a building material. As stated previously in this sub-topic, the use
of bamboo as a building material is only appropriate for particular species. As
a result, the global adoption of bamboo fibre composites is difficult.
Another issue is the scarcity of bamboo as a construction material. If
bamboo fibre composites are to be used primarily as a building material,
demand for bamboo will increase. This means that when supply is insufficient
to meet demand, there will be a massive demand for bamboo.
Another disadvantage of bamboo is the absence of set requirements for
the material. Government promotion is one method of promoting bamboo
utilisation. This means that as the local government begins to employ it in
buildings, more people will become aware of the benefits and will be enticed
to adopt the same material. However, due to a lack of standard requirements,
the usage of bamboo as a construction material lacks a standard to the general
public can follow if they wish to utilise it in construction. This also undermines
the public's confidence in the material, as it lacks a standard.
Conclusion
This chapter discussed the possibilities of using bamboo as a sustainable

building material, not merely to conserve non-renewable minerals on the
planet, but also to improve the performance of building materials. Based on
the discussion of the preceding sub-topics, it can be inferred that the use of
bamboo fibre composite can improve the performance of concrete
construction. However, because of the diversity of bamboo species, careful
selection will be necessary, as only a few species of bamboo possess the
strength and qualities necessary for usage as construction materials. Apart
from the species of bamboo used, the performance of the bamboo fibre
composite is also determined by a few crucial parameters.
The first factor affecting the performance of the bamboo fibre composite
is the method of fibre extraction. Bamboo fibre can be removed mechanically,
chemically, or by a combination of the two methods. Between mechanical and
chemical extraction, the amount of lignin in the bamboo must be removed to

ensure the composite's good performance. Thus, either method is acceptable
as long as the lignin is removed from the bamboo, as a high lignin
concentration reduces the bonding between the fibre and the composite.
Another critical factor affecting the performance of the bamboo fibre
composite is the manufacturing process. Bamboo fibre composites are
manufactured in a variety of ways. The hand lay-up method, the compressive
mould method, and the injection method are the most frequently utilised.
According to the numerous studies undertaken, the hand lay-up approach had
the weakest qualities. This is mostly owing to the absence of pressure in
comparison to other manufacturing methods, such as the compressive mould
method.
Apart from that, the third parameter is the percentage of filler in the
matrix, abbreviated as volume fraction. As with other composite materials, it
is critical to determine the filler-to-matrix ratio for bamboo fibre composite.
Because composite materials are composed of both filler and matrix,
achieving the optimal ratio of the bamboo fibre to matrix results in a bamboo
composite with superior mechanical properties.
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Index
A benefits, 6, 123, 154, 155, 165, 167, 170,

171, 172, 176, 181, 189, 191, 248
accelerated carbonation, 1, 5, 10, 11, 13, binder, 6, 9, 18, 25, 31, 38, 45, 46, 47, 48,
14, 15, 21, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 49, 50, 51, 60, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 86,
acid, 48, 60, 62, 65, 66, 67, 71, 79, 86, 101, 88, 90, 96, 120, 122, 123, 153, 154, 159,
102, 103, 104, 110, 121, 161, 168, 177, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 172,
220, 224, 225, 231, 252 174, 175, 184, 186, 187
additives, 45, 50, 61, 140, 149 blended cement mix, 94, 112, 113, 114
adhesion, 225, 226, 241, 251, 253 bonding, 65, 94, 114, 150, 179, 238, 240,
age, 6, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 94, 105, 115, 241, 246, 249
132, 142, 147, 148, 168, 176, 213, 214, building materials, vii, 45, 46, 48, 49, 60,
218, 221, 222, 224, 240, 252, 253 94, 104, 114, 118, 154, 155, 156, 159,
aggregate gradation, 192, 207, 209 210, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 222, 247,
aluminium, 140, 219, 226 248, 252, 253, 254
Asia, 151, 214, 215, 216 by-products, 1, 31, 157, 164, 174, 181
assessment, 88, 126, 184, 185, 186, 187,
240, 250
C
atmosphere, 46, 47, 58, 166, 172
attrition, 191, 192, 194, 198, 204, 205, 206, calcium, 6, 8, 50, 67, 95, 97, 98, 100, 107,
207, 208, 209 120, 122, 139, 143, 161, 163, 164, 165,
awareness, 7, 214, 247 167, 169, 172, 177, 187, 188
capillary, 1, 4, 5, 13, 15, 23
B carbon, 2, 7, 32, 47, 48, 96, 99, 153, 166,
172, 177, 178, 180, 183, 187, 215, 226,
bamboo fibre, vii, 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 229, 250, 252, 254
220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228, carbon dioxide (CO2), 5, 6, 11, 13, 21, 23,
229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 32, 33, 34, 47, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165,
237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 166, 167, 172, 178, 181, 185, 189, 193,
245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 215
253, 254, 255 carbon emissions, 2, 32, 48, 153, 166, 187
barriers, 5, 154, 163, 181, 186, 187 case study, 170, 186, 187, 189
base, 19, 46, 101, 127, 131, 132, 170, 177, casting, 10, 70, 104, 118, 132, 141, 142,
189, 217, 229, 253 228
beams, 10, 12, 134, 163, 219, 243, 244, cellulose, 223, 231, 253
250, 251, 252, 254 ceramic, 50, 59, 189, 226
bending, 12, 187, 217, 220, 229, 238, 240
258 Index
challenges, vii, 154, 155, 160, 170, 183, conference, 149, 150, 151, 184, 250, 251
186, 214, 253 configuration, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247
chemical, 3, 6, 8, 16, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, constituents, 50, 96, 97, 105, 164, 172
61, 62, 82, 86, 87, 89, 93, 96, 98, 104, construction, v, vii, 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 35, 36,
118, 136, 139, 140, 153, 154, 159, 160, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 49, 54, 60, 88,
217, 218, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 90, 93, 118, 139, 149, 150, 151, 153,
230, 240, 241, 249 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163,
China, 3, 163, 214, 216, 217 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 174, 176, 179,
climate, 189, 214, 216 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187,
coal, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 50, 61, 94, 95, 122, 188, 189, 191, 192, 193, 202, 210, 211,
164, 167, 174, 189 213, 214, 216, 218, 219, 220, 221, 247,
coal bottom ash (CBA), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 255
8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, consumption, 2, 3, 6, 8, 60, 95, 116, 120,
31, 32, 33, 34, 167 161, 170, 172, 182, 247
coarse aggregate, 31, 119, 120, 124, 136, cooling, 49, 51, 59, 67, 100
137, 142, 184, 192, 194, 198, 200, 202, correction factors, 200, 203, 209
203, 204, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211 corrosion, 46, 48, 54, 55, 89, 90, 219
combustion, 3, 6, 8, 48, 94, 95, 100 cost, 3, 5, 31, 32, 34, 39, 48, 118, 122, 153,
commercial, 50, 90, 136, 154, 155, 156, 155, 160, 163, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171,
157, 160, 183, 220, 227, 253 172, 174, 180, 182, 187, 188, 189, 215,
compaction, 2, 118, 129, 130, 131, 194, 217, 219, 226
197, 200, 209 cracks, 16, 18, 245
compliance, 13, 171, 179 crystals, 49, 51, 68, 178
composite materials, 46, 48, 49, 50, 56, 61, curing, 2, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,
63, 217, 218, 219, 226, 236, 245, 246, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34,
247, 249, 251, 252, 253 70, 94, 95, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111,
composites, vii, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 55, 56, 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 138, 165, 166,
60, 118, 151, 213, 214, 217, 218, 219, 168, 170, 175, 176, 177, 178, 180, 187,
220, 221, 223, 224, 226, 227, 229, 230, 218, 226, 227, 229
231, 232, 233, 234, 240, 241, 243, 245,
246, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, D
255
composition, 3, 6, 48, 50, 56, 61, 62, 68, defects, 8, 56, 58, 59, 60, 63
70, 98, 139, 175, 177 deformability, 119, 120, 138
Compressible Packing Model (CPM), 192, deformation, 74, 76, 79, 81, 219
194, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, degradation, 2, 5, 31, 46, 49, 55, 66, 69, 79,
203, 204, 208, 209 120
compression, 71, 133, 135, 176, 177, 179, depth, 21, 22, 23, 34
221, 225, 227, 229, 236, 240 destruction, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,
compressive strength, 1, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 65, 71, 73, 78, 86, 88, 89
14, 15, 16, 18, 25, 26, 27, 28, 33, 62, 65, detection, 55, 56, 58, 89
70, 94, 95, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 114, dispersion, 23, 117, 119, 121
122, 133, 134, 140, 141, 142, 145, 146, distribution, 50, 55, 58, 59, 71, 72, 73, 83,
147, 148, 149, 160, 166, 168, 175, 176, 84, 85, 87, 97, 118, 194, 196, 198, 200,
177, 187, 189, 214, 219, 221, 222, 236 202, 203, 204, 206, 209
Index 259
diversity, 220, 248, 250 142, 145, 146, 148, 149, 165, 175, 214,
dosage, 140, 142, 146, 148 219, 228, 230, 232, 233, 238, 239, 240,
durability, 1, 4, 5, 10, 25, 26, 34, 36, 37, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 47, 49, 50, 61, 88, fly ash (FA), vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 15,
91, 118, 120, 121, 124, 143, 149, 150, 17, 18, 31, 32, 33, 50, 54, 89, 93, 94, 95,
151, 152, 160, 161, 164, 165, 168, 171, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
177, 178, 181, 182, 184, 220, 228, 250 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112,
113, 114, 118, 122, 123, 124, 139, 140,
E 149, 150, 164, 167, 168, 169, 174, 177,
186, 187, 188, 189, 210
elasticity, 214, 219, 220, 222, 240, 241, force, 135, 217, 219, 246
242 formaldehyde, 220, 221, 235, 237, 241,
electromagnetic, 56, 57, 58 242
emission, 32, 157, 166, 187 formation, 16, 20, 68, 122, 143, 155, 177,
energy, 6, 7, 8, 47, 60, 94, 120, 159, 160, 227, 244
170, 172, 182, 184, 185, 186, 192, 215, France, 101, 184, 185
223, 229, 247
energy consumption, 120, 161, 170, 247
G
engineering, 1, 2, 61, 149, 151, 153, 154,
156, 159, 177, 188, 189, 217, 250, 254 gel, 16, 120, 121, 122, 143, 177
environment, 4, 7, 8, 47, 62, 71, 91, 93, 95, geopolymer concrete, vii, 6, 153, 154, 155,
102, 165, 174, 186, 230 156, 159, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168,
environmental impact, 2, 161, 164 169, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177,
equipment, 129, 130, 224, 231 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, 187,
ester, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 234, 239, 189
243, 244, 245, 250 geopolymers, v, vii, 6, 153, 154, 155, 156,
Europe, 3, 173, 183 159, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
evidence, 167, 171, 214, 227 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178,
exposure, 11, 13, 21, 23, 26, 34, 46, 49, 63, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186,
65, 71, 79, 81, 86, 96, 241, 255 187, 188, 189
extraction, 83, 102, 213, 223, 224, 225, global warming, 5, 32, 33, 38, 189
226, 248, 251, 252 glycol, 234, 239, 252
grades, 105, 117, 141, 143, 145, 147, 148,
F 149
gravity, 129, 130, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142,
fabrication, 48, 115, 213, 217, 222, 223, 193, 194, 195, 196, 205, 206
226, 227, 230, 231, 250, 252, 254 greenhouse, 47, 48, 153, 154, 161, 170,
fiber, 50, 175, 176, 249, 250, 251, 252, 172, 174, 175, 178, 185
253, 254, 255 greenhouse gas emissions, 48, 161, 170,
fillers, 50, 51, 60, 62, 86, 90, 119 174
fine aggregate, 7, 123, 137, 138, 142, 150, growth, 2, 3, 49, 68, 215, 221, 248
192, 198, 203, 204 guidelines, 9, 149, 192, 193
first generation, 194, 198, 202, 203, 204,
206, 207, 208
flexural strength, 1, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15,
18, 19, 25, 26, 30, 31, 34, 70, 71, 135,
260 Index
H J
height, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 135, J.D. Dewar Model (JDD), 192, 194, 196,
222, 224, 234, 236, 238, 252 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204,
high strength, 140, 141, 164, 165, 198, 208, 209
204, 217, 219, 251 Japan, 3, 97, 99, 100, 126, 129, 131, 215,
high volume fly ash-coal bottom ash self- 216
compacting concrete (HVFA-CBA-
SCC), 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, L
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34
history, 55, 154, 159, 181, 214 landfills, 3, 9, 31, 86, 95, 174
homogeneity, 51, 63, 65, 86 leaching, 93, 94, 95, 105, 106, 110, 115,
Hong Kong, 189, 192, 214, 217 116, 120
human, 9, 38, 95 lead, 6, 50, 79, 82, 88, 95, 96, 111, 153,
humidity, 13, 49, 70, 106 169, 236
hybrid, 150, 233, 236, 240, 249, 252, 253, life cycle, 61, 104, 184, 185, 187
255 light, 58, 97, 217, 223, 227
hydroxide, 6, 95, 122, 143, 172, 179, 225, lignin, 223, 224, 225, 226, 249
230, 238 limestone, 50, 122, 172
I M
ideal, 4, 63, 165, 217, 222 machinery, 31, 32, 179

image, 58, 59, 60, 63, 64, 68, 73, 79, 83, magnesium, 67, 100, 121, 149, 226
89, 91, 149 majority, 170, 192, 217
image analysis, 60, 63, 89, 91 Malaysia, 213, 220, 273
imaging systems, 59, 72, 73, 89 management, 9, 47, 160, 185, 186, 189
immersion, 49, 62, 71, 94, 132 manufacturing, 45, 48, 50, 69, 70, 71, 86,
India, 1, 2, 3, 6, 35, 37, 41, 93, 94, 95, 96, 160, 163, 172, 174, 181, 194, 215, 217,
97, 98, 104, 105, 107, 116, 117, 139, 220, 221, 226, 227, 249, 251, 253, 254
150, 152, 191, 210 mass, 6, 13, 62, 68, 76, 79, 110, 231
industry, v, vii, 2, 6, 7, 54, 59, 90, 93, 95, materials, vii, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 31, 45, 46, 48,
121, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 160, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65,
161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 66, 67, 70, 72, 79, 86, 87, 90, 95, 96,
172, 174, 176, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 104, 118, 120, 121, 136, 138, 139, 142,
183, 185, 186, 187, 191, 192, 215, 218, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 159,
247, 253 161, 163, 164, 166, 171, 174, 180, 181,
infrared thermography, vii, 46, 55, 56, 58, 182, 183, 186, 192, 210, 214, 215, 216,
59, 60, 66, 67, 71, 83, 87, 89 217, 218, 221, 226, 240, 247, 248, 249,
infrastructure, 160, 182, 186 250, 251, 252, 253, 254
ingredients, 32, 142, 176, 215, 247 matrix, 15, 20, 23, 68, 89, 90, 101, 120,
interfacial adhesion, 225, 226, 251, 253 213, 214, 217, 218, 220, 223, 226, 229,
iron, 8, 67, 100, 139, 140, 142 232, 233, 236, 238, 240, 241, 243, 249
issues, 170, 171, 183, 187, 214 matter, 3, 56, 120
measurement, 55, 56, 58, 59, 63, 67, 72,
89, 91
Index 261
mechanical properties, vii, 4, 5, 18, 25, 26, multi-recycled aggregate, vii, 191, 192,
34, 49, 50, 51, 62, 69, 70, 73, 87, 117, 207, 211
118, 149, 152, 171, 181, 186, 214, 218,
219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 227, 228, 230, N
231, 232, 233, 236, 238, 240, 241, 243,
249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255 nanoalumina (Nano Al2O3), v, 117, 118,
melting, 52, 54, 61, 69, 86 119, 122, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148
mercury, 54, 88, 95, 115 nanomaterials, v, vii, 117, 118, 132, 133,
metals, 3, 9, 46, 90, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 148, 149, 151, 152, 193, 211
102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 111, nanoparticles, 41, 117, 118, 119, 122, 142,
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 121, 138, 217, 145, 146, 149, 150, 151
226, 229, 249 nanosilica (Nano SiO2) (NS), v, 117, 118,
methodology, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 71, 87, 119, 120, 121, 122, 142, 143, 144, 145,
106, 123, 124, 181, 182, 187, 194 146, 148
microstructure, 6, 15, 18, 25, 63, 68, 71, nanotechnology, 118, 120, 149
100, 117, 119, 149, 186, 211, 249 natural aggregate, 8, 9, 31, 191, 192, 193,
missions, 5, 6, 47, 48, 161, 165, 166, 167, 194, 195, 202, 206, 209, 215
172, 175, 181 natural coarse aggregates (NCA), 1, 2, 4, 5,
mixes, 1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 9, 10, 15, 18, 21, 23, 31, 32, 33, 34, 192
20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, natural fibres, vii, 214, 218, 219, 223, 245,
94, 95, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 249, 253
117, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, natural fine aggregates (NFA), 1, 4, 9, 10,
129, 130, 132, 141, 143, 144, 145, 149, 16, 18, 23, 32, 33
150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 168, 176, 178, natural resources, 5, 7, 9, 31, 161, 166, 191
194, 198, 210, 211, 215, 226
mixing, 51, 52, 53, 54, 60, 61, 67, 69, 70, O
86, 98, 138, 142, 216, 218 obstacles, 120, 154, 155, 171
models, 61, 192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 203, oil, 47, 67, 86, 91, 105, 133
204, 208, 209, 210, 211 optimization, 150, 151, 210
modified sulfur, 45, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 61, Ordinary Portland cement, 68, 104, 114,
67, 68, 69, 86, 88 136, 137
Modified Toufar Model (MTM), 192, 194,
196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204,
P
208, 209
modulus, 18, 134, 137, 138, 142, 214, 219, packing density, 192, 194, 196, 197, 198,
220, 221, 222, 224, 227, 228, 230, 233, 199, 200, 202, 203, 208
238, 240, 241 particle packing, vii, 51, 118, 192, 194,
moisture, 5, 49, 51, 219, 221, 222, 228, 196, 200, 203, 208, 209, 210
231, 250 particle packing models (PPM), 192, 196,
moisture content, 221, 222, 231 200, 203, 208, 210, 211
molds, 69, 70, 86, 169, 227 petroleum, 47, 153, 213
monomers, 154, 159, 226 pH, 94, 95, 96, 98, 106, 107, 110, 111, 114,
mortar cubes, 93, 94, 95, 106, 114, 137, 121, 138, 224
140 phenol, 220, 221, 235, 237, 241, 242
moulding, 106, 229, 231, 234, 236, 240
262 Index
phenol formaldehyde (PF), 220, 235, 237, R

242
physical and mechanical properties, 118, radiation, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 72, 99,
220, 222, 241, 252, 255 164
physical characteristics, 137, 139, 220 raw materials, 2, 7, 8, 86, 95, 164
physical properties, 56, 89, 136, 138, 167, reactions, 76, 77, 79, 81, 82, 218
192, 194, 196, 198, 200, 204, 206, 208, reactivity, 86, 117, 118, 119, 140, 142
209, 228, 255 recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), 1, 2,
physical-mechanical properties, 220, 221, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
252, 254 22, 23, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 159,
plants, 3, 5, 6, 54, 93, 94, 95, 97, 122, 170, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 192,
248, 253 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 201,
plasticizer, 141, 142, 240 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209,
point load, 134, 243, 244 210, 211
pollution, 2, 3, 46, 116, 192, 247 recycling, 2, 37, 38, 40, 42, 115, 174, 186,
polymer composites, 45, 48, 49, 50, 217, 189, 193, 196, 200, 208, 210, 211
218, 253, 254 regression, 25, 34, 79, 81
polymer matrix, 89, 90, 218, 226 regulations, 47, 157, 180
polymerization, 45, 48, 49, 50, 168, 175 reinforcement, 6, 89, 118, 124, 128, 130,
polymers, v, vii, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 131, 138, 151, 176, 189, 214, 217, 219,
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 226, 229, 233, 238, 243, 246, 253
71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, requirements, 5, 7, 50, 68, 119, 125, 132,
84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 153, 159, 161, 137, 140, 141, 142, 169, 170, 180, 182,
164, 165, 185, 188, 189, 217, 218, 226, 193, 216, 248
227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 236, 249, researchers, vii, 2, 9, 121
250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255 residue, 6, 94, 139, 174
polypropylene, 223, 229, 253 resins, 154, 213, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232,
ponds, 3, 95, 104 255
porosity, 20, 23, 25, 51, 56, 62, 71, 101, resistance, 5, 23, 48, 51, 87, 89, 119, 120,
119, 163, 207 124, 125, 142, 149, 154, 155, 161, 165,
Portland cement (PC), 1, 6, 9, 10, 17, 18, 168, 177, 178, 180, 216, 219, 220, 222,
45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 229, 232, 240, 250
66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 73, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, resolution, 58, 59, 62, 72
83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 94, 96, 114, 136, resources, 2, 5, 7, 9, 31, 95, 159, 160, 166,
139, 150, 153, 154, 155, 156, 159, 161, 182, 186, 191
162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, response, 60, 71, 82, 252
170, 171, 172, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, rheology, 69, 122, 144
181, 182, 187, 188 risk, 4, 6, 25, 96, 174, 179, 180
power plants, 3, 5, 6, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, room temperature, 69, 121, 165, 225, 230
122
preparation, 51, 67, 236, 238, 255 S
principles, 55, 56, 61, 90 safety, 7, 46, 178, 179
project, 170, 187, 215 salts, 50, 54, 138
protection, 47, 54, 216, 226, 234 science, 55, 120, 149, 150, 185, 188, 253
purity, 67, 123, 143 second generation, 194, 195, 203, 204
Index 263
secondary sulfur, 45, 48, 91 specific gravity, 137, 138, 139, 193, 194,
segregation, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 129, 196, 206
138, 142 specific surface, 118, 119, 120, 121, 143
selenium, 8, 95, 111 specifications, 132, 141, 145, 178, 180
self-compacting concrete (SCC), vii, 1, 2, split tensile strength, 4, 18, 19, 136, 142,
4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 145, 146, 147, 149
22, 23, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34, 39, 117, 118, stability, 49, 51, 79, 81, 86, 90, 118, 119,
119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 123, 125, 126, 151
129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 137, 141, 142, stakeholders, 167, 168, 170, 182
143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, states, 3, 18, 39, 46, 47, 50, 53, 88, 89, 90,
152 91, 117, 119, 139, 141, 163, 164, 165,
Serbia, 45, 67, 88, 89, 91 174, 184, 185, 192, 193
shape, 8, 50, 51, 101, 127, 128, 131, 137, steel, 6, 54, 130, 131, 132, 134, 138, 150,
169, 203, 215, 217, 219, 227 161, 164, 175, 188, 215, 219, 221, 230
shear, 118, 179, 219, 220, 222, 229, 230, storage, 46, 93, 104, 161
243, 244, 245, 254 stress, 87, 120, 133, 135, 232, 240, 241
shear strength, 219, 220, 222, 229, 230, structural changes, 46, 65, 73, 87
245 structure, vii, 23, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 73,
showing, 12, 13, 168, 202 79, 81, 86, 87, 88, 117, 164, 208, 215,
silane, 223, 233, 241 216, 217, 219, 221, 226, 227, 236, 255
silica, 8, 89, 97, 98, 117, 118, 119, 120, substitution, 1, 4, 15, 18, 94
121, 122, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, sulfate, 6, 122, 143, 149, 163, 165, 225
146, 166, 177 sulfur, v, vii, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52,
silica fume, 89, 118, 140, 141, 166 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
silicon, 67, 100, 121, 226 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81,
Singapore, 98, 104, 189 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91,
sintering, 89 100
SiO2 (Quartz), v, 68, 98, 99, 117, 120, 121, sulfur polymer concrete, vii, 45, 46, 51, 54,
139, 140, 142, 143, 145, 148, 149, 150, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71,
152 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,
skeleton, 192, 193, 194, 197 85, 86, 87, 88, 89
skin, 4, 9, 240, 241, 255 Super Plasticizer (SP), 10, 32, 33, 118,
slag, 50, 60, 122, 160, 164, 165, 166, 184, 119, 122, 141, 142
188 surface area, 97, 98, 118, 119, 120, 121,
sodium, 67, 100, 121, 140, 178, 225, 230, 123, 137, 139, 143
238 surface properties, 191, 193, 198
sodium hydroxide, 178, 225, 230, 238 surface treatment, 191, 192, 211, 254
solid waste, 2, 95, 174, 185 surplus, 47, 127, 128, 129, 131
solidification, 54, 61, 67, 90, 95 sustainability, 2, 7, 9, 95, 157, 180, 184,
solution, 21, 33, 34, 60, 62, 67, 71, 86, 96, 185, 191, 192, 247, 252
98, 111, 121, 172, 177, 178, 224, 225, sustainable development, 1, 54, 90, 174,
228, 230, 233, 236, 238, 240 184, 247, 252
speciation, 93, 96, 101, 105 swelling, 163, 222, 240, 241
species, 213, 215, 216, 220, 221, 241, 248, Switzerland, 40, 90, 185
250, 253, 254, 255 synthesis, 46, 60, 67, 90, 254
264 Index
T U
tanks, 11, 110, 132 uniform, 105, 133, 135
techniques, 55, 60, 91, 125, 218, 223, 226, United States (USA), 3, 39, 47, 50, 88, 89,
227, 252 90, 91, 102, 104, 115, 165
technology, 1, 35, 37, 40, 45, 48, 55, 56,
61, 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 96, 116, 117, 131, V
151, 156, 157, 160, 174, 181, 182, 183,
184, 185, 186, 188, 189, 210, 213, 219, variables, 25, 171, 227
231, 250, 253 variations, 56, 57, 63, 203
temperature, 11, 13, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, velocity, 60, 65, 229, 252
55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, viscosity, 68, 69, 118, 120, 122, 123, 141,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 151, 164, 226
84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 100, 103, 121, 161,
163, 165, 169, 172, 175, 176, 177, 188, W
224, 225, 227, 228, 230, 231, 252 Washington, 89, 90, 115
tensile strength, 1, 4, 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, waste, v, vii, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 31, 35,
17, 18, 19, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34, 134, 136, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 47, 54, 86, 87, 88, 90,
142, 145, 146, 147, 149, 176, 177, 214, 95, 96, 115, 116, 157, 158, 161, 164,
219, 221, 222, 224, 228, 229, 231, 234, 166, 167, 170, 174, 181, 184, 185, 186,
235, 238, 243, 249 187, 188, 189, 191, 192, 210, 211
testing, 19, 31, 46, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, water, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 20, 23,
65, 67, 70, 72, 87, 89, 91, 133, 135, 141, 25, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 35, 38, 45, 46, 49,
142, 151, 178, 188, 220, 222, 230, 234, 50, 56, 67, 70, 94, 95, 98, 103, 104, 105,
240, 241 106, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
thermal properties, 46, 56, 71, 79, 81, 250 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 128, 129,
thermal stability, 79, 81, 86 132, 133, 138, 141, 142, 143, 149, 166,
thermograms, 58, 77, 83 167, 169, 172, 177, 178, 187, 193, 195,
toxic metals, 93, 95, 96, 104 196, 205, 206, 207, 209, 220, 221, 222,
transportation, 31, 32, 170 223, 224, 225, 231, 240, 251
treatment, 21, 47, 54, 63, 65, 73, 81, 82, water absorption, 4, 5, 16, 23, 25, 26, 28,
86, 96, 191, 192, 193, 211, 220, 225, 29, 31, 193, 196, 206, 207, 209, 220,
226, 230, 231, 233, 235, 240, 241, 249, 240
252, 254 wavelengths, 56, 57, 58, 59
trial, 124, 142, 197 weight loss, 204, 205, 206, 209
weight ratio, 217, 227, 236, 238
worldwide, 3, 160, 172
Editors’ Contact Information
Dr Kong Fah Tee

Associate Professor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Interdisciplinary Research Center for Construction
and Building Materials
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
tee.fah@kfupm.edu.sa; kftee2010@gmail.com
Dr. Siew Choo Chin

Associate Professor
University of Malaysia Pahang
Pahang, Malaysia
scchin@ump.edu.my
Dr. Koorosh Gharehbaghi

Lecturer
RMIT University
Melbourne, Australia
koorosh.gharehbaghi@rmit.edu.au

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Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

Preface .......................................................................................... vii

Chapter 7 Bamboo Fibre Composites:

Cement and Concrete: Design, Performance, and Structure presents advances

The Performance of Green Self-Compacting

Encompassing waste by-products in concrete such as recycled concrete

In: Cement and Concrete

The outcomes revealed that, despite of the noticed decrement(s) in

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) has been truly phenomenal since coming in

The principal objective of this experimental program is to study the impact of

3.1. Fly Ash

3.2. Coal Bottom Ash

Coal is a primary source of generating heat and electricity through the

electricity, along with the generation of 15%-20% of CBA (Navdeep Singh,

3.3. Recycled Concrete Aggregates

The safety of the environment is a fundamental aspect, which is interconnected

• Creating 50% of total waste.

Figure 1. Approximation data of demolition waste.

Nowadays in construction works, the use of RCA is a subject of higher

4. Environmental and Health Issues

heavy metals which are characterized as ‘Group-I human carcinogenic

5.1. SCC Mix Proportions

The proportions of various HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes are mentioned in

Table 1. Mix designations and description of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes

S no Mix Mix explanation in detail

Table 2. Detailed proportions used in HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes

Mix W/B SP Water FA RCA CBA PC NCA NFA

In order to obtain the desired workability superplasticizer of the brand

5.2. Details and Curing Methods

Test Number of Curing period Exposure period

Figure 2. Temperature controlled curing tank.

6.1. Compressive Strength

As recommended by Indian Standard 516-1959 on a 2000 KN ‘Compression

6.2. Tensile Strength

According to Indian Standard 5816:1999 on a 2000 KN ‘Compression Testing

6.3. Flexural Strength

As recommended by ASTM C293/C293M, a flexural strength test was

6.4. Initial Surface Absorption Test

As recommended by BS 1881- 208:1996, the Initial Surface Absorption Test

6.5. Accelerated Carbonation

In accordance with RILEM CPC-18, accelerated carbonation tests were

6.6. Capillary Suction Absorption Test

(a) Compressive strength (b) Tensile strength

(c) Flexural strength (d) Initial Surface absorption test

(e) Accelerated carbonation (f) Capillary suction

Figure 3. Pictorial view of the test (s) performed.

7. Outcomes and Discussion

The following segment represents the observed findings of the HVFA-CBA-

7.1. Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is usually the most common and fundamental property

Figure 4. Compressive strength values of HVFA-CBA-SCC mixes comprising RCA.

The experienced loss in compressive strength of SCC mixes containing