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 METEOROLOGY TODAY, 2nd Canadian Edition
By Ahrens, Jackson, Jackson

ENRICHED INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL

Prepared by Mark Moscicki
University of Western Ontario

Chapter 8
Air Pressure and Winds

Contents

General Introduction .......................................................................................................... 8-2

Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................. 8-2
Focus Sections .................................................................................................................... 8-2
Key Concepts ...................................................................................................................... 8-2
Earth Systems..................................................................................................................... 8-4
Student Motivation ............................................................................................................ 8-4
Barriers to Learning ............................................................................................................ 8-4
Engagement Strategies ....................................................................................................... 8-5
Engaging Students from the Start ......................................................................................................... 8-5
Other Engagement Strategies ............................................................................................................... 8-5
Assessment Tools ............................................................................................................... 8-6
Student Projects .................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Answers to Questions for Review.......................................................................................................... 8-6
Answers to Questions for Thought ........................................................................................................ 8-8
Answers to Problems and Exercises ...................................................................................................... 8-9
Reflections on Teaching .................................................................................................... 8-10
Additional Resources ........................................................................................................ 8-10
Active Figures....................................................................................................................................... 8-11
Websites .............................................................................................................................................. 8-11
Video Clips ........................................................................................................................................... 8-11
General Introduction
This chapter provides a broad overview of how and why the wind blows. It begins by reviewing and
extending some of the basic concepts about pressure introduced earlier in the text. For example,
horizontal temperature variations are shown to produce pressure gradients that can cause the air to flow.
Instruments used to measure pressure and the most common pressure units are discussed. Examples of
meteorological charts used to display surface and upper-level pressure patterns are presented.
Newton’s laws of motion are defined, and forces that govern the horizontal movements of air are
identified. The relatively simple case of air motions above the ground is studied first. Horizontal pressure
gradients initially set the air in motion; the Coriolis force then exerts a force to the right or left of the
wind’s direction of motion. Winds at upper levels blow parallel to the contour lines on an isobaric chart.
When the contour lines are straight, the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces are equal and opposite and
the wind blows in a straight line at a constant speed; the resulting wind is referred to as geostrophic.
When the flow is curved, the resulting gradient wind forces include a centripetal component that accounts
for the changes in wind direction.
The frictional force acts to slow wind speeds at the surface with the result that winds blow across
the isobars slightly toward lower pressure. This accounts for the rising and sinking air motions found at
high and low pressure centres. Converging or diverging air motions aloft may result in surface pressure
centres strengthening or weakening.

Chapter Outline
 Atmospheric Pressure ▪ Coriolis Force
▪ Horizontal Pressure Variations ▪ Straight Flow Aloft—Geostrophic Winds
▪ Daily Pressure Variations ▪ Curved Flow Aloft—Gradient Winds
▪ Pressure Measurements ▪ Winds on Upper-Level Charts
▪ Pressure Readings ▪ Friction and Surface Winds
 Surface and Upper-Level Charts  Winds and Vertical Air Motions
 Newton’s Laws and Forces
 Forces and Horizontal Winds
▪ Pressure Gradient Force

Focus Sections
• The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law
• Flying from High to Low, Look Out Below
• A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic Wind
• Watching Clouds to Estimate Wind and Pressure Patterns Aloft
• Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere
• The Hydrostatic and Hypsometric Equations

Key Concepts
• Atmospheric air pressure is the pressure exerted by the mass of air above a region.

• Heating and cooling columns of air can establish horizontal variations in atmospheric pressure
above and at the surface.

• A difference in horizontal air pressure produces a horizontal pressure gradient force.

• The pressure gradient force is always directed from higher pressure toward lower pressure. It is the
pressure gradient force that causes the air to move and the wind to blow.

• Steep pressure gradients, seen as tightly packed isobars on a weather map, indicate strong pressure
gradient forces and high winds. Gentle pressure gradients, seen as widely spaced isobars on weather
maps, indicate weak pressure gradient forces and light winds.

• Above the level of surface friction, the wind blows nearly parallel to isobars. Where the wind blows
in a straight-line path and a balance exists between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis
force, the wind is termed geostrophic. When the wind blows parallel to curved isobars, the
centripetal acceleration becomes important, and the wind is called a gradient wind.

• Once the wind starts to blow, the Coriolis force causes it to bend to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left of its intended path in the southern hemisphere.

• In the northern hemisphere, the wind blows clockwise around regions of high pressure and
counterclockwise around areas of low pressure. In the southern hemisphere, the opposite is true.

• Surface friction slows down the wind, thus slowing the Coriolis force. This results in the wind
blowing outward away from the centre of a high, and inward toward the centre of a low.

• Sinking air occurs above a surface high pressure area; rising air occurs above a surface low pressure
area.
Earth Systems

[[Insert Earth Systems Image from Chapter 8 (pg. 212)]]

Winds are the movement of air. They transport heat from hot regions to cold regions and carry
moisture and pollution. Air has mass, and winds redistribute it to equalize pressure. Winds operate within
the atmospheric system, but by moving air with its properties of heat, mass, moisture, and particles from
one region to another, the impacts of wind can be seen in other Earth systems. Storms, such as middle-
latitude cyclones, tornadoes, and hurricanes, are the mechanisms the atmosphere uses to accomplish this.

Student Motivation
• This chapter builds on concepts learned in previous chapters (e.g., air pressure decreases with
height). Studying winds and the circulation around pressure systems forms a basis for
understanding middle-latitude cyclones, which will be studied in later chapters.

• A common myth states that the Coriolis force causes water to drain in a different direction in the
northern hemisphere compared to the southern hemisphere. Explain why this is not actually the case
(drains are of too small a scale for the Coriolis force to work upon).

• Students begin learning how to analyze and interpret weather maps in this chapter. They have seen
weather maps and their associated features before (on television, online, etc.), and thus many of
them will likely be interested in learning about map analysis in greater detail.

• Students will be interested to know how easy it is to determine pressure level using nothing but
their own bodies (Buys Ballot’s Law).

• Students may be surprised to realize the windiest place on Earth is in the northeastern United States
not far from the Canadian border. See the video under Additional Resources on Mt. Washington.

Barriers to Learning
• Air pressure is often reported in the Canadian media in units of kPa (e.g., on the Weather Network)
but in the text it is often reported in units of hPa. Ensure that students realize the conversions.

• Figure 8.2 and Figure 8.3 illustrate an important concept that may not be grasped at first.
Emphasize why there are different low pressure and high pressure areas at the surface compared to
the air aloft, in both the air columns.

• When first learning how to read surface maps and upper-level charts, it may be overwhelming to
students due to the amount of information presented on these maps. Focus first on the main
differences between a surface map and an upper-level chart (air pressure versus height in metres of
the 500 hPa level), and then discuss clues that tell students whether they are looking at a surface
map or an upper-level chart (e.g., isobars vs. contours, colours of pressure centre labels, etc).

• The Coriolis force can be difficult to comprehend because it is an apparent force. Using the analogy
of playing catch on a spinning merry-go-round is a good way of explaining the concept.

Engagement Strategies

Engaging Students from the Start

1. A 2.5 cm square iron bar cut approximately 130 cm long weighs 32 kg. When placed on end, the
pressure at its base will be 1013 hPa, the same as that of the atmosphere at sea level. The bar can be
passed around class; the students will likely be surprised at how heavy it is, and it can be used to
motivate a discussion on the concept of density and the workings of the mercury barometer. If the
bar was constructed of mercury, it would only need to be 75 cm long. If the bar was made of water,
it would need to be just over 10 m tall. Students should understand why they are not crushed by the
weight of many “iron bars” pressing in on their bodies. One misconception that the bar might create
is that pressure exerts only a downward force. The next demonstration may help eliminate that
misconception.

2. There are a variety of “crushed-can” demonstrations. For example, put a small amount of water into
a clean, metal can; heat the can until the water boils and then tightly seal the spout. The can will be
crushed by the weight of the atmosphere as it cools. The water is not necessary, but it enhances the
effect. Use the ideal gas law to explain the pressure imbalance that was created.

3. Demonstrate the difference between force and pressure by having one student lean on another
student using his/her open palm, then repeating the process using only a fingertip. It is the same
force but different pressures.

Other Engagement Strategies

1. Show students a surface weather map without any isobars drawn on it. The students will appreciate
how difficult it is to assimilate the large quantity of data plotted on the map. It will not be apparent
at all what large-scale weather features are present or what is causing the observed weather
conditions. Then show the students the same map with a completed isobaric analysis. The positions
 of important high and low pressure centres will become clear immediately and their effect on the
weather conditions in their vicinity will be apparent.

2. A discussion involving the Coriolis force may lead to a question about whether the direction water
spins when draining out of a sink or toilet bowl is different in the southern hemisphere than it is in
the northern hemisphere. Demonstrate how water can be made to rotate in either of the two
directions as it drains from a plastic soft drink bottle.

Assessment Tools

Student Projects

1. On a simplified surface weather map, perform an isobaric analysis. Initially, to keep the map as
simple as possible, it might be best to plot only the wind and pressure data. Once the centres of high
and low pressure have been located, transfer the positions to a second map with additional data
(temperature, cloud cover, weather, and dew point). Circle regions with overcast skies or stations
that are reporting precipitation. Are the stormy regions associated with high or low pressure?

2. Plot the daily average atmospheric pressure and observed weather conditions for several weeks. Are
stormy periods well correlated with lower-than-average atmospheric pressure?

3. Determine the direction of upper-level winds by observing mid-level cloud motions. Draw the
orientation of contours that would produce the observed motions and then compare that sketch with
an actual upper-level chart.

4. Obtain examples of surface weather maps from the southern hemisphere either on the Internet or
from the international newspaper collection at the university or local library. Determine the weather
conditions at specific cities based on the locations of high pressure and low pressure centres.

5. With reference to Figure 8.23, explain why, in the northern hemisphere, an airplane’s deviation is
always to the right of its motion, regardless of the direction the plane is travelling.

Answers to Questions for Review

1. In the colder, denser air, the pressure decreases rapidly with height because we climb above large
numbers of molecules as we increase our altitude.

2. It takes a shorter column of cold, denser air to exert the same surface pressure as a taller column of
warm, less dense air. This results in the horizontal movement of air between the columns.

3. 1013.25 hPa; 29.92 in. Hg; 101.325 kPa.

4. An aneroid barometer houses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell. Before the cell is
tightly sealed, air is partially removed, so that small changes in external air pressure cause the cell
to expand or contract.
A mercury barometer consists of a long glass tube open at one end and closed at the other.
Removing air from the tube and covering the open end, the lower portion of the tube is immersed
 into a dish of mercury. The column of mercury in the tube balances the weight of the air above the
dish, and hence the height of the column is a measure of atmospheric pressure.

5. Station pressure is the atmospheric pressure at the elevation of the weather station. Sea-level
pressure is the station pressure the weather station would have if the station were located at sea
level. The two would be the same if the station were located at sea level.

6. Cold air aloft is associated with low pressure. Warm air aloft is associated with high pressure.

7. Newton’s first law of motion states that an object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion
will remain in motion (and travel at a constant velocity along a straight line) as long as no force is
exerted on the object. So, to start air moving, to speed it up, to slow it down, or even to change its
direction requires the action of an external force.
Newton’s second law states that the force exerted on an object equals its mass times the
acceleration produced. From this relationship we can see that when the mass of an object is
constant, the force acting on the object is directly related to the acceleration that is produced.

8. This is due to temperatures decreasing as we go northward (in the Northern Hemisphere).

9. The pressure gradient force.

10. (a) The Coriolis force deflects it to the right.

(b) The Coriolis force deflects it to the left.

11. (a) The rotation of Earth causes the Coriolis force.

(b) Increasing wind speed increases the Coriolis force.

(c) Increasing latitude increases the Coriolis force.

12. It appears as many isobars drawn closely together.

13. Closely spaced isobars indicate a strong pressure gradient and strong pressure gradients cause
strong winds. Widely spaced isobars indicate a weak pressure gradient.

14. A geostrophic wind is a wind that results from a balance between the Coriolis force and the
pressure gradient force. At the equator there is no Coriolis force, and thus there cannot be a
geostrophic wind.

15. Upper-level winds are approximately geostrophic, with higher pressures (warmer temperatures) to
the south and lower pressures (colder temperatures) to the north.

16. In the northern hemisphere: Highs have a clockwise circulation aloft and lows have a
counterclockwise circulation aloft. At the surface, the direction of the circulation is the same as
aloft but the winds tend to cross the isobars toward lower pressures.
In the southern hemisphere: Highs have a counterclockwise circulation aloft and lows have a
clockwise circulation aloft. At the surface, the direction of the circulation is the same as aloft but
the winds tend to cross the isobars toward lower pressures.

17. The pressure gradient force, Coriolis force, friction, and centripetal force.
18. The roughness of the terrain.

19. High pressure areas are associated with descending air and low pressure areas are associated with
ascending air.

20. This is because of hydrostatic balance. The downward force of gravity balances the upward vertical
pressure gradient force.

21. In the northern hemisphere, if we stand with the wind aloft to our backs, lowest pressure will be to
our left, highest pressure to our right. If we stand with the surface wind to our backs and then turn
approximately 30° clockwise, lowest pressure will be to our left and highest pressure to our right.

22. Surface friction reduces wind speed and changes the direction by causing the wind to cross the
isobars toward lower pressure at an angle of approximately 30 degrees.

23. In the northern hemisphere, air first flows southward and then northward in a trough and
temperatures tend to be cold. In a ridge, air first flows northward and then southward and
temperatures tend to be warm.

Answers to Questions for Thought

1. Assuming no corrections for altitude, the drop in pressure from the base to the top of the hill would
be detected by the barometer. The resulting reading could be lower than isobserved in most storms.

2. Inside the refrigerator, the temperature of the air inside the balloon will decrease. The Gas Law
requires that the air pressure inside the balloon must also decrease (the air density inside the balloon
will also increase slightly). When removed from the refrigerator, the air temperature inside the
balloon will increase. According to the Gas Law, when air temperature increases, air pressure must
also increase, thus inflating the balloon.

3. The air column above City T will have the highest surface pressure (dry air weighs more than moist
air at the same temperature).

4. Station pressure could exceed sea-level pressure if the station was located below sea-level. (An
example would be Death Valley, California.)

5. Higher pressures aloft are to the northwest, lower pressures are to the southeast. Since there is a
significant north–south component to the upper-level air flow, the flow is meridional.

6. High pressures and high temperatures are associated with high heights on an isobaric surface, while
low pressures and low temperatures are associated with low heights. When flying from high
pressure and warm air into a region of low pressure and cold air without changing the altimeter
setting, the altimeter (which measures pressure and indicates altitude) will indicate an altitude
higher than the aircraft is flying. Because the aircraft is flying lower than indicated, it is wise to
look out below for obstructions such as mountains and hills.

7. The altimeter will continue to indicate the same altitude because it measures pressure. The constant
pressure surface will be located at higher than standard altitude in the warmer air because pressure
decreases more slowly in warm air than in cooler air. Once it enters the warm air, the aircraft will
actually be flying at a higher altitude than that indicated by the altimeter.
8. The wind would blow directly from regions of higher pressure toward regions of lower pressure.

9. The frictional effect of the water is less. Consequently, with the same PGF the winds are stronger,
the Coriolis force is stronger, and the winds blow more nearly parallel to the isobars.

10. Assuming that this flow is in the northern hemisphere, the flow would be cyclonic (low-pressure
centre). The relative magnitude of the centripetal force would be the difference between the PGF
and Coriolis force. The centripetal force would be directed inward.

12. The surface wind would probably be from either the south or the southeast. If the upper-level low is
an elongated trough of low pressure, then the winds overhead will probably be more southwesterly,
and the middle-level clouds will be moving from southwest to northeast. The wind is changing in a
clockwise direction with increasing height. The winds aloft will be stronger than the surface winds.

13. Illustrate the wind flow patterns around a high pressure area (clockwise) and move the high from
west to east, north of your location.

14. On a frictionless surface, the winds around a surface low would blow parallel to curved isobars with
the PGF directed inward and the Coriolis force directed outward. However, friction slows the wind,
which reduces the Coriolis force. Because of the stronger PGF, the winds blow inward across the
isobars toward lower pressure, giving the appearance that the winds are being deflected to the left.
The inwardly directed force is stronger.

15. On the equator, the Coriolis force is zero. Because there is no deflecting force, the wind can blow
either clockwise or counterclockwise around an area of low pressure, depending on how the flow
initially responds to the PGF. In either case, the PGF supplies the inwardly directed force needed
for circular motion.

16. Inside the closed car the air density remains constant, however, the temperature increases. In this
case, the gas law (P = T * constant) dictates that an increase in temperature will produce an increase
in pressure. If the car is air tight, the pressure inside could become great enough to crack or “blow
out” a window.

17. The wind speed will increase due to reduced friction over the lake. The wind direction will veer
(turn in a clockwise direction) as a result of the increased Coriolis force.

18. The magnitude of the Coriolis force is very small close to the equator. Also, the slope of the tub
basin is a much more important factor in determining the direction of rotation.

Answers to Problems and Exercises

1. Assuming standard atmospheric conditions, the sea-level pressure would be 1024 hPa. On a hot
afternoon, the actual sea-level pressure would be somewhat less because atmospheric pressure
decreases less rapidly with height in warm air; thus the vertical pressure change would be slightly
less than 10 hPa per 100 m.

2. (a) The lowest possible pressure is 997 hPa and the highest is 999 hPa.

(c) At Point A it would likely be southeasterly and at Point B it would likely be westerly.
 (d) Stronger winds would be at Point B due to the greater PGF there.

(e) 8 hPa/1000 km between Points 1 and 2 and 12 hPa/1000 km between Points 3 and 4.

(f) The geostrophic wind at Point A is 10.4 m/s (about 20 knots) and the geostrophic wind at Point
B is 14.3 m/sec (about 28 knots).

(g) Due to friction, the winds at Points A and B would be less than the geostrophic wind computed
in part (f).

3. (a) The pressure at the top of the column is about 500 hPa.
P = 49940.8 Pa = 499.4 hPa. 1000 hPa - 499.4 hPa = 500.6 hPa.

(b) The pressure would be less than that computed in part (a) because the air density would increase
as the column cooled and air pressure decreases more rapidly with height in cold, high-density air.

(c) If we assume the column is still 5600 m thick and the atmospheric pressure at the bottom of the
column is 1000 hPa, then the pressure at the top would be about 468 hPa.
∆P = 53233.6 Pa = 532.3 hPa. 1000 hPa – 532.3 hPa = 467.7 hPa.

4. P = 502.25 hPa; observed at about 5.5 km (from Figure 1.10).

5. (a) Density = 1.19 kg/m3

(b) Within the container, an increase in pressure must be caused by an increase in temperature. The
new temperature in the container would be 586 K.

6. The air pressure is 1009 hPa.

7. The upper-level centre of low pressure would be to the east.

Reflections on Teaching
• What topics or concepts engaged the students most?

• What topics or concepts confused the students? Why did this occur?

• Do the assessment results suggest that students understand major concepts and how the topics relate
to one another? Or do the results suggest that students are studying by just memorizing key terms?

• What do I need to change to improve student success?

• How can I receive ongoing feedback from students about my teaching?

Additional Resources
Active Figures

Active Figure 8.2: Atmospheric Pressure in Warm and Cold Air

Active Figure 8.3: Horizontal Pressure Variations

Active Figure 1 (p. 216): The Ideal Gas Law

Active Figure 8.21: Coriolis Force

Active Figure 8.24: Geostrophic Wind

The figures are found at http://www.nelson.com/student

Websites

Coriolis Force as a Function of Latitude and Wind Speed Applet

http://profhorn.aos.wisc.edu/wxwise/kinematics/coriolis.html

Current Surface Maps and Upper-Level Charts

http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/analysis/index_e.html

Global Mean Sea Level Pressure and Surface Winds Animation

http://geography.uoregon.edu/envchange/clim_animations/flash/mslp.html

Global Current Wind Map

http://earth.nullschool.net/

Rotation and the Coriolis Force Applet

http://severewx.atmos.uiuc.edu/06/online.6.1.html

Upper-Level Charts: Make Your Own

http://vortex.plymouth.edu/myo/upa/

Wind as a Balance of Forces Applet

http://profhorn.aos.wisc.edu/wxwise/kinematics/testwind.html

Video Clips

Mt. Washington: The Windiest Place on Earth

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jIaT8YfT2og&playnext=1&list=PLBFCA0BCC12D13B05

Powerful Wind
http://www.theweathernetwork.com/videos/gallery/all/video_gallery/science-behind-the-weather-
powerful-wind/sharevideo/3902129225001

Wind and Airplanes

http://www.theweathernetwork.com/videos/gallery/all/video_gallery/science-behind-the-weather-wind-
and-airplanes/sharevideo/3902089931001
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