Ground Control Review ‐ outline Support types

1. Rock description Ground support has three primary functions:

2. Recognizing unusual ground conditions
1. Reinforce the
3. Support types rockmass
4. Ground Support 2. Retain
2 R i broken rock
3. Hold broken rock in
place  tie loose
material back to stable
ground

Kaiser et al. (1996)

SUPPORT TYPES
Goal of rock reinforcement: Support types
Limit closure while assisting the surrounding rock to
There are two broad classes of support components
reach a new equilibrium state that provide these support functions:
• Ground support too stiff: (1) Tendons
 the rock will continue to deform around the – Tendon supports reinforce or strengthen the
support
pp element. rockmass by restricting rock deformation or bulking,
• Ground support too soft: thereby ensuring that inter‐block and rockmass
cohesion and friction are exploited
 the support system ‘moves’ with the rock
 minimal confinement may allow the drift to close
(2) Areal coverage
prematurely – Areal support retains broken rock at the surface.
– The combination of tendon reinforcement and areal
support holds the rockmass in place to prevent
gravity and stress‐driven rockmass failures.

Tendon support Tendon support

The function of tendon support (aka ‘rockbolt support’) is to
provide reinforcement to the rockmass against:
– structurally defined wedge instability (moderate to large wedges)
– stress‐driven spalling.
Many tendon support options are available.
Considering (1) mode of anchoring mechanism and (2) load‐
deformation capacity, there are 4 classes of rockbolt.
Adhesion Friction

High contact Low contact

Rebar load load

Mechanical
Rockbolt
Maximum wedge size is related to span Bolt Expansion Bolt Compression
Swellex Split Set

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 load-deformation
capacity Common rockbolt types
~16 tons

Rebar (RB) Tendon type Defining Characteristics

Load (tonnes)

Mechanical Rockbolt Moderate capacity, Moderate

~10 tons deformation
Friction (SX)
~ 8 tons Rebar High capacity, Low Deformation

Mechanical Bolt (ME)

~5 tons
Swellex Moderate capacity, High deformation
Friction (SS)
Split Set Low capacity, High deformation

Deformation (mm)

Areal support Areal support function

Common areal support types include:
• Screen (WWM, chain link)
Areal or surface support,
• Shotcrete
installed with or without
• thin spray‐on liners (TSL)
tendon support functions to:
TSL products have potential applications for: • Minimize degradation
• Boltless areal support (cohesion preservation)
• Screen replacement • Retain localized,
localized shallow
loose rock over the exposed
rockmass surface.

Areal support
Retaining elements may be:
• pliable with low support capacity (ie: screening), or
• stiff and strong (ie: shotcrete )

Surface
Support
Shotcrete Support Systems
Load (tonnes)

(stiff)

Screening (pliable)

Deformation (mm)

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 Support systems Primary Development Support ‐ Quick reference guide
BACK Support
A support system may consist of a single or a combination of two or
more support element types.
– depends on local rock mass and stress conditions along the drift.
Three primary alternatives for support system are:
• Tendons only
• Areal support only, and
• A combination of tendons & areal support

Primary Development Support ‐ Quick reference guide

WALL Support
Ground Control Review ‐ outline
1. Rock description
2. Recognizing unusual ground conditions
3. Support types
4. Ground Support
• Installation review

Common causes of rock Common causes of rock

reinforcement failure reinforcement failure
Incorrect choice of support for a given application

Examples: poor support installation quality

• Inappropriate setting of borehole

• Borehole too long or too short
• Borehole not properly flushed
• Inadequate bond length (resin or grout)
• Dirty/rusted bolts
• Out‐of‐date resin or grouting agents used

3
 Poor screen bolting

Improperly installed Wrong bearing plate on swellex

rockbolts

Common causes of rock Common Types of Primary (1st pass) Support

reinforcement failure Mechanical Rockbolt
used at PGM
– 1.2 or 1.5m X 16 mm FH, C1055/1060 steel, with F1¼" shell, FSW4 spherical seat
washer, and 127 X 127 X 0.6mm domed plate
• Incorrect installation procedure Resin grouted rebar
– 1.2 or 1.5mm X 20 mm FH, grade 400 #6 bar. 3” thread, ¾” break away nut.
Resin: fast setting (30 second) 28mm x 450mm cartridge and slow setting (1‐2 min)
28mm x 600mm cartridge. FSW4 spherical seat washer & 127 X 127 X 0.6mm
domed plate.
Friction Stabilizer (also called “split set”)
– 1.2 or 1.5m X 33 mm (RS33) with 150 X 150 dome plate
Swellex
– 3m X 35mm (standard) swellex bolt, with 127 X 127 flat plate
Screening
– 100mm x 100mm weldmesh, #9 gauge wire

Cable Bolt
– 3 to 12m X 16 mm, 7 strand steel cable. 25mm diameter bulge at 1 meter centers.
Grouted with Type 10 portland cement with a 0.35 water / cement ratio
Shotcrete
– Dry mix shotcrete with accelerators and steel fibres. 35 MPa design strength.

Ground Support Quality Control program Ground Support Quality Control program
Support Parameter Assessed Method of Type and Frequency of Inspection Support Parameter Assessed Method of Type and Frequency of Inspection
Type and Inspection Type and Inspection
Description Description
Mechanical Compliance with Visual General Inspection Swellex Compliance with Visual General Inspection
Rockbolt support plan support plan
Method of Installation (1) Visual Planned Inspection Method of installation Visual Planned Inspection
(2) Measure torque
Shell performance Pull tests Annual, 5 bolts per rock type in which Support capacity Pull tests Annual, 3 bolts per rock type in which
mechanical rockbolts are installed. ‘swellex’ are installed.
Resin Compliance with Visual General Inspection Cable Bolt Method of installation Visual Planned Inspection
grouted support plan
rebar
Method of installation Visual Planned Inspection Method of grouting Visual Planned Inspection
Friction Compliance with Visual General Inspection
Stabilizer support plan Screening Method of installation Visual Planned Inspection

Method of installation Installation time Planned Inspection

Shotcrete Method of installation Visual Planned Inspection
Support capacity Pull tests Annual, 5 bolts per rock type in which
‘split sets’ are installed.

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 Factors affecting torque – tension
Mechanical Rockbolt Installation relationship
• Drill 1-1/4” (32mm) diam Effect of hole diameter
hole at right angle to rock
face
• Remove plastic sleeve
from shell
• Push
P hb bolt
lt iinto
t hhole
l bby
hand, tighten with drill
• Thin or weak bearing
plates will deform at low
bolt tension – affecting
bolt performance
Hole too small Hole too large
strength
reduction up to
70%

Angle of installation Torque – tension relationship

125
Failure of 5/8” bolt
100

Remaining
% Yield 75
capacity
Strength 50

25
Installed tension
0
0 80 160 240 320 400
Torque (ft‐lb)
Bolt tension: 2 ton 4 ton 6 ton
8 ton
Allowable installed torque: ~125 to 160 ft‐lb P = CT
P = bolt tension (lbs)
Under torque  results in poor T = torque (ft‐lbs)
anchorage C = bolt constant (C ~ 50 for 5/8 FH bolt)

Over torque  reduces ultimate

Average

Rebar components
Torque
Bolt # torque Bolt location Remarks
(ft‐lbs)
(ft∙lbs)

1 125

Torque testing 2
3
125
150
125 Wall
4’ long
Resin used in two speeds/types: rapid & slow
mechanical
4 100 bolts Resin type is identified by the colour of the
5 100 catalyst catalyst
6 225 155 Roof
7 140  Rapid set (35 seconds)
• Catalyst identifier: white with red stripe
6ft TBE mechanical rockbolt with F3FL shell.

8
• Resin colour: black
7 Pull testing • Cartridge length: 18” resin
6
Test #1  Slow set (2 – 4 min)
Load (tons)

5
Test #2
• Catalyst identifier: white
4 Test #3

3 Test #4
• Resin colour: brown
jack settled into
bolt bending at
2 extreme angle
face @ 3 tons Test #5 • Cartridge length: 24”
1 Test #6

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deformation (mm)

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 Rebar components
Resin cure affected by
temperature Rebar
Resin cure affected by installation
age (shelf life)

Resin mix time Splitset installation

• Push bolt through resin
cartridges
• Spin rebar rapidly to min
resin. Spin time ~ 8 to 10
seconds (< 1/3 resin set time)
• Over spinning will pre
pre‐fail
fail the
resin
• Under‐spinning will reduce
resin strength and increase
set time
• Set time: allows resin to set • Never re‐spin the bolt or re‐
properly (~ 8 to 10 seconds if
rapid cure resin is used)
• Sensitive to hole diameter. For SS33 bolt:
30mm hole = too small, 33mm = too large
• Drill hole 2” longer than bolt length
• Installation time should be 20 +/‐ seconds
p
• Do not rotate splitset duringg installation
• Stop driving the bolt once the plate is
firmly against the rock
push the bolt back into the
hole after the first spin has
been completed

Split Set Pull tests Swellex installation

Test Bolt Orientation Installation Time Bolt slipped
# at: • Drill hole to proper length
1 Parallel to regional 18 seconds 5.5 Tons • Drill proper diameter hole
2
fabric
Parallel to regional 15 seconds 5.5 Tons
(optimum range: 35‐38mm diam)
3
fabric
Parallel to regional 17 seconds 3.5 Tons
• Insert swellex bolt
fabric
Average 4.8 Tons • Attach pump to bolt head
~ 1 Ton/ft • Pump water into tube ‐ reaching
300 bar pressure
press re
• Release pressure

Standard Swellex

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 Swellex expansion in Swellex expansion in
32mm (1 ¼”) Ø hole 32mm (1 ¼”) Ø hole

Swellex expansion in 38mm (1 ½”) Ø

hole
210 bar 250 bar 210 bar 250 bar
6 6

5 5
250 bar Test 250 bar Test
Bolt Capacity (tons/ft)

Bolt Capacity (tons/ft)

stopped stopped
4 200 bar Swellex pull testing 4 200 bar Swellex pull testing
300 UP MCF Cut #3 300 UP MCF Cut #3
3 3
April 2004 April 2004

2 2

1 1

0 0
1 2 3 4 6 8 5 7 1 2 3 4 6 8 5 7
TEST # TEST #

CABLEBOLT INSTALLATION Cablebolt installation

Key Cablebolt Components
• Borehole 45-75mm Percussion
• Cablebolt Strand(s) 7-Wire Steel
• Grout Portland; W:C = 0.35 - 0.40
S i steel
Spring t l V wire
V-wire Bent wire

Water:Cement Ratio

W:C = Mass of Water

Mass of Cement Powder

Installation - 2 Basic Methods Visual inspection of grout quality

GROUT
WC 03
W:C=0.3 W C 0 35
W:C=0.35

Collar
Packing

“GROUT TUBE or G.T. “BREATHER TUBE or B.T.

INSTALLATION” INSTALLATION
W:C=0.4 W:C=0.45

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 Why is Quality Control Important? Shotcrete
• Mixture of cement, water & aggregate
Capacity reduction due to poor Q.C
Muddy, greasy or heavily rusted cables -50% to -70% • Reinforced with fibers OR 4” mesh screen
• Areal support. Locks fractured blocks together
Ungrouted breather tube -30%
• Appl onto a clean
Apply
Excess water in grout mixture surface for proper
w:c increased from 0.35 to 0.4 -15% adhesion
w:c increased from 0.4 to 0.55 -45% • Can be damaged by
heavy blasting
Grout column incomplete up to -100%

Screening
• Two types: weldmesh and
chain link
• 4” #9 weldmesh screen,
installed with bolts on a 4’
x 4’ pattern will support
~11 Ton of loose rock.
Deformation limit ~ 12”
sag
• Screens must overlap
(ideally: install bolt into
the 2nd square)
• Chainlink screen is not to
be used with shotcrete

Strapping SUMMARY COMMENTS:

• Not a systematic support • Stress flows around a void
method
• Stress increases with depth
• Best for stratified, slabby
ground
• Installed across a
weakness plane
• Cannot be used to
control ravelling in loose,
blocky ground if the
block size is small
• Can be used to reinforce
screening
Effective use of strapping

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 SUMMARY COMMENTS: SUMMARY COMMENTS:
• Support types
• Rockmass characteristics are variable – Tendon (bolts)
• 2 types of instability – Areal (screen)
– Structural (wedge) ~16 tons
– Stress (spalling) Rebar
• Indicators for recognizing potential ground

(tonnes)
control problems ~10 tons

Load
Swellex ~ 8 tons

Mechanical Bolt
~5 tons
Split Set

Deformation (mm)

SUMMARY COMMENTS:
• Main causes of rock reinforcement failure:
– Incorrect choice of bolt for a given application
– Poorly installed ground support
( Quality Control)