PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

XI - CBSE

Calay A14 9c
 o) Measurement of the dlamcter of a given wire:
S.NO Reading along onc dircction Rcading nlong perpendicular direction Mean
(d1) (da) diameter
d= (dy+d2)/2
P.S.R H.S.C
(in (in
TR-P.S.R+(|1.S.Cx P.S.R H.S.C TR=P.S.R+(H.S.Cx
(in mm)
L.C) (in (in L.C)
mm) div) (in mm) mm) div) (in mm)

4
Mean diameter= .....mm

Mean corrected value of diameter =measured diameter - (zero error with sign) =..min

b) Measurement of thickness of given sheet:

PROCEDURE:
determine the thickness at five
1. Insert the given sheet between the studs of the screw gauge and
different positions.
zero error following
2. Find the average thickness and calculate the correct thickness by applying
the steps followed earlier.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:

Least count of sScrew gauge mm Zero erTOr of screwgauge =..... mm

S.NO P.S.R H.S.C TR= P.S.R+ (H.S.C x L.C)

(in mm) (in div) (in mmn)
| 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean thickness ofthe given sheet =... mm
Mean corrected thickness of the given sheet = observed mean thickness-(zero error with sign)
mm

RESULT:

a) The diameter ofthe given wire as measured by screw gauge is .....mm

b) The thickness of thegiven sheet is ....m
 Thercfore, it is nccessary to mcasurc the diamcter at
cylindrical. ofdiamcter. For this, repcat the steps (3) to
7. The 1wirc may not be truly averagc valuc
thc
several differcnt places nnd obtain
(6) for three more positions of the wirc.
valucs of diamctcr so obtaincd.
8. Takc the mean of the different
sign to gct the correctcd valuc for the diameter of the
9. Substract zero crror, if any, with propcr
wirc.

Main Scale
Anvil Screw

Splndle
Basa Li_leevie.Thimble .Ratchet
Liid

y-Framc

Zero crror nil zero.cirör.positive Zero'erròr 'ncgative

Case 1 Case2 Case 3

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION :

The length of the smallest division on the linear scale =

Distance moved by the serew when it is rotated through xcomplete rotations, y=...mm
Pitch of the screw = y x=..... mm

Number of divisions on the circular scale n=..

pltch
Least Count (L.C.)of screw guage ... Imm
No.of divlslons on clrcular scale

Zero eror with sign (No. of div. x L. C.)=..... mm

Experiment No:1 Screw Gauge

Aim:
given shcct using screw gaugc.
To measure diameter of the givcn wirc and thickness of a
Apparatus required:
Screw gauge, the wire and a thin sheet
Principle:
distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the rotation given to it.
The linear one division of the circular scale, is
moved by the screw when it is rotated by
The linear distance instrument. It is called the least count of
least distance that can be measured accurately by the
the
the instrument.
pitch
Least count = No.of divisions on circular scale

screw gauge with a pitch of Imm and 100divisions on the circular

For example for a This is thesmallest length one can measure with
scale. The least count is 1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm.
this screw gauge.
Procedure:

gauge and make sure that the rachet R on the head of the screw functions
1.Take the screw
properly.
screw through, say, ten complete rotations and observe the distance through which
2. Rotate the the linear scale marked by the edge of the circular
it has receded. This distance is the reading on
distance moved by the screw in one complete
scale. Then, find the pitch of the screw, i.e., the then distance moved by the screw when it
rotation. If there are n divisions on the circular Scale, least count of the screw gauge,
one division on the circular scale is called the
is rotated through
that is, pitch
given wire between the Screw and the stud of the screw gauge. Move the screw
3. Insert the between the screw and the stud. Stop
the rachet till the wire is gently gripped
forward by rotating
click sound.
rotating the rachet the moment you hear a
and the circular scale.
4. Take the readings on the linear scale
diameter of the wire.
S. From these two readings, obtain the
cross-section. Therefore. it is necessary to measure
6. The wire may not have an exactly circular
of the wire for two positions at right angles to each other. For this, first record the
the diameter 90° at the same cross-sectional position.
reading of diameter d1 and then rotate the wire through
Recutith readmg tor diameter d2 in this position.
 PRECAUTIONS:

arangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid unduc pressure on the wire as
1. Rachet
this may change the diameter.
2. Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop "play".
3. Screw should nove freely without friction.
4. Reading should be taken atleast at four different points along the length of the wre.
5. View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid error due to parallax.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The wire may not be of uniform
cross-section.
2. Error due to backlash though can be minimised but cannot be
completelyeliminated.
[Hint -BACKLASH ERROR: In a good instrument (either screw gauge or a
on the screw and that on the nut (in which the spherometer) the thread
screw moves), should
with repeated use, the threads of both the screw and the nut may get tightly with each other. However,
fit
worn out. As a result a gap develops
between these two threads, which is called "play". The play in the thrcads
may introduce an error in
measurement in devices like screw gauge. This error iS called backlash error.
backlash error, the screw slips asmall linear distance without rotation. To In instruments having
the screw should be moved in only one direction while taking prevent this, it is advised that
measurements.]
3. The divisions on the linear scale and the
circular scale may not be evenly spaced.
4. The sheet may not be of uniform thickness
Experiment No:2
Sonometer
Ain:

To study the relation betwccn the length of a givcen

wirc and tension for constant
frequency using a sonometcr.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Sonometcr, tuning forks of known frequencies, metre scale, rubber pad, paper rider,
banger with ½ kg weights, wooden bridges
PRINCIPLE:
The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is given by

n=
22 Vm

where m= mass per unit length of the string

1= length ofthe string between the wedges
T=Tension in the string (including the weight of the hanger) = Mg
M= mass suspended, including the mass of the banger
(a) For a given m and fixed T,
na; Or nl=constant.

(b) If frequency n is constant, for agiven wire (m is constant),

VT is constant. That is 1 x T.

stel wire

TIN)

PROCEDURE:
1. Select a tuning fork of a certain frequency (say 256 Hz) and hang a load
of lkg from the
hanger. Find the resonant length.
Z. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of 0.5 kg and each time find the
length with the same tuning fork. Do it for at least four loads. resonating
Caley crG 1gUr observations.
4. Plot graph between |and T as
shown.
 OBSERVATIONS:

Frequency of the tuning fork ... Hz

Variation ofresonnnt lengtlh with tension
TI!
S.NO Tension applicd T Resonating length l of (cm²) (N cm)
(including weiglht of thc the wirc
hanger) (cm)
(N)
1.
2.
3
4
5
CALCULATIONS AND GRAPH:
vs T
Calculate the value of 2 for the tension applied in each case. Alternatively, plot a graph of 1
talking along y-axis and Talong the x-axis.
RESULT:
It is found that value of T/1 Zis constant within experimental error. The graph of> vs T is found
to be astraight line. This shows thatlaT. Thus, the resonating length varies as square root of
tension for a given frequency of vibration of a stretched string.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Pulley should be frictionless ideally. In practice friction at the pulley should be minimised by
applying grease or oil on it.
2. Wire should be free from kinks and of uniform cross section, ideally. If there are kinks, they
should be removed by stretching as far as possible.
3. Bridges should be perpendicular to the wire, its height should be adjustes so that a node is
formed at the bridge.
4. Tuning fork should be vibrated by striking its prongs against a soft rubber pad.
5. Load should be removed after the experiment.
SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. Pulley may not be frictionless.

2. Wire may not be rigid and ofuniform cross section.
Ldrlsáiynel je sharp.
Experiment No: 3 Simple pendulum
Aim:
Using a simplc pendulum, plot its L-T' graph and usc it to find the cffcctive length of
second's pendulum.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Clamp stand; asplit cork; aheavy metalic (brassiron) spherical bob with ahook; along, fine,
strong cotton thread/string (about 2.0 m); stop-watch; metre scale, graph paper, pencil, eraser.
PRINCIPLE:

The simple pendulum executes Simple Harnonic Motion (SHM) as the acceleration of the
pendulum bob is directly proportional to its displacement from the mean position and is always
directed towards it. The time period (T) of a simple pendulum for oscillations of small
amplitude, is given by the relation

T=2r

where Lis the length of the pendulum, and gis the acceleration due to gravity at the place of
experiment. It may be rewritten as
T'= 4Ig
Jiread
-Split cork
pleces

EllengicciNeIÁl+re
B
 L(m)

PROCEDURE:
nendulum bob. to one erd of
I hce the cBamp stand on the 1ehle. Tie the boot. attached to the
the strng ofabout 150 cm in length. Pas$ the other end of the string through two halt-piccCs of a
spli cok

2Camp the splitcork firmly in the clamp stand such that the line of separationof the two
picccs of thc split cork is at right angles to the line OA along whict: the pendulum oscillates.
Niari, with apiccc of chalk or in, on the cdge of the table a vertica! linc parallcl to and just
behnd ihc vertical thrcad OA, the position of thebob at rest. Take care that thc bob hangs
1erttcaiBy (about 2 cm abe the fioor) bcyond the cdge of the tabtc so that it is frec to osc:Blte.
3. Mcasure the cffcctive length of simple pendulum
4 Displace the boh to onc side, not more than 15 degrces angular displacement, from thc vertical
post1on OA and then relcasc it gently. In case you find that the stand is shaky. put some heavy
object on its basc. AMakc sure tlat the bob starts oscillating in a ver:ical planc about its rest (or
mcan) positon OA anddoCs not (i) spin about its own axis, or (ii) 10ve up and down while
oscillating. os (i) revolvc in anclliptic path around its mean position.
S. Keep the pendulun oscillating for sone tine. Afier completior of a few oscillat iorns, start the
stop-watcih cloc. as the thread atached to the perdutum bob just crosses its mean position (say,
from lefi to righ:).Count it as zeto oscillation.
6. Keep on counting oscilletions J,2,3,..., n, everytime the bob crosses the mean position 0A n
the same ducctiun (fiom lefi to righ!). Stop the stop-watchclock, at the count n (say, 20 or 23) ot
osciliutions, i.c.,just when n oscillalions are coplete. For betler results, n should be chosen
such thet the tine laken fo D05cillations is 50s or more. Read, th: total timc (t) taken by th
bob for n 0sciiletions. Repcat this observation a few times by noti:.g the time for sarnc number
(n) of oscilletions Tal.c the nean ofthese readings. Compute the tine for one oscillatiwa, Lc,
the tine perod T(= In) of the pendulum
7. Change the length of the pendulum, by about 10 cm Repca! the step 6 again for tinding the
time (1) for about 20 Oscillutions or Inore for the new length and find the mean tifne perod Take
5or 6more observations for different Jengths of pendulunmad fird mean tune pctiod in cach
caleY A14 C
 &. Record
observations in the tabular form with nroner units and
9. Take effcctivc length L along x-axis
significant figures.
Choose suitablc scales on thcsc axcs to andT² (or T) along y-axis, using the obscrved valucs.
reprcsent L ond T² (or T ).Plot a graph between L and T
Lvs T 2 graph:
1. Plot a graph betwcen L versus T 2 from observations, taking L along x-axis and T along y
axis.

2. You will find that the graph is a straight line passing through origin.
3. From the T verSus L graph locate the effective length of second's pendulum for T =4s.
OBSERVATIONS:
() Radius (r) ofthependulum bob (given) =...cm
(i1) Length ofthe hook (given) (e) =.. cm
(ii) Least count ofthe metre scale =... mm =.. cm
(iv) Least count of the stop-watch/clock ... s

Measuring the time period T and effective length L of the simple pendulum
Length of the Effective No:of Time forn oscillations t (s) Time Period
S.NO
string from the length oscillations T=t/n
top of the bob to L=1+r+e counted (s)
the point of
Suspension 1
(cm) (cm) () (i) (iiü) Mean
1.
2.
3
4
5.

RESULT:
1. The graph T. versus T ² is a straight line.
2. The effective length of second's pendulum from L versus T'graph is ....cm
Precautions

1. Thread should be strong, weightless and in extensible.

2. Point of suspension should be fixed in a rigid support.
3. Amplitude should be small to have sin 0 = 0. [when 0 < 18°]
4. The bob should not spin during vibration.
5. Length of pendulum should include length of hook and radius of bob.
6. Counting should be proper and started from zero.
7. Clock/watch
should be accurate.
Sources of error
1. The string may not be weightless and in
2. Point of suspension may not be rigid. extensible.
3. The amplitude may not be small.
4. The bob may spin.
 Experiment No :4
Aim: Hclical spring
To find the force
cxtension. constant ofa hclical spring by plotting a graph between
load and
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Hclical spring with a pointer attached at its lower end and a
nanger; a rigid support/clanp stand: five or six slotted masses hook/ ring for suspending a
(known) for hanger; a metrc scale.
PRINCIPLE:
For small changes in length (or shape/ dimensions) of a body (wire), within the elastic limit, the
magnitude of the elongation or extension is directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's
law). Following Hooke's law, the spring constant (or force constant) of a spring is given by
Spring constant, = Restoring force, Extension, F Kx Thus, the spring constant is the restoring
force per unit extension in the spring
Spring constant (or force constant) of a spring is given by Spring constant,
K= Restoring Force/ Extension
Thus, spring constant is the restoring force per unit extension in the spring. Its value is
determined by the elastic properties of the spring.

Rigid auppori

Hellcal
5pring
+-Mca_urtng Scale

Hanger,IHAYPointe
Load(m).

Procedure:
Cldugåni tckielical spring, SA, having apointer, P, at its lower fee end, A, fiely fom arigid
point support.
 pointer moves treely ov
Take care that the
the spring vertically. of the graduations on the Scale
scalc close to pointer is in front
2. Set the metre touching it andthetip offthe
the scale without is usually 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
metre scale. It
count of the
3. Find out the lcast without any slotted mass
on the metre
scale,
4. Record the initial position of the pointer
suspended from the hook.
20 g) from the lower free end, A, of tbe helical
(ofknown mass, say
D. SUspend the hanger, H
spring and record the position of the pointer, P on the metre scale.
a slotted mass on the hanger gently. Wait for some time for the load to stop oscillatng so
. Put Record the position of the pointer
as to attan cquilibrium (rest) position, or even hold it to stop.
on the metre scale. Record observations in a table with proper units and significant igures.
7. Put another slotted mass on the hanger and repeat Step 6.

8. Keep on putting slotted masses on the hanger and repeat Step 6. Record the position of the
pointer on the metre scale every time.

9. Compute the load/force F(= mg ) applied bythe slotted mass, Mand the corresponding
extension (or stretching), x in the helical spring. Here g is the acceleration due to gravity at the
place of the experiment.
T0. Plot agraph between the applied force Falong xaxis and the corresponding extensionx (or
stretching) on the y-axis.
11. If you find that the force-extension graph is a straight line, find the slope (F/x) of the straight
line. Find out the spring constant K of helical spring from the slope of the straight line graph.
Plotting load - extension graph for a helical spring :
Take force, F along the x-axis and extension, Xalong the y-axis. Choose suitable scales to
represent F and x. Plot a graph betweenF and x (as shown in Fig. P 9.2). Identify the shape of
the load-extension graph OA.

Extension
(m)

B
Least count of the metrc scale= ...
mm= ..Cm

Mass of the hanger =... g

Computing spring constant of the hclical spring
S.NO Mass suspended Force Position of the Extension Spring
from the spring, F=mg pointer X constant
(M) K= F/x
kg
(10 kg) (N) (cm) (10 cm) (Nm')
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
6.
7.
8
Mean Spring constant K = ...N/m

RESULT:

Spring constant of the given helical spring .. Nm

Precautions

1. Loading and unloading of weight must be done gently.

2. Reading should be noted only when tip of pointer comes to rest.
3. Pointer tip should not touch the scale surface.
4. Loading should not be beyond elastic limit.
Sources of error

Claba stHpot ky not be rigid.

2. The slotted weights may not have correct weight.