TUESDAY/FEBRUARY/13/2024

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL

Mitochondria
-Known as the power house of the cell.
-Place where cellular respiration takes place.
Chloroplast
-Found in plant cells
-Site for photosynthesis.
Ribosome
-The site where photosynthesis occurs.
Endoplasmic Retticulum
-A series of interconnected membranes that synthesize Lipids.
Smooth Endoplasmic Retticulum
-ER without ribosome.
Rough Endoplasmic Retticulum
-The ribosome are attached to cyptolasmic surface of the ER.
Golgi Apparatus(Golgi body)
-Flattened membrane sacs.
-Sorting, Tagging, Packaging & Disturbing of lipids & proteins.

SOURCES OF LAW
Constitution
-The fundamental source of law.
-Describes both the limits of government power & the rights of citizens.
-A power map containing a set of principals & rules outlining the structure &
system of government.
Custom
-Oldest source of law.
-Unwritten rules that become binding in a social or cultural context over time.
-Violations of customs were punished by society.
-Majority of the state laws were born when they began converting customs into
authorization & binding rules.

Inverse proportionality
-Y is said to be inversely proportional to x, if there is a constant k such that Y=k
over x or k=y multiplied by x
-Y increase x decrease & vice-versa.
-The product of x and y is constant or k.

WEDNESDAY/FEBRUARY/14/2024
 Lysosomes
-Found in animal cells & in some single celled organisms.
-Contains digestive enzymes in animals & solve as garbage disposal in single celled
organisms.
Vacuales
-In plants used to control the amount of water.
-In animals used as storage & transport materials.
Peroxisomes
-Single membraned organelles that carry oxidization reactions that break down
fatty acids & amino acids.
-Detoxify alcohol in liver cells.
Function of S.E.R
-Synthesizes Carbohydrates, Phospholipids, Steroid hormones.
-Detoxification of Medicine & Poison.
-Storage of calcium.

ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZATION

-There are five main ancient world civilizations those are Mesopotamia, India,
Greece, Rome, China.
Mesopotamia
-Located in Middle East along Tigris & Euphrates river.
-Known as summerian civilization.
-Began in 2900b.c.
-Lies in present day Iraq, Syria, Turkey & Iran
Achievement of Mesopotamia
-Develop writing system which is called Cuneiform.
-Invented boat & built monument.
-Foundation of modern science like Astronomy, Medicine, Mathematics, Metal work.
-Invented 60 minutes & 360o in circle
-Develop administration system which is called Lugals.
-Their religion system was polysthetic(Worship many gods).

Cell shape & size

-Cells in the same organism are different.

-Cells that form our body are different.
Muscle cell:-Pointed at both ends
Skin cell:-Thin & flat
Nerve cell:-Long & branched
Red blood cell:-Round disk(Circular)
White blood cell:-Shapeless
Egg cell:-Oval.
 Unicellular Organisms
-Organisms made of one cell
-Bacteria, Most algae, Yeast, Paramecium, Amoeba are common examples.
Multi-Cellular Organisms
-Organisms that are made of many cells.
-Plants & Animals are common examples.
Levels of organization in living things
-Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism
1. Cell:-All living things are made up of cell.
2. Tissue:-A group of similar cells that carry out the same function.
3. Organ:-Are collections of tissues grouped together based on a common
function.
4. Organ system:-A higher level of organization that consists of functionally
related organs.
5. An organism:-Any living thing that is composed of various organ systems that
function together.

Indian valley
-Emerged in 2500 B.C along Indus valley
-Included Pakistan & Western India.
-Located in south west Asia.
-Mahjong-Daro & Harppa were the two major well-planned cities.
Contribution of Indian valley
-Advanced in mathematics & science specially in surgery.
-Arabic number, Symbols of decimal & zero were used in India for the first time.
-Develop well-planned cities.
-Had their own religion such as Hinduism & Buddhism.

Ancient china
-Emerged in 1700 B.C along Huang ho river
-Shang & Chou dynasties were the earliest Dynasties.
Shang dynasty
-Arose from north in 1700-1122 B.C
-Dominated until 1122 B.C in the Huang ho river.
Achievement of Shang
-Bronze vessel, horse drawn war chariot & writing system which is called
logography.
-Made weapons from bronze.
Fall of Shang
-Due to the rise of Chou in western part Shang dynasty were fall in 1122 B.C
Chou dynasty
-Rise in western china about 1122-2556 B.C
 Achievement of Chou
-Emerged philosophy which is called Confucianism.
-Emerged Feudalism government system & flourished of structure.
-Well-known by establishing cities, fastly economic grow & expansion of trade.
-Refined iron working & standardized of their writing system.
-Construction of great wall.
-Use of coal for the 1st time.
-Produce por celain.
-Making wheel barrow & silk from cocoon.
-Produced lacquer, paper printing & gun powder.

Respiration & mitochondria

-Respiration is the process in which organisms break down simple sugars into
Co2.H20 & release energy.
-Energy is produced in the form of adenosive tri phosphate(ATP)
-Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cell.
-ATP is the cells main energy carrying molecule.
-The inner layer of mitochondria is folds called crystal, which increase the surface
area.
-The area surrounded by the folds is called the mitochondria matrix.
-The formation of ATP from glucose is called cellular respiration
-Cellular respiration occurs in two ways.
Aerobic respiration
-Respiration that occurs with presence of oxygen.
Has four steps:-
1. Glycolosis
2. Oxidization of pyruvate or link reaction
3. Tricarboxy acid(TCA) or critic acid
4. Electron transport chain(ETC) & Cheminosis.
Aerobic respiration can be shown as
C6H1206+6O2 6Co2+6H2O+38ATP
Tuesday/February/20/2024

Anaerobic respiration
-In animal cells it is known a lactic acid fermentation.
-A type of respiration that occurs without oxygen to transfer energy.
--Involves the incomplete break down of glucose into lactic acid.
-Occurs when the body can’t supply enough oxygen during vigorous exercise.
C6H12 2CH3CH(OH)COOH+2CO2+2ATP
-Micro organisms like Yeast respire without oxygen & produce CO2 & Ethanol.
-Such process is called Ethanol or alcohol fermentation.
Wednesday/February/21/2024

Photosynthesis & Chloroplast

-Process by which plants make their own food is called photosynthesis.