micromachines
Article
Reliability Assessment of On-Wafer AlGaN/GaN HEMTs: The
Impact of Electric Field Stress on the Mean Time to Failure
Surajit Chakraborty 1 and Tae-Woo Kim 1,2, *
Citation: Chakraborty, S.; Kim, T.-W.
Reliability Assessment of On-Wafer
AlGaN/GaN HEMTs: The Impact of
Electric Field Stress on the Mean
Time to Failure. Micromachines 2023,
14, 1833. https://doi.org/10.3390/
mi14101833
Academic Editor: Yu-Shyan Lin
Received: 31 August 2023
Revised: 15 September 2023
Accepted: 21 September 2023
Published: 26 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14101833
1 Department of Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Ulsan,
Ulsan 44610, Republic of Korea; surajit5103@ulsan.ac.kr
2 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
* Correspondence: twkim78@ulsan.ac.kr
Abstract: We present the mean time to failure (MTTF) of on-wafer AlGaN/GaN HEMTs under
two distinct electric field stress conditions. The channel temperature (Tch ) of the devices exhibits
variability contingent upon the stress voltage and power dissipation, thereby influencing the long-
term reliability of the devices. The accuracy of the channel temperature assumes a pivotal role in
MTTF determination, a parameter measured and simulated through TCAD Silvaco device simulation.
Under low electric field stress, a gradual degradation of IDSS is noted, accompanied by a negative
shift in threshold voltage (∆VT ) and a substantial increase in gate leakage current (IG ). Conversely,
the high electric field stress condition induces a sudden decrease in IDSS without any observed shift
in threshold voltage. For the low and high electric field conditions, MTTF values of 360 h and 160 h,
respectively, were determined for on-wafer AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
Keywords: AlGaN/GaN HEMTs; electric field; stress voltage; mean time to failure; channel temperature
1. Introduction
The AlGaN/GaN transistors exhibit favorable attributes for high-frequency power ap-
plications owing to their substantial band gap of 3.4 eV, exceptional breakdown field around
3.5 MV/cm, low on-state resistance, and effective heat dissipation capabilities [1–5]. In the
absence of doping, the AlGaN/GaN heterostructure demonstrates a significant conduction
band discontinuity. This, when coupled with the influences of piezoelectric polarization
and spontaneous polarization, gives rise to the creation of a high-density two-dimensional
electron gas (2-DEG) [6–8]. These features make AlGaN/GaN HEMTs uniquely suited
for demanding applications that require high-power handling, high-frequency opera-
tion, and robust performance even in extreme conditions [9–14]. These advanced devices
have emerged as key components in the field of electronics and power electronics, of-
fering a wide range of benefits that make them indispensable in numerous cutting-edge
applications [15–18]. AlGaN/GaN HEMTs have revolutionized power electronics. Their
ability to handle high voltages and currents efficiently, along with their high-speed switch-
ing capabilities, has made them ideal for applications like power amplifiers, DC–DC
converters, and power supplies [19–22]. They enable the development of compact and
energy-efficient power electronic systems [23]. In the realm of radio frequency (RF) and
microwave electronics, AlGaN/GaN HEMTs offer exceptional high-frequency performance,
low noise characteristics, and high-power output [24–27]. These transistors are critical
components in radar systems, wireless communication infrastructure, and satellite commu-
nications [28,29].
The wide bandgap confers substantial robustness against diverse manifestations of
electrical overstress, encompassing direct current (DC), electrostatic discharge (ESD), and
radio frequency (RF) stressors [30–33]. Hence, ensuring reliability emerges as a pivotal
concern necessitating meticulous consideration throughout the developmental or material
growth phases [34]. The mean time to failure (MTTF) serves as a critical parameter in
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assessing the longevity of devices within the context of long-term reliability. Subsequently,
the mean time to failure (MTTF) can be extrapolated from the heightened test temperature to
the standard operational temperature, typically hovering around 150 ◦ C for gallium nitride
(GaN) devices [7,35]. In terms of reliability categories, long-term reliability (around 1000 h
according to JEDEC standard) at a three-temperature DC test is most used to determine
device reliability [36]. Conducting measurements across various junction temperatures (at
least three temperatures) facilitates the determination of activation energies (Ea ) through
the application of the Arrhenius equation. Long-term high-power 50 V DC stress was
induced on Lg = 0.5 µm devices with an output current of 150 mA/mm (7.5 W/mm) for a
duration of 816 h at channel temperature Tch = 280 ◦ C, 300 ◦ C, and 330 ◦ C [37]. The initial
drop in output drain current was observed at 24 h, and the period of stability was around
100–200 h. Beyond this point, the output current relative to time significantly decreased.
After a comprehensive physical failure analysis, the emergence of crystallographic defects
was ascertained within the entirety of the gate width in the AlGaN layer. This occurrence
can be attributed to the manifestation of the inverse piezoelectric effect [38,39]. However,
the analysis did not yield an estimation of the mean time to failure (MTTF).
The failure mechanism analysis of GaN-based HEMTs involves short-term reliability
studies (<24 h), as conducted by various research groups [30,40]. Notably, hot-electron
degradation has been well established in GaAs-based HEMTs, and similarly, the hot-
electron effect remains a predominant degradation mechanism in GaN HEMTs. The
aforementioned study investigated the hot-electron effect through DC short-term tests
(<150 h) across diverse HEMT structures. The electroluminescence (EL) intensity exhibited
a non-monotonic ‘bell-shaped’ trend when correlated with VGS while maintaining the VDS
constant. Furthermore, a long-term accelerated test was conducted, spanning up to 3000 h,
on a specific device at distinct bias points (VGS = 0 V, VDS = 6 V, (on state); VGS = −9 V,
VDS = 32 V (off state); VGS = −4 V, VDS = 25 V (semi-on state)). Notably, under the semi-on
state condition, a substantial degradation in transconductance (gm ) was observed compared
with the other conditions, indicating the presence of the hot-electron effect within the
channel. In spite of a thorough examination of the degradation mechanism, the evaluation
did not result in the computation of the mean time to failure (MTTF).
Numerous additional research groups have undertaken investigations involving three-
temperature DC accelerated Arrhenius test aging, from which activation energies have been
deduced [31,41,42]. High-temperature operating (HTO) tests were conducted by subjecting
the devices to a consistent power dissipation of 6 W/mm. These tests were performed at
varying channel temperatures of 204 ◦ C, 232 ◦ C, and 260 ◦ C, all maintained under the same
voltage condition (VDS = 25 V), over an approximate duration of 3000 h [43]. However, a
comprehensive analysis of activation energy and MTTF was notably absent from the study.
Under a consistent voltage condition of VDS = 30 V, a high-temperature operating life
(HTOL) test was executed for approximately 2000 h. This test encompassed three distinct
channel temperatures: 210 ◦ C, 225 ◦ C, and 250 ◦ C. The outcomes revealed a mean time to
failure (MTTF) of 1.87 × 106 h at a temperature of 200 ◦ C, along with activation energy
(Ea ) of 1.8 eV [44]. An accurate estimation of the channel temperature is of paramount
importance for determining the precise mean time to failure (MTTF) values in GaN HEMTs.
Employing a constant bias of VDS = 50 V and a power dissipation rate of 4 W/mm, devices
were subjected to stress testing at three distinct base temperatures: Tb = 160 ◦ C, 175 ◦ C,
and 190 ◦ C. However, the resulting MTTF values diverged based on the peak channel
temperature (measured through Raman thermography) and the average temperature
(measured via IR thermography). Specifically, two distinct MTTF values emerged: 109 h
and 106 h [45].
Given the array of proposed stressors, degradation mechanisms, and associated degra-
dation signatures, it is important to distinguish the precise stressors responsible for induc-
ing particular effects. All prior investigations were carried out on packaged GaN HEMT
devices. Limited long-term reliability studies exist on GaN epitaxial wafers or on-wafer
devices [46]. In the current study, we investigated the extraction of activation energy and
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 3 of 15

MTTF values under two distinct stress conditions, denoted as high and low electric field
stress in on-wafer devices.
Assessing the reliability of gallium nitride high-electron-mobility transistors (GaN
HEMTs) under various electric field stress conditions is crucial for several reasons: Under-
standing how GaN HEMTs behave under different electric field stress conditions allows for
the optimization of their performance and operational lifetime [47,48]. By identifying stress
conditions that may lead to degradation, manufacturers can develop strategies to mitigate
these effects and design devices that operate more reliably and durably. As we mentioned
previously, GaN HEMTs are often used in high-power, high-frequency, and critical appli-
cations such as aerospace, defense, telecommunications, and power electronics. In these
applications, device failures can have serious consequences, including system downtime,
mission failures, or costly repairs. Assessing reliability helps prevent unexpected failures
and ensures the uninterrupted operation of these systems [49,50]. In some applications,
GaN HEMTs are used in safety-critical systems, where their failure could pose significant
risks to human safety or the environment [51–56]. Reliability assessments under different
stress conditions help identify potential failure modes and enable the implementation of
safety measures and redundancies to mitigate these risks.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the materials and methods
employed, Section 3 encompasses the results and subsequent discussion, and Section 4
encapsulates the concluding remarks.

2. Materials and Methods

The epitaxial layer structures were synthesized utilizing a low-pressure metal–organic
chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) technique on 3-inch sapphire wafers measuring
430 µm in thickness. This epitaxial configuration comprised an Al0.25 Ga0.75 N barrier layer
(20 nm), a Ga-polarity GaN channel layer (150 nm), and a high-resistance GaN layer (2.4 µm)
positioned atop the sapphire substrate. The schematic and process flow can be observed in
Figure 1a,b, respectively. The device fabrication encompassed mesa isolation etching, the
establishment of source–drain ohmic contacts, and gate patterning. Mesa isolation etching
was executed employing a reactive ion etching (RIE) system. Following this, standard
Ti/Al/Ni/Au (25/160/40/100 nm) metallization was applied to the source and drain
regions to form ohmic contacts. These contacts were then subjected to rapid thermal
annealing (RTA) at 830 ◦ C for 30 s within an N2 environment, facilitating the formation of
contacts on the AlGaN/GaN epi-structure. Metallization was achieved through the lift-off
technique. Subsequently, photolithography was employed to pattern the Schottky4gate
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 16
contacts. The Schottky gate contacts, composed of Ni/Au (20/300 nm), were fabricated
using e-beam evaporation. For surface passivation, an Al2 O3 layer (3 nm) was deposited.

Figure 1. (a) Fabrication process flow; (b) schematic of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.

Figure 1. (a) Fabrication process flow; (b) schematic of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
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Figure 2 represents output characteristics of GaN HEMTs device of gate length,

Lg = 3 µm, source to drain distance, Lsd = 7 µm and gate width, Wg = 50 µm. The out-
put characteristics show that at very high drain voltage (VDS > 20 V) with an increase of
gate voltage from VGS = −1 V to 2 V leads to a decrease in output drain current (IDSS )
because of self-heating effects [57]. To gain insights into the influence of temperature and
characteristics on stress performance and electrical behavior, we conducted evaluations
using a BA1500 and a 4155C semiconductor parameter analyzer (Keysight Technologies,
Santa Rosa, CA, USA). These instruments were linked to a probe station (MS TECH
5500) (MSTECH, Gyeonggi, Republic of Korea) equipped with a temperature-controlled
(Temptronic TP03000) (inTEST Thermal Solutions GmbH, Deutschland, Germany) heating
plate, ensuring precise temperature control during the I–V (current–voltage) characteristic
measurements. The experimental setup and characterization procedures of the devices are
Figure 1.
1. (a)
(a) Fabrication
Figure
displayed inFabrication process flow;
Figure 3. process flow; (b)
(b) schematic
schematic of
of AlGaN/GaN
AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.
HEMTs.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Output
2. Output characteristics
characteristics at base
base plate temperature 150 ◦°C
plate temperature °C zones of
C represent the stress zones of low
low
electric field and high electric
field and high electric
electric field field.
electric field.
field.

Figure 3.
Figure
Figure 3. Experimental
3. Experimental setup
Experimental setup details
setup details and
details and characterization
and characterization procedures.
characterization procedures.
procedures.

MTTF Determination Method

Given the fact that many applications demand device lifetimes spanning several years,
accelerated-life tests serve as essential tools for efficiently gathering reliability data within
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 5 of 15

a practical timeframe. Among the myriad factors used for accelerating degradation in
electronic devices, temperature emerges as one of the foremost contributors, as substan-
tiated by extensive historical evidence within the semiconductor industry. One common
approach to modeling semiconductor device reliability is to use the Arrhenius model. This
model is based on the assumption that the rate of device failures is exponentially related to
temperature and can be expressed as follows:
Ea
λ = Ae( kT ) (1)

where λ is the failure rate, A is a material constant, Ea is the activation energy (a measure
of the energy barrier for failure mechanisms), k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the
absolute temperature (in Kelvin).
This equation outlines the connection between temperature and the rate at which
the device degrades due to a specific failure mechanism. The semiconductor industry
has widely embraced this equation as a guiding principle for overseeing device operation
under diverse temperature conditions. The Arrhenius model allows for the determination
of an acceleration factor (AF), which relates the failure rate at elevated stress conditions
(Tstress ) to the failure rate at normal operating conditions (Tnormal ):

( EkTa )( T 1 −T 1 )
AF = e normal Stress (2)

One crucial assumption in this methodology is that failure mechanisms are thermally
activated, and the Arrhenius model accurately describes the relationship between tem-
perature and failure rate. The accuracy of MTTF calculations relies on the validity of the
acceleration factor and the assumption that failure mechanisms under accelerated testing
conditions are representative of those under normal operating conditions. The channel
temperature (Tch ) of the device plays a vital role in determining the activation energy and
acceleration factor. Temperature variations can significantly influence device reliability,
so precise temperature measurements and control are essential during accelerated testing.
Accurate measurement and control of channel temperature are critical, as temperature
variations directly impact device reliability and influence the activation energy used in the
model. The methodology also assumes that failure mechanisms are thermally activated and
can be accelerated under stress conditions, making the calculated MTTF values relevant to
real-world device performance.
In this study, we delineate two distinct stress zones, each characterized by specific
combinations of high current and low electric field, as well as low current and high
electric field. To comprehensively investigate these zones, we carefully selected specific
bias conditions. Specifically, we opted for two distinct bias zones: one at a low voltage
(VDS = 10 V) and another at a higher voltage (VDS = 25 V), each accompanied by power
dissipation rates of 2 W/mm and 1.25 W/mm, respectively. These selected bias parameters
are concisely summarized in Table 1. Additionally, we conducted experiments at three
varying base temperatures: Tb = 150 ◦ C, 170 ◦ C, and 190 ◦ C. The determination of channel
temperature for each bias condition is discussed in detail within the Results and Discussion
section of this study.

Table 1. Selected test condition for determination of MTTF values.

Sample Stress Voltage, Current, Power,

Quantity (VDS (V)) (IDS (mA/mm)) (P (W/mm))
5 10 200 2
5 25 50 1.25
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3. Results
3. Results
3. Results
FigureFigure
4a,b4a,b represent
represent the bias
the bias stressstress condition
condition of lowof low electric
electric fieldfield(VDS(V DS =
= 10 V10and V and
VGS VGS
= 1.3 V Figure
set for 4a,b
200 represent
mA/mm, the
power bias stress
dissipation, condition
P =
= 1.3 V set for 200 mA/mm, power dissipation, P = 2 W/mm) and high electric field (VDS 2 of
W/mm) low electric
and high field
electric(V DS =
field 10(V
=VDSand
=
25 V25 V
andV and
GS = 1.3
VGS =V−1 V
GS =
set
V−1 for
setVfor200
set50 mA/mm,
formA/mm,
50 mA/mm, power
power power dissipation,
dissipation,
dissipation, P = 2 W/mm)
P = 1.25
P = 1.25 W/mm).W/mm).and high
Under Under electric
the lowthe lowfield
electric(Vfield
DS =
electric 25 Vstress
field
stress and VGS = the
condition,
condition, −1 V setdevice
the
device for 50operates
operates mA/mm,
in a in apower
fully fully dissipation,
on-state
on-state Pand
condition,
condition, = 1.25and W/mm).
a con-a con-
spicuousUnder
spicuous the low
self-heating
self-heating electric
effect field
effect stress condition,
is evident
is evident in thein the the
output device
output operates in
characteristics
characteristics a fully on-state
(Figure
(Figure condition,
2). Conse-
2). Conse-
quently,and
quently, a conspicuous
this this
scenarioscenario self-heating
closely
closely effect
resembles
resembles aishigh-power
a high-powerevidentstate in state
the output
condition.
condition. characteristics
Conversely,
Conversely, (Figure
duringduring2).
Consequently,
the high electric this scenario closely resembles a high-power state condition. Conversely,
the high electric fieldfield stressstress condition,
condition, the device
the device is inisaninoff anstate,
off state, resulting
resulting in a in a minimal
minimal
during
self-heating the high
effect. electric field stress condition, the device is in an off state, resulting in a
self-heating effect. ThisThisaligns aligns
withwith a high-voltage
a high-voltage statestate
in the in off-state
the off-state mode. mode.Figure Figure
5a 5a
minimal
shows self-heating
the electric effect. Thisofaligns with a high-voltage state in A the off-state elec-
mode.
shows the electric fieldfield simulation
simulation of stress stress voltage
voltage VDS =V10 DS = V10andV and
25 V.25AV. negligible
negligible elec-
Figure 5a shows the electric field simulation of stress voltage VDS = 10 V and 25 V. A
tric field
tric field variation
variation is evident
is evident inside inside the AlGaN
the AlGaN barrier.
barrier. Figure Figure 5b illustrates
5b illustrates the electric
the electric
negligible electric field variation is evident inside the AlGaN barrier. Figure 5b illustrates
fieldfield simulation
simulation inside inside the GaN
the GaN channel.
channel. At the At gate
the gateedgeedge to theto drain
the drain side,side, the electric
the electric
the electric field simulation inside the GaN channel. At the gate edge to the drain side, the
field increased 1.2 times higher at V = 25 V than at
field increased 1.2 times higher at VDS = 25 V than at VDS = 10 V. As we mentioned above,
DS V DS = 10 V. As we mentioned above,
electric field increased 1.2 times higher at VDS = 25 V than at VDS = 10 V. As we mentioned
stress
stress condition
condition VDS =V25 DS =
V,25VGSV,=V−1GS =V−1is V
in is inoff-state
the the off-state mode. mode. Therefore,
Therefore, a negative
a negative voltage
voltage
above, stress condition VDS = 25 V, VGS = −1 V is in the off-state mode. Therefore, a
is applied
is applied to the to gate
the gateof theof GaN
the GaN HEMT. HEMT. ThisThis negative
negative voltagevoltage creates
creates a strong
a strong electric
electric
negative voltage is applied to the gate of the GaN HEMT. This negative voltage creates a
fieldfield
that that
pushes pushes electrons
electrons away away
fromfrom the channel
the channel region.
region. The Thehighhigh electric
electric fieldfield in the in off
the off
strong electric field that pushes electrons away from the channel region. The high electric
statestate extends
extends through through the GaN
the GaN material
material and and depletes
depletes the 2DEG,
the 2DEG, preventing
preventing the flowthe flow of of
field in the off state extends through the GaN material and depletes the 2DEG, preventing
electrons
electrons in the channel. In the on-state condition (V = 10 V, V = 1.3 V), a less negative
the in theof channel. In in
thetheon-state condition
In the (V DS = 10 V, VGS = 1.3 V), a less negative
DS GS
flow electrons channel. on-state condition (VDS = 10 V, VGS = 1.3 V),
(or even
(or even positive) voltage is applied togate
the gate ofGaN
the GaN HEMT. This reduces the electric
a less negative (or even positive) voltage is appliedHEMT.
positive) voltage is applied to the of the to the This
gatereduces
of the GaN the electric
HEMT. This
fieldfield
across across
the the device.
device. The The
reducedreduced electric
electric field field
allows allows
the
reduces the electric field across the device. The reduced electric field allows the
the 2DEG
2DEG to to accumulate
accumulate or or pop-
pop-
2DEG to
ulateulate
near near
the the interface
interface between
between the the
GaN GaN
and and
AlGaN AlGaN
accumulate or populate near the interface between the GaN and AlGaN layers. layers.layers.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure
Figure 4. (a)4.Bias
Figure (a)(a)
4. Bias condition
condition
Bias forfor
for low
condition low electric
electric
low field field
and
electric and
(b)
field (b)(b)
high
and high electric
electric
high field field region.
region.
electric field region.

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure
Figure 5. (a)5.Electric
Figure (a)
5. Electric
(a) field field simulation
simulation
Electric field usingusing Silvaco
Silvaco
simulation usingTCAD TCAD inside
inside
Silvaco TCADAlGaNAlGaN barrier
barrier
inside AlGaN andinside
(b)and
andbarrier
(b) inside
(b) GaN
GaN inside
channel.
channel.
GaN channel.

The The The channel

channel channel temperatures
temperatures werewere
temperatures were computed
computedcomputed
using using
using
the thethe
DC DC
or DC or or
electrical
electrical
electrical method
method method as as
as out- out-
out-
lined
linedlined
in in in Reference
Reference
Reference and[58]
[58] [58] areand
and are are illustrated
illustrated
illustrated in6 Figure
in Figure
in Figure for6the 6the
fordevice
fordevice the device characterized
characterized
characterized by aby by a
a gate
gate
length, gate
Lg =length,
length, 3Lgµm; Lg =source-to-drain
= 3 µm; 3 µm; source-to-drain
source-to-drain distance, Lsddistance,
distance, =L7sdµm;
= 7 µm;Lsd and
and = 7 µm;
gate gate and
width, Wgate
width,g =W width,
g=
50 Wg Across
50 µm.
µm. = 50 µm.
Across
Across
a range
a range a range
of gate
of gate of gate
voltages,
voltages, voltages, specifically
specifically
specifically fromfromVGS =VGS
0Vfrom V
= 0toV2GS
to = 0
V, 2the V to 2 V,
V, disparity the
the disparity disparity in
in channel
in channel tem-channel
tem-
temperature (Tch ) remained negligible. For 2 W/mm and 1.25 W/mm power dissipation,
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 7 of 15

perature (Tch) remained negligible. For 2 W/mm and 1.25 W/mm power dissipation, chan-
nel temperature rise (Tch) was approximately 60 °C and 38 °C, respectively, from the base
channel temperature rise (Tch ) was approximately 60 ◦ C and 38 ◦ C, respectively, from the
plate temperature (Tb).
base plate temperature (Tb ).

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Channel
Channeltemperature
temperature variation
variation relative
relative to
to the
the power
power dissipation
dissipation of
of GaN
GaN HEMTs.
HEMTs.

TCAD simulations
TCAD simulations were were conducted
conducted to to verify
verify thethe channel
channel temperature
temperature against against thethe
measurement data,
measurement data, as
as presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 7.
In the context
In contextofofTCAD TCAD (technology
(technology computer-aided
computer-aided design) simulation,
design) simulation,specific mesh
specific
settings were defined for precise modeling. The mesh width
mesh se ings were defined for precise modeling. The mesh width was established at 50was established at 50 microns,
with the primary
microns, with thespacing
primary inspacing
the x-plane set x-plane
in the at 0.25 µm setforat the
0.25source
µm for andthedrain
source metal
andregions.
drain
Similarly, the mesh spacing for the source-to-gate
metal regions. Similarly, the mesh spacing for the source-to-gate (L sg ) and gate-to-drain (L ) regions
(Lsg) andgdgate-to-drain was
set
(L gd)at 0.25 µm.
regions wasInset
theaty-plane,
0.25 µm.the Inmeshing ranged
the y-plane, the from 0 to ranged
meshing 0.50 µm, with0 atospacing
from 0.50 µm, of
0.1 µm. This area covered the “air” region (region number 1).
with a spacing of 0.1 µm. This area covered the “air” region (region number 1). Beyond Beyond that, the AlGaN
barrier
that, the(region
AlGaNnumber 2) extended
barrier (region numberfrom2)0.50 to 0.520
extended withtoan
µm,0.50
from aluminum
0.520 µm, with composition
an alumi-
of 0.25% and a mesh spacing of 0.01 µm. The GaN channel
num composition of 0.25% and a mesh spacing of 0.01 µm. The GaN channel (region (region number 3) spanned
num-
from
ber 3) 0.520
spanned to 0.670
fromµm,0.520 also
to with
0.670 aµm,mesh spacing
also with a ofmesh0.01spacing
µm. Theofbuffer0.01 µm. region
The(region
buffer
number
region 4) ranged
(region from4)0.670
number rangedto 3.070
fromµm andtowas
0.670 3.070uniformly
µm and doped with carbon
was uniformly doped(p-type),
with
maintaining a mesh spacing of 0.01 µm. The AlN nucleation layer
carbon (p-type), maintaining a mesh spacing of 0.01 µm. The AlN nucleation layer (region (region number 5) was
extremely
number thin,extremely
5) was from 3.070thin,to 3.018
fromµm. 3.070Finally,
to 3.018 theµm.sapphire
Finally,substrate (region
the sapphire number
substrate 6)
(re-
was in the range from 3.180 µm to the end of the device. Three electrodes were defined
gion number 6) was in the range from 3.180 µm to the end of the device. Three electrodes
as source (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max = 0.65 µm), drain (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max = 0.65 µm),
were defined as source (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max = 0.65 µm), drain (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max
and gate (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max = 0.50 µm). The work functions for these electrodes were
= 0.65 µm), and gate (y·min = 0.40 µm, y·max = 0.50 µm). The work functions for these
specified as 5.20 eV, 4.0 eV, and 4.0 eV for gate, source, and drain, respectively.
electrodes were specified as 5.20 eV, 4.0 eV, and 4.0 eV for gate, source, and drain, respec-
In the simulation process, the high-field mobility was computed utilizing the Farah-
tively.
mand modified Caughey–Thomas (FMCT) and GANSAT models, while the low-field
In the simulation process, the high-field mobility was computed utilizing the Farah-
mobility was determined using the Albrecht model. Various physical models, including
mand modified Caughey–Thomas (FMCT) and GANSAT models, while the low-field mo-
Schottky–Read–Hall (SRH), Fermi–Dirac statistics (FLDMOB), CONMOB, Fermi, and KP,
bility was determined using the Albrecht model. Various physical models, including
were considered in the model definition. The polarization parameter was set to 0.952.
Scho ky–Read–Hall (SRH), Fermi–Dirac statistics (FLDMOB), CONMOB, Fermi, and KP,
To account for self-heating effects, a lattice temperature model (lat. temp) was incorpo-
were considered in the model definition. The polarization parameter was set to 0.952.
rated for channel temperature estimation in TCAD modeling, where the substrate is stated
To account for num
as ‘’thermalcontact self-heating
= 1”, with effects, a la iceregion
the specific temperature
definedmodel
as region(lat.number
temp) was incor-
5, external
porated for channel temperature estimation in TCAD modeling,
temperature (ext.temp) set as 300 K, and adjusted thermal resistance (Rth = 1/α). where the substrate is
statedAdditionally,
as ‘’thermalcontact num = 1”, with the specific region defined as
the Selberherr impact ionization model (Impact selb) parameters, namely region number 5,
external
an1, an2,temperature
bn1, bn2, ap1, (ext.temp)
ap2, bp1, setand
as 300
bp2, K,were
and adjusted thermal
set to specific resistance
values, namely (Rth2.9
= 1/α).
× 108 ,
8 7 7 8 8 7
2.9 × 10 , 3.4 × 10 , 3.4 × 10 , 2.9 × 10 , 2.9 × 10 , 3.4 × 10 , and 3.4 × 10 , respectively. 7

These parameters are essential for accurately modeling the device’s behavior and perfor-
mance in the simulation environment.
Micromachines 2023,
Micromachines 14,14,
2023, x FOR
1833PEER REVIEW 8 of8 16
of 15

(a)

(b)
Figure 7. (a)
Figure TCAD
7. (a) simulation
TCAD of the
simulation device
of the at V
device atDSV=DS10=V10and (b) (b)
V and VDSV=DS
25=V.25 V.

Figure 7a depicts
Additionally, the simulation
the Selberherr impactresults for a device
ionization model under VGS =selb)
(Impact 0 V and VDS = 10 V
parameters,
conditions while maintaining a base plate temperature of T = 300 K (27 ◦ C). Notably, the
namely an1, an2, bn1, bn2, ap1, ap2, bp1, and bp2, were set tob specific values, namely 2.9
highest
8, 2.9 ×channel ◦ C) in close
× 10 108, 3.4temperature
× 107, 3.4 × 10recorded was
7, 2.9 × 10 327×K10(54
8, 2.9 8, 3.4 × 107, andproximity
3.4 × 107,to the gate edge.
respectively.
Similarly, when
These parameters the device
are essential was biased
for accurately at VDS =the
modeling 25device’s
V with behavior
the sameand gateperfor-
voltage,
VGS =in0the
mance V, the corresponding
simulation channel temperature escalated to 360 K (87 ◦ C), as illustrated
environment.
in Figure
Figure 7a7b.depicts
This change corresponds to an ◦
the simulation results forapproximate
a device under temperature
VGS = 0 V increase
and VDS =of1033V C.
Consequently,
conditions while the temperature
maintaining variation
a base within the channel
plate temperature is contingent
of Tb = 300 K (27 °C). upon the stress
Notably, the
voltage conditions. To determine the changes in channel
highest channel temperature recorded was 327 K (54 °C) in close proximity temperature (T ) resulting
ch to the gate from
fluctuations
edge. in drain currents, we conducted experiments to observe the behavior of drain
currents under
Similarly, when different
the devicetemperature
was biased at conditions.
VDS = 25 V withOurthe findings
same gateindicated
voltage,aVconsistent
GS = 0 V,

thelinear decrease channel

corresponding in draintemperature
current across various
escalated temperature
to 360 K (87 °C), as settings [29].inAdditionally,
illustrated Figure 7b.
wechange
This computed power to
corresponds levels (IDS × VDStemperature
an approximate ) from the outputincreasecharacteristics of the device.
of 33 °C. Consequently, the
Subsequently, we normalized the drain current data relative to
temperature variation within the channel is contingent upon the stress voltage conditions. different temperatures
To
and power
determine levels. These
the changes normalized
in channel values
temperature (Tchwere used from
) resulting to construct graphs
fluctuations in Figure
in drain cur- 8
(measurement
rents, we conducted data), representing
experiments the relationship
to observe the behavior between
of drainchannel
currentstemperatures
under different and
power levels.
temperature conditions. Our findings indicated a consistent linear decrease in drain current
across various temperature settings [29]. Additionally, we computed power levels (IDS × VDS)
from the output characteristics of the device. Subsequently, we normalized the drain current
data relative to different temperatures and power levels. These normalized values were used
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 to construct graphs in Figure 8 (measurement data), representing the relationship between
9 of 15
to construct
channel graphs in
temperatures Figure
and power8 (measurement
levels. data), representing the relationship between
channel temperatures and power levels.

Figure 8. Measurement data (averaged from all three-gate voltages and TCAD simulation) show
Figure
Figure
very 8.8.Measurement
close Measurement
agreement data(averaged
to data (averaged
determine from
from
channel all all three-gate
three-gate
temperature. voltages
voltages and and
TCADTCAD simulation)
simulation) showshow
very
very close agreement to determine channel temperature.
close agreement to determine channel temperature.
Notably, this exhibits a remarkable congruence between the TCAD simulation out-
Notably,
comesNotably, this
and ourthis exhibits aa remarkable
exhibits
measurement remarkable congruence
data. congruence between
between the TCAD
TCAD simulation out-
comes and
comes and our
our measurement
measurementdata. data.
3.1. Low Electric Field with High Current Stress Experiment
3.1.
3.1. Low
Low Electric
Electric Field
Field with
with High
High Current
Current Stress
Stress Experiment
Experiment
Figure 9a presents the transfer characteristics (characterization at VDS = 10 V) at low
Figure
Figure 9a presents
9a presents the transfer
the transfer characteristics
characteristics (characterizationatat VDS = 10 atV)lowat
electric field stress condition at VDS = 10 V and output(characterization
current level maintained VDS = 10
to V)
IDS = 200
low electric
electric field field stress condition
stress dissipation
condition atofVDS at V = 10 V and output current level maintained
P == 210W/mm.
V and output currentbase
levelplate
maintained to IDS of
= 200
DS
mA/mm for power At a constant temperature Tb
to IDS = 200
mA/mm for mA/mm
power for powerofdissipation
dissipation P = 2 W/mm. of At
P= a 2 W/mm.
constant baseAtplate
a constant base plate
temperature of Tb
= 150 °C the channel temperature ◦ was estimated as Tch = 215 °C. After 84 h of stress,◦ IDS and
temperature of Tb = 150 C the channel temperature as Tchwas estimated as84Thchof
= stress,
215 C.IDSAfter
g=m 150 °C thearound
dropped channel 30temperature
mA/mm and was18 estimated
mS/mm, respectively. = 215 °C.
AtAfter
the same time, and
gate leak-
84
g h of stress,
m dropped around
I DS and30g m dropped
mA/mm around
and 18 30
mS/mm, mA/mm and
respectively.18 mS/mm,
At the samerespectively.
time, gateAt the
leak-
age current I G (defined at VGS = −10V, VDS = 10 V) increased from 3.3 × 10−4 to 0.034 mA/mm,
same
age time, gate
current IFigureleakage current IG (defined
G (defined at VGS = −10V, VDS = 10 at GS = −10from
Vincreased
V)negatively V, VDS =× 10
10−4V)toincreased
3.3around 0.034 from
mA/mm,
as
3.3 shown
× 10 −in
4 to 0.034 8b.
mA/mm,The threshold
as shown voltage
in Figure 8b. The shifted
threshold ΔV
voltage T = −0.16 V.
negatively
as shown
After 175 hin ofFigure
stress, 8b. and
The gthreshold voltage negatively shifted around
and 31ΔV T = −0.16 V.
shifted
After around
175 h of ∆VT =IDS
stress, I− decreased
0.16 V.m After 175 hmore
DS and gm decreased more around
around
of stress, IDS 38
and
38
mA/mm
gm decreased
mA/mm and
mS/mm,
more
31
re-
around
mS/mm, re-
spectively,
38 mA/mmfrom fromand 31the initial
mS/mm, value (Figure
respectively, 8). At
from the
the same
initialpoint,
value the leakage
(Figure current
8). Atcurrent in-
the same
spectively,
creased from the
the initial initial
value value (Figure
of 3.3 × from 8).
10−4 tothe
0.051At the
mA/mm, same point,
and the leakage in-
point,
creased the leakage
from the current
initial increased
value of 3.3 × 10 initial
−4 to 0.051 value of
mA/mm, 3.3the
and × threshold
the 10 −4 to 0.051
threshold
voltage
mA/mm,
voltage
shift
shift
was
and around ΔVT = −0.31
the threshold voltage V from the initial
shift was around value.
∆VT = −0.31 V from the initial value.
was around ΔVT = −0.31 V from the initial value.

Figure
Figure9. 9.(a)
(a)Transfer
Transfer characteristics
characteristics after
after and
and before
before stress
stress voltage
voltage V DS==10
VDS 10V;V;(b)(b)Scho ky charac-
Schottky charac-
Figure 9. (a) Transfer
teristics characteristics after and atbeforechannel
stress voltage VDS = 10 V; (b) Scho
◦ C. ky charac-
teristicsdepict
depictgate
gateleakage
leakagecurrent
current after
after stress
stress at the
the channel temperature,
temperature, T Tchch==215
215°C.
teristics depict gate leakage current after stress at the channel temperature, Tch = 215 °C.
Figure
Figure10a
10ashows
showsthe
theoutput
outputcharacteristics
characteristicsbefore
beforeand
andafter
afterstress
stressofof84
84hhand
and175
175h.h.
Figure 10a
On-resistance
On-resistance shows
(Ron)
(Ron) the output
increased
increased characteristics
around
around ∆Ron==20
ΔRon 20before
Ω·mmand
Ω·mm atVVafter
at GS = 0
=stress
0VV of 84
after
after84 hhhand
84 of
of 175 h.
stress,
stress,
GS
On-resistance
and
andnonochange (Ron)
changewas increased
wasobserved around
observeduntil
until175 ΔRon
h.h.
175 The = 20
failure
The Ω·mm
time
failure at V GS = 0 V after 84 h of stress,
is defined
time is definedat Iat degradation
DSSIDSS degradationup
andtono
up change
15%. wasdegradation
All the observed until 175other
in the h. The failure
two basetime
plateistemperatures
defined at IDSS(Tdegradation
= 170 up
◦ C and
b
190 ◦ C) are depicted in Table 2.
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 10 of 15

to 15%.
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER All
REVIEWthe degradation in the other two base plate temperatures (Tb = 170 °C and10
190
of 16
°C) are depicted in Table 2.

to 15%. All the degradation in the other two base plate temperatures (Tb = 170 °C and 190
°C) are depicted in Table 2.

Figure 10. (a)

Figure 10. Output characteristics
(a) Output after and
characteristics afterbefore the stress
and before the of VDS =of10VV;
stress DS (b) on-resistance
= 10 char-
V; (b) on-resistance
acteristics after and before stress voltage at V = 10 V.
characteristics after and before stress voltage at VDS = 10 V.
DS

Table 2. Lifetime calculation at different base plate temperatures for low electric field stress.
Lifetime
Table 2.10.
Figure (a) Outputcalculation at different
characteristics afterbase
andplate temperatures
before the stress offor
VDSlow
= 10electric field stress. char-
V; (b) on-resistance
acteristics after and before stress voltage at VDS = 10 V.
Base Plate Corresponding Lifetime (h)
Corresponding Condition
Temperature (T
Base Plate
b ) °C Channel Temperature (T ch) °C (15% Degradation)
Lifetime (h)
◦ Channel215 Temperature VDS Condition
Table 2.150
Lifetime
Temperature (Tcalculation
b) C at different base
◦
= 10 V,
plate temperatures for low electric 175
field
(15% stress.
Degradation)
170 (Tch ) C
230 ID = 200 mA/mm 147
Base
190 Plate
150 Corresponding
240 215 P = 2VDS
W/mm = 10 V, Lifetime
120 175 (h)
Condition
Temperature (Tb) °C Channel Temperature (Tch) °C (15% Degradation)
170
150 230
215 ID VDS
= 200 mA/mm
= 10 V, 147
175
3.2. High Electric Field with Low Current Stress Experiment
170
190 230
240 ID = 200 mA/mm
P = 2 W/mm 147
120
Figure 11a
190shows the transfer characteristics
240 at high electric field stress VDS = 25 120
P = 2 W/mm V, IDS = 50
mA/mm, and the power dissipation set at 1.25 W/mm. After 36 h of stress, there seemed a
3.2. High Electric Field with Low Current Stress Experiment
slight
3.2.increase in theField
High Electric outputwith current from 387
Low Current mA/mm
Stress to 401 mA/mm at the base plate tem-
Experiment
Figure
peratureFigure 11a
of Tb = 11a shows
150 shows
°C. Thethe the transfer
maximum characteristics
transconductance at high
(gmax electric
) also showed field stress Vchange.
negligible DS = 25 V,
transfer characteristics at high electric field stress VDS = 25 V, IDS = 50
IDS
ButmA/mm, = 50
at the same mA/mm,
time, and the power dissipation set at 1.25 W/mm. After 36 h of stress,
thethe leakage current Iset G increased from 9.12 × 10 mA/mm to 3.86 mA/mm,
−5
and power dissipation at 1.25 W/mm. After 36 h of stress, there seemed a
there
whereas seemed a slight increase in the output current from 387 mA/mm to 401 mA/mm
slight no shift was
increase in theobserved
output in the threshold
current from 387voltage
mA/mm (ΔVtoT),401
as mA/mm
shown inatFigurethe base11b. After
plate tem-
atofthe
62 hperature basethe
stress, plate temperature
output current (Iof Tb = 150 ◦ C.
DS) decreased
The maximum
around 84 mA/mm transconductance
from its initial (gmax
value, ) also
and
showed of T b = 150 °C. The maximum transconductance (gmax) also showed negligible change.
negligible change. Buttoat313 the same time, the24leakage current IG increased from
gm also
But decreased
at×the same
−
from
5 mA/mm time,337thetomS/mm
leakage currentmS/mm
IGwhereas (almost
increased from mS/mm).
9.12 However,
× 10observed
−5 mA/mm no change
tothe
3.86 mA/mm,
9.12
waswhereas
observed10 3.86 mA/mm, no shift was in threshold
voltage (∆V noinshift
the wasleakage current.
observed in Table
the11b. 3 illustrates
threshold the degradation
After voltage
62 h of (ΔV
observed at the other
T), as shown in Figure 11b. After
two62base plate T ), as shownnamely
temperatures,
in Figure
T b = 170 °C and 190 °C.
stress, the output current (IDS ) de-
h of stress,
creased around the84 output
mA/mm currentfrom (IDS ) decreased
its around
initial value, and g84 mA/mm from its initial value, and
m also decreased from 337 mS/mm
gtom also
313 mS/mm (almost 24 mS/mm). However, no change24
decreased from 337 mS/mm to 313 mS/mm (almost wasmS/mm).
observed However, no change
in the leakage cur-
was observed in the leakage current. Table 3 illustrates the degradation
rent. Table 3 illustrates the degradation observed at the other two base plate temperatures, observed at the other
two
namelybaseTplate temperatures,
◦ namely
◦ Tb = 170 °C and 190 °C.
b = 170 C and 190 C.

Figure 11. (a) Transfer characteristics after and before stress voltage VDS = 25 V; (b) Scho ky charac-
teristics depict gate leakage current after stress at the channel temperature 188 °C.

Figure 11.
11. (a)(a)Transfer characteristics
Transfer after
characteristics andand
after before stress
before voltage
stress VDS =V25
voltage DSV;=(b)
25Scho
V; (b)kySchottky
charac-
teristics depict depict
characteristics gate leakage currentcurrent
gate leakage after stress
after at the channel
stress temperature
at the channel 188 °C.188 ◦ C.
temperature
 Micromachines
Micromachines 2023,
2023, 14,14,
xx FOR PEER REVIEW
FOR 1111ofof 16
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833PEER REVIEW 11 16
of 15

Table
Table 3.3.3.
Table Lifetime
Lifetime
Lifetimecalculation
calculation atat
calculation atdifferent
different
differentbase
base plate
plate
base temperatures
temperatures
plate for
for
temperatures high
high
for electric
electric
high field
field
electric stress.
stress.
field stress.
Corresponding
Corresponding
Corresponding
Base
Base
Base Plate
Plate
Plate Lifetime
Lifetime (h)
(h)
Lifetime (h)
◦
Channel
Channel
Channel Tempera- Condition
Temperature Condition
Tempera- Condition
Temperature
Temperature(T(T
Temperature b)b ) °C
b°C C ◦ (15%
(15% Degradation)
(15% Degradation)
Degradation)
ture(T(T
ture ) )°CC
(Tchch°C
ch)
150
150150 188188
188 VV = =V
DSDS 2525 V,25 V,
=
DSV, 626262
170
170170 208
208 208 I = 50 mA/mm
ID = 50IDmA/mm
D = 50 mA/mm 363636
190
190190 228228
228 PP= =1.25
1.25 W/mm
P =W/mm
1.25 W/mm 151515

Figure12a
Figure 12aillustrates
illustratesthe theoutput
outputcharacteristics
characteristicsprior priortotoand
andfollowing
followingstress
stressperiods
periods
Figure 12a illustrates the output characteristics prior to and following stress periods
ofof3636hhand
and6262h.h.After
After3232hhofofstress,
stress,IDSS
IDSSexhibited
exhibitedananincrease,
increase,butbutthis
thistrend
trendreversed
reversed after
after
of 36 h and 62 h. After 32 h of stress, I DSS exhibited an increase, but this trend reversed
6262hhofofstress.
stress.Notably,
Notably,the theon-state
on-stateresistance
resistance(R(R ) )demonstrated
onon demonstratedananincrease
increaseofofapproxi-
approxi-
after 62ΔR
mately h of stress. Notably, the on-state
after3232hresistance
stress,(R on ) demonstrated an increase of
mately ΔRonon= =6060Ω·mm
Ω·mm atatVV = =0 0VVafter
GSGS hofofstress, with
with nononoticeable
noticeablealteration
alteration ob-
ob-
approximately
serveduntil
untilthe ∆R on =
the6262hhstress 60 Ω
stresspoint.· mm
point.Theat V GS =
Thedegradation 0 V after
degradationobserved 32 h of stress,
observedatatthe theotherwith
othertwo no
twobasenoticeable
baseplate
plate
served
alteration observed until the 62 h stress point. The degradation observed at the other two
temperatures,
temperatures, i.e., T = 208
i.e., Tb = 208 °C °C and 228 °C, is depicted in Table 3.
i.e.,and
Tb =228
208°C,◦ Cisand
depicted inisTable 3. in Table 3.
b
base plate temperatures, 228 ◦ C, depicted

Figure
Figure
Figure 12.
12. (a)(a)Output
12. Output
(a) characteristics
characteristics
Output before
before
characteristics andafter
and
before after
and thestress
the
after stress
the ofofVDS
stressVof= =25
DS
V25V;V; (b)
=(b) on-resistance
25on-resistance
V; char-
char-
(b) on-resistance
DS
acteristicsbefore
acteristics beforeand
andafter
afterstress
stressvoltage
voltageatatVDS
VDS= =2525V.V.
characteristics before and after stress voltage at VDS = 25 V.

Figure
Figure
Figure 13a
13a demonstrates
demonstrates
13a demonstrates thethe degradation
degradation
the degradation ofofIof
Idss(which
dss (which
Idss isisdefined
(which defined atatVV
is defined =V=5DS
DS
at
DS 5VV= and
5 VVV
and GSGS
and
= 2
= 2VV)V)
GS in
in three
= 2three different
V) indifferent channel
channel channel
three different temperatures
temperatures calculated for
calculatedcalculated
temperatures the V
for the VDSfor =
= 10
DS 10
the V
VV bias
bias condition.
DS condition.
= 10 V bias
NoNo abruptdegradation
abrupt
condition. degradation behaviorofofIdssIdss
No abruptbehavior
degradation wasobserved
was
behavior observed
of Idssinin high
high
was temperatures.
temperatures.
observed in high However,
However, un-
un-
temperatures.
der
der high-stress
high-stress
However, voltage
voltage
under conditions
conditions
high-stress (V(V
voltage = =2525V),
V),the
conditions
DSDS the device’sV),
(Vdevice’s stability
DS = 25 stability
wascompromised,
was
the device’s compromised,
stability was
lasting nomore
compromised,
lasting no morethan
than1515h
lasting nohatat
TT
more = =than
ch ch 228°C,
228 °C,as
15 has depicted
Tch = 228
atdepicted inin Figure
◦ C, 13b. in Figure 13b.
as depicted
Figure 13b.

Figure
Figure
Figure 13.(a)(a)
13.
13. (a) IIDSS
IDSS degradation
degradation
DSS atatlow
degradation atlow
low electric
electric
electric field
field
field stress
stress
stress voltage
voltage
voltage VVDSDS
VDS = =10
=1010
VVand
Vand
and (b)
(b)(b)high
high
high electric
electric
electric
stress
stress
stress voltage
voltage
voltage V = 25
VDSV=DS25= V.
DS V.
25 V.

Figure
Figure 1414
Figure 14 illustrates
illustrates
illustrates the
thetheMTTF
MTTF
MTTF values calculated
values
values calculated
calculated for
for three
for different
three
three channel
different
different channel
channel tempera-
temper-
tempera-
tures under
atures underspecific voltage
specific stress
voltage conditions.
stress To
conditions.calculate
To the
calculateactivation
the energy,
activation the
energy,
tures under specific voltage stress conditions. To calculate the activation energy, the well- well-
the
 Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 known Arrhenius equation of mean time to failure (MTTF) can be expressed as 12
follows
of 15
[26]:
E 
 a 
 KT 
MTTF
well-known Arrhenius equation of mean time e to failure
(MTTF) can be expressed as fol-
lows [26]: (3)
Ea
= e−(]  ) Ea
ln[ MTTF
MTTF KT 
(3)
Ea kT
ln[ MTTF ] = − kT
Here,MTTF
Here, MTTF==mean
meantime
timeto
tofailure;
failure;kk== Boltzmann
Bol mann constant,
constant, 8.6173
8.6173 ××10
10−eV
−5 K−1K; −
5 eV and
1;
E a = activation energy (eV). From the slope of Equation (3), activation energy (Ea) can be
and Ea = activation energy (eV). From the slope of Equation (3), activation energy (Ea ) can
becalculated.
calculated.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Mean
Meantime
timetotofailure
failure(MTTF)
(MTTF)analysis
analysisofoftwo
twodifferent
different electric
electric field
field conditions.
conditions.

Under
Underthe thelow
lowelectric
electricfield
fieldstress
stresscondition
condition(V(V DSDS==10 10V),V),the
thecalculated
calculatedactivation
activation
energy was
energy was Eaa =E = 0.32 eV, yielding an extrapolated lifetime MTTF = 360
yielding an extrapolated lifetime MTTF = 360 h. Conversely, un- h. Conversely,
under
der the thehigh
highelectric
electricfieldfieldstress
stresscondition
condition(V(V DSDS = V),
= 25 25 V),
thethe estimated
estimated activation
activation energy
energy was
Ea =E0.54
was a = 0.54 eV, resulting
eV, resulting in MTTFin MTTF= 160=h.160Theh.possible
The possible degradation
degradation or failure
or failure at lowat low
electric
electric
field and field andcurrent
high high current
stress isstress is related
related to the diffusion
to the diffusion processprocess
(Ea = 0.32(EeV).
a = 0.32
ThiseV). This
diffusion
diffusion can lead to the formation of conductive paths or short circuits
can lead to the formation of conductive paths or short circuits within the device, increasing within the device,
increasing leakageand
leakage current current
reducingand reducing the breakdown
the breakdown voltage. voltage.
For the highFor the high electric
electric field and field
low
and low current stress, this degradation is related to the hot-electron
current stress, this degradation is related to the hot-electron effect or electron trapping (Ea effect or electron
trapping
= 0.54 eV) (Ea [59].
= 0.54
TheeV)obtained
[59]. Themeanobtained
timemean time to
to failure failurevalues
(MTTF) (MTTF)for values
GaN for GaN high-
high-electron-
electron-mobility
mobility transistors (HEMTs) are significant indicators of device reliability and and
transistors (HEMTs) are significant indicators of device reliability can can
pro-
provide insights into their performance under different electric field
vide insights into their performance under different electric field stress conditions. In gen- stress conditions. In
general,
eral, MTTFMTTF represents
represents thethe expected
expected timefor
time fora adevice
devicetotofail
failunder
underspecified
specifiedconditions.
conditions.It
Itisisaacritical
criticalparameter
parameterfor forassessing
assessingdevice
devicereliability.
reliability.We We calculated MTTF
calculated MTTF values valuesforfor
on-
on-wafer
wafer GaN HEMTs under both low (VDS = 10 V) and high (VDS = 25 V) electric field field
GaN HEMTs under both low (V DS = 10 V) and high (V DS = 25 V) electric stress
stress conditions. These values indicate how long, on average, the devices can be expected
conditions. These values indicate how long, on average, the devices can be expected to
to operate before a significant number of them fail. The lower MTTF under high electric
operate before a significant number of them fail. The lower MTTF under high electric field
field stress (160 h) suggests that the devices are more prone to failure when subjected to
stress (160 h) suggests that the devices are more prone to failure when subjected to higher
higher voltage stress, which is consistent with accelerated aging in high-stress conditions.
voltage stress, which is consistent with accelerated aging in high-stress conditions.
Our MTTF values were validated only for on-wafer/bare-wafer devices. The MTTF
Our MTTF values were validated only for on-wafer/bare-wafer devices. The MTTF
for on-wafer devices typically represents the reliability of the semiconductor material it-
for on-wafer devices typically represents the reliability of the semiconductor material it-
self, without considering packaging and external factors. On the other hand, the MTTF
self, without considering packaging and external factors. On the other hand, the MTTF for
for packaged devices takes into account not only the intrinsic reliability of the semicon-
packaged devices takes into account not only the intrinsic reliability of the semiconductor
ductor material but also the effects of packaging, assembly, and the device’s operational
environment. Packaged devices typically have a longer MTTF than bare wafers because
their packaging contributes to their robustness and resilience. In summary, comparing the
MTTF of a bare-wafer device with a packaged device is not a straightforward apples-to-
apples comparison.
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1833 13 of 15

4. Conclusions
The presentation of MTTF data for on-wafer devices was contingent upon specific
electric field conditions. The accurate determination of channel temperature assumes a
critical role in the precise estimation of MTTF values. Furthermore, degradation param-
eters exhibited variations based on the specific stress voltage or electric field conditions.
Moreover, when calculating MTTF for on-wafer devices, distinct electric field conditions
yielded different values. These intricate details merit thorough consideration as they hold
the potential to significantly enhance the long-term reliability of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.-W.K. and S.C.; resources, S.C.; data curation, S.C.;
writing—original draft preparation, T.-W.K.; review and editing, S.C.; visualization, T.-W.K.; supervi-
sion. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by
the Ministry of Science and ICT under Grant NRF-2022M3I8A108544912.
Data Availability Statement: Data are available upon request from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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