PHY 1210 (MECHANICS)

LECTURE NOTE

LEVEL 1

Physical Quantities

A physical quantity is something that can be measured by some definable process. The result
of the measurement is called the magnitude of the quantity and can be expressed by

Where Q is the quantity obtained, U is the suitable sample of the quantity concerned and is
called unit and n is the numeric and the number of times that the unit must be used to make up
the magnitude in question.

Types of Physical Quantity

1. Fundamental quantity

Fundamental quantities are those quantities whose define operation are not based on
the measurement of other quantities. Examples of fundamental quantities are; Length

(width, height, depth) measured in meter (m), time measured in seconds (s), mass
measured in kg, temperature measured in Kelvin (K), amount of substance measured in
mole (mol), electrical current measured in Ampere (A) e.t.c.

2. Derived quantities

Derived quantities are those quantities whose magnitude s is defined in terms of the
magnitude of fundamental quantities. Example of derived quantities are; velocity, force,
area, acceleration, density, pressure/stress, work/energy/heat, electrical capacitance,
electrical resistance/impedance/reactance e.t.c.

Velocity

Force

Pressure/stress

Dimensions of physical quantities

Dimension of a physical quantities is the analysis of the relation between different physical
quantities by identifying their fundamental dimensions such as length (L), mass (M), time (T)
and electrical current (I). To obtain the dimension of a derived physical quantities the formula of
the quantity has to be written in term of fundamental quantities, example

Dimension of force

APPLICATIONS OF THE METHOD OF DIMENSIONS

Example 1

The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum depend on the mass of the bob, the length of the
string, the initial velocity and acceleration. Obtain an expression for the period of vibration of a
simple pendulum.

Solution

The period of oscillation is proportional to

But the initial velocity

------------------ 1 where K is constant

The dimension of

From equation 1

Therefore

Example 2

In an atomic explosion, a large amount of energy is released within a small region and a
strong spherical shock wave developed at the point of detonation in Japan. In the early stage s,
the pressure behind the shock wave is huge compared to the atmospheric pressure, which is
completely negligible. If denotes the radius of the wave and is time, the radius is only
expected to depend on

where is the density of air at equilibrium. Obtain an expression for the constant.

Solution
The radius of the wave is proportional to

………………..1

From equation 1

……………….. i

………………... ii

…………………… iii

Substituting the value of in equation 1

Exercise

1. A particle of mass attached to a string of length is whirled round in a circle with speed.
Find the expressing for the tension in the string.

2. The frequency of vibration of a mass at the end of a spring that has a stiffness related
to and by the expression

C is dimensionless constant. Use dimension method to find the constant

Coordinate System

A coordinate system is a system which uses one or more numbers or coordinates to determine
the position of a point. Some examples of coordinate system include; number line, Cartesian
coordinate, cylindrical polar coordinate, spherical polar coordinate e.t.c. To find the position, as
well as motion bodies in space we represent the body in an abstract manner by means of a
collection of points in 3 – dimensional Euclidean space. Each point in the 3 – dimensional
Euclidean spaces is specified by any ordered set of real numbers which represent the
coordinates of that point. A coordinate system consists of an origin and the other two
coordinates.

Cartesian coordinate system

In three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a point O is the origin and has coordinates.
The coordinate’s faces are plane, plane and plane. Suppose we have two points , point A has
coordinate while point B has coordinate as shown in the figure below

Z
B

Y
O

The distance between A and B is

Cylindrical polar coordinate

The cylindrical polar coordinate is defined by

Z
 P

Y
X

The cylindrical polar coordinate can be defined in term of the Cartesian coordinate such that

Spherical polar coordinate

The spherical polar coordinate are relayed to the Cartesian coordinate as shown below

Therefore Y

Time

Time is an interval between two physical events. The phenomenon of changing seasons, the
pattern of the day and night and swinging of pendulum are idea of time we experience. Also any
periodic events in nature can be used as a means of measuring time in term of years, month,
days, hours, minutes and seconds. We use clock and watches to measure time. Time is
homogeneous and absolute and it is independent of the observer.

KINEMATICS

Kinematics is the branch classical mechanics which describe the motion of point object or
system of bodies without considering the causes of the motion.

Distance/displacement

Distance is said to be travelled whenever there is change in position of a body from one point to
another, and displacement is a distance travelled by a body in a specified or giving direction.

Speed/velocity

Speed is the rate of change of a distance with time.

Exercise

A man travels a distance of in . What is the average speed of the man?

Velocity is the ratio of the displacement that occurs during a particular time interval to that time
interval. It is measured in (m/s).

Or

Or where is the change of displacement and time interval

Also

Exercise

A man taken 2 to drives to Hadejia from Kano, a distance of . What is his average velocity?

Instantaneous velocity

This is a velocity of a moving object at any specific instant time or specific point along the path.
 V

Acceleration

Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity. If the velocity changes by equal amount of
time, the acceleration is said to be uniform and if the rate of change of velocity with time slow
down, the acceleration is negative. This negative acceleration is known as retardation.

Acceleration is measured in

Equations of motion
Let be the initial velocity of an object, its final velocity, the time taken and the acceleration

From definition
Acceleration, .................... 1

Equation 1 can also be written as

Integrate both side of the equation

................... 2 where c is constant of integration

Using initial conditions

Equation 2 becomes
So that
......................... 3
From the definition of velocity, i.e.
...................4
Substituting
..................... 5
Integrate equation 4

................ 6
Using initial conditions
 ............... 7 where
To obtain an expression for the velocity independent of time, known as Torricelli equation, we
use following method,

................. 8

Equation

Example

A ranger in a national park is driving at when a deer jumps into a road a head of the vehicle.
After a reacting time of , the ranger applied the brakes to produce an acceleration of . What is
the maximum reaction time allowed if she is to avoid hitting the deer?

Total distance

From definition of acceleration

The total distance

Exercise 2

An electron moving at a speed of is shot through a sheet of paper which is . The electron
emerges from the paper with a speed of . Find the time taken by the electron to pass through
sheet. Assume the acceleration to be uniform.

Exercise 3

A motorist travelling with a constant speed of passes a Zebra crossing where the speed limit is
. Just as the motorist passes, a police officer on a motorcycle stopped at the Zebra crossing
off in pursuits with constant acceleration of .

i. How much time wills the police officer takes to catch up with motorist?

ii. What is the speed of the officer at that time?

iii. What is the total distance each vehicle travelled at that time?

Newton’s laws of motion

First law of motion

The law stated that a body will continue to be in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted
upon it by an external force to act otherwise. This law can be closely linked with the concept of
inertia.

Second law of motion

This law can be stated as; the rate of change of momentum of a body with time is proportional
to the applied force and occurs in the direction of the force’

Mathematically

If of force is applied on a body of mass which result in the body to accelerate , the

The

Equation 2 can also be written as

If a force act’s on an object for some time t, the product is known as of the force.

Third law of motion

The third law stated that; reaction is always equal and opposite to action. The force acted on a
body is exerted; the body exerts a reaction force back on the other body.

Exercise 1

A elevator car is raised and lowered by a cable fastened at the top. Calculate the upward force
exerted by the cable when the elevator

a. Starts up with acceleration of

b. To rise with constant velocity

c. Start dawn with acceleration of

d. Goes dawn with constant velocity.

Solution

a.

b.

c.

d.

Exercise 2

A man stands on a scale on the floor of an elevator. The scale records the force exerted on
whatever is on it. What is the scale reading if the elevator has an acceleration of

a.

b.
 c. Come down freely

d. If the scale is taken to moon and a astronaut weighs himself there, what does the scale
read? If at moon

Atwood machine

The Atwood machine is a device often used in the laboratory for determination of acceleration
due to gravity. It consist of two equal masses fastened to the end of a long cord which passes
over a light weight ball bearing pulley

The weight on the left oppose the weight

on the right. The resultant force causing the acceleration is equal to the
difference
………………………… 1
The total mass on the system is , therefore
……………………… 2
Putting equation together

The weight is acting downward while the tension T is acting upward, then,

Exercise 1
A are fastened to the opposite ends of a cord hung over a pulley. Neglect the mass of the cord,
find
a. The resultant force accelerating the system
b. The acceleration of then system
c. The tension on the cord

Projectile

This is a two dimensional motion in which a particle moves in a vertical plane with the same
initial velocity U experience the downward acceleration due to gravity and moves horizontally
with constant speed at the same time.

X
The motion of a projectile can be resolve into component
The initial velocity of the projection makes an angle with axis, therefore
In – direction
In - direction
The acceleration due to gravity is acting vertically downwards makes an angle of with - axis ,
so that the acceleration can be resolve into direction
In – direction
In - direction
Vertical motion
Using the first equation of motion, the velocity of the vertical motion after time is

............................. 1
At maximum height reached by the projectile, the final velocity is zero. thus and equation 1
turns to

.................... 2 where is the time to reach the maximum height H

The vertical distance Y travel by the projectile is

....................... 3
When the object return to the level of projection, at (the total time of flight)

................................. 4

The maximum height attained by the projectile with initial velocity and final velocity is given by
third law of motion

............................... 5
Horizontal motion
The velocity of the particle along the horizontal axis is

.................................. 6

After time the maximum distance travelled along the horizontal axis is

..................................... 7
If is the maximum distance travelled by the particle, the

Using trigonometrically identities

........................ 8
The Equation of the Path
The equation of the path of the projectile can be obtained using equation 3

Eliminating from equation 3 by solving equation 7 for t and substitute in equation 3

.................................9

.........................10
Equation 10 is an equation of parabola, so that the path is a parabolic.
Exercise 1
A particle is projected with a speed of at an angle of .
i. Find its greatest height
ii. The range on a horizontal plane
iii. The time of flight
iv. Velocity and duration after 2seconds
SOLUTION
i. =
ii.
iii.
iv.

= = 74.2

The direction of the velocity is

Exercise 2
A particle A is projected horizontally at from the top of a building high. At the same time a
particle B is projected from the bottom of the building in the same vertical plane at at an angle
of elevation .
i. After what time will the particles collide
ii. Determine the point of collision.
Solution
For particle A
So that

Le be the vertical distance move by particle A before colliding with B

Since particle A is moving downward, the distance move is

.............................. 1
For a particle B,

Le be the vertical distance move by particle B before colliding with A

Since particle A is moving downward, the distance move is

...................... 2
Add equation 1 and 2

The X coordinate is

The vertical distance

Therefore the particles collide at a point whose coordinate is

Exercise III
A tall basket ball player wants to make a goal from the basket. If he shots the ball at angle, at
what initial speed must he throw the basketball so that it goes through the hoop without hitting
the back board if the hoop is high?
Solution

Resilience and Coefficient of Restitution

Resilience is defined as a compression or rapid deformation, without the development of
permanent deformation. Experiment have shown that most hard bodies are more resilient in
collision and rebound from each other quite rapidly, while soft bodies are less resilient and
rebound much more slowly.
The ability with which a body restores itself to its original shape after deformation is called
restitution and coefficient of restitution as the ratio of the velocity with which the two bodies
separate after the collision to the velocity of their approach before collision.

If , the collision is said to be elastic. In this case, both momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved.
If , the collision is said to be completely in elastic. Only momentum is conserved, but kinetic
nergy is not conserved. Energy is converted to another form of energy.

Elastic collision
In an elastic collision both energy and momentum are conserved. We have

……………… 1

Kinetic energy is

…….. 2
For elastic collision, the coefficient of restitution

…………. 3
From equation 3

………… 4
Subst. equation 4 in 1

……… 5

………... 6

Subst. equation 6 in 1 and solve for

……… 7

Special cases

i. When is at rest, equation 5 becomes

……… 8
equation 7 becomes
……… 9
ii. When
………………. 10
 ………………….. 11
This shows that when two identical bodies collide elastically, the first body initially in motion,
come to rest, while the second body initially at rest will moves off with velocity equal to the
initial velocity of the first.
iii. When is at rest, but
The initial kinetic energy of mass is

……………… 12

……………….. 13

The final kinetic energy of mass is

………….. 14

And the final kinetic energy of mass

……….. 15

……………… 16

Inelastic collision
For an inelastic collision,

If is at rest, . The total momentum before collision is

……….. 17

The total momentum after collision is

…………… 18

Using the law of conservation of momentum

Equation 17 = 18
 so that

……………………. 19

The total kinetic energy before collision

……………. 20

The total kinetic energy after collision is

………. 21

Divide equation 21 by 20 and subst. the value of from equation 19, we have

……… 22

GRAVITATION
Gravity is one of the fundamental forces of nature, it can be classified as weak force unless the
object involve are larger, like planet or star. Gravity can be said to have come from the studies
of motion of moon and the planets.
The law of gravity`
This law states that; the force of attraction between two bodies of masses is proportional to
the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separation
them.
………… 1
Where G is the universal gravitational constant =
The force of gravity on a person of mass due to the earths mass is called person’s weight.
Thus

…………… 2
At the surface of the earth,
Exercise 1
A astronout weight on earth. How much would he weigh on the moon (
Solution

Exercise 2
How far from the earth, in terms of the earth – moon separation , should a satellite be
positioned if it is to experience no net gravitational force from the earth and the moon? The
moon mass is
Solution
Let the satellite distance from the earth be
So that

Exercise 2
A spherical hollow is made in a lead sphere of radius, such that its surface touches the outside
surface of the lead sphere and passes through its centre. The mass of the sphere before
hollowing was . With what force according to the law of gravitation, will the lead sphere attract a
small sphere of mass, which lies at a distance from the centre of the lead sphere on the
straight line connecting the centre of the spheres and of the hollow?

Solution

The volume of the lead sphere

And the density of the lead

The actual sphere would exert a force

The radius of the cut-out sphere

The volume of the cut out sphere

The mass of then cut out sphere is

The cut out sphere will a force

The effective force F on the body of mass m by the sphere is

Exercise 3

At what altitude above the earth’s surface, changes from about the mass of the earth is
radius of the earth is

Gravitational potential energy

Work is said to be done against gravity only when the displacement is radial. If a body of
mass starts a distance from a mass and we lift it out to a distance the work done is

If an object is at a small distance above the surface of the earth, where, we take and then

Escape velocity

The gravitational potential of a body of mass , at the earth surface is the amount of work done
required to move a body from the surface of the earth to infinity.

If a projectile leaves the surface of the earth with a speed such that it doesn’t return

Example 1

Mars has a mean diameter of earth one of . The mass of the Mars is

a. Compare the density of the mars with that of earth.

b. What is the value of on the Mars?

 c. What is the escape velocity on mars?

Solution

Let be the mass of earth and mass of mars

a. Diameter of mars , diameter of earth is

……………… 1

And that of the mars is

……………. 2

Divide equation 2 by 1

b. Consider the mass of the body to be on earth

………………. 3

Similarly if the body is taken to mars

…………………….4

Divide equation 4 by 3

c. The escape velocity on earth is

……………….5

While on the mars, the escape velocity is

…………… 6
Moment of inertia

Moment of inertia is the mass property of a rigid body that determines the torque needed for
desired angular acceleration about an axis of rotation.

Suppose a rigid body is rotating about a fixed axis the body is made up of many particles with
masses at distances respectively from the axis of rotation.

A particle at a distance from axis O, moves with speed and angular velocity of a every particle
from the axis O in the same

………………… 1

The kinetic energy of particle of mass

………… 2

For a particle with mass with a distance from O

………….. 3

Similarly for a particle with mass

……………. 4

The total kinetic energy of the body is the sum of the kinetic energy of all particles

………………. 5

………………. 6

The quantity is called the moment of inertia of the body represented by I

, the unit of moment of inertia is

Example 1

Find the moment of inertia of the system shown below about

 i. The axis

ii. The axis perpendicular to the point of intersection of the two rods connecting the
masses

Solution

i. The moment of inertia about

ii. The moment of inertia about the perpendicular to the point of intersection

Torque

A torque or moment of force is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis or pivot.
A torque can be thought of as a twist to an object.

Suppose a force act on a particle at a point at a distance from the origin of a reference frame
shown below
The torque acting on the particle with respect to the origin is define as

…………… 1
But the magnitude of the torque is

………… 2 where is the angle between

The angular momentum of a particle

Consider a particle of mass and linear momentum at a position , a distance from the origin,
the angular momentum of the particle with respect to origin is

………….. 3
And the magnitude of is
Therefore torque can also be define as the time derivative of angular momentum
……… 4

…………….. 5
Relation between angular momentum and moment of inertia

Suppose a particle of mass moving in a circle of radius and velocity then the angular
momentum is

……… 6

The magnitude of the angular momentum is

where is the angle between

But
……… 7

But , the moment of inertia of the particle

………… 8

Relation between torque and angular momentum from Newton’s second law of motion

………… 9

………… 10

And also

Differentiating both side of this equation time

………. 11

But

…………………..12

Equation 10 and 12 are the same

……………………… 13

Also form equation 8

Where is angular acceleration

…………………. 14

Example 1

A particle of mass rotate in a circular orbit with radius at a constant rate . What is the angular
momentum with respect to the center of the orbit?

Solution
Example 2

A horizontal disc rotating freely about a vertical axis makes . A small piece of wax of mass 0.
2kg falls vertically on to the disc and adheres to it at a distance 10cm from the axis. If the
number of revolution per minute reduces to 100, calculate the moment of inertia of the disc.

Solution

The angular momentum of the disc before = angular momentum of the disc after + angular
momentum of the wax adheres.

But

Example 3

A mass less string is wrapped around a pulley that has a radius , a mass and rotational inertia
about its axis. The free end of the string is attached to a hanging 5kg block, the other end is
fixed to a point on the rim of the pulley. Neglecting friction in the pulley bearing, find the linear
acceleration of the hanging block.
The length of arc

The speed is

(a)

Newton’s law

The torque where T is the tension on the string

Also

And from

So that

So that
Forces acting at a point

When several forces act upon a body with different magnitudes and directions, they constitute a
system of forces

The parallelogram law

Is two forces acting ata point represented both magnitude and direction by the sides of
parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by
the diagonal of then parallelogram drawn from that point.

The triangle of forces

If three forces are in equilibrium they can be represented in magnitude and direction

by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.

From the triangle ABC

Using the sine rule

Lami’s theorem

If three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium then each force is proportional to the sine of
the angle between the other two forces.
In general if then three forces are in equilibrium, then

Example 1

Mass of is hung by two strings of length , the other ends of the strings being attached to point
in a horizontal line apart. Calculate the tension in each string.