Human Physiology.

Class 1  Review of Cells.

Cell: Fundamental structural and functional unit of living organisms.

Levels of Organizations:
Biomolecules:

Molecules composing cells.

Examples:
Proteins: Amino Acids
Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
Lipids: Fatty Acids and Glycerol
Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA
Cellular Level
Examples
Poriferans - Commonly known as sponges.
Tissue Level
Examples:
Coelenterata/Ctenophora
Organ Level
Organ System
Organism

Field of Study for each level:

Cell - Cytology
Tissues - Histology
Functions of the Body - Physiology
Internal Structure - Anatomy
External Appearance - Morphology

Types of cells:
Basic Differentiation:
Prokaryotic Cell:

Poorly defined nucleus.

Double-strand of DNA.
No nuclear membrane.
 No organelles except ribosomes for protein synthesis.
Membrane bound organelles are absent.
Genetic material lies within the cytoplasm.
E.g Bacteria/Kingdom Monera.
Eukaryotic Cell:
Well-defined nucleus.
Genetic material is found within a nucleus.
Membrane bound organelles are present.
Nuclear membrane present.
Kingdom Protista/Mycota/Plantae/Animalia.

Exception: Viruses do not come under any kingdom, as they show no

living characteristics outside a living host cell.

Parts of the Cell:

Cell/Plasma Membrane:

Has a phospholipid bilayer.

Has a head and tail, where the head, being a polar group of
Phosphate, is hydrophilic(attracted towards water), and the tail is a
fatty acid chain, which is hydrophobic.
The purple signifies a protein which can help is various functions like
cell recognition.
Some cells can also have another layer above the Cell Membrane:
Plants - Made of Cellulose
Fungi - Chitin
Bacteria - Peptidoglycan. Most antibiotics target the systhesis of this
compound, preventing bacterial cell wall formation, hence killing the
bacteria. The body also does this using the Lysozyme enzyme.
Bacteria can also have another layer known as a capsule, and most
pathogenic bacteria possess this.

Cytoplasm:

Aqueous part of the cell.

Forms the aqueous matrix of the cell.
All organelles are contained within this liquid:
Organelles:

Endomembrane system:

Endoplasmic Reticulum: Smooth or Rough, where rough has ribosomes

attached, and smooth has no ribosomes. Smooth ER is involved in lipid
biosynthesis, and in detoxification. Rough ER produces proteins. In
muscles, these bodies are known as sarcoplasmic reticulum, and they
store Calcium.
Golgi Body.
Lysosomes
Vesicles
Ribosomes:
Synthesize proteins.
Catagorized by size.
Measured in Svedberg's Unit/Sedimentation coefficient. Basically the
RPM at which the molecules will get settled.
Prokaryotic ribosomes ⟶ 70S 50S(larger subunit) and
30S(smaller subunit)
Eukaryotic ribosomes ⟶ 80S 60S(larger subunit) and
40S(smaller subunit)
Two subunits within each type of subunit.

Complex of proteins and nucleic acids, specifically RNA(rRNA, or

ribosomal RNA
They are also known as Ribonucleoprotein Complexes.
Cannot be fully considered as organelles.
Other types of RNA are:
MRNA  Messenger RNADNA is converted into mRNA, which is then
used to synthesise proteins by ribosomes).
TRNA  Transfer RNAUsed to transport amino acids to the site of
protein synthesis)
 Process of Protein Systhesis:
Information in DNA has to be converted into proteins.
It is then converted into mRNA, which is the adapter molecule.
The mRNA will be read by the ribosomes to produce the proteins.
The ribosomes will then require amino acids, and the tRNA, or transfer
RNA will transport the amino acids required for the systhesis of the
particular protein.
The ribosome, in order to read the mRNA, needs to bind to it, which is
done by the rRNA.
This is known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
RNA to DNA is reverse transcription.
When DNA is duplicated, it is called replication. This is only done in
the Synthesis phase of the Interphase of the cell cycle.
DNA By transcription) mRNA🡒(by translation)Protein.
Cell Cycle:
G1 Phase.
S Phase. - Replication of DNA.
G2 Phase.
M Phase.  Cell Division.
Golgi Bodies:
Lysosomes and vesicles bud off these bdies.
Mainly hormone and enzyme synthesis.
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes(Enzymes that break C  C, C 
O, C  N and P  O. They are also known as suicide bags due to their
cannibalism of damaged cells.
Lysosome is a part of the head of the sperm, which is used to break
the wall of the Ovum.
Optimum temperatuire is the temperature at which enzymes work
best, or at highest efficiency, and optimum pH is the pH at where the
enzyme works at the highest efficiency. In a lysosome, the optimum
pH is acidic.
When the lysosome leaks its content into the cell, it will cause it to
totally dissolve the cell.
Apoptosis: Programmed cell death. Regardless of health, the cell
will initiate the process of cell death at a particular point. The cell
initiates a particular type of protein systhesis producing hydrolytic
enzymes which causes it to dissolve itself. The disease where this
function does not work properly is cancer. The debris from the
process will be cleared by the macrophage. Hence, due to the clearing
of debris, the neighbouring cells do not get affected. When the debris
do not get cleared and keep accumulating, it causes necrosis.
Macrophages, containing debris, are removed by pus.
Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis:
 Both are a type of endocytosis.
Cytosis means when something is moving out or moving in. In this
case, it means that something is being engulfed.
When the solid materials are engulfed by the cells directly by the
motion of psudeopodia, it is called Phagocytosis.
When the material is wrapped in a vesicle,and then internalized, it is
called Pinocytosis.
Mitochondria:
Produces ATP.
Double-membraned.
Have own DNA, similar to prokaryote.
Endosymbiotic theory of origin.
Own 70S Ribosomes.
Called semi-autonomous organelles.
Chloroplast:
Site of Photosynthesis.
Double-membraned.
Have own DNA, similar to prokaryote.
Endosymbiotic theory of origin.
Own 70S Ribosomes.
Called semi-autonomous organelles.
Mitrocondria and chloroplasts show maternal inheritance, unlike the
5050 split of the nuclear DNA. Why? During fertilization, only the
sperm gamete enters the ovum, hence, no coding for mitrochondria is
provided except by the female. Hence, there is no recombination in
mitochondrial DNA, hence, the mother's mitrochondria is mirrored to
the child.

Class 2.

Biomolecules:
Carbohydrates:

Monosacchrides:

The different types are: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose and Ribose,

which all except Ribose being a hexose sugar, and ribose being a
pentose.
It is a singular unit, and the basic unit of carbohydrates.
Disaccharides:
Sucrose ⟶ Cane sugar, made up of glucose and fructose.
Lactose ⟶ Milk Sugar, made up of glucose and galactose.
Maltose ⟶ Made up of glucose and glucose.
 Made up of two monossacharides joined in a glycosidic bond.
Oligosaccharrides:
Sugars where the number of monosaccharides in the sugar are
between 3 to 20 monosaccharides.
Polysaccharides:
Sugars that have N number of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic
bonds.
E.g. Cellulose, Glycogen, Starch, Chitin, Agar, Heparin.

Based on types of monosaccharides present:

Homopolysaccharides:

The same monosaccharide composes the entire polysaccharide.

E.g Glucose, Maltose

Heteropolysaccharides:

Different monosaccharides compose the entire polysaccharide.

E.g. Lactose, Sucrose, etc.

Starch and glycogen is composed of glucose singularly(i.e, they are

homopolysaccharides). However, in starch, glucose is not branched, it
is linear, but in glycogen, the glucose is frequently branched. Also,
starch is not produced in animals, it is chiefly found in plant cells,
while glycogen is mostly found suspended in the cytoplasm of animal
cells as storage.

Structure of Glucose:

 Representation with Carbon

atoms. Note that there is another hydrogen attached to the 6th Carbon
atom.
  Representation without
Carbon atoms.

Creation of Maltose:
Glycosidic bond creation occurs between monosaccharide units of glucose.
In the case of a glycosidic bond formation. The hydroxyl group of Carbon 1
in the first molecule will react with the hydroxyl group of Carbon 4. The
structure of the reaction is presented below.

When two hydroxyl groups react, water will be eliminated, leaving only a
singular oxygen atom, as shown below.

The oxygen will bond to the remaining 1st carbon on the firstmolecule in
order to form the glycosidic bond. The final structure of the maltose bond is
below.
In glucose-glucose bonds, the glycosidic bonds are represented as a boxy
structure as seen above, while in glucose-galactose bonds, the oxygen is
reresented as a slanting line, as shown below.

Isomerism: The different states/structures that a particular compound

can be present in. For example, in cellulose, the glucose is Beta-glucose,
which has a different structure than that of the glucose in starch, although
they have the same formula.

Proteins:

The basic unit of proteins are amino acids, or specifically, 20 amino acids.
These amino acids can give rise to various proteins. Below is the general
structure of an amino acid, these acids will be bonded to functional group
R, connected to the Carbon atom holding the amino group.
Examples are Glycine, whose R-group is hydrogen:

or, they can be complex, like Lysine:

The 20 amino acids are:

Glycine
Alanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Valine
Proline
Phenylalanine
Serine
Tyrosine
Threonine
Methionine
Cystiene
Glutamic Acid
Aspartic Acid
Tryptophan
Glutamine
Asperagine
Lysine
Arginine
Histidine
For information, the structure of every amino acid.
The amino acids are joined by Peptide bonds.

The reaction above shows the system of bonding. The oxygen reacts with
the hydrogen, removing it from its bond with nitrogen, and releasing water,
which leaves carbon and nitrogen with a charge, which is then fulfilled by
forming a covalent bond between the two atoms, hence, forming a peptide
bond. This can keep chaining on and on, forming polypeptides, which are
proteins, as shown below.

The free NH2, as shown below, is known as the amino terminal, and the
free OH is known as the carboxylic terminal.

Lipids:

Lipids are constituded from glycerol and fatty acids.

Glycerol structure:

Fatty Acid structure(general):

The number of carbon atoms is 16-above in even number intervals.

Glycerol and Fatty Acid Linkage:

The bond is formed between a carboxylic group of the fatty acid and and
the hydroxyl group of the glycerol.
These can produce upto triglycerides, however, the third unit will include a
phosphate group, rather than a carboxylic group.
Also, the bond is known as an ester bond because a bond between an
alcohol group and an acid group is formed.

The Digestive System.

Digestion: The breakdown of a complex biomolecule into simpler
molecules.
There are two types, based on location of digestion:

Extracellular Digestion:
Digestion takes place outside the cell.

In higher organisms.
 Proper digestive tract present.

Intracellular Digestion:
Digestion takes place inside the cell.

Usually performed in lower organisms.

For example, in Amoeba, by the process of Phagocytosis, the
molecule is taken in, the vacuole then wraps the molecule and using
enzymes, breaks it down.

There are two types of digestive systems:

Complete Digestive System:

The alimentary tract has two openings, the mouth and anus.
The alimentary canal has one opening for intake of foods, and one for
excretion of waste.
Incomplete Digestive System
Singular opening for both ingress and egress.
Examples are sponges.

The accessory organs are the organs not in the direct line of the ailimentary
canal, they are however connected to it indirectly. The 4 accessory organs
are the salivary glands, the liver, pancreas and gallbladder.

The alimentary canal is composed of the mouth, the pharynx, oesophagus,

stomach, small intestine, large intestine and the rectum.
The Buccal Cavity:

The top of the mouth is known as the hard palete, and behind it, is known
as the soft palete.

The uvula is the drooping structure within the buccal cavity. The uvula is
used to swallow food and in certain cases, when there are cases of no
speech, deformities in the uvula can be observed.

The tonsils are located on either side of the mouth. They are types of lymph
nodes, and they provide immune reaction to antigens in the mouth.

The tongue is attacted to the floor of the mouth by the lingual frenulum.
The tongue assists in speech and are used to taste food.

The oral vestibule is the space between the teeth and lips.
 The teeth:

Incisors: Cutting the food.

Canines: Tearing the food.
Per-molars and molars: Grinding the food.

In humans, there are two types of dentition, the permanent dentition, and
desciduous(or milk) teeth, usually found in young children. The permanent
dentition is composed of 32 teeth, with a total of 8 incisors, 4 on the upper
jaw, and four on the lower.
There are 4 total canines, with one on each side of the lower and upper jaw.
There are 8 pre-molars, just before the molars, with 2 per each quadrant of
the jaw as a whole.
There are 12 molars, located at the absolute back of the jaw, with 3 in each
quadrant.
The entire structure system is shown below:

The dental formula is:

"I" represents incisors.

"C" represents canines.
"P" represents pre-molars.
"M" represents molars.

Class 3

The Pharynx

Short muscular tubular structure of the alimentary canal. It is the common

passage for food and air.

Oesophagus:
Short tube between the pharynx and the stomach, with an average size of
25cm. It is guarded by the pharyngoesophageal sphincter at the pharynx
and the cardiac sphincter at the stomach.

At the top of the oesophagus, there are more skeletal muscles, which can
be controlled consciously, and it transisions to smooth/involuntary muscles.
The smooth muscles provide peristaltic movement, or a wavy type of
movement, which is used by the body to force the food into the stomach.
Due to this, the body can technically swallow food and take it upto the
stomach even when working against gravity. There is also anti-peristaltic
movement, which is the opposite, where the food will be ejected out of the
buccal cavity, which is known as vomiting.

Stomach

There are 5 regions within the stomach:

Cardia: The region where the oesophagus joins into the stomach. It is
the anterior part of the stomach.
Fundus: The upper dome of the stomach.
Body: The main interior.
Pylorus: The lower convergence of the stomach. It is composed of the
pyloric canal and antrum, and it opens up into the duodeum of the
small interstine. The entry into the small interstine is controlled by the
pyloric sphincter, which is used to make sure that the food material
does not pass through before the food goes through due process in
the stomach. The pylorus is the posterior of the stomach.

There are two main sphincters:

 The Cardiac sphincter: The sphincter from the oesophagus to the
stomach.

The Pyloric sphincter: The sphincter from the stomach to the

duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.

The inner surface of the relaced stomach wall produces temporary

folds called rugae. The rugae provide elasticity to the stomach, and
provide an increased surface area for absorption.

The Small Intestine

Long, coiled organ between the stomach and the large intestine.
The small intestine is, on average, 22 feet, or 6.7 meters.

The small intestine in a dead person is longer because the small intestine
loses the tone of the muscle.

The chief function of the small intestine is digestion and absorption.

There are three main sections:

Duodenum: it is the first part, it is about 10 inches in length.

Jejunum: It is the middle part, and it is about 10 feet in length.
Ileum: It is the last part, and it is about 12 feet long.

Features:

Circular folds called the plicae circularis.

Projections known as Crypts of Liberkuhn. Villi and Crypts should not

be confused. On villi, individual cells will have projections, known as
microvilli. Glands found in between villi in the intestinal epithelium
lining of the small intestine and large intestine(or colon).
Mucus glands known as Brunner's glands.
Secrete mucin into the duodenum in order to protect the intestine
from the acidic contents of the stomach.
Aggregate of lymph nodes known as Peyer's patches.
The are GALT(gut-associated lymphoid tissue) and MALT(mucous
 associated lymphoid tissue).
Antibodies are proteins produced by immune cells which bind to
antibodies and attempt to neutralize them. Antibodies are foreign
molecules which can cause damage to the organism. Antibodies are
also known as Immunoglobulins. It has a spherical shape, hence it is a
"globular" protein. Other "globular" proteins are haemoglobin,
lactoglobulin, etc.
Lymph nodes are similar to a group of capillaries which have a high
concentrations of antibodies, which essentially act as the defense
system of the body.

Large Intestine:

It is a wide tubular organ of the alimentary canal present between small

intestine and anus.

The entrace occurs at the Cecum, which then moves onto the colon, which
is composed of the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending
colon, the sigmoid colon, the rectum, and the anus, where the waste is
passed.

The tissue holding the large intestine, something similar to a connective

tissue, is the teniae coli.
Near the cecum is also the vermiform appendix, which is non-functional
and useless. However, food material can get accumulated in the appendix,
causing inflammation, leading to a disease known as appendicitis. The
appendix is usually removed in this case.
The rectum has two sphincters, one involuntary, and one voluntary. The
voluntary sphincter is under conscious control from a young age, so the
human can decide when they want to release the waste.

Accessory Structures In The Abdomen

The Liver

Produces bile.
The Pancreas
The Gallbladder
It usually holds the bile juice produced by the liver.
Gallbladder can have stones, which can necessitate the removal of
the gallbladder.
Tongue

Taste buds are present in the tongue.

It produces the sense of taste. It has gustatory function), due to the
presence of taste buds.
Taste buds present on special structures known as papilla.
4 types of papilla: vallate, fungiform, filiform and foliate.
100200 taste buds per papillae.
It helps in swallowing.
It helps in speech.

Histology
Cross Section of the GI tract.
 The Serosa:

The serosa is made of epithelium and connective tissue.

The epithelium is located in the peritoneum.
Provides support.
The Muscularis:
Composed of muscles.
Nerve ending present.
Used for movement of food.
Made up of smooth muscles(involuntary). However, the first part of
the oesophagus, the muscularis contains a higher concentration of
skeletal muscles or voluntary muscles.
Submucosa
Blood vessels would be present here, with connective tissue.
Mucosa
Mucous and epithelium lining the interior of the digestive tract.
The Lumen.
The empty space at the centre.
Food moves through this space.

Physiology of Digestion.
Two types of digestion:
Mechanical Digestion

Occurs in the mouth(chewing) and stomach(churning).

Larger food particles are coverted into smalled fragments.
Chemical Digestion
Occur using enzymes.
Larger biomolecules are coverted into simpler, smaller biomolecules
which can be easily absorbed.
Enzymes are biocatalysts made up of proteins(except ribozymes).
Process of Enzyme Reaction:
Enzyme bonds to the substrate, which will then catalyse the reaction,
which breaks it up into a smaller biomolecule, releasing the enzyme. The
enzyme is reusable.
The substrate bonds specifically to the active state.The active state area
for each enzyme is different and depending on the shape, the substrate
can attach to the enzyme or not.

Mouth

Enzymes:

Salivary Amylase. Used to digest carbohydrates, specifically starch.

They break glycosidic bonds. It breaks it down into disaccharides, like
maltose, and it may also break it down into a few types of
oligosaccharides.
Starch ⟶ (by salivary amylase) Disaccharides and oligosaccharides.
Lysozymes, used to dissolve the peptidoglycan of the cell wall of
bacteria, acting as a first line of defense against microbial organisms.
Trace amounts of lipase, although its existance is debatable.
Other components:
Water. It constitutes the majority of the saliva.

The tongue is used to mix the food with saliva. It becomes a singular unit
known as the bolus. It is then swallowed.

During the transfer of the bolus through the oesophagus, the salivary
amylase on the food will continue to digest it, and ends up digesting 50
60% of the starch present.

Stomach

Concentrated HCl is produced by the stomach. The stomach itself will

be protected by a thick mucus lining to prevent the stomach from
being damaged by the corrosive nature of the HCl. The HCl will have
the pH of about 23.
No digestion of starch occurs in the stomach due to the high acidity.
Protein digestion occurs. Proteases are used, specifically, the HCl
activates the pepsinogen, which will then activate into pepsin, which
then acts on the peptide bond of the proteins within the food.
Buffer(in this context), is a chemical or substance that helps to
maintain a particular pH.

Mucus: Water, Enzymes, Glycoproteins, Ions, Antibodies

Main Components:
 HCl: Conc. Acid to provide an ideal pH for enzymes.
Pepsin: Protease. Inactive as Pepsinogen, activated by HCl.
Rennin: Protease. Used to digest milk protein. Inactive as prorennin.

Functions of HCl:

Acidic pH provides an ideal pH for pepsin.

Prevents infection by faecal-oral route, since it is corrosive to any cell.
Helps denature proteins.

Levels of protein structures:

Primary strucuture: The linear chain of amino acids.
Secondary structure: Curves and arrangement in 2 dimensions.
Tertiary structure: Arrangement in the third dimension.
Quaternary structure: Arrangement of various tertiary structure
proteins.

Denaturation of proteins: The protein collapses into its primary structure

from a higher level. The protein will become one-dimensional. The chemical
and physical properties will change.

In the case of protein digestion in the stomach, the pepsin acts ont he
complex proteins and collapses them into the primary structures.

Reactions:
Proteins 🡒 Peptones + proteoses. The enzyme is Pepsin and the pH is 1
3.
Caesin 🡒 Polypeptides. The enzyme is Rennin at the pH 13 with Calcium
present. Only present in infants.

Rennet used to be extracted from slaughter of calves to produce cottage

cheese. This made it an extremely expensive commodity.
Nowadays, we culture genetically-engineered bacteria which produce
rennet for our industry.
Similarly, insulin for diabetics is produced by genetically-engineered
Escherichia coli.
Plasmids(extrachromosomal circular dsDNA present in bacteria.

Small Intestine:
Duodenum:

Chyme enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, from
the stomach, through the pyloric sphicter.
The chyme is first neutralized by Bile, specifically, the Sodium
Bicarbonate in the bile juice.
Sectretions:
Bile Juice: Produced in the liver, used to neutralize the acidic chyme
from the stomach. The bile juice contains 2 pigments, bilirubin and
biliverdin, produced by the breakdown of haemoglobin in dead RBCs.
Pancreatic Juice: Various Enzymes, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin,
carboxypeptidase, elastase, which are all proteases, pancreatic
amylase, which breaks down starch, and pancreatic lipase. Zymogen
of these enzymes are trypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase,
cyymotrypsinogen and proelastase. The zymogen is the inactive form
of the enzyme.
Intestinal Juice: Also known as succus entericus. Contains various
enzymes such as aminopeptidase, maltase, sucrase, lactase,
nucleases.
Breakdown will end in the Ileum. The large intestine merely absorbs
water and a few minerals.
The Brunner's gland and crypts of Lieberkuhn, present here, produce
mucous and Enterokinase, an enzyme used to transform trypsinogen
to the active form of trypsin, and trypsin, in turn, will activate
procarboxypeptidase, chymotrypsinogen and proelastase into their
active forms.
Proteoses + Peptones ⟶ Dipeptides | Tripeptides | Aminoacids.
Digestion of carbohydrates
40% of the starch will be digested by the pancreatic amylase, and
60% by the initial salivary amylase.
Maltose ⟶ Glucose + Glucose; By Maltase.
Lactose ⟶ Glucose + Galactose; by Lactase.
Sucrose ⟶ Glucose + Fructose; by Sucrase.
Digestion of lipids
Bile Juice ⟶ HCO3, biliverdin and bilirubin, and bile salts.
Biliverdin is greenish in color and bilirubin is yellowish in color.
Emulsification occurs. It will result in the formation of micelle, which
then, under the influence of pancreatic lipase, in order to form fatty
acids and glycerol.

- structure of the micelle.

 Another micelle-like structure is produced, which can be absorbed by
the cells.
Once these strucutres are present in the cells, it will be transferred to
the endoplasmic reticulum, which packs them into something known
as the Chylomicron. A type of chylomicron is represented. In the
centre of the chylomicron, there will be triglyceride fatty acids.

These will be released into the blood.

Transportation

There are two main types: Active and passive transport.

| Passive Transport | Active Transport |
|
--------------------------|
-----------------------------|
| No ATP | ATP used |
| Higher concentration to lower concentration | Lower concentration to
higher concentration by the help of transporters.|
| Facilitated Diffusion can occur, which happens with the help of
channel proteins, such as aquaporin. | In active transport, there are
three types of proteins, unipoters, who can carry one way,
symporters, which can transport two molecules in one direction, and
antiporters, two molecules are transferred, but opposite to each
other.x,

Hormones

Gastrin ⟶ Sectretion of HCl.

Seuretin ⟶ Intestine ⟶ Intestinal Juice secretion.
Cholecyetokinin ⟶ Secretion of bile juice.
Insulin ⟶ Regulation of blood glucose. The normal range is 120180
mg/l, however, if it increases above this range consistently, it signals
 the lack of insulin causing Diabetes.
Glucagon ⟶ Used when glucose level is low, in order to produce
glucose form stored glycogen.

Respiratory System
Respiration is the stepwise oxidation of glucose and other nutrients, which
results in the release of energy that is stored in the cytosol in the form of
ATP. Whenever energy is required by our body, ATPP is broken down and
large amount of energy is released.
The nutrients mentioned are essentially backups for glucose, when the
body faces a lack of glucose. If there is no glucose, it may convert another
monosaccharide into glucose, use fatty acids or, as a last resort, oxidization
of proteins to release energy.

The Tracheal System in a Cockroach:

Cockroaches and a majority of insects respire by the means of tubes

known as tracheae.
These tubes branch out extensively inside the body and carry air
directly to the tissues from the atmosphere.
There is no blood involved.
Tracheoles are subdivisions of tracheae, whichpenetrate the cells of
the body and allow diffusion of respiratory gases directly into and
from the cells.
Spiracles are the outer-facing parts, which open up the tracheae for
gas exchange.
The ends of tracheoles are filled with fluid and thin, which respiratory
gases dissolve.

Human System:
The air is taken in from the nostril into the nasal cavity, which is then taken
into the nasopharynx.

Physiology:

 Pulmonary Ventilation: Exhalation and Inhalation.

 External respiration: O2 and CO2 exchange between the lung and
blood.
 Internal Respiration: Cellular respiration, where Oxygen is actually
utilized.

Nostril ⟶ Nasal Cavity ⟶ Pharynx ⟶ Larynx ⟶ Trachea ⟶

Bronchi(which differentiate into primary, secondary and tertiary) ⟶
Brochioles ⟶ Alveolus

Each lung has 300400 million alvioli, which are small sacs.
Capillaries wrap the alveoli in order to exchange the O2 and the CO2 by
diffusion.

 Breathing - Pulmonary Ventilation

 Exchange at Alveolus - External Respiration
 Transport of Gases - Transport of O2 and CO2.
 Internal Respiration - Exchange at Cells
 Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration:

Glucose:

Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle occurs in order to produce ATP from

Glucose.

Pulmonary Ventilation:

The exchange of gases between the lungs and the atmosphere.

On the ventral side, there is the sternum, the dorsal has the vertebral
column, lateral side contains rib cage, and the posterior contains the
diaphram.

Lungs are said to be a closed chamber due to this character.

The volume of the Thoracic Chamber is directly proportional to the volume

of the lungs.

Boyle's Law:

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume.

The muscles between the ribs in the rib cage are called intercostal muscles.
The diaphram and the intercostal muscles are skeletal muscles and we
have conscious control over said muscles.

On inhalation, the diaphram contracts, volume increases, and it increases it

the dorso-ventral direction/axis and the antero-posterior axis. When the
volume increases, the interpulmonary pressure decreases, causing
inhalation.

When the diaphram relaxes, it becomes dome shaped, decreasing the

interpulmonary volume, causing an increase in pressure, causing exhalation.

Inhalation is caused by the contraction of diaphram, causing an

increase in the total volume of the thoraxic cavity, causing an increase
of volume in the lung, reducing the pressure, allowing for inhalation.
Exhalation is caused by the relaxation of the diaphram, causing a
decrease in the thoraxic cavity, causing a decrese in volume in the
lung, increasing the pressure, forcing exhalation.

External Respiration:
 External respiration is the exchange of gases at the alveoli.

The exchange between the lumen of the capillary of the alveoli is done by
diffusion.

Partial Pressures:

Pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture of gases.

They are represented my the prefix "P" and the molecular form of the
gas after.
The PN2 of the atmosphere is 592.8, the PO2 of the atmosphere is
159.6, and the PCO2 is roughly 0.4.

Transport of Gases:

i) Transport of O2

O2 is transported through haemoglobin. Haemoglobin combines with

O2 in the alveoli in order to form oxyhaemoglobin. It can also be
dissolved in plasma.
Haemoglobin can carry 4 molecules per molecule.
Every single RBC in your blood can carry 250 million haemoglobin
molecules.
RBCs are also known as erythrocytes.
1ml of blood has 5 million RBCs.
 RBCs are dumbell-shaped because they have a large surface area.
They also have a low diameter, which allows them to creep through
capillaries.
Lower levels of haemoglobin cause anemia as not much Hb is
available to carry oxygen. Lack of haemoglobin signals a lack of iron.

Dissolved in plasma:

Plasma with the clotting factor removed is known as serum.

Oxygen is dissolved into the plasma to be carried in the blood as well.

ii) Transport of CO2

70% can be transported as carbonic anhydrase(carbonic acid, formed

by combining with water in blood), 23% combined with Hb as
carbamino haemoglobin, and 7% dissolved in plasma.
The partial pressure of Oxygen in the capillaries are 95mm and PCO2 will
be 40mm.

Cellular Respiration

Can be of two types - Aerobic(Vertebrates and most plants) and

Anaerobic(Most bacteria).
Aerobic respiration:
The main substrate is glucose.
The other major molecule is Oxygen.
C6H12O6  6O2 6CO2  6H20  38ATP.

This reaction does not happen directly, rather, the glucose first gets
converted to a pyruvate, and the pyruvate is further broken down in the
Kreb's Cycle to release more energy. Oxygen is required in the Kreb's Cycle.

Anaerobic respiration
Glucose undergoes glycolysis into a pyruvaye, which then proceeds to get
broken down from pyruvate to form lactic acid as a byproduct and 2 ATP.

Disorders of the Lung:

COVID19 SARSCOV2, causing severe acute respiratory syndrome.
Pneumonia ⟶ Streptococeus Pneumoniae
Mucous filled in the entire lower respiratory tract. Causes fever,
cough, engestion(breathlessness).
Emphysema ⟶ Recursive Smoking ⟶ Alveoli membrane damaged --
 Breathlessness, fatigue, and death in extreme cases.
 Tuberculosis ⟶ Mycobacterium tuberculosis ⟶ Coughing, blood in
sputum, overall weight reduction
Bronchitis ⟶ Inflammation of bronchi ⟶ Smoking
Asthma ⟶ Allergic response, caused by the incorrect release of
histamine, which cause muscle contraction.
Common cold ⟶ Rhinovirus
Influenza ⟶ Influenza virus
OLDOccupational Lung Diseases):
Silica ⟶ Silicosis
Asbestos ⟶ Asbestosis

Lung Volumes:
Tidal Volumes: Volume of air that is inspired and expired during normal
breathing = 500ml
Inspiratory reserve volume: volume of air that can be forcefully
inhaled: 25003000ml.
Expiratory reserve volume: volume of air that can be forcefully
exhaled: 10001100ml.
Residual Volume - Colume that stays within the lung: 11001200ml.

Vital Capacity = TV  IRV  ERV

4000  4600ml.

The actual capacity of the lung is the functional volume of the lung.

Total Lung Capacity = Vital Capacity + RV

 5100  5800ml

Circulatory System:
Why do we need circulation?

How does blood circulate?

What fluids are involved in circulation?

Ciculation is required in order to continuously refresh the various

nutrients and gases required for life, and to remove the wastes from
the cells.

By the circulatory system. It can be considered as an analog to a pipe

system, where the arteries and veins are the pipes, and the pump is
the heart.
 The fluids involved in circulation are blood, lymph and extracellular
fluid.

The ability of WBCs to squeeze through blood vessels is known as

diapedesis.

Topics ⟵

Heart and structure

Double Circulation
Cardiac Cycle
Diseases of Heart.

Structure of Heart
The heart has 4 chambers.
It is composed of the left atrium and ventricle, and the right atrium
and ventricle.
The atriums and the ventricles are separated by the atrio-ventricular
valves, with the right valve being tricuspid and left valve being
bicuspid.
The right side pumps to the lungs, while the left side pumps to the
rest of the body.

Heart Wall

Pericardium - Outer
Myocardium - Middle (myo = muscles)
Endocardium - Inner
Pericardium:

Irregular dense connective tissue.

Also known as fiberous pericardium(outer layer).
The inner layer is known serous pericardium.
Between the two cell layers(parital and visceral) of the serous
pericardium, is the pericardial fluid, which provides shock absorption.

Myocardium:

Highly branched layer, containing cardiac muscles, which are found

exclusively in the heart wall.

Endocardium:

Contains squamous epithelium.