Modernity in Europe

Background
• Ideas are rooted in the social context
• Same applies for the emergence of sociology
• Sociology emerged in 19th century in Western and Central Europe as
a scientific endeavor to understand society
• But it was preceded by a period marked by transitions
• These transitions were characterized by several features of
modernity and social change
 Important developments
Feudalism started breaking up from 13 th century onwards (closed economy, highly stratified
society etc.)

Global voyages leading to commercial revolution(1450 to 1800)

Capitalistic development of agriculture (enclosure movement, huge surplus, enormous wealth,

expansion of banking, rise of new middle class)

Scientific revolution and renaissance period - 14th - 16th century (scientific reason, individualism,
dissection of body, experimental methods etc.)

Reforms in religious sphere – Reformation Period. Shift of emphasis from other World to the
present World

Three major developments in 17 th and 18th century – Industrial revolution, French Revolution,
philosophy of enlightenment
 The Commercial Revolution (1450-1800)
• Series of events
• Subsistence and stagnant economy to a more dynamic and worldwide
system
• Why it is referred to as a revolution ? Expansion of trade and
commerce in a large scale and organised manner
• Result of the initiatives taken by certain European countries to
consolidate their economic and political power (Portugal, Spain,
Holland, England)
• Why ? To challenge the monopoly of Italy (Venice, Genoa)
• Shift from land routes to sea-routes (Vasco da Gama, Christopher
Columbus)
Trade impacts
•Commerce expanded into a world enterprise
•Monopoly of the Italian cities was destroyed
•European markets were flooded with new commodities
•Range of trade widened
•New items of trade
•Over time position of Portugal and Spain declined
•England, Holland and France came to dominate Europe and the world

Expansion of Banking
•Credi t fa cilities were expanded, “cheque” was i nvented , Pa per money replaced gold and silver
coi ns
•“Regulated companies” (16th century) - a ssociations of merchants who bonded together to
cooperate for a common venture
•“Joi nt-stock companies” (17th century)- large number of i nvestors
•"cha rtered companies” - governments gave them a charter - monopoly of the trade in a
pa rticular region

Rise of a new class

•Rise of the middle class to economic power (merchants, bankers, ship -owners and
investors)
•By the end of the 17th century it had become an influential group in every western
European country.
•Mainly an economic power. Became politically powerful in the 19th century
•Europeanization of the world
The Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance Period
Social Functions of Sciences
•The Intellectual atmosphere i nfluences the development of s cience
•New developments in s cience ca n also i mpacts the attitudes and beliefs i n s ociety
•The emergence of s ociology i n Europe owes a great deal to the i deas and discoveries
contri buted by science

Science in the Medieval Period

•Soci ety was characterized by the feudal system
•Church wa s the centre of power
•Lea rning was mostly religious
•There were dogmas or ri gid beliefs
•Da ri ng ideas could not flower i n such a n atmosphere.
•Development of science mostly focused on i mprovements i n techniques of production
The Renaissance period
(14th to 17th Century)
•A s ci entific approach to nature and the human body
Visual art •Sma llest details of nature and the human body

•Di s section the human body became a cceptable

Medicine •Doctors and physiologists could observe human body directly
•Developments in the fi elds of a natomy, physiology a nd pathology

•General theory developed

Chemistry •processes like oxidation, reduction, distillation, amalgamation

Navigation and •Va s co da Gama Indian shores in 1498

•Col umbus discovered America i n 1492

astronomy •Col onialism l ed to development of astronomy

The Copernican Revolution
• Nicholas Copernicus challenged the geocentric theory , proposed the
heliocentric’ theory
• Drastically altered patterns of thought about the universe
• Human being was not at the center of the universe but a small part of
it
• Copernican revolution shattered the very foundations
Some other major developments
Experimental Method in •Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
•Through experimental methods old ideas were challenged and alternatives were suggested
Physics and Mathematics

•Structure in human body

•Dissection of the human body
Biology •Circulation of blood was discovered by William Harvey
•Human organism came to be viewed in terms of interrelated parts and interconnected systems.
•It influenced sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Durkheim

•British naturalist Charles Darwin wrote the Origin of Species in 1859

•Various living organisms compete for the limited resources the earth
•“survival of the fittest” is the natural law
•Species evolve or develop certain traits which make their survival possible. Other species die out
•He studied ‘human evolution’ - Descent of Man (1863)
Evolution •Traced the origins of the human species to some ape-like ancestors
•Till then it was believed that God had created man “in his own image”
•Conservatives were not willing to accept . But it gain wide acceptance
•Was applied to the social world by ‘evolutionary’ thinkers
•Herbert Spencer- societies were seen as constantly ‘evolving’
The Industrial Revolution
• The Industrial Revolution began around 1760 A.D. in England.
Spreads to other parts of Europe.
• Changes in the social and economic life of the people
• Discovery of new territories, explorations, growth of trade and
commerce, consequent growth of towns
• Increased demand, goods were to be produced on a large-scale.
 New Inventions
1760-1830 A.D
• New tools and techniques to produce
goods on a large-scale
• Gave rise to the factory system of
production
• Change in economy from feudal to
capitalist system
• Emerged a new class of capitalists and
workers
• From the old age of hand made goods to
the new age of machine-made goods
• Emergence of Industrial Revolution
Inventions
• Spinning Jenny - Invented in 1767 by
James Hargreaves
• Arkwright’s Water Fame - In 1769 by
Arkwright an English barber- Responsible
for introducing the factory system
• Mule - Samuel Crompton in 1779 in
England
Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Society
Developments of Increase in production
New class of industrial Socio-economic
banks, insurance - Population started
workers, managers, disparities were very
companies, finance increasing- Increased
capitalists emerged. wide
corporations rate of Urbanization

Worker became
Factory workers were City life became an Moved both
alienated from the
involved in repetitive altogether a different conservative and
product of his/ her
work way of life radical thinkers
labour

Conservatives feared Radicals like Engels Differed but agreed

that such conditions felt that the factory upon the epoch-
would lead to chaos workers would initiate making impact of the
and disorder social transformation. Industrial Revolution
Significant Themes of the Industrial Revolution
The condition of •Poverty of this class of workers was not natural poverty but social poverty
•They became subject of both moral and analytical concern.
labour
The transformation of •Land lost its value , capital became important
•The feudal landlords became less significant , new capitalists gained power
•A change in the property system involved a change in the fundamental character of society
property •Sociologists grappled with the question of property and its impact on social stratification

•Industries grew , cluster of populations also grew

•Ancient cities were known as repositories of civilized graces and virtues
The industrial city •But new cities were known as repositories of misery and inhumanity.
•This concerned the early sociologists

Technology and the •Conservative and radical thinkers realized that the two systems would alter human life for all times to come.
•Impact of Women and children, Family etc.
factory system
The French Revolution
• Turning point in the history of human struggle freedom and equality
• End to the age of feudalism
• Ushered in a new order of society
• Far reaching changes in societies throughout Europe
• Ideas like liberty, fraternity and equality
Picture of the French Society
•Hi gher cl ergy
•Li fe of l uxury, Very l ittle a ttention to religion
The First Estate •Preferred the life of politics to religion
•Wa s teful activities like drinking, gambling

•The nobles of the sword

•Big landlord

The Second •Protectors of the people in principle but in reality they led a life of a parasite
•Living off the hard work of the peasants
•Life of pomp and show . Spent extravagantly

Estate •The nobles of the robe

•Not by birth but by title
•Magistrates and judges
•Some were very progressive and liberal

•Res t of the society (Peasants, merchants, artisans)

•Va s t difference between the condition
The Third Estate •Overl oaded with s o many ta xes, could barely s urvi ve, had no power
•Mi ddle cl asses (also known as the bourgeoisie) was much better belonged to the third estate
•Pri ce ri s e during 1720- 1789 a dversely a ffecting them (65% rise)
• Bourgeoisie was rich and secure but had no social prestige
• French trade had improved enormously also helped the commercial
classes to a great extent
• Gaining political power became a necessity
• Clergy and the nobility both constituted only two per cent of
population, owned about 35 per cent of the land, paid almost no
taxes
• Peasants who formed 80 per cent of the population owned only 30
per cent of the land, burdened with taxes
 • Absolute monarchies (Divine Right of King)
Political Aspects of • No distinction between the income of the state and the income of the King.
• 200 years the Kings of the Bourbon dynasty ruled France
the French society • Ordinary people had no personal rights, no trials were required
• Laws too were different in different regions

• From Louis XIV onwards fought costly wars

Economic Aspects • Louis XV kept on borrowing money from bankers
of the French • Louis XVI very weak and ineffective king
• Queen Marie Antoinette (expensive habits) - ‘if you don’t have bread, eat
society cake’.
French Revolution
• Death of Feudal Society
• End of absolute monarchy in France
• Triumph of the middle classes – traders, merchants, bankers,
professionals
• Blow to the tradition , to the power of church.
• Destroyed the major part of nobility through guillotine and
expropriation of land
• Ideals of French Revolution – liberty, equality, fraternity carried to
other parts of Europe
• Transformation of property, Social disorder, Changes in political and
economic structure, Emergence of bourgeoisie
• Inspired 2 main traditions in sociology
• Conservative – order, stability, tradition, society is a system of
parts/aggregate
• Radical – focus on problem of inequality , conflict, power, social change
Philosophy of Enlightenment (18th Century)
• The Spirit of the Law
• The theory of the separation of powers
Montesquieu • There should not be concentration of authority (executive, legislative, and juridical) at one place
• Gave importance to liberty of the individual

• Every individual has certain rights, which cannot be taken by any authority
Locke (Englishman) • Right to live, right to property, the right to personal freedom
• Any ruler who took away these rights should be removed from the seat of power

Voltaire (French • Advocated religious toleration and freedom of speech

• Rights of individuals

philosopher) • Freedom of speech and expression

• The Social Contract

Rousseau • People of a country have the right to choose their sovereign
• People can develop their personalities best only under a government which is of their own choice.

• Some of them who had served in the French army (to assist the Americans in their War of Independence)
Other influence • Returned with the ideas of equality of individuals
• Right to choose their own government
• Enlightenment thinkers – by understanding the patterns in society,
humans can alter society and affect human action
• Enlightenment (and the French Revolution) discovered the “Society”.
• Laid the foundation for the scientific approach to the study of society.
Ideas of the Progressive group
• Conservatives advocated peace , harmony and social order.
• The goals of conservatives were adopted , while the means of the
progressives was taken up.
Other Intellectual Influences Affecting the
Emergence of Sociology

The Philosophy of • Society must have progressed through a series of steps from a simple to complex stage
• “the notions of development and progress”

History • concepts of historical periods and social types

The Biological • Sociology moved towards an evolutionary approach

• tended to be modeled on biology
• conception of society as an organism
Theories of Evolution • Herbert Spencer and Durkheim

• important element in modern sociology

Surveys of Social • growing conviction that the methods of the natural sciences should and could be extended to the study of human affairs
• classified and measured poverty
• Concerned with poverty - poverty was not natural but social
Conditions • principal methods of sociological inquiry
• through the knowledge of the social conditions one can arrive at solutions to solve the social problems
Scope of Sociology
• “Since Sociology is so elastic a science, it is difficult to determine just where
its boundaries begin and end, where sociology becomes social psychology
and where social psychology becomes sociology, or where economic theory
becomes sociological doctrine or biological theory becomes sociological
theory, something, which is impossible to decide.” - V. F. Calberton

• The scope of sociological study is extremely wide

• Interactions between individuals
• National issues like unemployment, caste conflict, rural indebtedness etc.
• Can also talk about international issues
• It is defined by not just what it studies but how it studies a chosen field.
• Since it is a relatively young discipline, the subject matter and scope have been
intensely debated
Two schools of thought
• Formal school
• Sociology was conceived to be a social science with a specifically defined
field.
• Includes thinkers like George Simmel, Weber, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred
Vierkandt and Leopold Von Wiese
• Synthetic school
• Advocated a synthesis in form of coordination among all social sciences.
• Wanted to make sociology a synthesis of social sciences (general science)
• Durkheim, Hobhouse, Ginsberg, Sorokin
Specialist or Formal School of Sociology
• This school is in favor of giving sociology a definite subject matter to
make it a distinct discipline
• Emphasized upon the study of forms of social relationships
• Regarded sociology as independent.
 •Is a pure and an independent science. It has a limited scope

Simmel •Social relationship such as competition, sub-ordination, division of labour are expressed in different fields of social life such as
economic, political, religious, moral, artistic
•Should study only the ‘forms’ of social relationships but not their contents.
•Forms of human relationship are common to diverse situations

Vierkandt •Should be concerned with ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationship which knit the people together in a
s oci ety.
•It s hould refrain itself from making a historical study of concrete societies.

•Associative process concerning contact, approach, adaptation etc

Von Wiese •Disassociate processes like competition and conflict.

•Mixed form of the associative and disassociative also exists.
•Processes have sub-classes which in totality give approximately 650 forms of human relationships.

Tonnies •Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (association) on the basis of degree of intimacy

Max Weber •Aim of sociology is to interpret or understand social behaviour

 Criticism

Narrowed down the scope of

Distinction between the forms of
sociology. Emphasized on merely The idea is purely imaginary in
social relations and their contents
abstract forms and neglected the nature
is not workable.
concrete contents of social life.

Sorokin writes, “we may fill a

glass with wine, water or sugar Ginsberg - The conception of pure
Besides sociology other
without changing its form, but I sociology is not practical as no
disciplines like economics,
cannot conceive of a social social science can be studied in
political sciences, psychology also
institution whose form would not isolation from other social
study social relationships
change when its members sciences
change”
Synthetic School of Sociology

We cannot
Wanted sociology Different aspects
understand society
to be synthesis of of social life are
with the study of
the social sciences inter-related
only one aspect

Sociology should As a consequence

be an attempt to the scope of
study social life as sociology has to be
a whole wide
Durkheim
Social morphology
•Concerned with geographical or territorial basis of life of people such as
population, its size, density and distribution
•analysis of size and quality of population that affect the quality of social
relationship and social groups

Social physiology
•Genesis and nature of various social institutions namely religion, morals, law
and economic institutions

General sociology
•Main aim is to formulate general social laws
•Philosophical part of society
Hobhouse •Science which has the whole social life of man as its sphere.
•Relations with the other social sciences should be one of mutual exchange and mutual stimulation

Karl •Systematic and general sociology - describes one by one the main factors of living together as far as they may be found in
every kind of society
•Historical sociology - deals with the historical variety and actuality of the general forms of society
Mannheim's
•Scope of sociology into four main divisions such as social morphology, social control, social process and social pathology.
•Social morphology studies the quality and quantity of population, social group, social structures and social institutions.

Ginsberg •Social control studies the mechanisms i.e. both formal and informal by which society controls the behaviour of its
members.
•Social process studies different types of interaction like cooperation, competition and conflict.
•Social pathology studies social problems of poverty population crime etc.

•The study of relationship between various aspects of phenomena.

Sorokin •The study of relationship between the social and non-social.
•The study of general features of social phenomena.
General consensus
• Sociological analysis/perspective of society
• Social relationships
• Social institutions
• Social processes
• Methodology of research
• Concepts like stratification, pathology
 Links among different part of
Analysis of various society should be studied.
institutions, associations and (functionalist , Marxist
social groups which are school) (social structure
results of social relationships should be given adequate
importance)

Factors which contribute to Trend of the changing

social stability and social pattern and the aftermath of
change. the changes in the society
Sociology and other social
sciences
Is sociology a discipline in itself ?
Sociology is merely an •But it is certainly performing a useful function in sailing unchartered seas.
•It has produced a great deal of valuable information about social institutions such as
assemblage of miscellaneous the family, religion, state, social traditions, social processes, social classes
studies having social content •None of these topics is adequately treated elsewhere

•It doesn’t have a subject-matter of its own

Sociology is parceled out to a •Does existence of separate sciences prevents the existence of a more general
number of social sciences science ?
•Example - Existence of Botany, Physiology, and Bio Chemistry doesn’t nullify biology

Sociology borrows from •Essential nature of science is that it can grow only by borrowing
other social sciences •Example – construction of a building
Sociology and Anthropology

Man and society are •So i t i s difficult to distinguish the two disciplines
•A.L. Kroeber consider Sociology a nd Anthropology a s twin s isters
mutually interrelated

•It i s a science of society.

Sociology •It s tudies behaviour of man in groups
•Is concerned with the association of human beings

•deri ved from “a nthropos”

•Sci entific study of man (i t can be both biological a nd s ocio-cultural)
Anthropology •Phys i cal or Biological Anthropology, Social Anthropology or Cul tural Anthropology, Li nguistic
Anthropology or Anthropological linguistics, Archaeological Anthropology or Pre -historic Archaeology
 • Sociology from philosophy of history, political thought, positive sciences
Difference in Origins • Social anthropology from biology

Initially the two disciplines had • Social anthropologists focus their attention on small scale simple societies, sociologists focus on industrial societies
cooperation but there developed • Early anthropologists focused on kinship , magic, religion etc. while sociologists were more concerned with economic growth , social changes ,
conflict, deviance etc.
divergence

• Social anthropologists preferred functionalist approach, preferred field work as the main technique for data collection
Methodology • Sociology continues to be dominated by historical approach

• Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology

Interdependence • Provides knowledge about ancient societies / For comprehensive understanding of present society sociology takes the help of anthropology
• origin of family, marriage, religion etc. can be better understood through anthropological knowledge

• Sociology contributes towards the growth of anthropology

Interdependence • Research and contributions of many Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer is of great help to anthropology

• Rise of nation states (dualistic character ) as a consequence of nation building. Requires both the approaches
Convergence • Diffusion of Marxist approach in Social anthropology
• Sociologists have started relying on methods of social anthropology (Parsons, Merton )
Sociology Anthropology

Science of Society Science of man and his behavior

Scope is very wide Is very limited

More focused on modern, civilized, complex societies Focus is more on ancient , primitive societies

Studies society as a whole Studies man in society

Studies civilizations (vast, dynamic) Studies culture (small, static)

Concerned with social planning, so as to make No such concern

suggestions for future
“The Sociological attitude has tended towards the Practical and
Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the
past”
Sociology and History
Disciplines
• Present society bears symbols of past
• Sociology has close relationship with history
• Some scholars have even refused to acknowledge sociology as a
discipline different from History

History
• Studies the important past events and incidents (political, social
and economic)
• Records men’s past life and life of societies in a systematic
manner
• Tries to find out the causes of past events
Philosophy of History •A common parent

•“Soci ology is nomothetic, history is i diographic” – A.R. Ra dcliffe Brown.

Difference •But s ta tement party true. R.H.Tawney’s “Religion and the Rise of Ca pitalism” is more nomothetic than
Weber’s “The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Ca pitalism”

•Hi s torian concerned wi th the interplay between personality a nd s ocial forces

Subject Matter •Soci ology is concerned with the social forces themselves

History enriches •Hi s tory i s a record of past s ocial matters, s ocial customs and information about different stages of life
•Provi des materials sociologists use
Sociology •Now Soci ology i s also studied from historical point of vi ew

•Hi s torians now study ca ste, class a nd family by using sociological data
Sociology helps history •Hi s tory i s being studied from Sociological a ngle

•Hi s torical sociology now became a new branch of Sociology

Convergence •Soci ological history i s another s pecialized subject which based on both the Sciences
Sociology History

Science of Society (present) Concerned more with past events

New subject Older

Abstract Concrete

Scope of Sociology in very wide Limited scope

Analytical Science Descriptive Science

General Science Special Sceince

Studies a particular event as a social phenomenon Studies it in entirety

• “History is the microscope of the past, the horoscope of the present
and telescope of the future”
• “History is past Sociology and Sociology is present history”
Sociology and Psychology

• It is a science of society.
Sociology • It studies behaviour of man in groups
• Is concerned with the association of human beings

• Is a science of mind or mental processes

• It is the science of human behaviour
Psychology • It analyses attitudes, emotions, perceptions,
processes of personality formation
 •Sociology studies social systems
Subject Matter •Psychology studies mental systems

•J.S.Mill – Sought Primacy of psychology over all social sciences

2 extreme views •Durkheim - Sociology is the study of social facts. These social facts are external to an
individual’s mind and they exercise a coercive action on the mind

•Ginsberg – many sociological assumptions can be more firmly established by relating them to general psychological laws

Interdependence •Psychologists from Post- Freudian (Karen Horney, Erich Fromm) school talk about the influence of society in molding
individual behaviour (culture, customs and traditions)
•Many Psychological problems might have a Social Cause

Divergence •In study of conflict and war there have been mutually exclusive explanations

•The study of social psychology is an inter-play between individual character and social structure and it can be approached
Attempts at from either side (Gerth and Mills)
•Concept of “Role” to bridge the gap between the two sciences

reconciliation •Some common area of study such as social disorganization, public opinion etc. which are being studied by both Sociologists
and Psychologists
Sociology Psychology

Studies society Science of mind

Wider scope Limited scope

Unit of study in society Unit of study is individual

Studies social processes Studies mental processes

Analyzes human behaviour from sociological angles Analyzes human behaviour from psychological angles
Sociology and Economics
• Economics
• Deals with economic activities of man (production, consumption, distribution
and exchange)
• Science of wealth and choice
• Studies the structure and functions of different economic organizations like
banks, market
• Is concerned with the material needs of man as well as his material welfare

Divergent views
• Marxists – economic behaviour of a man is
viewed as the key to understand social
behaviour (precedence of economics over
sociology)
• Sociologists – have criticized the above as
reductionist. It ignores social factors which
can influence economic behaviour.
• Parsons, Smelser attempt to show
economic theory as part of general
sociological theory.
• Weber - Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft
Increasing interaction between the
disciplines
• “The social foundations of Wage Policy”
(Barbara Cotton) – sociological
determinants of wages and salary
differentials in Britain
• Importance is being given to the role of
sociological factors to study economic
behaviour (economic development in
developing countries). Gunar Myrdal
Sociology Economics

Science of Society Science of wealth and choice

Younger discipline Older science

Abstract Concrete

General Science Specialized

Scope is wider Limited scope

Concerned with social activities of man Concerned with economic activities of man

Methods and Techniques Methods and Techniques

Sociology and Political Science
Sociology
• It is a science of society.
• It studies social groups and social institutions
• It studies human interaction and inter-relations their
conditions and consequences

Political Science
• It is a science of state and Government.
• It studies power, political processes, political systems,
types of government and international relations.
Sociology is enriched •It is greatly benefited by the books written by political scientists like Plato, Aristotle and Kautilya
•Sociology takes the help of political science to understand changes in society
by political sciences •Change in the political system or nature of power structure brings changes in society

Political science gets •Political problems can have a social cause

•Solution of these political problems political science takes the help of sociology.
enriched by Sociology

•Marx – political institutions and behaviour are linked with the economic systems and social classes. Thinkers like Weber ,

Convergence Pareto have studied Bureaucracy, elite voting behaviour, political ideologies etc.
•Both functionalism and social system approach has been adopted in politics as well
•There is a greater interest in Marxist sociological studies

•The changes taking place in peasant, tribal and caste societies belong more to the domain sociologist, anthropologists than
political scientists
Convergence •Modern state is getting into welfare activities. There is sociological criticism to political activity and political thinking
•War, Propaganda, authority, communal riots and law – studied by both
•New subject comes into existence which is known as political sociology.
Sociology Political Science
Science of Society and Social Relationships Science of state and Government

Wider Scope Limited

General Science Special Science
Studies organised, unorganized and Studies only politically organised society
disorganized society

Studies the social activities of man Studies the political activities of man

Younger Science Older Science

Concerned with both formal and informal Concerned with formal relations
relations

Analyses both conscious and unconscious Analyses conscious activities

activities of man
Sociology and Philosophy
• Philosophy attempts to understand reality in totality (arrive at an ultimate
principle from a multitude of facts)
Subject Matter • Sociology explains society in terms of acts observed in the society (empirical
knowledge)

• Modern philosophy and sociology came into being to explain the social crisis of
Emergence Europe in 19th Century

•Philosophy of sociology – examination of the methods, arguments and concepts used in sociology
•Moral and social philosophy studies values. Subject matter of sociology is human social behaviour

Links guided by values

•Study of sociology leads to philosophical quest/reflections
•Philosophical reflections also lead to development of sociology
•There is a growing collaboration between , cross fertilization between the two disciplines
Sociology and Common
Sense
Sociology and Common Sense
• Common sense is defined as the minimum body of knowledge that
one is expected to know in order to deal with everyday situations
• “Common” here refers to the fact that it is shared by many people
• Common sense doesn’t require any specialized training
• Information passes through cultural mind. It develops into a
perception which can be “individualistic” or “naturalistic”
• Common sense is unreflective
• Common sense can be a useful guide to familiar situations but it is
not the truth
Issues with common sense

Our experience is limited

Our interpretation of experience can be biased

Our mind can play tricks

We seek answers that are easy to understand

We are likely to accept ideas of people whom we are attracted to

We are likely to tend towards certainty

Examples - Durkheim’s study of suicide
Common sense notions
• Committed by people who have mental illnesses
• People of certain races/with certain genes more prone to
commit suicides

Durkheim’s findings
• Studied Jews with the help of empirical data
• Among Jews mental illness was more but suicide rates was less
• Rate of suicides is linked with solidarity
Examples – Studies of Religion
Durkheim
•Sociologists must distinguish between what believers thinks and what actually
happens
•Christianity – “God created man in his own image”
•Durkheim – “Society created God in its own image”

Karl Marx
•In spite of its past appearance and noble intentions is one of the instruments of
exploitations
of the poor by the rich.
•It acts like a painkiller creating false sense of satisfaction among the poor and
therefore rendering them insensitive to the real cause of misery
• Common sense tends to make individualistic and naturalistic
assumptions.
• But it doesn’t recognize the importance of social forces on the individual
which he cannot control
• Behaviour patterns are not primarily determined biologically. Might reflect
social conventions
• Common Sense tends to use biological , pseudo-psychological ,
moralistic perspective
• Common Sense in unreflective
• Sociology is the scientific study of social behaviour
• Sociology attempts to make logically sound generalizations based on
carefully and systematically gathered evidences
• “things that are , are not what they seem”
• A sociologist is a skeptic who refuses to accept the self – evident, common
sense-based view of the world
at its face value
• Rather he makes a deliberate attempt to go beyond the "visual" and the
apparent" to look for the hidden patterns, implicit meanings, underlying
causes and unintended consequences
 Naturalistic explanation
• People are poor because they are
lazy, come form family who are
unable to budget properly, have
low intelligence
• Industrial conflict is because of
some influential individuals
(notorious elements)
• Suicide is because of unsound
mind
Sociological explanation
• Poverty can be caused by the
structure of inequality in society
• Industrial conflict occurs because
of widespread grievances among
the workforce
• Suicide factors like religion, family,
marriage patterns can also impact
society