IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science

Biology 5.2 - Transport in Humans

The Circulatory System

You need to know​ that the ​circulatory system​ is described as a ​system of tubes with a pump and valves to
ensure the one-way flow of blood.

- Human circulatory system consists of:

- The heart​ : the muscular organ that pumps blood around the system
- Blood vessels ​: the tube carrying the blood including ​arteries, veins, and capillaries
- Blood ​: the fluid transported around the system, contains blood cells and other dissolved substances

You also need to know​ that the our circulatory system is said to have ​double circulation
- Meaning that there are two ​circuits ​in the whole system. The​ pulmonary circuit ​and the ​systemic circuit.
- The pulmonary circuit is the low pressure circuit from the heart to the lungs and back.
- The systemic circuit is the high pressure circuit from the heart to the whole body and back.
 The Blood Vessels

You need to know​ the different types of blood vessels

There are three types of blood vessels:

- Arteries​ : Arteries are the vessels that lead the blood ​out​ of the heart.

- Veins​ : Veins are the vessels that lead the blood​ into​ the heart
- Try saying “​way in​” in a really fake german accent - it sounds like “​vey-in​” which sounds like ​vein​…
- (don’t judge me - this is how I learnt to remember it)

- Capillaries ​: Capillaries are the very small vessels that are between the arteries and the veins.
- The capillary networks are used so that the vessels can closely reach all the cells.
You need to know​ the structures of the different blood vessels, and how they related to their functions.

- Arteries ​: ​The vessels that lead blood away and out of the heart

- This means the arteries have relatively higher blood pressure,

- because it is getting the blood that has been just been freshly pumped
- To withstand this high pressure, the arteries have a:
- Thick muscular wall
- Elastic wall
- They also have smaller ​lumen​ (the tube “hole”) because they need to expand with the heartbeat.

- Veins ​: The vessels that lead blood into the heart

- This means the veins have relatively lower blood pressure,

- because they are far away from the heart, so the blood has already travelled a long distance.
- Because veins have low pressures, they don’t need to withstand such pressure so they have:
- Thinner walls ​than arteries
- Larger lumen than arteries
- The low pressure means the blood might flow backwards when going up the body back to the heart
- To prevent backflow there are structures called​ valves​ along the vein.
- Valves are like stoppers that only allow blood flow in one direction.

- Capillaries​ : ​The smaller vessels that are between the arteries and the veins
- The vessels that allow direct exchange of nutrients and gases between the blood and the cells.

- To allow the diffusion of molecules they have to be very close to the cells, so:
- they are very small in diameter​ to go between all the tissues
- their ​lumens are very small​, just large enough for blood cells to pass through
- Also because they have to allow diffusion of molecules between the blood and the cells,
- They have ​single cell thin walls
 The Heart

You need to know​ the structure of the heart and should know to label and recognise the parts.

- The heart is composed of two halves, the left half and the right half
- BUT in a heart diagram, ​the left half is on the right side and the right half is on the left side.
- If that's confusing, put the paper on your chest like this, then the sides will make sense!

- Each half is separated by the wall of muscle called the ​septum​,

- And each half is composed of two chambers, the ​atrium​ ​(pl. atria)​ and the ​ventricle.

- The ​atrium ​is the smaller chamber on the top, which is where the blood first comes in from the veins.
- Atria can contract to pump the blood into the ventricle below.
- The ​ventricle​ is the larger chamber below, and is the chamber where the blood leaves the heart.
- Ventricles are connected to the arteries.

- The heart also has four ​valves​, with the same functions as the vein valves, to prevent backflow of blood.

- Atrioventricular valves​ : as the name suggests, they are between the atrium and the ventricle.
- Bicuspid valve​ : the valve between the left atrium and the ventricle
- Tricuspid valve​ : the valve between the right atrium and the ventricle
- Semilunar valves​ : theses are the valves in the arteries (you don’t need the specific names:)
- Pulmonary valve : the valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
- Aortic valve : the valve between the left ventricle and the aorta

- The heart also has five large connected blood vessels:

- Vena Cava : ​Major vein that leads the deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body into the heart
- Superior Vena Cava : ​vena cava that comes from the body parts above the heart (brain etc.)
- Inferior Vena Cava : ​vena cava that comes from the body below the heart (liver, legs etc.)
- Aorta : ​Major artery that leads the oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
- Pulmonary Artery : ​ The artery that leads the deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- Pulmonary Vein : ​The vein that leads the oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.
- (​pulmonary​ means related to lungs)
 The Heartbeat & The Blood Flow Through the Heart

From the definition of double circulation from before,

- Two ​circuits ​in the whole system:
- the​ pulmonary circuit ​and
- the ​systemic circuit

- The Pulmonary Circuit

- the circuit between the heart and the lungs
(​pulmonary​ means related to lungs)
- transporting ​deoxygenated​ ​blood​ ​from the
heart to the lungs, then the ​oxygenated
blood back to the heart.

- The Systemic Circuit

- the circuit between the heart and the body
(​system​ meaning the body ‘system’)
- transporting ​oxygenated ​blood​ ​from the
heart to the respiring cells in the body, then
the ​deoxygenated​ blood back to the heart.

You need to know​ how the blood flows through the heart, in terms of the muscular contractions and the valves.

1. Deoxygenated​ blood comes from the body (deoxygenated​ ​because the cells used the oxygen)
2. Deoxygenated​ blood comes in through the ​vena cava​, filling the ​right atrium.
3. Right atrium​ contracts, forcing blood into the​ right ventricle ​through the ​tricuspid valve.
4. Right ventricle​ now contracts (after the ​right atrium contraction​) to force the blood through the ​pulmonary
semilunar valve​ to the ​pulmonary artery.
5. Pulmonary artery brings the ​deoxygenated ​blood to the lungs, where the blood is ​oxygenated.
6. Oxygenated ​blood is transported from the lungs to the heart in the ​pulmonary vein.
7. Pulmonary vein​ brings the ​oxygenated​ blood into the ​left atrium, ​filling it.
8. Left atrium ​contracts to force the blood through the ​bicuspid valve​, into the ​left ventricle​.
9. Now the ​oxygenated ​blood is ready to be transported around the whole body in the ​left ventricle.
10. Left ventricle​ contracts to pump the ​oxygenated b ​ lood through the ​semilunar valve ​into the ​Aorta,​ which
carries the blood into the whole body.
○ You need to know ​that the left ventricle is much thicker than the right ventricle because the left
ventricle must provide more force and pressure for the blood to travel the longer distance (the whole
body) than the pulmonary circuit (just to the lungs and back)
11. The aorta connects to smaller arteries, then into ​capillary​ beds (or networks) which connect to the tissues.
12. Active cells receive the ​oxygenated​ blood, using it for respiration. Now the blood is ​deoxygenated​.
13. The ​deoxygenated ​blood leaves the capillary into the ​Vena Cava, ​then back into the right atrium.
 The More Detailed Vessel System

You need to know​ some of the other major vessels in the systemic circuit.

- Hepatic vessels​ : ​hepatic ​means relating to the liver.

- Hepatic artery​ : carries ​oxygenated​ blood out of the heart, into the liver
- Hepatic vein​ : carries ​deoxygenated ​blood from the liver, into the heart.
- Hepatic portal vein : ​connects the intestines to the liver for filtering
- carries ​deoxygenated ​blood from the intestines to the liver

- Renal vessels​ :​ renal​ means relating to the kidneys.

- Renal artery : carries ​oxygenated​ blood out of the heart, into the kidneys
- Renal vein : carries ​deoxygenated ​blood from the kidneys into the heart.

Heart Rate

You need to know​ that the heart pulse rate is the number of heartbeats per minute.

You also need to know​ that heart rate can be affected by physical activity.
- Physical activity increases the heart rate,
- Physical activity requires the muscle cells to use more energy, so they need to respire more, which
means they need more oxygen
- To transport more oxygen to the cells, the heart beats faster.
 Coronary Arteries and Coronary Diseases

- Coronary​ means surrounding the heart.

- Cardiac ​means relating to the heart

You need to know​ that coronary arteries are the arteries that deliver
oxygen to the heart muscles themselves.

You need to know​ that a coronary heart disease is:

- the failure of coronary circulation to supply cardiac
muscles with enough oxygen.

The most common coronary disease is called ​atherosclerosis

- It is the disease of the ​coronary artery

- When the coronary arteries are blocked by​ plaque ​(which

is a hard mixture of fat and cholesterol)
- The artery lumen size decreases, making it harder
for blood to flow.
- This can cause ​angina​ (pain in the chest)

- If the artery gets blocked completely, the cardiac

muscles behind the plaque do not receive oxygen,
- the heart suffer from either a ​heart attack
(cardiac muscle failure)

You need to know ​some of the factors that might increase the risks of suffering from coronary diseases.

- Diet:
- Diet high in cholesterol or high percentage of animal fats (unsaturated fats) can increase the risks.
- Plants or fish fats (saturated fats) can decrease the risks.

- Diseases:
- Existing conditions of obesity and diabetes may increase the risks
- Bad mental health (stress or anxiety) may increase the risks

- Lifestyle :
- Smoking can increase the risks
- Exercise and a healthy heart can decrease the risks

- Genetics:
- A previous case of coronary disease in the genetics (inherited) may increase the risks
 Blood

You need to know ​the components of blood and their functions

Blood is composed of four components: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.

- Red Blood Cells

- Red blood cells are responsible for oxygen transport
- Red blood cells are packed with ​haemoglobin ​which are the oxygen carrying protein
- Red blood cells have some specialisations which are dealt in ​Unit B2.1

- White Blood Cells

- White blood cells protect the body from ​pathogens ​by killing them
- Pathogens are ​bacteria, virus, or other microorganisms that can cause disease.

- They have the ability to recognise cells as either “self” or “foreign” and will attack any foreign cells
- This is a problem in organ transplants, when the organ is recognised as a foreign tissue. This
causes the white blood cells to attack and kill the cells. (​called tissue rejection)​

- There are two main types of white blood cells, which have different methods of killing pathogens

- Lymphocytes : ​have big, solid nucleus

- Produce antibodies that stick to and attack pathogen and kill them
- Antibodies are produced in response to a ​specific ​pathogen’s shape, so that a unique
antibody will only attack a specific pathogen.
- This process takes time, so the lymphocyte response is slower than the:

- Phagocytes : ​have lobed, weirdly shaped nucleus

- Directly engulf or “eat” the pathogen and kill them (​phagocytosis​)
- Phagocytes are ​non-specific​, so they will attack any foreign material
- This response is very fast.

- Platelets
- Platelets are broken pieces of cells that are responsible for causing blood clots
- When there is a damage to the blood vessel, the platelets stick to the damage and clot the blood.

- Plasma
- Plasma is the pale yellow liquid that forms the liquidy part of the blood.
- Everything is carried in the plasma, including the above components of blood and all other nutrients.
- Like mineral ions, soluble nutrients (glucose and amino acids), hormones, and carbon dioxide.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Describe the circulatory system
- Describe double circulation
- Describe the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.
- Explain how structure and function are related in arteries, veins and capillaries.
- Describe the structure of the heart, including the muscular wall and septum, atria, ventricles, valves and
associated blood vessels.
- Name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney.
- Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the blockage of coronary arteries, and state the possible causes
(diet, stress, smoking and genetic factors) and preventive measures.
- Describe the function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of the valves.
- Investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse rate.
- Investigate, state and explain the effect of physical activity on pulse rate.
- Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams
and photomicrographs.
- List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
- State the functions of blood:
- red blood cells
- white blood cells
- platelets
- plasma
- Describe the immune system in terms of antibody production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis.