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 Chapter 7

Writing and Speaking

I. CHAPTER SUMMARY
Learning outcomes for this chapter
LO 7.1 Explain the best technique for getting started and writing a first
draft
LO 7.2 Identify the process of moving from first draft to final draft
LO 7.3 Discuss how to conquer fear of public speaking and make effective
oral presentations

Message to the student

Writing and speaking are expressions of our thinking. If you cannot write
it, say it, or in some other way re-create it, as far as the world–especially the
world of education–is concerned, you don't know it. You must find a way
(technique) and the courage (integrity) to share your thoughts, opinions, beliefs,
and feelings. Implicit in this process is an ability to revise, revisit, and/or rethink
your ideas. Writing and speaking are skills that allow us to organize and thus
make sense out of what is in our heads and hearts. On a more pragmatic side,
people make decisions about investments, products, and employees based on how
information is presented or written.
Not only must the information you provide be reliable, relevant, and
accurate, it needs to be yours. No doubt you are aware of shortcuts and options for
purchasing papers online or from other students. This is an inexcusable act in the
academic world. It is far better to accept a failing grade than to complete a task
with someone else’s work. Every assignment is an opportunity for you to act with
integrity about your ideas and your abilities. As a first-year student, you must
learn about the accepted practices for acknowledging others and making it a
priority to always cite the ideas and theories that others created. This chapter
provides you with processes for meeting these standards.

Message to the instructor

"Our words shape our thoughts and our thoughts form our actions."
Teaching students to appreciate the power of written and spoken communication
is a never-ending responsibility. We transmit our experiences and transform our
cultures through the expression of our ideas. Provide your students with constant
opportunities throughout the semester—not just when teaching this chapter—to
write, rewrite, speak, and restate their thoughts. Honor the different approaches
and abilities that each student brings to this process but hold each student
accountable to the highest standards of integrity. One of the most important
guidelines to remember when teaching first-year students is the need to emphasize
the process as much as the final product. Take the time to evaluate their
preliminary research efforts, request submission of rough drafts, provide time to
write during class, and do not forget to discuss citations. Each of these steps will
reinforce the notion that communication skills require time and revision.

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-1

 Recognize the strength and richness of our lives that comes with a diversity of
expressions. Assist students in assessing which "voice" is appropriate for their
message. And above all, teach them about plagiarism, citations, and academic
integrity.

II. KEY IDEAS AND CONCEPTS TO CONSIDER

Refer also to key terms listed in back of chapter:

voice
integrity
introspection
freewriting
webbing
mind maps
plagiarism
PREP
ABBCC
style sheets (MLA, APA, etc.)

III. CLARIFYING QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION PROMPTS

At the end of each chapter in the Annotated Instructor's Edition (AIE), teaching
tips, discussion prompts, student alerts and additional exercises and activities are
organized around specific learning outcomes. These questions can be used to
encourage class discussion, small group work, and/or individual reflection about
the information presented in this chapter.

1. How is writing a paper different from or similar to writing an essay on a test?

What about letter writing or journaling?
2. How do you decide what you want to say or write?
3. What language differences are there between speaking and writing?
4. Consider the many types of audiences that you address. In what ways do you
approach them the same or differently?
5. What is your attitude regarding writing assignments? Why have you
developed this belief?
6. What is plagiarism? How can you avoid being charged with this violation?
7. What are the purposes of citations, footnotes, and bibliographies?
8. How can your library/information commons assist you to learn how to cite
properly?

IV. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND ASSIGNMENTS

Consider using the following exercises when teaching this chapter. Always refer
to the Instructor's Annotations at the end of each chapter in the AIE. Those listed
below with an asterisk (*) can be found at the end of this chapter in Section VIII;
those with a double asterisk (**) are in the student text. Others are self-
explanatory.

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-2

 Discuss the strengths and weakness of different word processing programs and
computer writing tools. Pay particular attention to the use of spelling and
grammar checkers.
Provide students with an opportunity to make a presentation using a variety of
visual aids, including posters, overhead transparencies, PowerPoint
presentations, handouts, etc. Ask them to create guidelines for selecting
the appropriate visual aid for their presentations.
Generate a list of beliefs and fears related to writing and speaking. Create a list of
strategies for overcoming unnecessary stress.
*Think, Pair, Share (10 minutes, in class)
*Admit/Exit Cards (5 to 10 minutes, out of class)
*Reading a Paper Out Loud (15 to 20 minutes, in class)
*Journal Writing, Reflection Cards, and Reaction Cards (10 to 20 minutes, out of
class); see also AIE
*Fishbowl; see also AIE
* Teaching a Novel (or other Supplemental Reading) (several class sessions)
**Journal Reflections (10 to 15 minutes, in or out of class); see also AIE
**TRY IT! 1 (10 minutes; out of class; bring to class; possibly focused on a
health topic)
**TRY IT! 2 (10 minutes; in class)
**TRY IT! 6 (30 minutes; in class)

V. USING THE P.O.W.E.R. LEARNING PROCESS IN YOUR INSTRUCTION

Whether you are learning to learn or learning to teach, Bob Feldman’s
P.O.W.E.R. Learning process is a useful tool. Here are our ideas for applying this
process as an instructor with this chapter.

P.repare: Determine a skill you believe they need to know for effective
writing, such as how to cite information from another source.
Gather four examples of research papers (with citations) from your
colleagues, your students, or off the Internet; try to identify two
that are well documented and two that are poorly documented.
Eliminate any reference to the author and, if appropriate, the grade.
Make enough copies of each of these papers for your students to
have one of each.

O.rganize: Arrange for class time in a computer lab in your

library/information commons. Spend time prior to class searching
for useful and not so useful Web sites with information about
references (MLA, APA, or other style sheets). You will want to
bookmark these sites for easy reference.

W.ork: Provide students with one copy of the well documented and one
copy of the poorly documented research papers you gathered
earlier. In a general, open class discussion, allow them to ask

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-3

 questions and to share observations about the citations. Then, ask
them to provide a grade for the citation portion of the papers.
Share with them the Web sites that you identified with information
about references. Ask them to begin determining the value of the
Web sites based on their ease of use and availability of
information. Ask students to answer a series of questions regarding
the research paper they have, such as:
• Which style sheet was used in creating the citations of this
paper?
• Can your students find the sources indicated by the citations?
• What assumptions did the author make about citing
information in the paper?
• Are the citations useful and accurate? Why or why not?

Form small groups that allow students to tell each other about the
citation information they have uncovered. Arrange the first round
of discussion groups so that different style sheets are represented
and everyone can be exposed to similarities and differences. Then,
provide for a second round of discussion groups with "like style"
sheets (all MLA, APA, etc.). Ask these groups to come up with a
list of guidelines regarding reference citations and then to present
this information to their classmates. Encourage them to use visual
aids to get their point across.

E.valuate: Now, provide the second set of papers to the students. Ask them to
discuss the positive and negative aspects of these citations. Are
there any problems with the citations? What style is used? Is their
discussion more informed than the earlier discussion? How would
they evaluate the citation portion of the papers now?

R.ethink: Ask your students to write a short comparison between their earlier
evaluation of citations and their present evaluation. Have them
specifically discuss what they learned from this exercise regarding
the use of style sheets and citations.

TRY IT! In the space below, begin a teaching journal of the ideas that worked
and changes you would make the next time you teach this topic.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-4

 ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

VI. CONNECTIONS WITHIN THE TEXT

Consider bringing up this chapter's ideas again in the following contexts:

Chapter 2 time management; planning major projects such as research papers

and presentations are excellent opportunities to practice time
management skills.
Chapter 5 taking tests; it is through our writing and speaking that teachers,
employers, friends, and colleagues evaluate what we know.
Chapter 6 reading; this chapter provides ways for individuals to gather
information; have students read novels to improve their repertoire
of writing styles.
Chapter 10 connect writing to gathering and using information.
Career Chapter communication skills—writing and speaking—are critically
important for being hired and growing professionally

VII. CONTINUING THE CONVERSATION BEYOND THE CLASSROOM

Creating opportunities for learners to become actively involved in the process of
thinking, doing, and reflecting is a key role for the instructor. In addition to
supporting the private dialogue between the textbook author and the student, you
need to encourage students to share their thoughts with one another and with you,
thus extending the conversation into the classroom setting. We believe that you
must consciously connect the course content to
• the individual student’s life,
• the practices and programs in the broader academic community,
• the world in which we live—our global society.

Here are some ideas that can carry the conversation beyond the chapter activities.

GOAL: To connect the information to the individual student’s life.

1. Ask students to bring in their syllabi. Identify a paper or presentation that

must be completed in one of their classes prior to the end of the semester.
Create a timeline for completing this task.
2. Pair up students and ask them to introduce themselves to one another and
ask each other enough questions so that they can then introduce their
partner to the rest of the class.

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-5

GOAL: To connect the information to practices and programs in the broader
academic community.

1. Ask students to interview someone on campus with an interesting job or

career or role that is useful for students to know. Have your students write
a one-page summary and then create a PowerPoint presentation about the
individual and the responsibilities involved in their work.
2. Ask students to write about the importance of an educated individual
being able to speak.
3. Ask students to speak about the importance of an educated individual
being able to write.
4. Check out your university’s calendar for visiting speakers. Assign one
speaker to each student. Ask your students to research and prepare
introductory remarks for their speaker. It will be the responsibility of each
student to share both the introductory remarks and purpose of the talk in
class prior to the speaker’s appearance. This is a great way to have
students know what is happening on campus.

GOAL: To connect to the global society.

1. Ask students to bring in novels by foreign authors (that have been

translated into English) that they have read. In small groups, ask them to
identify the differences and similarities among diverse cultural voices.
2. Take a world situation that is in the news. Ask students to pair up. Give
one of them the responsibility of researching and writing up the
information and the other student the task of presenting it to the class.
Make certain to collect the paper and remind the speakers to use
appropriate visual aids during their presentations.

VIII. CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES TO SUPPORT TEACHING THIS CHAPTER

• Think/Pair/Share
• Admit/Exit Cards
• Reading a Paper Out Loud
• Journal Writing, Reflection Cards, and Reaction Cards
• Fishbowl Discussion
• Teaching a Novel (or other Supplemental Reading)

THINK/PAIR/SHARE

Think/Pair/Share is a collaborative learning activity. It allows students to collect their

thoughts about an idea, topic, or assignment and discuss their thoughts with someone else
before they are called upon to share them in a more public forum, such as the whole
class. The process is simple. Simply ask the group to think about their response to a
specific idea or question for a specified amount of time. Often, a period of 60 to 90
seconds is sufficient. Then, tell them to write a response to the idea or question.
Afterwards, pair them with another student (usually the person closest to them) and ask

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-6

that they listen to each other’s rough draft response. Finally, ask them to rewrite their
response to the idea or question on a 3 x 5 index card or some other sheet of paper and
place their name on it. Thus far, they have had time and support necessary for writing a
reasonable, thoughtful response to a question. By discussing their idea and hearing
someone else’s, the hope that a superior idea (as compared to the first one thought about)
will be formed.
The next step is to ask students to turn in their writings. Flip through the answers
at random and call on students to share what they wrote. This provides students with a
memory exercise. They learn that if they have thought about it, talked about it, and
written it, they are likely to recall it. After four to five students have spoken, call on
someone who has already shared their idea (again). The response will probably be:
“I already told you what I wrote.” Acknowledge that while this is true, it doesn’t mean
that they should stop thinking. (The first time you do this, try to pick a student you know
will respond well to this surprise.) Instead of simply being relieved that their turn is over,
they should continue integrating new ideas into their own thoughts. Students begin to
realize that their ideas can be constantly improved upon. This continual conversation
leads nicely into the idea that writing papers is also a continuous process of writing,
reading, sharing, and re-writing.

ADMIT/EXIT CARDS

There are many variations on this idea. Consider which of these ideas appeal to you; mix
and match ideas or create your own. Here are some examples:
1. To be admitted to class, students are told ahead of time that they must arrive
with a question about the topic to be discussed that day. The teacher arrives
early and collects the card with the question at the door. No card, no
admittance.
2. In the syllabus, students are informed that they must write a three to five
sentence paragraph responding to the prompt, “Since the last class, I have
observed or accomplished the following about my educational goals….” The
card with this paragraph is due at the beginning of each class period and must
include the student’s name and the date. Not only does this promote reflective
thinking about learning but also it creates a private conversation between the
faculty member and the student. Furthermore, the faculty member can use the
cards to determine class attendance and when the cards are returned, the
student has a record of his/her attendance as well.
3. Students are requested to record what they have read since the last class (be it
required or for pleasure) and to provide comments about their readings. Placed
on a 3 x 5 index card, with the student’s name and date, this card is taken up at
the beginning of each class.
4. At the end of each class, students have to provide a card in order to leave.
Request your students to do one of the following:
o write a summary of the day’s lesson.
o write one question that has been left unanswered about the day’s topic.
o make an observation about how today’s lecture applies to another
class.

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-7

 o define a keyword that summarizes the lesson.
o critique the instructor’s teaching.
o critique the student’s participation.
o identify the “muddiest point” from the lecture.
o suggest what the next class topic should or will be.

READING A PAPER OUT LOUD

This activity might seem a little awkward at first but it has proven to be a valuable way to
improve student papers and presentations. Often students will spend inordinate amounts
of time using grammar and spell checkers on their computers and still have many
mistakes that a simple out loud reading would correct. You can save a lot of time in your
grading and correcting of papers by giving students a specific deadline for turning in their
final drafts and on that day, pair them with another student. At the sound of a tone (or
other starting prompt), have one person from each pair read their paper out loud to the
other person, who has been instructed to simply listen. Your room will be filled with a
cacophony of noise, which is just fine. It will take approximately two minutes for each
page of paper to be read so this exercise works best with a short paper of two to five
pages of text. Encourage students to read with a pen or pencil in their hand and to circle
words, phrases, or sentences that don’t read right. They should ask their partner to raise
their hand when a sentence or a word doesn’t sound right. At the end of a specific amount
of time (five to seven minutes is usually enough), stop them even if it is mid-sentence,
and allow them to consult with their partner. Then, switch readers. The partner reads his
or her paper and the first reader becomes a listener for the next five to seven minutes.
Then, ask students if they are satisfied with their papers. If they are, those papers should
be accepted. If they are not, allow them to have until the next class period to repair them.
Make it known that this was a one-time demonstration of what can be done to improve
with final drafts, and encourage them to use this technique on their own in the future.

JOURNAL WRITING, REFLECTION CARDS,

AND REACTION CARDS

Processing personal experiences through written reflection is an important part of

thinking and learning. Most student success course faculty use some form of written
communication to keep in touch with students about events and self-discovery. These
writings are a way to create a private conversation between you and your students and to
assess the integration of experiences in your students’ understanding of your course
goals.
There are several factors to consider regarding these writings and there are a
variety of ways to manage them. Here are a few examples:
• semester long notebooks with multi-entries (usually weekly) that are evaluated
quarterly
• end of class reaction cards where students spend the last five minutes summarizing
the class and the impact or influence that specific information has on the student

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-8

• a sequence of papers guided by assigned topics and assembled in a portfolio
• weekly reaction cards and e-mail entries that respond to self-discovery and goals

It is important that these cards be evaluated regularly and that personalized feedback
is given to the students.

FISHBOWL

This is a classroom discussion technique that promotes a stimulating class discussion. It

can stir spirited discussion on almost any topic but is particularly effective with issues
regarding gender, diversity, values, stereotypes, and behaviors.

Procedure

Divide your class by gender (or some other criteria) and place one or the other group on
the floor in a small circle facing inward. The other group (men or women, etc.) sits in
desks or chairs arranged concentrically around the inner circle (also facing inward).
Instruct the members of the inner circle to share their answers, opinions, or ideas about
the issue being discussed with each other. Members of the outer circle are to listen
carefully but may not speak. If members of the outer circle want to make a contribution to
the conversation, they must tap someone in the inside on the shoulder and ask them to
change places (i.e., shift to the outer listening circle). The person tapped may decline if
they still have ideas to share but in most cases someone will be willing to swap places to
allow the person from the outer circle to join the conversation. Swapping often goes on
continuously in a lively discourse.

Advantage

This kind of focused conversation keeps everyone attentive to the task, gives everyone
with something to say a chance, and allows those who want to listen to be observers.

Conclusion

To wind up the fishbowl, ask students to summarize the main points of the discussion, list
one new viewpoint heard, and allow them to comment on what surprised them the most.

TEACHING A NOVEL (or other Supplemental Reading)

The use of required reading, in addition to the main text, is a common teaching tool in
student success courses. Obviously, there is pedagogical merit in assigning a reading but
some of the less obvious reasons for the use of a novel or other supplemental reading are:
• common experience for the class; often certain words or characters become a part of
the class vocabulary (shared experiences bond people together)
• discussion of personal issues without putting a student on the spot
• view of life through the eyes of another; this can lead to a discussion of the value of
the humanities in education

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-9

• basis for comparison between one’s own life and the one posed by the novel basis for
comparison between the concepts in the text and ideas in another book, such work
promotes critical-thinking skill development
To be effective, readings should be discussed thoroughly and incorporated into
class discourse. Supplemental readings can be the subject of writing assignments, class
examinations, presentations, or projects. Encouraging students to read for pleasure,
information, self-fulfillment, and/or personal development can be one of the most
powerful contributions made by a student success course.
The following list of books is just a beginning. These particular books have been
used in student success courses around the country but they are not the only ones to
consider using. Discussion questions and a class exercise are provided for Ferrol Sams’
Whisper of the River as a model for what can be done with outside readings in the class.

Novel and Supplemental Reading Suggestions

A Home on the Field, Paul Cuadros

A Hope in the Unseen, Ron Suskind
A Lesson Before Dying, Ernest Gaines
All Quiet on the Western Front, Erich Maria Remarque
Cold Mountain, Charles Frazier
Ellen Foster, Kaye Gibbons
Ender’s Game, Orson Scott Card
Freakonomics, Stephen Dubner and Steven Levitt
Growing Up, Russell Baker
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Maya Angelou
In the Time of the Butterflies, Julia Alvarez
Iron and Silk, Mark Salzman
Night, Elie Wiesel
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Alexander Solzhenitzyn
One L, Scott Turow
Oral History, Lee Smith
Raney, Clyde Edgerton
Siddhartha, Herman Hesse
The Art of Loving, Erich Fromm
The Education of Little Tree, Forrest Carter
The Grand Inquisitor, Fyodor Dostoyevsky
The Kite Runner, Khalid Hosseini
The Measure of Our Success, Marion Wright-Edelman
The Road Less Traveled, Scott Peck
The Things They Carried, Tim O’Brien
Tuesdays with Morrie, Mitch Albom
Way of the Peaceful Warrior, Dan Millman
Whisper of the River, Ferrol Sams
Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, Robert M. Pirsig

Discussion Questions:

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-10

 Below is just an example of a set of discussion questions for a novel. Many
publishers provide reading guides as a result of community book discussion groups and
college-based Common Book or Summer Reading programs. Such guides are readily
available on the publisher’s Web site for a particular book.

Group Discussion Questions

Whisper of the River, by Ferrol Sams
Each of you will be assigned to one of seven groups with the responsibility of
answering one of the following questions. During the first 10 minutes of class, your
group will develop a response to your question. During the next 20 minutes, one member
from each group will meet in a new group with one member from each of the other
groups to discuss your answers.
Additionally, there is a second set of review questions. Each person is
individually responsible for working with these questions. (Answer the question assigned
to your group; include page numbers for where information can be found.)
1. Describe and explain two strategies that Porter used for success in the
classroom.
2. How do Porter’s ideas about religion change during his freshman year?
3. College provides an opportunity to explore new horizons and to discover our
limits. What limits does Porter discover during his freshman year?
4. Our lives are shaped by many different forces. List the different forces that
shaped Porter’s life during his first year of college.
5. How are women presented in this novel? Are they stereotyped in any way?
6. In what ways does Porter discover his unique identify during his freshman
year? How does he begin to see who he really is?
7. Why does Porter continually risk expulsion with his many pranks at
Willingham?

Individual Review Questions

Whisper of the River, by Ferrol Sams
(Each student should develop response to these questions and answer them in the
time provided.)
1. What did Porter think of his first roommate at Willingham?
2. What kind of practical jokes did Porter play his first semester? Have you ever
played a practical joke on someone? Did it cause any harm?
3. What was Porter’s attitude toward money? Do you feel the same way?
4. How did Porter react to new, foreign foods? Have you tried any foreign or new
kinds of food since you have been in college?
5. In what class did Porter feel totally inadequate? Do you have a class like this?
6. What does it mean to be “raised right” in Ferrol Sams’ novel?
7. What kind of advice did Porter’s father give him on the way to Willingham?
Would any of this have been helpful to you?
8. In what ways does Willingham differ from our institution? In what ways is it
similar?

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-11

 9. What were the benefits and detriments of the Greek system at Willingham? How
does this compare to our institution?
10. How well was Porter prepared for his classes? Are you better or worse prepared
than Porter?
11. Have you felt as homesick as Porter did during his first days at Willingham?

Class Exercise
Whisper of the River, by Ferrol Sams

This is an individual and group exercise.

INDIVIDUAL EXERCISE: Each student must create a 3 x 5 index card with responses
for each of the following questions or prompts (15 minutes):
• In what ways did Porter show that he was open and honest with his feelings? How did
he hide his true self?
• Describe Porter’s leaving home in terms of relationships, feelings, and security.
• For each of the following individuals, answer these questions:
Does Porter like this person?
What does Porter admire about this person?
What is the importance of this person in Porter’s life?
Individuals: Boston Harbor Jones
Mrs. Capulet
Porter Osborne, Sr.
Tiny
• Cite examples that show Porter’s strong self-concept.
• What are the key elements of Porter’s relationship with professors?

GROUP EXERCISE (1 hour): Students form five work groups (any number per group
they elect—minimum number is three). This is a graded assignment. The group must
work together in class to write a paper on a topic they select. Students are required to cite
page numbers for examples they use. All group members share the same grade for the
project.

Teaching the Text: Chapter-by-Chapter Notes – 7-12

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ANNALS
OF

THE EARLY CALIPHATE.

 CHAPTER I.
ELECTION OF ABU BEKR.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

At eventide of a summer day in the

eleventh year of the Hegira, three chief Death of Mahomet, 13 Rabi
I. a.h. XI., June 8, a.d. 632.
‘Companions’ of Mahomet might be seen
issuing in haste from the Great Mosque at Medîna, where, close by
in the chamber of Ayesha, his favourite wife, the Prophet of Arabia
lay dead.[4] They were Abu Bekr, Omar, and Abu Obeida. I will first
describe each briefly, and then explain the object of their errand.
Abu Bekr, now threescore years of
age, was somewhat short in stature, of a Abu Bekr.
spare frame, rounded back, and stooping
gait. His face was thin, complexion smooth and fair, nose aquiline
and sharp, with other features delicate; the forehead high; the eyes
deep-seated and far apart; the veins well marked. His scanty hair
and beard, now for many years white, was dyed red. The
countenance was still in old age handsome; and the expression mild,
but wise and resolute. To him faith in the Prophet had become a
second nature, and, now that his Master was gone, the disciple lived
but to fulfil his will. It was this that nerved a disposition naturally soft
and yielding, and made Abu Bekr, the True,[5] of all the followers of
Mahomet, the firmest and most resolute.
Omar, fifteen years younger, differed
both in frame and temperament. Broad- Omar.
shouldered and tall, he towered above the
crowd. Though somewhat dark in complexion, the face was fresh
and ruddy. He was now bald; and his beard was dyed like his
friend’s. His stride was long, and his presence commanding.
Naturally hasty and passionate, he would twist his moustache when
angry and draw it downwards to his mouth. But time had mellowed
temper; and, beneath an imperious manner, he was bland and
courteous. Their attachment to Mahomet had, on these two friends,
an effect exactly opposite. That which braced the soft nature of Abu
Bekr served to abate the vehemence of Omar. Both stood in a like
relation to the Prophet, each having given a daughter to him in
marriage; Haphsa, Omar’s daughter, was one of Mahomet’s
favourite wives; but Ayesha, the child of Abu Bekr, was queen in his
affections to the end.
On these two men at this moment hung
the future of Islam. The third, who now Abu Obeida.
accompanied them, Abu Obeida, was
between them in age. He was thin, tall, and sinewy; bald, and with
little beard. Mild, unassuming, and unwarlike, he was yet destined to
take a leading part in the conquest of Syria.

It was the afternoon of the day on

which, but an hour or two before, Mahomet Abu Bekr and Omar in the
had breathed his last. The event had come Great Mosque.
unexpectedly at the end. Abu Bekr, thinking the Prophet better, had
shortly before retired to his house in the suburbs of the city. Called
back in haste, he entered Ayesha’s chamber, and kissed the face of
his departed friend, saying:—
‘Sweet wert thou in life; and sweet thou
art in death.’ The mosque was filled with a Men of Medîna would elect a
crowd excited by the voice of Omar, who chief of their own.
wildly proclaimed that the Prophet was not dead, but in a trance; and
that, like Moses, he would surely return to them again. Abu Bekr,
issuing from the chamber (which opened directly from the court of
the mosque), put his friend aside with these memorable words:—
Whoso worshippeth Mahomet, let him know that Mahomet is dead
indeed; but whoso worshippeth God, let him know that God liveth
and dieth not. He added passages from the Corân, in which the
Prophet had said that he would die; and Omar, hearing them as if he
had never heard them before, was speechless. The multitude
quieted down before the solemn words of Abu Bekr. But just then a
messenger hurried up with the report, that the citizens of Medîna—
the Ansâr, had assembled to choose for themselves a chief. The
moment was critical. The unity of the faith was at stake. A divided
power would fall to pieces, and all might be lost. The mantle of the
Prophet must fall upon one successor, and on one alone. The
sovereignty of Islam demanded an undivided Caliphate; and Arabia
would acknowledge no master but from amongst the Coreish. The
die must be cast, and at once.
Such, no doubt, were the thoughts
which occurred to Omar and Abu Bekr on Stormy scene in the hall of
receiving intelligence of the elective the citizens.
conclave; and so, alarmed at the danger, they hastened to the spot,
accompanied by Abu Obeida, if haply they might nip it in the bud. On
the way they met two friendly citizens coming from the assembly,
who warned them of the risk they ran; but, notwithstanding, they
hurried on. The men of Medîna meanwhile, gathered in one of their
rude halls, were bent upon an independent course. ‘We have
sheltered this nest of strangers,’ they cried. ‘It is by our good swords
they have been able to plant the Faith. The Chief of Medîna shall be
from amongst ourselves.’ And they had already fixed their choice on
Sád ibn Obâda, leader of the Beni Khazraj, one of ‘the Twelve’ at
‘the Pledge of Acaba,’ who, sick of a fever, lay covered up at the
further end of the hall. At this moment the three Companions entered
but just in time, for had the Citizens elected Sád and pledged their
troth to him, Medîna might have been irretrievably compromised.
Omar, with his native vehemence, was about to speak, when Abu
Bekr bade him to be silent, and anticipated him, as Omar used in
after days to say, with the same arguments he himself had thought
of, and even better. ‘Every word,’ said Abu Bekr, calmly and firmly,
‘which the Citizens had uttered in their own praise was true, but in
noble birth and influence the Coreish were paramount, and to none
but them would Arabia yield obedience.’ ‘Then,’ cried the men of
Medîna, ‘let there be one chief from amongst you and one from
amongst us.’ ‘Away with you!’ exclaimed Omar; ‘two cannot stand
together’; and even Sád from beneath his covering muttered that to
divide the power would weaken it. High words ensued. Hobâb, on
the side of Sád, cried out, ‘Hear him not! Attend to me, for I am the
well-rubbed Palm-stem.[6] If they refuse, expel them from the city. I
am the Roaring Lion of the desert, and will devour them up.’ ‘The
Lord destroy thee!’ cried Omar; and Hobâb returned the words. The
altercation gaining in heat and bitterness, Abu Bekr saw that it must
be stopped at any risk; so stepping forward he said: ‘Ye see these
two’—and he pointed to Omar and Abu Obeida—‘Choose ye now
whichever of them ye will, and salute him as your Chief.’ ‘Nay,’ cried
both at once, ‘Thou hast already, at the Prophet’s bidding, led the
prayers; thou art our Chief. Stretch forth thine hand.’ He did so, and
they struck their hand on his in token of allegiance.[7] Others began
to follow their example. ‘Wilt thou cut thine own kinsman’s throat?’
cried Hobâb to a Khazrajite about to take the pledge. ‘Not so,’ he
answered; ‘I only yield the right to whom the right is due.’ Whilst they
yet hesitated, the Beni Aus, jealous of the rival tribe and of Sád its
nominee, spake among themselves: ‘If this man be chosen, the rule
will be for ever with the Beni Khazraj. Let us salute Abu Bekr as our
Chief.’[8] The example once set, group
after group advanced to place their hand Abu Bekr elected Caliph.
on that of Abu Bekr, till none was left but Sád, who still lay covered in
the corner. Acknowledged thus by the men of Medîna, there could be
no doubt of Abu Bekr’s acceptance by the Coreish and all the
Refugees.[9] He was one of themselves, and the Prophet, by
appointing him to take his place, when laid aside, at the daily
prayers, had in a manner indicated him as his vicegerent. And so
homage was done on all sides to Abu Bekr. He was saluted as the
‘Caliph,’ or ‘Successor of the Prophet.’
The night was occupied in preparing
the dead for sepulture. The body was Burial of the Prophet.
washed and laid out, and the grave dug in
Ayesha’s apartment, where Mahomet had breathed his last. On the
morrow the citizens, men, women, and children, thronged the
chamber to look once more upon their Prophet’s face. And then the
body was reverently committed to the dust.
 The funeral being over, and the court of
the Great Mosque still crowded with the Abu Bekr’s inaugural
mourners, Abu Bekr ascended the pulpit, address.
and, sitting down, was saluted as Caliph by acclamation. Then he
arose, and said: ‘O people! Now I am Chief over you, albeit not the
best amongst you. If I do well, support me; if ill, then set me right.
Follow the true, wherein is faithfulness; eschew the false, wherein is
treachery. The weaker amongst you shall be as the stronger with
me, until that I shall have redressed his wrong; and the stronger shall
be as the weaker, until, if the Lord will, I shall have taken from him
that which he hath wrested. Leave not off to fight in the ways of the
Lord; whosoever leaveth off, him verily shall the Lord abase. Obey
me wherein I obey the Lord and his Prophet; when I disobey, then
obey me not. Now, arise to prayer, and the Lord be with you!’ The
assembly stood up for prayer, and Abu Bekr, for the first time as
Caliph, filled the place of Mahomet.
Besides Sád, there were few, if any,
who refused to do homage to Abu Bekr. Sád declines to swear fealty;
According to most authorities, Aly declined and also (probably) Aly for a
time.
to do so until the death of Fâtima his wife,
six months afterwards. Zobeir and Talha are also mentioned, but
doubtfully.[10] Sád persisted in his refusal; he even threatened to
empty his quiver against the usurpers, and then fight against them
with his retainers. ‘Let him alone,’ was the advice of those around
the Caliph; ‘he is but a single man, and his secession will not signify;
but if force be used against him, then his tribe will fight.’ The advice
approved itself to Abu Bekr’s forbearing spirit. Sád kept aloof, and
never appeared at court or in the mosque. When Omar succeeded to
the Caliphate, he presented himself with these words, ‘I love thee
not, O Omar!’ and, disappearing, eventually died in Syria.
With Mahomet ceased the theocratic
power which, as a prophet, he had The succession, how far
provided for by Mahomet;
exercised; but the kingly functions, as ruler and the precedent now
over all Islam, descended to his successor. established.
According to Arabian notions, such a ruler
was, like the Chieftain of a tribe, the head and representative of the
people, and his nomination was incomplete till confirmed by their
homage. Omar, we are told, in after days declared that the irregular
election of Abu Bekr (referring apparently to the scene enacted in the
hall) should not be drawn into a precedent. It was, he said, an event
the happiest in its consequences for Islam, but justified only by the
urgency of the moment. What might have been the issue if any son
of Mahomet had survived, it is useless to speculate. But certainly the
hereditary descent of kingly power was foreign to the sentiment of
Arabia. As matters stood, Mahomet seems to have shrunk from
anticipating the contingency of his death, and made no preparation
for what should follow. But in so far as we may suppose him to have
felt his illness mortal and his death impending, the nomination of Abu
Bekr to conduct the public prayers (the acknowledged mark of chief
or delegated authority) may be held the natural indication of his wish
that he should succeed.[11] Apart from the counter-claim of the men
of Medîna, there was, in point of fact, neither doubt nor hesitancy in
the election, and the counter-claim died away almost as soon as
made. The notion of divine right, or even of preferential claim, resting
in the Prophet’s family, was the growth of a later age.
 CHAPTER II.
EXPEDITION OF OSÂMA TO THE SYRIAN BORDER.

A.H. XI. A.D. 632.

Abu Bekr soon had the opportunity of

showing that he was resolved to carry out Osâma ordered by Mahomet
the commands of Mahomet to the very to lead an expedition against
the Syrian border, a.h. XI.
letter. A few weeks previously an May, a.d. 632.
expedition had been ordered to avenge by
a raid on the Syrian border the disaster which, three years before,
had tarnished the Moslem arms. In that reverse Zeid, the Prophet’s
bosom friend, who led the army, was with many others slain at Mûta;
and the more distinctly now to mark the object of the campaign, his
son Osâma, though still a youth, was nominated by Mahomet to the
command, and bidden to avenge his father’s death. The camp was
formed at Jorf, a little way on the Syrian road; but during the
Prophet’s sickness the force remained inactive, uncertain of the
issue. When the fatal event took place, Osâma broke up the camp,
and carrying back the banner which he had received at the hands of
Mahomet, planted it in the court of the Great Mosque, close by the
door of Ayesha’s apartment.
The day following his inauguration as
Caliph, Abu Bekr took up the banner, and Abu Bekr deaf to
reclamations against its
placing it in the hands of Osâma, in token dispatch.
that he was still commander, bade the
army again assemble and encamp, as it had done before, at Jorf;
and not a man was to be left behind. Obeying the command, the
fighting men of Medîna and its neighbourhood flocked again to the
camp, and even Omar was amongst the number. While yet preparing
to depart, the horizon darkened suddenly. Report of the Prophet’s
mortal illness, followed by tidings of his death, had spread like
wildfire over the land. From every side there now came rumours of
disloyalty, and of the resolve to cast the yoke of Islam off. The sense
of the army, and of Osâma himself, was strongly against leaving the
city thus defenceless, and the Caliph exposed to the risk of sudden
inroad. Omar was deputed to represent this to Abu Bekr, and also to
urge (as had been already urged to Mahomet himself[12]) that, if the
expedition must proceed, some more experienced general should
command. To the first request Abu Bekr replied, calm and unmoved:
‘Were the city swarming round with packs of ravening wolves, and I
left solitary and alone, the force should go; not a word from my
Master’s lips shall fall to the ground.’ At the second demand the
Caliph’s anger kindled: ‘Thy mother be childless, O son of Khattâb!’
he said, seizing Omar by the beard. ‘Shall the Prophet of the Lord
appoint a man to the command, and I, deposing him, appoint
another in his place?’ So Omar returned, without gaining either
object, to the army.
When all was ready for the march, Abu
Bekr repaired to the camp, and He accompanies it a little
way on foot. June, a.d. 682.
accompanied the force a little way on foot,
‘Be mounted,’ said Osâma to him; ‘or else I will dismount and walk
by thee.’ ‘Not so,’ replied Abu Bekr; ‘I will not mount; I will walk and
soil my feet, a little moment, in the ways of the Lord. Verily, every
step in the ways of the Lord is equal to the merit of manifold good
works, and wipeth out a multitude of sins.’ After a while he stopped,
and said to Osâma: ‘If it be thy will, give Omar leave that he may
return with me to the city, for strength and counsel.’ So he gave him
leave.[13]
The army then halted, to receive the
parting injunctions of the Caliph. ‘See,’ said And gives Osâma
he, addressing Osâma, ‘that thou avoid instructions.
treachery and deceit. Depart not in any wise from the right. Thou
shalt mutilate none; neither shalt thou kill child or aged man, nor any
woman. Injure not the date-palm, neither burn it with fire; and cut not
down any tree wherein is food for man or beast. Slay not of the
flocks or herds or camels, saving for needful sustenance. Ye may eat
of the meat which the men of the land shall bring unto you in their
vessels, making mention thereon of the name of the Lord. And the
monks with shaven heads that spend their lives in monasteries, if
they submit, leave them in their cloisters unmolested. Now march
forward in the name of the Lord, and may He protect you from sword
and pestilence!’
So Abu Bekr returned with Omar to
Medîna. Osâma marched by Wâdi al Cora, Osâma returns victorious,
July and August.
in the direction of Dûma, Obna, and the
highlands south of Syria. The brunt of his attack fell upon the Beni
Codhâa, and the semi-Christian tribes which, under the Roman
banner, had discomfited and slain his father. That disaster was now
avenged in fire and blood. The land was ravaged far and near, and
after an absence of two months, the army returned laden with spoil.
[14]

Meanwhile stirring events had transpired at Medîna, of which an

account is given in the chapter following.
 CHAPTER III.
MEDINA THREATENED.

A.H. XI. June and July, A.H. 632.

In after days Abu Bekr used to look

back with a just pride and satisfaction to Beneficial effects of Osâma’s
his despatch, against a universal expedition.
reclamation, of Osâma’s force. Public opinion was not long in
justifying the act and attributing thereto results of essential benefit.
The firmness of his attitude inspired the Bedouin tribes with a sense
of stability in the government. If the leaders at Medîna had not been
confident in their strength at home they would not have sent away
this army; and the Arabs, reasoning thus, were restrained from much
that they might otherwise have attempted. Still the position was
critical, and at times sufficiently alarming.
It was indeed a thing of which the brave
old Caliph might proud. ‘The Arabs,’ so the Courageous attitude of Abu
tradition runs, ‘were on all sides rising in Bekr.
rebellion. Apostasy and disaffection began to raise their heads;
Christians and Jews to stretch out their necks; and the Faithful were
left like a flock of sheep without a shepherd—their Prophet gone,
their numbers few, and their foes a multitude.’ It was in face of all this
that Abu Bekr sent off beyond recall his only force, and left Medîna
open and, to the outward eye, defenceless.
During the lifetime of Mahomet three
rivals had already laid claim to the Insurrection throughout
Arabia.
prophetic office and raised the standard of
rebellion. In the south, insurrection had hardly been quelled by the
assassination of the ‘Veiled Prophet’ of Yemen, when tidings of the
death of Mahomet made it burst forth with redoubled violence.
Enshrined in the very centre of the peninsula, Moseilama had
detached the powerful tribes around Yemâma from their allegiance;
and to the north-east, nearer home, Toleiha, the third pretender, was
now openly and dangerously hostile.[15] From every quarter, in rapid
succession, came the news of spreading disaffection. The legates of
Mahomet, the collectors of tithes—all, in fact, who represented the
authority of Islam—fled or were expelled. The Faithful were
massacred, and some confessors suffered a cruel death. Mecca and
Tâyif quivered and vacillated at the first intelligence of the Prophet’s
decease; in the end, through the strong influence of the Coreish,
they stood firm; but they were almost alone. Here and there some
few tribes, under loyal, or, it might be, temporising, chiefs,
maintained the semblance of obedience; but they were hardly
discernible amidst the seething mass of rebellion. Amru, hurrying
back from Omân (whither he had been sent by Mahomet as
ambassador at the Farewell Pilgrimage), witnessed the whole of
Central Arabia either in open revolt or ready to break away on the
first demand of tithes, and his report filled the citizens of Medîna with
dismay.[16] In truth, Islam had never taken firm hold of the distant
provinces; and as for the Bedouins, Mahomet had himself had
frequent cause to chide their fickleness. It was fear of punishment,
and the lust of plunder, rather than attachment to the faith, which had
hitherto held these wild sons of the desert in bondage to the Prophet.
The restraints and obligations of Islam were irksome and distasteful;
and now, on Mahomet’s death well rid of them, they hoped to return
to their lawless life.
As report after report came in of fresh
defection, Abu Bekr could but instruct his Demand for exemption from
tithes refused by Abu Bekr.
officers to hold on where they were able
with the loyal few, hoping to tide over the crisis till the return of
Osâma’s force. For the immediate defence of Medîna he took such
measures as were possible. He called in all that remained of the
faithful tribes in the neighbourhood, and posted pickets at the various
approaches to the city. The turbulent tribes in the near desert to the
east were the first to assume a threatening attitude. The Beni Abs
and Dzobiân massed there in such numbers ‘that the land was
straitened by them,’ and they parted into two bodies, one at
Rabadza,[17] the other at Dzul Cassa, the first station from Medîna
on the road to Nejd. The false prophet Toleiha sent his brother with
men to help them; but they still vacillated between the claims of the
pretender and Islam. At last they bethought themselves of a
compromise. They sent a deputation to Abu Bekr, offering to hold by
Islam and its ritual if only they were excused the tithe. The strangers
bearing the message were welcomed by the chiefs of Medîna, but by
the Caliph their advances were indignantly rejected. He would relax
not a tittle of the legal dues. ‘If ye withhold but the tether of a tithed
camel,’ said Abu Bekr, bluntly, ‘I will fight with you for the same.’ With
this refusal they retired, and also with the intelligence that the city
had but few defenders left. Now was the time, before the army came
back, not only for plunder, but to deliver a decisive blow. Abu Bekr,
foreseeing this, redoubled his precautions. He strengthened the
pickets, and set over them the chief men who had remained with him
—Aly, Zobeir, Talha, and Abdallah ibn Masûd. For the rest of the
people he appointed the Great Mosque a rendezvous. ‘The land hath
rebelled against us,’ he said, ‘and they have spied out our
nakedness and the weakness of our defence. Ye know not whether
they will come upon you by night or come upon you by day, or which
of you may be first attacked. They verily hoped that we should have
accepted their offer, but we rejected it. Wherefore be vigilant and
ready.’
And so it came to pass. They tarried
but three days, when a surprise was Attack on Medîna repelled.
attempted from Dzul Cassa. The outposts
were on the alert, and kept the assailants at bay while the main
guard was hurried up from the Mosque on camels. The Bedouins,
hardly prepared for so warm a reception, fled back upon their
reserves. They were pursued; but the camels of the Moslems, being
used only to draw water for the fields, took fright at a stratagem of
the enemy, and turning, fled back to the Mosque.[18] There were no
casualties among the Medîna troops, but the rebels were
emboldened by the flight of their opponents. Abu Bekr, anticipating a
renewed attack, called out every man capable of bearing arms, and
spent the night in marshalling his force. Next morning, while yet dark,
the Caliph himself led out the little band in regular array, with a
centre and two wings.[19] The enemy were taken by surprise at early
dawn, and as the sun rose were already in full flight. Abu Bekr drove
them with slaughter out of Dzul Cassa, and, leaving a portion of his
little force as an outpost there, returned with the rest to Medîna.
The affair was comparatively small, but
its effect great. As failure would have been Good effect of the victory.
disastrous, perhaps fatal, to Islam, so
victory was the turning-point in its favour. The power of the Prophet’s
successor, even without his proper army, to secure the city and beat
off his assailants was noised abroad. And soon after, the spirits of
the Moslems rose as they saw certain chiefs appear, bringing in the
tithes. The tribes they represented, to be sure, were few in contrast
with the apostate hordes; but it was an augury of brighter days to
come. Safwân and Zibricân, chiefs of two branches of the Beni
Temîm, and Adi son of Hâtim from a loyal branch of the Beni Tay,
were the first to present their legal offerings to the Caliph. Each was
ushered into his presence as an ambassador. ‘Nay,’ said Abu Bekr;
‘they are more than that; they are Messengers of glad tidings, true
men, and defenders of the faith.’ And the people answered, ‘Even
so; now the good things that thou didst promise are appearing.’
Tradition delights to ascribe with pious
gratitude the preservation of Islam to the Saving of Islam due to Abu
aged Caliph’s faith and fortitude. ‘On the Bekr.
death of Mahomet,’ we are told, ‘it wanted but little, and the faithful
had utterly perished. But the Lord strengthened the heart of Abu
Bekr, and stablished us thereby in the resolve to give place, no not
for one moment, to the apostates; and to say but these three words
—Submission, Exile, or the Sword.’ It was the simple faith in
Mahomet of Abu Bekr which fitted him for the task, and made him
carry out the law of his Master to the very letter. But for him, Islam
would have melted away in compromise with the Bedouin tribes, or
might have perished in the throes of its birth.
 CHAPTER IV.
RETURN OF OSÂMA. EXPEDITIONS FORMED AGAINST THE
APOSTATE TRIBES THROUGHOUT ARABIA.

A.H. XI. Sept.—Oct. A.D. 632

Osâma at last appeared, and Medîna,

for two months left unprotected, was Osâma’s return. Jumâd II.
relieved from further danger. The army a.h. XI. Sept. a.d. 632.
returned laden with booty. The royal Fifth was delivered to the
Caliph, and by him distributed among the people.[20]
Abu Bekr lost no time in now following
up the advantage he had gained over the Expedition against Beni Abs
and Dzobiân.
Beni Abs and Dzobiân. Driven back from
Dzul Cassa, they had retired to Rabadza, and vented their anger in
destroying by cruel deaths the faithful followers of the Prophet still
left amongst them. Deeply moved at the fate of these confessors,
Abu Bekr took a solemn oath that ‘he would by the like deaths
destroy as many of them as they had slain, or even more.’
Putting Osâma in command of the city,
and leaving the army there for a little while Abu Bekr chastises the rebel
tribes at Rabadza.
to recruit, Abu Bekr took the remaining
force and marched again towards Rabadza. The chief men
expostulated with him on going forth to fight in person. If a
commander were killed in action, his place could easily be filled; but
if the Caliph fell, their head and ruler would be gone. ‘Nay,’ replied
Abu Bekr; ‘but I will go forth, and will be your comrade even as one
of your own selves.’[21] So they marched on, and coming up with the
enemy at Abrac, completely discomfited them, killing some, and
taking others prisoners. The Beni Abs and Dzobiân fled to Toleiha,
and joined his army at Bozâkha. Thereupon Abu Bekr confiscated
their pasture-lands, and declared them to be for ever a public
domain reserved for the stud and camels of the State. On eventually
submitting, they found themselves thus debarred from re-entry; but
this was of comparatively little consequence, as they had, in the end,
ample compensation in the conquered lands beyond Arabia. After
some days spent at Rabadza, the Caliph returned to Medîna.
The army by this time was refitted. The
tithes had begun to come in from many Islam must be reimposed on
neighbouring tribes in token of submission. all Arabia.
Medîna was no longer in peril, and the citizens breathed freely. But a
heavy burden still lay upon the Caliph. Islam was to be the faith of all
Arabia;—‘Throughout the peninsula there shall be no second creed,’
was the behest of Mahomet on his death-bed. False prophets must
be crushed; rebels vanquished; apostates reclaimed or
exterminated; and the supremacy vindicated of Islam. It was, in
short, the mission of Abu Bekr to redeem the dying Prophet’s words.
With this great purpose, Abu Bekr went
forth a second time to Dzul Cassa, and Eleven expeditions
there summoned the whole available despatchedof Arabia.
to different parts

forces of Islam and all the loyal chiefs

around him. He divided them into eleven independent columns, and
over every one appointed a distinguished leader, to whom (following
the example of his Master) he presented a banner. Arabia was
mapped out, and each detachment given a province to reclaim, with
marching orders, where to begin and what course to take. Thus
Khâlid ibn Saîd was named for the Syrian border; Khâlid ibn Welîd
was to subdue Toleiha; and Ikrima with Shorahbîl, Moseilama;
Mohâjir was sent to Yemen; Alâ to Bahrein; Hodzeifa and Arfaja to
Mâhra; and Amru against the Beni Codhâa. And so by this great
scheme, in course of time, no spot would be left unconquered. The
troops retained at home were few; for few were needed now.[22]
Having despatched the various
expeditions, Abu Bekr returned to Medîna. Proclamation summoning
apostates to repent. Oct.,
There his first concern was to publish a a.d. 632.
summons to the apostate tribes,
commanding them everywhere to repent and submit themselves, on
which condition they should be pardoned, and received back into
Islam. Such as refused would be attacked, their fighting men cut to
pieces, and their women and children taken captive. This summons
was sent by the hand of envoys to every province and rebellious
tribe. The Adzân, or call to prayer, was to be the test of faith; if that
were heard and responded to, good and well; if not, the people were
apostate, and as such to be attacked.
Abu Bekr never again left Medîna to
lead his troops. Some say that afterwards Abu Bekr did not again go
he regretted this; but it is not likely that he out to fight.
did so. Medîna, where he continued to reside, was his proper place.
From it, as a central point, he was able to direct the movement of his
commanders all over the peninsula; and with operations in so many
different quarters to control he could not have been better situated.
It is more open to remark that none of
the more distinguished Companions of the No chief ‘Companion’
Prophet were appointed to commands. appointed to a command.
The same was the case with Omar, who was known to say that he
purposely refrained from nominating them to any government, both
out of respect to their dignity,[23] and also to strengthen his own
hands by having them about him as advisers. This latter reason may
also well have weighed with Abu Bekr, who used to take counsel on
all important matters with the leading Companions. Still, it is singular
that men like Aly and Zobeir, who took so prominent a part in the
battles of Mahomet, should now altogether disappear from
operations in the field.