Full Ebook of High School Math 2015 Common Core Algebra 2 Student Edition Grade 10 11 Prentice Hall Online PDF All Chapter

HIGH SCHOOL MATH 2015 COMMON
CORE ALGEBRA 2 STUDENT EDITION

GRADE 10 11 Prentice Hall
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Algebra 2
Common Core
Randall I. Charles
Basia Hall
Dan Kennedy
Allan E. Bellman
Sadie Chavis Bragg
William G. Handlin
Stuart J. Murphy
Grant Wiggins
Boston, Massachusetts • Chandler, Arizona • Glenview, Illinois • Hoboken, New Jersey
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Acknowledgments appear on page 1160, which constitutes an extension of this copyright page.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of
America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to
any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, write to Rights Management
& Contracts, Pearson Education, Inc., 221 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030.
Pearson, Prentice Hall, Pearson Prentice Hall, and MathXL are trademarks, in the U.S. and/or other countries, of
Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates.
Common Core State Standards: © 2010 National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of
Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved.
UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN® and UbD™ are trademarks of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development (ASCD), and are used under license.
SAT® is a trademark of the College Entrance Examination Board. ACT® is a trademark owned by ACT, Inc. Use of
the trademarks implies no relationship, sponsorship, endorsement, sale, or promotion on the part of Pearson Education,
Inc., or its affiliates.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-328116-3
ISBN-10: 0-13-328116-7
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 V057 18 17 16 15 14
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N CORE COMMON CORE COMMON CORE COM
Contents in Brief
Welcome to Pearson Algebra 2 Common Core Edition student book. Throughout this textbook,
you will find content that has been developed to cover many of the High School Standards for
Mathematical Content and all of the Standards for Mathematical Practice. The End-of-Course
Assessment provides students with practice with all of the Standards for Mathematical Content
listed on pages xx to xxiii.
Using Your Book for Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
Entry-Level Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xl
CC Content Focus: Seeing Structure in Expressions
Chapter 1 Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2 Functions, Equations, and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chapter 3 Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
CC Content Focus: Interpreting and Building Functions
Chapter 4 Quadratic Functions and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Chapter 5 Polynomials and Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Chapter 6 Radical Functions and Rational Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter 7 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Chapter 8 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Chapter 9 Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
CC Content Focus: Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations
Chapter 10 Quadratic Relations and Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
CC Content Focus: Rules of Probability, Interpreting Data, and Making Inferences
Chapter 11 Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Chapter 12 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .761
CC Content Focus: Trigonometric Functions
Chapter 13 Periodic Functions and Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Chapter 14 Trigonometric Identities and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
End-of-Course Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
Skills Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972

Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Visual Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
Selected Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
Contents iii
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Series Authors
Randall I. Charles, Ph.D., is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Mathematics and Computer
Science at San Jose State University, San Jose, California. He began his career as a high school
mathematics teacher, and he was a mathematics supervisor for five years. Dr. Charles has been
a member of several NCTM committees and is the former Vice President of the National Council
of Supervisors of Mathematics. Much of his writing and research has been in the area of problem
solving. He has authored more than 90 mathematics textbooks for kindergarten through college.
Dan Kennedy, Ph.D., is a classroom teacher and the Lupton Distinguished Professor of Mathematics at
the Baylor School in Chattanooga, Tennessee. A frequent speaker at professional meetings on the
subject of mathematics education reform, Dr. Kennedy has conducted more than 50 workshops and
institutes for high school teachers. He is coauthor of textbooks in calculus and precalculus, and from
1990 to 1994, he chaired the College Board’s AP Calculus Development Committee. He is a 1992
Tandy Technology Scholar and a 1995 Presidential Award winner.
Basia Hall currently serves as Manager of Instructional Programs for the Houston Independent
School District. With 33 years of teaching experience, Ms. Hall has served as a department chair,
instructional supervisor, school improvement facilitator, and professional development trainer. She
has developed curricula for Algebra 1, Geometry, and Algebra 2 and co-developed the Texas
state mathematics standards. A 1992 Presidential Awardee, Ms. Hall is past president of the Texas
Association of Supervisors of Mathematics and is a state representative for the National Council of
Supervisors of Mathematics (NCSM).
Consulting Authors
Stuart J. Murphy is a visual learning author and consultant. He is a champion of helping students
develop learning skills so they become more successful students. He is the author of MathStart, a
series of children’s books that presents mathematical concepts in the context of stories and I See
I Learn, a Pre-Kindergarten and Kindergarten learning initiative that focuses on social and emotional
skills. A graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design, he has worked extensively in educational
publishing and has been on the authorship teams of a number of elementary and high school
mathematics programs. He is a frequent presenter at meetings of the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics, the International Reading Association, and other professional organizations.
Grant Wiggins, Ed.D., is the President of Authentic Education in Hopewell, New Jersey. He
earned his B.A. from St. John’s College in Annapolis and his Ed.D. from Harvard University.
Dr. Wiggins consults with schools, districts, and state education departments on a variety of reform
matters; organizes conferences and workshops; and develops print materials and Web resources
on curricular change. He is perhaps best known for being the coauthor, with Jay McTighe, of
Understanding by Design and The Understanding by Design Handbook1, the award-winning and
highly successful materials on curriculum published by ASCD. His work has been supported by the
Pew Charitable Trusts, the Geraldine R. Dodge Foundation, and the National Science Foundation.
1 ASCD, publisher of “The Understanding by Design Handbook” coauthored by Grant Wiggins and registered owner
of the trademark “Understanding by Design,” has not authorized or sponsored this work and is in no way affiliated with
Pearson or its products.
iv

Program Authors
Algebra 1 and Algebra 2
Allan E. Bellman, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Mathematics Education at the University of
Mississippi. He previously taught at the University of California, Davis for 12 years and in public
school in Montgomery County, Maryland for 31. He has been an instructor for both the Woodrow
Wilson National Fellowship Foundation and the Texas Instruments’ T3 program. Dr. Bellman has
a expertise in the use of technology in education and assessment-driven instruction, and speaks
frequently on these topics. He was a 1992 Tandy Technology Scholar and has twice been listed in
Who’s Who Among America’s Teachers.
Sadie Chavis Bragg, Ed.D., is Senior Vice President of Academic Affairs and professor of
mathematics at the Borough of Manhattan Community College of the City University of New York.
She is a past president of the American Mathematical Association of Two-Year Colleges (AMATYC).
In recognition of her service to the field of mathematics locally, statewide, nationally, and
internationally, she was awarded AMATYC’s most prestigious award, the Mathematics Excellence
Award for 2010. Dr. Bragg has coauthored more than 50 mathematics textbooks for kindergarten
through college.
William G. Handlin, Sr., is a classroom teacher and Department Chair of Mathematics and former
Department Chair of Technology Applications at Spring Woods High School in Houston, Texas.
Awarded Life Membership in the Texas Congress of Parents and Teachers for his contributions to the
well-being of children, Mr. Handlin is also a frequent workshop and seminar leader in professional
meetings.
Geometry
Laurie E. Bass is a classroom teacher at the 9–12 division of the Ethical Culture Fieldston School in
Riverdale, New York. A classroom teacher for more than 30 years, Ms. Bass has a wide base of
teaching experience, ranging from Grade 6 through Advanced Placement Calculus. She was the
recipient of a 2000 Honorable Mention for the Radio Shack National Teacher Awards. She has
been a contributing writer for a number of publications, including software-based activities for the
Algebra 1 classroom. Among her areas of special interest are cooperative learning for high school
students and geometry exploration on the computer. Ms. Bass is a frequent presenter at local,
regional, and national conferences.
Art Johnson, Ed.D., is a professor of mathematics education at Boston University. He is a

mathematics educator with 32 years of public school teaching experience, a frequent speaker and
workshop leader, and the recipient of a number of awards: the Tandy Prize for Teaching Excellence,
the Presidential Award for Excellence in Mathematics Teaching, and New Hampshire Teacher of the
Year. He was also profiled by the Disney Corporation in the American Teacher of the Year Program.
Dr. Johnson has contributed 18 articles to NCTM journals and has authored over 50 books on
various aspects of mathematics.
v

Reviewers National
Tammy Baumann Sharon Liston Robert Thomas, Ph.D.
K-12 Mathematics Coordinator Mathematics Department Chair Mathematics Teacher
School District of the City Moore Public Schools Yuma Union High School
of Erie Oklahoma City, Oklahoma District #70
Erie, Pennsylvania Yuma, Arizona
Ann Marie Palmeri Monahan
Sandy Cowgill Mathematics Supervisor Linda Ussery
Mathematics Department Chair Bayonne Public Schools Mathematics Consultant
Muncie Central High School Bayonne, New Jersey Alabama Department of
Muncie, Indiana Education
Indika Morris Tuscumbia, Alabama
Sheryl Ezze Mathematics Department Chair
Mathematics Chairperson Queen Creek School District Denise Vizzini
DeWitt High School Queen Creek, Arizona Mathematics Teacher
Lansing, Michigan Clarksburg High School
Jennifer Petersen Montgomery County,
Dennis Griebel K-12 Mathematics Curriculum Maryland
Mathematics Coordinator Facilitator
Cherry Creek School District Springfield Public Schools Marcia White
Aurora, Colorado Springfield, Missouri Mathematics Specialist
Academic Operations,
Bill Harrington Tammy Popp Technology and Innovations
Secondary Mathematics Mathematics Teacher Memphis City Schools
Coordinator Mehlville School District Memphis, Tennessee
State College School District St. Louis, Missouri
State College, Pennsylvania Merrie Wolf
Mickey Porter Mathematics Department Chair
Michael Herzog Mathematics Teacher Tulsa Public Schools
Mathematics Teacher Dayton Public Schools Tulsa, Oklahoma
Tucson Small School Project Dayton, Ohio
Tucson, Arizona
Steven Sachs
Camilla Horton Mathematics Department Chair
Secondary Instruction Support Lawrence North High School
Memphis School District Indianapolis, Indiana
Memphis, Tennessee
John Staley
Gary Kubina Secondary Mathematics
Mathematics Consultant Coordinator
Mobile County School System Office of Mathematics, PK-12
Mobile, Alabama Baltimore, Maryland
vi

From the Authors
Welcome
Math is a powerful tool with far-reaching applications throughout your life. We have designed
a unique and engaging program that will enable you to tap into the power of mathematics
and mathematical reasoning. This award-winning program has been developed to align fully
to the Common Core State Standards.
Developing mathematical skills and problem-solving strategies is an ongoing process—a

journey both inside and outside the classroom. This course is designed to help make sense
of the mathematics you encounter in and out of class each day and to help you develop
mathematical proficiency.
You will learn important mathematical principles. You will also learn how the principles are
connected to one another and to what you already know. You will learn to solve problems and
learn the reasoning that lies behind your solutions. You will also develop the key mathematical
practices of the Common Core State Standards.
Each chapter begins with the “big ideas” of the chapter and some essential questions that you
will learn to answer. Through this question-and-answer process you will develop your ability to
analyze problems independently and solve them in different applications.
Your skills and confidence will increase through practice and review. Work through the problems
so you understand the concepts and methods presented and the thinking behind them. Then do
the exercises. Ask yourself how new concepts relate to old ones. Make the connections!
Everyone needs help sometimes. You will find that this program has built-in opportunities, both
in this text and online, to get help whenever you need it.
This course will also help you succeed on the tests you take in class and on other tests like
the SAT, ACT, and state exams. The practice exercises in each lesson will prepare you for the
format and content of such tests. No surprises!
The problem-solving and reasoning habits and skills you develop in this program will serve you
in all your studies and in your daily life. They will prepare you for future success not only as a
student, but also as a member of a changing technological society.
Best wishes,
vii

PowerAlgebra.com
Welcome to Algebra 2. Pearson Algebra 2 Common Core
Edition is part of a blended digital and print environment for
the study of high school mathematics. Take some time to look
through the features of our mathematics program, starting with
PowerAlgebra.com, the site of the
digital features of the program.
Hi, I’m Darius. My

friends and I will
be showing you the
great features of
Pearson Algebra 2
Common Core Edition
program.
On each Chapter Opener, you will

find a listing of the online features of the
program. Look for these buttons throughout
the lessons.
viii
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The Common Core State Standards have
a similar organizing structure. They
begin with Conceptual Categories,
Big Ideas such as Algebra or Functions.

Within each category are
We start with Big Ideas. Each chapter is domains and clusters.
Co
m
ds
organized around Big Ideas that convey the m a r
on
ta nd
key mathematics concepts you will be studying Cor
e State S
in the program. Take a look at the Big Ideas on
pages xxiv and xxv.
The Big Ideas are organizing ideas for all In the Chapter Review at the end of the
of the lessons in the program. At the beginning of chapter, you’ll find an answer to the Essential
each chapter, we’ll tell you which Big Ideas you’ll Question for each Big Idea. We’ll also remind
be studying. We’ll also present an Essential you of the lesson(s) where you studied the
Question for each Big Idea. concepts that support the Big Ideas.
Using Your Book for Success ix

Exploring Concepts
The lessons offer many opportunities to explore concepts
in different contexts and through different media.
Hi, I’m Serena. I never

have to power down when
I am in math class now.
For each chapter, there is a Common Here’s another cool feature. Each lesson opens
Core Performance Task that you with a Solve It, a problem that helps
will work on throughout the chapter. See you connect what you know to an important
pages xii and xiii for more information. concept in the lesson. Do you notice how
the Solve It frame looks like it comes from a
computer? That’s because all of the Solve Its
can be found at PowerAlgebra.com.

The Standards for Mathematical Practice
describe processes, practices, and habits
of mind of mathematically proficient
students. Many of the features in
Pearson Algebra 2 Common Core
cy
De
Edition help you develop
en
ve
op proficiency in math. fi
ci
l
in o
g
Ma Pr
t hematical
Want to do some more exploring? Try the Try a Concept Byte! In a

Math Tools at PowerAlgebra.com. Concept Byte, you might explore
Click on this icon to access these tools: technology, do a hands-on activity,
Graphing Utility, Number Line, Algebra Tiles, or try a challenging extension.
and 2D and 3D Geometric Constructor. With The text in the top right corner
the Math Tools, you can continue to explore of the first page of a lesson
the concepts presented in the lesson. or Concept Byte tells you
the Standards for
Mathematical Content
and the Standards for
Mathematical Practice that
you will be studying.
Using Your Book for Success xi

Solving Problems
Pearson Algebra 2 Common Core Edition includes many opportunities
to build on and strengthen your problem-solving abilities. In each
chapter, you’ll work through a multi-part Performance Task.
Hi, I’m Maya. These Common

Core Performance Tasks will
help you become a proficient
problem solver.
On the Chapter Opener, you’ll be

introduced to the chapter Performance
Task. You’ll start to make sense of the
problem and think about solution plans.
xii

Proficient Problem Solvers make sense
of problem situations, develop workable
ng
D ev solution plans, model the problem
lvi
elo situation with mathematics,
So
pi and communicate their
g
m
thinking clearly. e
n
Pr
of o bl
icie
ncy with Pr
In the Pull It All Together at

the end of the chapter, you will use the
concepts and skills presented throughout
the chapter to solve the Performance
Task. Then you’ll have another Task to
Throughout the chapter, you will Apply solve On Your Own.
What You’ve Learned to solve
problems that relate to the Performance Task.
You’ll be asked to reason quantitatively and
model with mathematics.
Using Your Book for Success xiii

Thinking Mathematically
Mathematical reasoning is the key to making sense of math and
solving problems. Throughout the program you’ll learn strategies to
develop mathematical reasoning habits.
Hello, I’m Tyler.

These Think-Write
and Know-Need-Plan
boxes help me plan
my work.
Other worked-out problems model a

problem-solving plan that includes the
steps of stating what you Know,
identifying what you Need, and
developing a Plan.
The worked-out problems include
call-outs that reveal the strategies and
reasoning behind the solution. The
Think-Write problems model the
thinking behind each step of a solution.
Also, look for the boxes labeled Plan
and Think.
xiv

The Standards for Mathematical Practice
emphasize sense-making, reasoning, and
critical reasoning. Many features in
Pearson Algebra 2 Common Core
Sta Edition provide opportunities for
ice
nd you to develop these skills
ar
ct
d and dispositions.
P ra
sf
or t i c al
Mathema
A Take Note box highlights key concepts Part of thinking mathematically is

in a lesson. You can use these boxes to review making sense of the concepts that are
concepts throughout the year. being presented. The Essential
Understandings help you build
a framework for the Big Ideas.
Using Your Book for Success xv

Practice Makes Perfect
Ask any professional and you’ll be told that the one requirement
for becoming an expert is practice, practice, practice. Pearson
Algebra 2 Common Core Edition offers rich and varied exercises
to help you become proficient with the mathematics.
Hello, I’m Anya. I can leave

my book at school and still get
my homework done. All of the
lessons are at PowerAlgebra.com
Want more practice? Look for this icon in

athX
M
L
FO
OL
R
SCHO
your book. Check out all of the opportunities in

MathXL® for School. Your teacher can
assign you some practice exercises or you can
choose some on your own. And you’ll know right
away if you got the right answer!
xvi

All of these opportunities for practice
help you prepare for assessments
throughout the year, including the
Acing the Test assessments to measure your
Ass
rds
proficiency with the Common
da
es
Doing well on tests, whether they are chapter Core State Standards.
sin
g
an
tests or state assessments, depends on a deep th St
eC e
understanding of math concepts, fluency with om tat
mon Core S
calculations and computations, and strong
problem-solving abilities.
In the Cumulative Standards Review

at the end of the chapter, you’ll also
find Tips for Success,
reminders to help with problem
At the end of the chapter, you’ll find a Quick Review solving. We include problems of all
of the concepts in the chapter and a few examples and different formats and types so you
exercises so you can check your skill at solving problems can feel comfortable with any test
related to the concepts. item on your state assessment.
Using Your Book for Success xvii

Standards for Mathematical Practice
The Common Core State Standards are made of two separate,
but equally important sets of standards:
• Standards for Mathematical Content
• Standards for Mathematical Practice
The Math Content Standards are grade-specific, while the

Math Practices Standards are the same from Kindergarten
through High School. The Math Practices describe qualities
and habits of mind that strong mathematical thinkers exhibit.
The eight Standards for Mathematical Practice, numbered

1 through 8, can be put into the four groups shown on this page
and the next. Included with the statement of each standard is a
description of what the Math Practice means for you.
Making Sense of and Solving Problems

1. Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.
When you make sense of problems, you can explain the meaning of the problem, and you are able to find
an entry point to its solution and plan a solution pathway. You can look at a problem and analyze givens,
constraints, relationships, and goals. You can think of similar problems or can break the problem into
easier-to-solve problems. You are able to track your progress as you work through the solution and check
your answer using a different method. As you work through your solution, you frequently check whether
the results you are getting make sense.
6. Attend to precision.
You attend to precision when you communicate clearly and precisely the approach you used to solve a
problem, and you also understand the approaches that your classmates used. You identify the meaning
of symbols that you use, you specify units of measure, and you include labels on the axes of graphs.
Your answers are expressed with the appropriate degree of accuracy. You are able to give clear, concise
definitions of math terms.
xviii
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Reasoning and Communicating
2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
As a strong math thinker and problem solver, you are able to make sense of quantities in problem
situations. You can both represent a problem situation using symbols or equations and explain what
the symbols or equations represent in relationship to the problem situation. As you represent a situation
symbolically or mathematically, you can explain the meaning of the quantities.
3. Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

You are able to communicate clearly and convincingly about your solutions to problems. You can build
sound mathematical arguments, drawing on definitions, assumptions, or established solutions. You
can develop and explore conjectures about mathematical situations. You make use of examples and
counterexamples to support your arguments and justify your conclusions. You respond clearly and
logically to the positions and conclusions of your classmates, and are able to compare two arguments,
identifying any flaws in logic or reasoning that the arguments may contain. You can ask useful questions
to clarify or improve the argument of a classmate.
Representing and Connecting

4. Model with mathematics.
As a strong math thinker, you are able to use mathematics to represent a problem situation and can
make connections between a real-world problem situation and mathematics. You see the applicability
of mathematics to everyday problems. You can explain how geometry can be used to solve a carpentry
problem or algebra to solve a proportional relationship problem. You can define and map relationships
among quantities in a problem, using appropriate tools to do so. You are able to analyze the
relationships and draw conclusions.
5. Use appropriate tools strategically.

As you develop models to match a given problem situation, you are able to strategize about which
tools would be most helpful to use to solve the problem. You consider all tools, from paper and
pencil to protractors and rulers, to calculators and software applications. You can articulate the
appropriateness of different tools and recognize which would best serve your needs for a given
problem. You are especially insightful about technology tools and use them in ways that deepen or
extend your understanding of concepts. You also make use of mental tools, such as estimation, to
determine the reasonableness of a solution.
Seeing Structure and Generalizing

7. Look for and make use of structure.
You are able to go beyond simply solving problems, to see the structure of the mathematics in
these problems, and to generalize mathematical principles from this structure. You are able to
see complicated expressions or equations as single objects, or a being composed of many parts.
8. Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

You notice when calculations are repeated and can uncover both general methods and shortcuts for
solving similar problems. You continually evaluate the reasonableness of your solutions as you solve
problems arising in daily life.
Using Your Book for Success xix

Standards for Mathematical Content
Algebra 2
Number and Quantity
Hi, I’m Max. Here
The Real Number System
is a list of many of
the Common Core Extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents
State Standards N-RN.A.1 Explain how the definition of the meaning of rational exponents follows from extending the properties of
that you will study integer exponents to those values, allowing for a notation for radicals in terms of rational exponents.
this year. Mastering N-RN.A.2 Rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the properties of exponents.
these topics will Quantities
help you be ready
Reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems
for your state
assessment. N-Q.A.2 Define appropriate quantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling.
The Complex Number System
Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers
N.CN.A.1 Know there is a complex number i such that i 2 = -1, and every complex number has the form a + bi with
a and b real.
N-CN.A.2 Use the relation i 2 = -1 and the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to add, subtract, and
multiply complex numbers.
Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations.
N-CN.C.7 Solve quadratic equations with real coefficients that have complex solutions.
Algebra
Seeing Structure in Expressions
Interpret the structure of expressions
A-SSE.A.2 Use the structure of an expression to identify ways to rewrite it.
Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems
A-SSE.B.3 Choose and produce an equivalent form of an expression to reveal and explain properties of the quantity
represented by the expression.
A-SSE.B.3c Use the properties of exponents to transform expressions for exponential functions.
A-SSE.B.4 Derive the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series (when the common ratio is not 1), and use the
formula to solve problems.
Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Expressions
Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomial
A-APR.B.2 Know and apply the Remainder Theorem: For a polynomial p (x) and a number a, the remainder on division by
x - a is p (a), so p (a) = 0 if and only if (x - a) is a factor of p (x).
A-APR.B.3 Identify zeros of polynomials when suitable factorizations are available, and use the zeros to construct a rough
graph of the function defined by the polynomial.
Use polynomial identities to solve problems
A-APR.C.4 Prove polynomial identities and use them to describe numerical relationships.
Rewrite rational expressions
A-APR.D.6 Rewrite simple rational expressions in different forms; write a (x)>b (x) in the form q (x) + r (x)>b (x), where
a (x), b (x), q (x), and r (x) are polynomials with the degree of r (x) less than the degree of b (x), using
inspection, long division, or, for the more complicated examples, a computer algebra system.
xx

Creating Equations
Create equations that describe numbers or relationships
A-CED.A.1 Create equations and inequalities in one variable and use them to solve problems. Include equations arising
from linear and quadratic functions, and simple rational and exponential functions.
Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities
Understand solving equations as a process of reasoning and explain the reasoning
A-REI.A.1 Explain each step in solving a simple equation as following from the equality of numbers asserted at the
previous step, starting from the assumption that the original equation has a solution. Construct a viable
argument to justify a solution method.
A-REI.A.2 Solve simple rational and radical equations in one variable, and give examples showing how extraneous
solutions may arise.
Solve equations and Inequalities in one variable
A-REI.B.4 Solve quadratic equations in one variable.
A-REI.B.4b Solve quadratic equations by inspection (e.g., for x2 = 49), taking square roots, completing the square,
the quadratic formula and factoring, as appropriate to the initial form of the equation. Recognize when the
quadratic formula gives complex solutions and write them as a { bi for real numbers a and b.
Solve systems of equations
A-REI.C.6 Solve systems of linear equations exactly and approximately (e.g., with graphs), focusing on pairs of linear
equations in two variables.
A-REI.C.7 Solve a simple system consisting of a linear equation and a quadratic equation in two variables algebraically
and graphically.
Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically
A-REI.D.11 Explain why the x-coordinates of the points where the graphs of the equations y = f (x) and y = g (x)
intersect are the solutions of the equation f (x) = g (x); find the solutions approximately, e.g., using
technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or find successive approximations. Include cases
where f (x) and/or g (x) are linear, polynomial, rational, absolute value, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
Functions
Interpreting Functions
Understand the concept of a function and use function notation
F-IF.A.3 Recognize that sequences are functions, sometimes defined recursively, whose domain is a subset of the
integers.
Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context
F-IF.B.4 For a function that models a relationship between two quantities, interpret key features of graphs and tables in
terms of the quantities, and sketch graphs showing key features given a verbal description of the relationship. Key
features include: intercepts; intervals where the function is increasing, decreasing, positive, or negative; relative
maximums and minimums; symmetries; end behavior; and periodicity.
F-IF.B.6 Calculate and interpret the average rate of change of a function (presented symbolically or as a table) over a
specified interval. Estimate the rate of change from a graph.
Analyze functions using different representations
F-IF.C.7 Graph functions expressed symbolically and show key features of the graph, by hand in simple cases and using
technology for more complicated cases.
F-IF.C.7c Graph polynomial functions, identifying zeros when suitable factorizations are available, and showing end
behavior.
F-IF.C.7e Graph exponential and logarithmic functions, showing intercepts and end behavior, and trigonometric functions,
showing period, midline, and amplitude.
F-IF.C.8 Write a function defined by an expression in different but equivalent forms to reveal and explain different
properties of the function.
Using Your Book for Success xxi

F-IF.C.8b Write a function defined by an expression in different but equivalent forms to reveal and explain
different properties of the function. Use the properties of exponents to interpret expressions for
exponential functions.
Look at the domain
F-IF.C.9 Compare properties of two functions each represented in a different way (algebraically, graphically,
titles and cluster numerically in tables, or by verbal descriptions)
descriptions in bold to
get a good idea of the Building Functions
topics you’ll study this Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities
year. F-BF.A.1 Write a function that describes a relationship between two quantities.
F-BF.A.1a Determine an explicit expression, a recursive process, or steps for calculation from a context.
F-BF.A.1b Combine standard function types using arithmetic operations.
F-BF.A.2 Write arithmetic and geometric sequences both recursively and with an explicit formula, use them
to model situations, and translate between the two forms.
Build new functions from existing functions
F-BF.B.3 Identify the effect on the graph of replacing f (x) by f (x) + k, k f (x), f (kx), and f (x + k) for
specific values of k (both positive and negative); find the value of k given the graphs. Experiment
with cases and illustrate an explanation of the effects on the graph using technology. Include
recognizing even and odd functions from their graphs and algebraic expressions for them.
F-BF.B.4 Find inverse functions.
F-BF.B.4a Solve an equation of the form f (x) = c for a simple function f that has an inverse and write an
expression for the inverse.
Linear and Exponential Models
Construct and compare linear and exponential models and solve problems
F-LE.A.2 Construct linear and exponential functions, including arithmetic and geometric sequences, given a
graph, a description of a relationship, or two input-output pairs (include reading these from a table).
F-LE.A.4 For exponential models, express as a logarithm the solution to ab ct = d where a, c, and d are
numbers and the base b is 2, 10, or e; evaluate the logarithm using technology.
Interpret expressions for functions in terms of the situation they model
F-LE.B.5 Interpret the parameters in a linear or exponential function in terms of a context.
Trigonometric Functions
Extend the domain of trigonometric functions using the unit circle
F-TF.A.1 Understand radian measure of an angle as the length of the arc on the unit circle subtended by the
angle.
F-TF.A.2 Explain how the unit circle in the coordinate plane enables the extension of trigonometric functions
to all real numbers, interpreted as radian measures of angles traversed counterclockwise around
the unit circle.
Model periodic phenomena with trigonometric functions
F-TF.B.5 Choose trigonometric functions to model periodic phenomena with specified amplitude, frequency,
and midline.
Prove and apply trigonometric identities
F-TF.C.8 Prove the Pythagorean identity sin2 (u) + cos2 (u) = 1 and use it to find sin u, cos u, or tan u
given sin u, cos u, or tan u and the quadrant of the angle.
Geometry
Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations
Translate between the geometric description and the equation for a conic section
G.GPE.2 Derive the equation of a parabola given a focus and directrix.
xxii

Statistics and Probability
Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative Data
Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable
S-ID.A.4 Use the mean and standard deviation of a data set to fit it to a normal distribution and to estimate
population percentages. Recognize that there are data sets for which such a procedure is not appropriate.
Use calculators, spreadsheets, and tables to estimate areas under the normal curve.
S-ID.A.6 Represent data on two quantitative variables on a scatter plot, and describe how the variables are
related.
S-ID.A.6a Fit a function to the data; use functions fitted to data to solve problems in the context of the data. Use
given functions or choose a function suggested by the context. Emphasize linear and exponential models.
Making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions
Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments
S-IC.A.1 Understand statistics as a process for making inferences to be made about population parameters based
on a random sample from that population.
S-IC.A.2 Decide if a specified model is consistent with results from a given data-generating process, e.g., using
simulation.
Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments, and observational studies
S-IC.B.3 Recognize the purposes of and differences among sample surveys, experiments, and observational studies;
explain how randomization relates to each.
S-IC.B.4 Use data from a sample survey to estimate a population mean or proportion; develop a margin of error
through the use of simulation models for random sampling.
S-IC.B.5 Use data from a randomized experiment to compare two treatments; use simulations to decide if
differences between parameters are significant.
S-IC.B.6 Evaluate reports based on data.
Conditional Probability and the Rules of Probability
Understand independence and conditional probability and use them to interpret data
S-CP.A.1 Describe events as subsets of a sample space (the set of outcomes) using characteristics (or categories) of
the outcomes, or as unions, intersections, or complements of other events (“or,” “and,” “not”).
S-CP.A.2 Understand that two events A and B are independent if the probability of A and B occurring together is
the product of their probabilities, and use this characterization to determine if they are independent.
S-CP.A.3 Understand the conditional probability of A given B as P(A and B)/P(B), and interpret independence of A
and B as saying that the conditional probability of A given B is the same as the probability of A, and the
conditional probability of B given A is the same as the probability of B.
S-CP.A.4 Construct and interpret two-way frequency tables of data when two categories are associated with each
object being classified. Use the two-way table as a sample space to decide if events are independent and
to approximate conditional probabilities.
S-CP.A.5 Recognize and explain the concepts of conditional probability and independence in everyday language
and everyday situations.
Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of compound events in a uniform probability model
S-CP.B.6 Find the conditional probability of A given B as the fraction of B’s outcomes that also belong to A, and
interpret the answer in terms of the model.
S-CP.B.7 Apply the Addition Rule, P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B), and interpret the answer in terms of the
model.
Using Your Book for Success xxiii

Stay connected!
BIGideas
These Big Ideas are the organizing ideas for the study of important areas of mathematics: algebra,
These Big Ideas will geometry, and statistics.
help you understand
how the math you
study in high school
fits together.
Algebra
Properties
• In the transition from arithmetic to algebra, attention shifts from arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) to use of the properties of these
operations.
• All of the facts of arithmetic and algebra follow from certain properties.
Variable
• Quantities are used to form expressions, equations, and inequalities.
• An expression refers to a quantity but does not make a statement about it. An equation (or
an inequality) is a statement about the quantities it mentions.
• Using variables in place of numbers in equations (or inequalities) allows the statement of
relationships among numbers that are unknown or unspecified.
Equivalence
• A single quantity may be represented by many different expressions.
• The facts about a quantity may be expressed by many different equations (or inequalities).
Solving Equations & Inequalities
• Solving an equation is the process of rewriting the equation to make what it says about its
variable(s) as simple as possible.
• Properties of numbers and equality can be used to transform an equation (or inequality) into
equivalent, simpler equations (or inequalities) in order to find solutions.
• Useful information about equations and inequalities (including solutions) can be found by
analyzing graphs or tables.
• The numbers and types of solutions vary predictably, based on the type of equation.
Proportionality
• Two quantities are proportional if they have the same ratio in each instance where they are
measured together.
• Two quantities are inversely proportional if they have the same product in each instance
where they are measured together.
Function
• A function is a relationship between variables in which each value of the input variable is
associated with a unique value of the output variable.
• Functions can be represented in a variety of ways, such as graphs, tables, equations, or
words. Each representation is particularly useful in certain situations.
• Some important families of functions are developed through transformations of the simplest
form of the function.
• New functions can be made from other functions by applying arithmetic operations or by
applying one function to the output of another.
Modeling
• Many real-world mathematical problems can be represented algebraically. These
representations can lead to algebraic solutions.
• A function that models a real-world situation can be used to make estimates or predictions
about future occurrences.
xxiv

Statistics and Probability
Data Collection and Analysis
• Sampling techniques are used to gather data from real-world situations. If the data are
representative of the larger population, inferences can be made about that population.
• Biased sampling techniques yield data unlikely to be representative of the larger population.
• Sets of numerical data are described using measures of central tendency and dispersion.
Data Representation
• The most appropriate data representations depend on the type of data—quantitative or
qualitative, and univariate or bivariate.
• Line plots, box plots, and histograms are different ways to show distribution of data over a
possible range of values.
Probability
• Probability expresses the likelihood that a particular event will occur.
• Data can be used to calculate an experimental probability, and mathematical properties can be
used to determine a theoretical probability.
• Either experimental or theoretical probability can be used to make predictions or decisions about
future events.
• Various counting methods can be used to develop theoretical probabilities.
Geometry
Visualization
• Visualization can help you see the relationships between two figures and connect properties of
real objects with two-dimensional drawings of these objects.
Transformations
• Transformations are mathematical functions that model relationships with figures.
• Transformations may be described geometrically or by coordinates.
• Symmetries of figures may be defined and classified by transformations.
Measurement
• Some attributes of geometric figures, such as length, area, volume, and angle measure, are
measurable. Units are used to describe these attributes.
Reasoning & Proof
• Definitions establish meanings and remove possible misunderstanding.
• Other truths are more complex and difficult to see. It is often possible to verify complex truths
by reasoning from simpler ones using deductive reasoning.
Similarity
• Two geometric figures are similar when corresponding lengths are proportional and
corresponding angles are congruent.
• Areas of similar figures are proportional to the squares of their corresponding lengths.
• Volumes of similar figures are proportional to the cubes of their corresponding lengths.
Coordinate Geometry
• A coordinate system on a line is a number line on which points are labeled, corresponding to the
real numbers.
• A coordinate system in a plane is formed by two perpendicular number lines, called the x - and
y - axes, and the quadrants they form. The coordinate plane can be used to graph many functions.
• It is possible to verify some complex truths using deductive reasoning in combination with the
distance, midpoint, and slope formulas.
Using Your Book for Success xxv

1 Expressions, Equations,
and Inequalities
Get Ready! 1
Common Core Performance Task 3
1-1 Patterns and Expressions 4
1-2 Properties of Real Numbers 11
1-3 Algebraic Expressions 18
Mid-Chapter Quiz 25
1-4 Solving Equations 26
1-5 Solving Inequalities 33
1-6 Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities 41
Assessment and Test Prep
Pull It All Together 49
Chapter Review 50
Chapter Test 53
Cumulative Standards Review 54
Algebra Functions
Seeing Structure in Expressions Interpreting Functions
Interpret the structure of expressions Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context
Chapters 1 & 2
Creating Equations Analyze functions using different representations

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships Building Functions
Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities
xxvi Contents
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2 Functions, Equations,
and Graphs
Get Ready! 57
2-1 Relations and Functions 60
2-2 Direct Variation 68
2-3 Linear Functions and Slope-Intercept Form 74
2-4 More About Linear Equations 81
Mid-Chapter Quiz 89
Concept Byte: Piecewise Functions 90
2-5 Using Linear Models 92
2-6 Families of Functions 99
2-7 Absolute Value Functions and Graphs 107
2-8 Two-Variable Inequalities 114
Chapter Review 122
Chapter Test 127
Visual See It! Reasoning Try It! Practice Do It!

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Virtual Nerd™ 2 Essential Understanding 60 Practice by Example 22

Solve It! 11 Think-Write 108 Think About a Plan 105
Connecting BIG IDEAS 50 Know S Need S Plan 20 Error Analysis/Reasoning 78
Contents xxvii

3 Linear Systems
Get Ready! 131
3-1 Solving Systems Using Tables and Graphs 134
3-2 Solving Systems Algebraically 142
3-3 Systems of Inequalities 149
Mid-Chapter Quiz 156
3-4 Linear Programming 157
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY:
Linear Programming 163
Concept Byte ACTIVITY:
Graphs in Three Dimensions 164
3-5 Systems With Three Variables 166
3-6 Solving Systems Using Matrices 174
Chapter Review 183
Chapter Test 187
Number and Quantity Algebra

The Complex Number System Seeing Structure in Expressions
Perform arithmetic operations with complex numbers Interpret the structure of expressions
Chapters 3 & 4
Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Expressions
Functions Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomials
Interpreting Functions Creating Equations
Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context Create equations that describe numbers or relationships
Analyze functions using different representations Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities
Building Functions Solve systems of equations
Build new functions from existing functions Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically
xxviii Contents

4 Quadratic Functions
and Equations
Get Ready! 191
4-1 Quadratic Functions and Transformations 194
4-2 Standard Form of a Quadratic Function 202
4-3 Modeling With Quadratic Functions 209
Concept Byte: Identifying Quadratic Data 215
4-4 Factoring Quadratic Expressions 216
Algebra Review: Square Roots and Radicals 225
4-5 Quadratic Equations 226
Concept Byte: Writing Equations From Roots 232
4-6 Completing the Square 233
4-7 The Quadratic Formula 240
4-8 Complex Numbers 248
Concept Byte: Quadratic Inequalities 256
4-9 Quadratic Systems 258
Concept Byte EXTENSION:
Powers of Complex Numbers 265
Chapter Review 267
Chapter Test 273

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Contents xxix

5 Polynomials and
Polynomial Functions
Get Ready! 277
5-1 Polynomial Functions 280
5-2 Polynomials, Linear Factors, and Zeros 288
5-3 Solving Polynomial Equations 296
5-4 Dividing Polynomials 303
5-5 Theorems About Roots of Polynomial Equations 312
Using Polynomial Identities 318
5-6 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 319
Graphing Polynomials Using Zeros 325
5-7 The Binomial Theorem 326
5-8 Polynomial Models in the Real World 331
5-9 Transforming Polynomial Functions 339
Chapter Review 347
Chapter Test 353
Number and Quantity Algebra

The Complex Number System Seeing Structure in Expressions
Use complex numbers in polynomial identities and equations Interpret the structure of expressions
Chapters 5 & 6
Functions Creating Equations

Interpreting Functions Create equations that describe numbers or relationships
Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Expressions
Analyze functions using different representations Understand the relationship between zeros and factors of polynomials
Building Functions Use polynomial identities to solve problems
Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities
Build new functions from existing functions
xxx Contents

6 Radical Functions
and Rational Exponents
Get Ready! 357
Concept Byte REVIEW: Properties of Exponents 360
6-1 Roots and Radical Expressions 361
6-2 Multiplying and Dividing Radical Expressions 367
6-3 Binomial Radical Expressions 374
6-4 Rational Exponents 381
6-5 Solving Square Root and Other Radical Equations 390
6-6 Function Operations 398
6-7 Inverse Relations and Functions 405
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY: Graphing Inverses 413
6-8 Graphing Radical Functions 414
Chapter Review 422
Chapter Test 427

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Contents xxxi

7 Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions
Get Ready! 431
7-1 Exploring Exponential Models 434
7-2 Properties of Exponential Functions 442
7-3 Logarithmic Functions as Inverses 451
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY: Fitting Curves to Data 459
7-4 Properties of Logarithms 462
7-5 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 469
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY: Using Logarithms for
Exponential Models 477
7-6 Natural Logarithms 478
Exponential and Logarithmic Inequalities 484
Chapter Review 487
Chapter Test 491
Algebra Functions
Seeing Structure in Expressions Interpreting Functions
Interpret the structure of expressions Analyze functions using different representations
Chapters 7 & 8
Creating Equations Building Functions

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities
Arithmetic with Polynomials and Rational Expressions Build new functions from existing functions
Rewrite rational expressions Linear and Exponential Models
Reasoning with Equations and Inequalities Construct and compare linear and exponential models and solve problems
Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically
xxxii Contents

8 Rational Functions
Get Ready! 495
8-1 Inverse Variation 498
Graphing Rational Functions 506
8-2 The Reciprocal Function Family 507
8-3 Rational Functions and Their Graphs 515
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY: Oblique Asymptotes 524
8-4 Rational Expressions 527
8-5 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions 534
8-6 Solving Rational Equations 542
Concept Byte: Systems With Rational Equations 549
Concept Byte TECHNOLOGY: Rational Inequalities 550
Chapter Review 553
Chapter Test 557

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Contents xxxiii

9 Sequences and Series
Get Ready! 561
9-1 Mathematical Patterns 564
9-2 Arithmetic Sequences 572
The Fibonacci Sequence 578
9-3 Geometric Sequences 580
9-4 Arithmetic Series 587
Concept Byte
Geometry and Infinite Series 594
9-5 Geometric Series 595
Chapter Review 603
Chapter Test 607
Algebra Geometry
Seeing Structure in Expressions Expressing Geometric Properties with Equations
Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems Translate between the geometric description and the equation
Chapters 9 & 10
Functions for a conic section

Interpreting Functions
Understand the concept of a function and use function notation
Analyze functions using different representations
xxxiv Contents

10 Quadratic Relations
and Conic Sections
Get Ready! 611
10-1 Exploring Conic Sections 614
Graphing Conic Sections 621
10-2 Parabolas 622
10-3 Circles 630
10-4 Ellipses 638
10-5 Hyperbolas 645
10-6 Translating Conic Sections 653
Concept Byte: Solving Quadratic Systems 661
Chapter Review 663
Chapter Test 667

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Contents xxxv

11 Probability and Statistics
Get Ready! 671
11-1 Permutations and Combinations 674
11-2 Probability 681
11-3 Probability of Multiple Events 688
Concept Byte ACTIVITY: Probability Distributions 694
11-4 Conditional Probability 696
11-5 Probability Models 703
11-6 Analyzing Data 711
11-7 Standard Deviation 719
11-8 Samples and Surveys 725
11-9 Binomial Distributions 731
11-10 Normal Distributions 739
Margin of Error 746
Drawing Conclusions from Samples 748
Chapter Review 751
Chapter Test 757
Number and Quantity Making Inferences and Justifying Conclusions

Vector and Matrix Quantities Understand and evaluate random processes underlying statistical experiments
Represent and model with vector quantities Make inferences and justify conclusions from sample surveys, experiments,
Chapters 11 & 12
Perform operations on vectors and observational studies

Perform operations on matrices and use matrices in applications Conditional Probability and the Rules of Probability
Statistics and Probability Understand independence and conditional probability and use them to
Interpreting Categorical and Quantitative Data interpret data
Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or Use the rules of probability to compute probabilities of compound events in
measurement variable a uniform probability model
Use Probability to Make Decisions
Use probability to evaluate outcomes of decisions
xxxvi Contents

12 Matrices
Get Ready! 761
12-1 Adding and Subtracting Matrices 764
Working With Matrices 771
12-2 Matrix Multiplication 772
Concept Byte: Networks 780
12-3 Determinants and Inverses 782
12-4 Inverse Matrices and Systems 792
12-5 Geometric Transformations 801
12-6 Vectors 809
Chapter Review 817
Chapter Test 821

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Contents xxxvii

13 Periodic Functions and
Trigonometry
Get Ready! 825
13-1 Exploring Periodic Data 828
Geometry Review: Special Right Triangles 835
13-2 Angles and the Unit Circle 836
Concept Byte Activity: Measuring Radians 843
13-3 Radian Measure 844
13-4 The Sine Function 851
Graphing Trigonometric Functions 860
13-5 The Cosine Function 861
13-6 The Tangent Function 868
13-7 Translating Sine and Cosine Functions 875
13-8 Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 883
Chapter Review 892
Chapter Test 897
Functions Geometry
Interpreting Functions Similarity, Right Triangles, and Trigonometry
Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context Define trigonometric ratios and solve problems involving right triangles
Chapters 13 & 14
Analyze functions using different representations Apply trigonometry to general triangles

Trigonometric Functions
Extend the domain of trigonometric functions using the unit circle
Model periodic phenomena with trigonometric functions
Prove and apply trigonometric identities
xxxviii Contents

14 Trigonometric Identities
and Equations
Get Ready! 901
14-1 Trigonometric Identities 904
14-2 Solving Trigonometric Equations Using Inverses 911
14-3 Right Triangles and Trigonometric Ratios 919
14-4 Area and the Law of Sines 928
Concept Byte: The Ambiguous Case 935
14-5 The Law of Cosines 936
14-6 Angle Identities 943
14-7 Double-Angle and Half-Angle Identities 951
Chapter Review 959
Chapter Test 963
End-of-Course Assessment 964

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Contents xxxix

Entry-Level
Assessment
Multiple Choice 6. Solve 2(1 - 2w) = 4w + 18.
Read each question. Then write the letter of the correct -4 8
answer on your paper. -2 16
1. Let A = 51, 2, 3, 46 be a set in the universe 7. Which of the following lines is perpendicular to the
U = 51, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 86 . What is the complement line 3x + y = 2?
of A?
y = 3x + 4
{2, 3} {1, 2, 3, 4}
y = 13 x - 2
{5, 6, 7, 8} {2, 3, 7, 8}
y = -3x + 3
2. Solve x2 + 2x - 3 = 0 by factoring. 1
y = -3x + 1
x = -3 and x = 1
#
8. If y = 1, then (x + 5) y = x + 5. Which property
x = -1 and x = 3
supports this statement?
x=0 Inverse Property of Multiplication
x = -3 and x = 0 Identity Property of Multiplication
3a 2b 3 - 12a4b 3 + 6a4b 2 Associative Property of Addition
3. Simplify .
3a 2b
b 2 - 4a 2b 2 + 2a 2b Commutative Property of Addition
a 2b - 4a 2b 2 + 2a 2b 9. y
3b 2 - 12a 2b + 6b 2 4
3ab 2 - 4a 2b + 2ab 2 x
4 O 4
4. Which relation is not a function?
4
{(1, -5), (2, 4), (1, -4)}
{(1, -5), (2, 4), (3, -3)}

Which inequality does the graph represent?
{(1, -5), (2, 4), (3, 2)}
y 6 2x - 4
{(1, -5), (2, 4), (3, -4)}
y 7 -4x + 2
5. In the diagram, m and n are parallel. y 7 2x - 4
132 y 6 -4x + 2
m
10. The area of a trapezoid is A = 12 h(b1 + b2). Solve
n for b1.
(x  12) 2A - b2
b1 = h
2A - h
b1 = b2

What is the value of x?
36 120 b1 = 2A
h
- b2
60 144 b1 = 2A - b2
xl Entry-Level Assessment
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< > < >
11. Let AB be parallel to CD , with A( -2, 3), B(1, 4), 17. A rectangular photograph is being enlarged to poster
and C(1, 2). Which of the following could be the size by making both the length and width six times
coordinates of point D? as large as the original. How many times as large
as the area of the original photograph is the area of
(4, 1) ( -2, 3)
the poster?
( -2, -1) (4, 3) 1
6 12
12. Solve 3 Ú 4g - 5 Ú -1. 6 36
3
-2 … g … 2 -4 … g … 8
3
18. A rectangle has a length of 2x + 3 and a width of
-1 … g … 4 1…g…2 x - 4. Find the area of the rectangle.
13. Which is not a solution of 5(2x + 4) Ú 2(x + 34)? 2x 2 - 12
48 6 2x 2 - 8x
8 3 2x 2 - 5x - 12
14. Factor 6x 2 - 216. 2x 2 - 11x - 12
6(x - 6)(x + 6) 19. What is the y-intercept of the line that passes through
(6x - 36)(6x + 36) the points ( -4, 4) and (2, -5)?
3
6(x - 6) -2 2
3
6(x - 36)(x + 6) -2 2
15. Mike and Jane leave their home on bikes traveling 20. Which of the following is equivalent to 12 (16 - 4)?
in opposite directions on a straight road. Mike rides 112 - 4 112 - 8
5 mi/h faster than Jane. After 4 h they are 124 mi apart. 213 - 212 213 - 412
At what rate does Mike ride his bike?
21. Which of the following represents the system shown in
5 mi/h 18 mi/h
the graph?
13 mi/h 31 mi/h
y
16. What is the point-slope form for the equation of the
4
line in the graph?
y 2
2 x
O 4
x
2 O 2
2 y=x-3 y6x-3
e e
xÚ5 x=5
3
y - 2 = 2 (x + 2) y…x-3 y7x-3
e e
x75 x…5
y - 2 = 12 (x + 2)
22. Which of the following equations represents the line
y - 2 = - 12 (x + 2)
that is parallel to the line y = 5x + 2 and that passes
y - 2 = - 23 (x + 2) through the point (1, -3)?
y = -5x + 2 y = 15 x - 8
y = 5x + 8 y = 5x - 8
Entry-Level Assessment xli

23. Which equation represents a line that would be 2n + 8 n + 7
1 28. What is the solution to 3 = 2 ?
perpendicular to a second line with a slope of 5 ?
-9 5
y = -5x + 2
1 -1 13
y = -5x + 3
29. Solve the system of equations below.
y = 5x - 2
3x + y = -7
5y + x = 2 e
4x - y = -14
24. △ABC is similar to △DEF . ( -3, 2) ( -3, -2)
A (3, 2) no solution
2x - 12
k D 30. Which of the following is equivalent to ?
x 2 - 2x - 24
2 1
B x+4 x2 - 2
6 ft C 6 ft
1 2x - 3
x+2 x-6
E 31. What is (are) the solution(s) of the graphed function
9 ft F
when the value of the function is 0?

What is the value of k? y
3 ft 6 ft
x
4 ft 9 ft
4 2 O 4
25. Solve the equation using the Quadratic Formula. 2
6x 2 - 10x + 3 = 0
5 { 17
6
3 { 15 -1 and 2 2
6
1 and -2 2.2
-2 and 5
3 2 32. Which of the following is true?
4 and 3 185 6 9
16 16
5 25 7 5 4
26. A rectangle in the coordinate plane has vertices (3, 2), 8 6 162 1121 6 1144
(8, 2), (3, 6), and (8, 6). Which of the following sets
of vertices describes a rectangle that is congruent to 33. A firefighter leans a 30-ft ladder against a building
this one? in order to reach a window that is 24 ft high. How far
away from the building is the base of the ladder?
(3, -2),(3, -8), (5, -8), (5, -2)
18 ft 24 ft
( -2, -4), ( -2, -8), (3, -8), (3, -4)
20 ft 30 ft
(0, 0), (5, 0), (5, 5), (0, 5)
34. What is the number of x-intercepts of the parabola
( -3, 2), (1, 2), (1, 6), ( -3, 6)
with equation y = 6x2 - 4x - 3?
27. Simplify the expression below. 0 2
( -6y -4)5
1 3
7776y 20 -7776y 20
7776 7776
-
y 20 y 20
xlii Entry-Level Assessment

CHAPTER
Skills
Get Ready!
Adding Rational Numbers
1
Handbook,
page 973 Find each sum.
1. 6 + (-6) 2. -8 + 6 3. 5.31 + (-7.40) 4. -1.95 + 10
3
( )
1
5. 74 + -82 6. -213 + 314
2
7. 65 + 410
3
8. -16 + 513
5
Skills Subtracting Rational Numbers

Handbook,
page 973 Find each difference.
9. -28 - 14 10. 61 - (-11) 11. -16 - ( -25) 12. -6.2 - 3.6
13. -523 - -213 ( ) 14. -214 - 314 15. 223 - 713
5
16. 2 - 4
13
Skills Multiplying and Dividing Rational Numbers

Handbook,
page 973 Find each product or quotient.
17. -3 #7 18. -2.1 # ( -3.5) 19. - 23 , 4
3
20. - 8 , 8
5
Skills Using the Order of Operations

Handbook,
page 975 Simplify each expression.
21. 8 # (-3) + 4 22. 3 # 4-8,2 23. 1 , 2 2 - 0.54 + 1.26

24. 9 , (-3) - 2 25. 5(3 # 5 - 4) 26. 1 - (1 - 5) 2 , ( -8)
27. Reasoning Why don’t the expressions 3 + 52 # 3 , 15 and (3 + 52) # 3 , 15
yield the same answer?
Looking Ahead Vocabulary

28. The current of a river flows north at a constant rate. What is the constant in the
mathematical expression 3x + 5y + 3?
29. Before signing a contract, you must review the terms and conditions of the contract.
How many terms are there in the surface area formula below?
2(/w + wh + h/)
30. Engineers evaluate the efficiency of the memory and speed of a computer. What
does evaluate mean in mathematics?
31. Smiling is a facial expression of happiness or contentment. In math, what is the
expression that represents the quotient of 3 and 3 less than a number?
Chapter 1 Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities 1
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TASK
Where’s My Car?
Cody leaves his friend Mia’s house and drives along the road shown in the
diagram below. Somewhere between Mia’s house and the restaurant, Cody’s car
runs out of gas.
Mia’s Gas
House Station Restaurant
9 mi 11 mi
Cody has an empty gas can in his car, but he does not want to leave the car
unattended. Cody calls Mia, who drives to Cody’s car to pick up his gas can. She
then drives to the gas station that is located on the same road. After Mia fills the
gas can, she drives back to Cody’s car. She gives Cody the gas can, and then drives
to the restaurant along the same road to meet another friend for lunch. When she
reaches the restaurant, Mia has driven a total of 34 mi.
Task Description
Determine how far Cody is from Mia’s house when his car runs out of gas. Find all
possible distances.
Connecting the Task to the Math Practices MATHEMATICAL

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As you complete the task, you’ll apply several Standards for Mathematical
Practice.
• You’ll draw diagrams to help you make sense of the problem. (MP 1)
• You’ll assign a variable to an unknown distance and use your variable to write
expressions that represent other distances. (MP 2)
• You’ll model the problem situation with an equation. (MP 4)
Chapter 1 Expressions, Equations, and Inequalities 3

Another random document with
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remained stunted among them—a stage or two more backward than
their position would lead one to expect. But on the whole pottery
distribution in the Southwest does follow the schematic arrangement
with sufficient closeness to warrant the assumption that the history of
its development has been, at least in outline, as just reconstructed.
The facts conform still more closely to the step pyramid
arrangement when consideration is given not to pottery alone but to
the whole culture—agriculture, other arts, social forms, ritual,
religious organization, and the like. In that case Pueblo culture is
seen to comprise easily the greatest number of traits or component
parts, and these to grow fewer and fewer towards the edges of the
Southwest.[13]
88. Historical Induction

The sort of conclusion here outlined is really a historical induction
drawn from the facts of culture distribution among living but
historyless tribes. Where documents are available, the development,
the growth of the pyramid itself, as it were, can often be seen as it
happened. Thus, about the year 100 A.D., Rome, Italy, France,
England, Scotland, stood on successive descending culture levels
related to one another much like Pueblo, Navaho, Pima, Mohave,
Gabrielino; and also in the same placement of ever more outward
geographic situation.
Where written records fail, archæological remains sometimes take
their place. This is true of the Southwest, whose ancient pottery,
stone edifices and implements, and evidences of agriculture remain
as records of the past, telling a story only a little less complete and
direct than that of the Roman historians. One of the archæologists of
the Southwest has drawn up a pair of diagrams to outline the culture
history of the area as he has reconstructed it from comparison of the
prehistoric remains (Fig. 26).
Fig. 26. Diagrammatic representation by Nelson of the geography and history of
the culture of the Indians of the southwestern United States: above, in space;
below, in time, on A-B diameter of circle.
In all this story, what has become of natural environment and

heredity? They have dropped from sight. We have been able to build
up a reasonable and probably reliable reconstruction of the course of
development of civilization in an area without reference to these two
sets of factors. The reconstruction is in terms of culture. Evidently
environment and heredity are in the main superfluous. They need
not be brought in; are likely to be confusing, to diminish the internal
consistency of the findings attained, if they are brought in. This is
true in general, not only of the instance chosen. By using
environment or heredity, one can often seem to explain certain
selected features of a culture, but the appearance is illusory,
because one need only be impartial to realize that one can never
explain in this way the whole of any culture. When, however, the
explanation can be made in terms of culture—always of course on
the basis of a sufficient knowledge and digestion of facts—it applies
increasingly to the whole of a civilization, and each portion explained
helps to explain better all other portions. The cultural interpretation of
culture is therefore progressive, and ever more productive, whereas
the environmental and the biological-hereditary interpretation fail in
proportion as they are pushed farther; in fact can be kept going only
by ignoring larger and larger masses of fact to which they do not
apply.
Historians, who may be described as anthropologists whose work
is made easy for them by the possession of written and dated
records, have tacitly recognized this situation. They may now and
then attribute some event or condition of civilization to an inherent
quality of a race, or to an influence of climate or soil or sea. But this
is mostly in their introductory chapters. When they really get to grips
with their subject, they explain in terms of human thought and action,
in other words, of culture. It is true that they dwell more on
personalities than anthropologists do. But that is because the
materials left them by former historians are full of personalities and
anecdotes. And on the other hand, anthropological data are usually
unduly deficient in the personal element; they consist of descriptions
of customs, tools used by long forgotten individuals, and the like. If
anthropologists were able to recover knowledge of the particular
Pueblo woman who first painted a third color or a glaze on a bowl, or
of the priest who first instituted a masked dance in order to make
rain, we may be confident that they would discuss these individuals.
And such knowledge would throw more light on the history of
Southwestern pottery and religion and culture generally than any
amount of emphasis on the number of inches of rainfall per year, or
the pulse rate or similar hypothetical and remote causes.
CHAPTER VIII
DIFFUSION
89. The couvade.—90. Proverbs.—91. Geographic distribution.—92. The

magic flight.—93. Flood legends.—94. The double-headed eagle.—
95. The Zodiac.—96. Measures.—97. Divination.—98. Tobacco.—99.
Migrations.
89. The Couvade

The couvade is a custom to which the peasants of the Pyrenees
adhered until a century or two ago. When a couple had a child, the
wife got up and went about her daily work as well as she might, while
the husband went to bed to lie-in in state and receive the visits of the
neighbors. This was thought to be for the good of the baby.
The same custom is found among the Indians of Brazil. They
believe that a violation of the custom would bring sickness or ill luck
upon the child. They look upon the child as something new and
delicate, a being requiring not only physical nurture but the
superadded protection of this religious or magical practice.
The Basques of the Pyrenees and the Indians of Brazil are of
different race, separate origins, and without any known historical
contacts. The substantial identity of the custom among them
therefore long ago led to its being explained as the result of the
cropping out of an instinctive impulse of the human mind. Tylor, for
instance, held that whenever a branch of humanity reached a certain
hypothetical stage of development, namely, that phase in which the
reckoning of descent from the mother began to transform into
reckoning of descent from the father, the couvade tended to appear
spontaneously as a natural accompaniment. The Basque peasants,
of course, are a more advanced people than the cannibalistic
Brazilian natives. But they are an old and a conservative people who
have long lived in comparative isolation in their mountainous district;
and thus, it might be argued, they retained the custom of the
couvade as a survival from the earlier transitional condition.
According to this method of explanation, the occurrence of almost
any custom, art, or belief among widely separated and unrelated
peoples is likely to be the result of the similar working of the human
mind under similar conditions. The cause of cultural identities and
resemblances, especially among primitive or “nature” peoples, is not
to be sought primarily in historical factors, such as common origin,
migrations, the propaganda of religion, or the gradual diffusion of an
idea, but is to be looked for in something inherent in humanity itself,
in inborn psychological tendencies. This explanation is that of
“Independent Evolution.” It is also known as the doctrine of
“Elementary Ideas.”
Contrasting with this principle is that of borrowing—one people
learning an institution or belief from another, or taking over a custom
or invention. That borrowing has been considerably instrumental in
shaping the cultures of the more advanced nations, is an obvious
fact. People are Christians not through the spontaneous unfolding of
the whole dogma and ritual of Christianity in each of them, nor even
within their nation, but because of the historically documented
spread of Christianity which is still going on. As a heathen people is
converted by missionaries to-day, so our North European ancestors
were converted by Romans, and the Romans by the Apostles and
their followers. When historical records are available, cultural
borrowing of this sort is generally easy to establish.
Borrowing can sometimes be shown as very likely even where
direct evidence is lacking. If two peoples that possess an institution
in common are known off-shoots one from the other, or if they have
had numerous trade relations, it is hardly necessary to demonstrate
the specific time and manner of transmission between them.
Supposing that a religion, an alphabet, and perhaps a number of arts
have passed from one nation to another, one would normally ask for
little further evidence that a custom, such as the couvade, which they
shared, had also been originated by one and borrowed by the other.
90. Proverbs
Even where contacts are more remote, the geographical setting of
two peoples often makes borrowing seem likely. The custom of
uttering proverbs, for instance, has a significant distribution. It seems
astonishing that barbarous West African tribes should possess a
stock of proverbs as abundant and pithy as those current in Europe.
Not that the proverbs are identical. The negro lacks too many
articles, and too many of our manners, to allude as we do. But he
does share with us the habit of expressing himself on certain
situations with brief current sayings of homely and instantly
intelligible nature, that put a generality into specific and concrete
form. Thus: “One tree does not make a forest”; “Run from the sword
and hide in the scabbard”; “If the stomach is weak, do not eat
cockroaches”; “Distant firewood is good firewood.”
The proverb tendency is a sufficiently general one to suggest its
independent origin in Africa and Europe. One’s first reaction to the
parallel is likely to be something like this: The negro and we have
formulated proverbs because we are both human beings; the coining
of proverbs is instinctive in humanity. So it might be maintained.
However, as soon as the distribution of proverbs the world over is
reviewed, it becomes evident that their coining cannot be
spontaneous, since the native American race appears never to have
devised a single true proverb. On the other side are the Europeans,
Africans, Asiatics, and Oceanians who are addicted to the custom.
Degree of civilization evidently has nothing to do with the matter,
because in the Old World primitive and advanced peoples alike use
proverbs; whereas in the New World wild hunting tribes as well as
the most progressive nations like the Mayas have no proverbs. The
only inference which the facts allow is that there must have been a
time when proverbs were unknown anywhere—still “uninvented” by
mankind. Then, somewhere in the Old World, they came into use.
Perhaps it was a genius that struck off the first sayings to be
repeated by his associates and then by his more remote
environment. At any rate, the custom spread from people to people
until it extended over almost all the eastern hemisphere. Some
cause, however, such as geographical isolation, prevented the
extension of the movement to the western hemisphere. The
American Indians therefore remained proverbless because the
invention was never transmitted to them. Here, accordingly, is a case
of the very incompleteness of a distribution going far to illuminate the
history of a culture trait. The lack of parallelism between the
hemispheres disproves the explanation by instinctive independent
origin. This negative conclusion in turn tends strongly to establish the
probability that the custom was borrowed, perhaps from a single
source, in the four eastern continents.
91. Geographic Distribution

Thus it appears that it is not always easy to settle the origin and
history of the phenomena of culture. Evidently, many facts must be
taken into consideration: above all, geographic distribution. Because
a habit is so well ingrained in our life as to seem absolutely natural
and almost congenital, it does not follow that it really is so. The vast
majority of culture elements have been learned by each nation from
other peoples, past and present. At the same time there are
unexpected limits to the principle of borrowing. Transmission often
operates over vast areas and for long periods but at other times
ceases.
Two reflections arise. The first is the discouraging but salutary one
that the history of civilization and its parts is an intricate matter, not to
be validly determined by off-hand guesses. A second conclusion is
that the geographic distribution of any culture element is always
likely to be a fact of prime importance about it. It is because the
Basques and the Brazilian Indians are geographically separate that
there is fair prima facie probability of the couvade being the result of
independent origin. It is because of another geographic fact, that
proverbs are known throughout one hemisphere and lacking from
the other, that it must be inferred that they represent a borrowed
culture trait.
In the following pages a number of culture elements will be
examined from the point of view of their distribution with the aim of
determining how far each of the two principles of parallel invention
and of borrowing may be inferred to have been operative in regard to
them. In place of “independent origin” the terms “parallelism” or
“convergence” will be generally used. As an equivalent of
“borrowing” the somewhat less metaphorical word “diffusion” will be
applied. Well known historic cases of diffusion, such as those of
Christianity and Mohammedanism, of Roman law, of the printing
press and steam engine and of the great modern mechanical
inventions, will not be considered. It is however well to keep these
numerous cases in the background of one’s mind as a constant
suggestion that the principle of diffusion is an extremely powerful
one and still active. In fact, the chief reason why early
anthropologists did not make more use of this principle seems to
have been their extreme familiarity with it. It was going on all about
them, so that in dealing with prehistoric times or with remote
peoples, they tended to overlook it. This was perhaps a natural error,
since the communications of savages and their methods of
transmission are so much more restricted than our own. Yet of
course even savages shift their habitations and acquire new
neighbors. At times they capture women and children from one
another. Again they intermarry; and they almost invariably maintain
some sort of trade relations with at least some of the adjacent
peoples. Slow as diffusion might therefore be among them, it would
nevertheless go on, and its lack of rapidity would be compensated by
the immense durations of time in the prehistoric period. It is certain
that the simpler inventions of primitive man generally did not travel
with the rapidity of the printing press and telegraph and camera. But
on the other hand, instead of a generation or a century, there would
often be periods of a thousand or five thousand years for an
invention or a custom to spread from one continent to another. There
is thus every a priori reason why diffusion could be expected to have
had a very large part in the formation of primitive and barbarous as
well as advanced culture.
92. The Magic Flight

There is one folk-lore plot with a distribution that leaves little doubt
as to its diffusion from a single source. This is the incident known as
the Magic Flight or Obstacle Pursuit. It recounts how the hero, when
pursued, throws behind him successively a whetstone, a comb, and
a vessel of oil or other liquid. The stone turns into a mountain or
precipice; the comb into a forest or thicket; the liquid into a lake or
river. Each of these obstacles impedes the pursuer and contributes
to the hero’s final escape. This incident has been found in stories
told by the inhabitants of every continent except South America. Its
distribution and probable spread are shown in Fig. 27.
While no two of the tales or myths containing the episode of the
Magic Flight are identical, there can be no serious doubt as to a
common source of the incident because of the co-existence of the
three separate items that make it up. If a people in Asia and one in
America each knew a story of a person who to impede a pursuer
spilt water on the ground which magically grew into a vast lake, it
would be dogmatic to insist on this as proof of a historical connection
between the two far separated stories. Belief in the virtue of magic is
world-wide, and it is entirely conceivable that from this common soil
of magical beliefs the same episode might repeatedly have sprouted
quite independently. The same reasoning would apply to the incident
of the transformation of the stone and of the comb, as long as they
occurred separately. The linking of the three items, however,
enormously decreases the possibility of any two peoples having hit
upon them separately. It would be stretching coincidence pretty far to
believe that each people independently invented the triple complex.
It is also significant that the number of impeding obstacles is almost
always three. In the region of western Asia and Europe where the
tale presumably originated, three is the number most frequently
employed in magic, ritual, and folk-lore. Among the American
Indians, however, three is scarcely ever thus used, either four or five
replacing it according to the custom pattern of the particular tribe.
Nevertheless, several American tribes depart from their usual pattern
and mention only three obstacles in telling this story.
This instance introduces a consideration that is of growing
importance in culture history determinations. If a trait is composed of
several elements which stand in no necessary relation to each other,
and these several elements recur among distinct or remote peoples
in the same combination, whereas on the basis of mere accident it
could be expected that the several elements would at times combine
and at other times crop out separately, one can be reasonably sure
of the real identity and common origin of the complex trait. When a
trait is simple, it is more difficult to be positive that the apparent
resemblance amounts to identity. Such doubt applies for instance to
isolated magical practices. A custom found among separate nations,
such as sprinkling water to produce rain, may be the result of an
importation of the idea from one people to another. Or again it may
represent nothing more than a specific application of the assumed
principle that an act similar to a desired effect will produce that effect.
This magical belief is so broad, and so ramifying in its
exemplifications, as to become almost impossible to use as a
criterion. The essential basis of magic may conceivably have been
developed at a single culture center in the far distant past and have
been disseminated thence over the whole world. Or again, for all that
it is possible to prove, magic beliefs may really be rooted instinctively
in the human mind and grow thence over and over again with
inevitability. There seems no present way of determining which
interpretation is correct.
93. Flood Legends

This situation applies to many widely spread concepts in folk-lore.
Flood myths of some sort, for instance, are told by probably the
majority of human nations. In the early days of the science, this wide
distribution of flood myths was held to prove the actuality of a flood,
or to be evidence of the descent of all mankind from a single nation
which had once really experienced it. Such explanations are too
obviously naïve to require refutation to-day. Yet it is difficult to
interpret the wide prevalence of flood myths, either as spontaneous
growth from out the human mind, or as diffusion from a single
devising of the idea. Much of the difficulty is caused by the fact that
one cannot be sure that the various flood myths are identical. Some
peoples have the flood come after the earth is formed and inhabited,
and have it almost destroy the human race. Other nations begin their
cosmology with a flood. For them, water was in existence before
there was an earth, and the problem for the gods or creative animals
was to make the world. This, according to some American Indian
versions, they finally accomplished by having one of their number
dive to the bottom and bring up a few grains of sand which were then
expanded to constitute terra firma. The first type of story is evidently
a true “flood” myth; the second might better be described as a
concept of “primeval water.” The difficulty is enhanced by the fact
that the two types are sometimes found amalgamated in a single
mythology. Thus the Hebrew account begins with the primeval
waters but subsequent to the formation of the earth the deluge
covers it. So, according to some American tribes, the flood came
after the earth, but the waters remained until after the diving. It is
clear that flood stories are more shifting than the Magic Flight
episode. They may conceivably all be variations of a single theme
which has gradually come to differentiate greatly. But again, several
distinct concepts—primeval water, flood, the diving animals, the ark
—may have been evolved in different parts of the world, each
developing in its own way, and traveling so far, in some cases, as to
meet and blend with others. This last interpretation is favored by
some of the facts of distribution: the prevalence of the diving concept
in America, for instance, and the absence of flood myths from much
of Africa.
Fig. 27. The Magic Flight tale, an example of inter-continental and inter-
hemispheric diffusion. After Stucken, with additions.
There is a vast amount of folk-lore recorded, and much of it has

lent itself admirably to the working out of its historical origins, so far
as limited regions are concerned. Folk-lorists are often able to prove
that one tale originated in India and was carried into mediæval
Europe, or that another was probably first devised on the coast of
British Columbia and then disseminated across the Rocky mountains
to the interior tribes of Indians. When it comes to intercontinental and
world-wide distribution, however, difficulties of the sort just set forth
in regard to flood myths become stronger and stronger. While the
most interesting mythical ideas are those which are world-wide, it is
in these that uncertainty between origin by diffusion or parallelism is
greatest. The Magic Flight therefore constitutes a grateful exception.
It opens the door to a hope that more assiduous analysis and
comparison may lead to the accurate determination of the source
and history of other common and fundamental myths.
94. The Double-headed Eagle

An unexpected story of wandering attaches to the figure or symbol
of the double-headed eagle. Like many other elements of civilization,
this goes back to an Egyptian beginning. One of the great gods of
Egypt was the sun. The hawk and vulture were also divine animals.
A combination was made showing the disk of the sun with a long
narrow wing on each side. Or the bird itself was depicted with
outstretched wings but its body consisting of the sun disk. These
were striking figures of considerable æsthetic and imaginative
appeal. From Egypt the design was carried in the second millenium
B.C. to the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and to the Hittites of Asia
Minor. A second head was added, perhaps to complete the
symmetry of the figure. Just as a wing and a foot went out from each
side of the body or disk, so now there was a head facing each way.
This double-headed bird symbol was carved on cliffs in Asia Minor.
Here the pictures remained, no doubt wondered at but uncopied, for
two thousand years. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries after
Christ, the Turkish princes, feeling the symbol to be a fit emblem of
sovereignty, began stamping it on their coins. The later Crusaders
brought these coins, or the idea of the pattern, back with them to
Europe, where the mediæval art of heraldry was flourishing. The
double-headed eagle was a welcome addition to the lions and
griffins with which artists were emblazoning the coats of arms of the
feudal nobility. The meaning of sovereignty remaining attached to the
figure, the device before long became indicative of the imperial idea.
This is the origin of its use as a symbol in the late empires of Austro-
Hungary and Russia.
Four hundred years ago Charles V was king of Spain and Austria
and Holy Roman emperor of Germany. It was in his reign that Cortez
and Pizarro conquered Mexico and Peru. Thus the symbol of the
double-headed eagle was carried into the New World and the
Indians became conversant with it. Even some of the wilder tribes
learned the figure, although they were perhaps more impressed with
it as a decorative motive than as an emblem. At any rate, they
introduced it into their textiles and embroideries. The Huichol in the
remote mountains of Mexico, who use the design thus, seem to
believe that their ancestors had always been conversant with the
figure. But such a belief of course proves no more than did the
ignorance of European heraldists of the fact that their double-headed
eagle came to them from Asia Minor and ultimately from Egypt. No
pre-Columbian representation of the two-headed eagle is known
from Mexico. The conclusion can therefore hardly be escaped that
this apparently indigenous textile pattern of the modern Huichol is
also to be derived from its far source in ancient Egypt of whose
existence they have never heard.
95. The Zodiac

The foregoing example should not establish the impression that
the main source of all culture is to be sought in Egypt. Many other
ancient and modern countries have made their contribution. It is to
the Chinese, for instance, that we owe silk, porcelain, and gun
powder. The ancient Sumerians and Babylonians, on the lower
course of the Tigris and Euphrates, moved toward definite cultural
progress about as early as the Egyptians, and have perhaps
contributed as many elements to the civilization of to-day.
One of these is the zodiac. This is the concept of dividing the path
of the sun, moon, and planets around the heavens into twelve equal
parts, each named after a constellation. The series runs: ram, bull,
twins, crab, lion, virgin, scales, scorpion, archer, goat, water-carrier,
fishes. Constellations, indeed, had begun to be named at a very
early time, as is clear from the practice being common to all
mankind. But the specific arrangement of these twelve constellations
as a measure of the movement of the heavenly bodies seems to
have made its first appearance among the Chaldæan Babylonians
about a thousand years before Christ. From them the Persians, and
then the Greeks, learned the zodiac; and with its introduction to the
Roman Empire it became part of the fund of knowledge common to
the whole of western civilization. It does not appear to have been
accepted by the Egyptians until Roman imperial times. Knowledge of
the zodiac also spread eastward to India. It seems to have been
carried as far as China by Buddhist missionaries, but failed to be
seriously adopted in that country until its reintroduction by Jesuit
missionaries in the seventeenth century.
The Chinese long before had invented a series of twelve signs
which has sometimes been called a zodiac, and gradually
transmitted it to the adjacent natives of Japan, Korea, Mongolia,
Turkistan, and Tibet. This seems to be of independent origin from the
western or Babylonian zodiac. It appears to have been devised to
designate the hours, then applied to other periods of time, and finally
to the heavens. Its path through the sky is the reverse of the western
zodiac; and its signs are specifically different: rat, ox, tiger, hare,
dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, hen, dog, and pig. At most,
therefore, it would seem that there might have penetrated to China
from the west the idea of dividing time or space into twelve units and
assigning to each of these the name of an animal. The working out
and utilization of the idea were native Chinese.
Already in ancient times the pictures of the twelve constellations of
the western zodiac began to be abbreviated and reduced to
symbols. These gradually become more and more conventional,
although evidences of their origin are still visible. The sign of the
ram, for instance, as we employ it in almanacs, shows the downward
curling horns of this animal; that for the ox, his rising horns; for the
archer, his arrow, and so on. These cursive symbols, once they
became fixed, underwent some travels of their own which carried
them to unexpected places. The Negroes of the west coast of Africa
make gold finger rings ornamented with the twelve zodiacal symbols
in their proper sequence. They seem ignorant of the meaning, in fact
do not possess sufficient astronomical knowledge to be able to
understand the use of the signs. It also remains uncertain whether
they learned the set of symbols from European navigators or from
the Arabs that have penetrated the northern half of Africa.
Nevertheless it is the true zodiac which they portray, even though
only as a decorative pattern.
There has been some assertion that the zodiac was known to the
more advanced Middle American Indians between Arizona and Peru,
but the claim has also been denied. There does appear to have been
at least one series of animal signs used by the Mayas of Yucatan in
an astronomical connection. It is not known that this series served
the true zodiacal function of noting the positions of the heavenly
bodies. Further, the Maya series consists of thirteen instead of
twelve symbols, and the figures present only distant resemblances to
the Old World zodiac. There is only one that is the same as in the
Old World zodiac: the scorpion. The relationship of the Maya and
Old World series is therefore unproved, and probably fictitious. The
case however possesses theoretical interest in that it illustrates the
criteria of the determination of culture relationships.
The Mexican zodiac would unquestionably be interpreted as a
derivative from the Asiatic one, even though its symbols departed
somewhat from those of the latter, provided that the similar symbols
came in the same order. The Asiatic ram might well be replaced by a
Mexican deer, the lion by a wildcat, and the virgin by a maize
goddess. And if the deer, the wildcat, and the maize goddess came
in first, fifth, and sixth place, it would be almost compulsory to look
upon them as superficially altered equivalents of the Old World ram,
lion, and virgin. It is conceivable enough that similar individual
symbols might independently come into use in remote parts of the
world. But it is practically impossible that a series of symbols should
be put into the same arbitrary sequence independently. As a mere
matter of mathematical probability there would be no more than an
infinitesimal chance of such a complex coincidence. If therefore the
sequential identity of the American series and the Old World zodiac
should ever be proved,[14] it would be necessary to believe that this
culture element was somehow carried into the Middle American
regions from Asia, either across northern America or across the
Pacific.
Identity of sequence failing, there might still remain an instance of
partial convergence. It is within the range of possibility that the
Mayas, who were painstaking astronomers and calculators, and who
like ourselves named the stars and constellations after animals,
arranged a series of these as a mnemonic or figurative aid in their
calendrical reckoning. This, however, would be a case of only
incomplete parallelism. The general concept would in that event
have been developed independently, its specific working out
remaining distinctive.
On accurate analysis of culture phenomena, this sort of result
proves to be fairly frequent. When independent developments have
occurred, there is a basic or psychological similarity, but concrete
details are markedly different. On the other hand if a differentiation
from a common source has taken place, so that true historical
connection exists, some specific identity of detail almost always
remains as evidence. It therefore follows that if only it is possible to
get the facts fully enough, there is no theoretical reason why
ultimately all cultural phenomena that are still hovering doubtfully
between the parallelistic and the diffusionary interpretations should
not be positively explainable one way or the other. This of course is
not an assertion that such proof has been brought. In fact there are
far more traits of civilization whose history remains to be elucidated
than have yet been solved. But the attainments already achieved,
and an understanding of the principles by which they have been
made, encourage hope for an indefinite increase of knowledge
regarding the origin and growth of the whole of human culture.
96. Measures
Another increment of civilization due to the Babylonians is a series
of metric standardizations. These include the division of the circle
into three hundred and sixty degrees, of the day into twenty-four
(originally twelve) hours, of the hour into sixty minutes, of the foot
into twelve inches, and the pound—as it survives in our troy weight—
into twelve ounces. It is apparent that the system involved in these
measures is based on the number twelve and its multiple sixty. The
weights current in the ancient Near East also increased by sixties.
On these weights were based the ancient money values. The Greek
mina, Hebrew maneh, approximately a pound, comprised sixty
shekels (or a hundred Athenian drachmas), and sixty minas made a
talent. A talent of silver and one of gold possessed different values,
but the weight was the same. This system the Greeks derived from
Asia Minor and Phœnicia. Their borrowing of the names, as well as
the close correspondence of the actual weight of the units,
evidences their origin in Babylonia or adjacent Aramæa.
The duodecimal method of reckoning was carried west, became
deeply ingrained during the Roman Empire, and has carried down
through the Middle Ages to modern times. It would be going too far
to say that every division of units of measure into twelve parts can be
traced directly to Babylonia. Now and then new standards were
arbitrarily fixed and new names given them. But even when this
occurred, the old habit of reckoning by twelves for which the
Babylonians were responsible, was likely to reassert itself in
competition with the decimal system. Modern coinage systems have
become prevailingly decimal, but it is only a short time ago that in
south Germany 60 kreuzer still made a gulden; and the twelve pence
of the English shilling obviously suggest themselves.
Certain of these metric units became fixed more than two
thousand years ago and have descended to us by an unbroken
tradition. The Babylonian degrees, minutes, and seconds, for
instance, became an integral part of the ancient astronomy, were
taken up by the Greeks, incorporated by them in their development
of the system of astronomy known as the Ptolemaic, and thus
became a part of Roman, Arab, and mediæval European science.
When a few centuries ago, beginning with the introduction of the
Copernican point of view, astronomy launched forward into a new
period of progress, the old system of reckoning was so deeply rooted
that it was continued without protest. Had the first truly scientific
beginnings of astronomy taken place as late as those of chemistry, it
is extremely doubtful whether we should now be reckoning 360
degrees in the circumference of the circle. The decimal system
would almost certainly have been applied.
The last few examples may give the impression that cultural
diffusion takes place largely in regard to names and numbers. They
may arouse the suspicion that the intrinsic elements of inventions
and accomplishments are less readily spread. This is not the case.
In fact it has happened time and again in the history of civilization
that the substance of an art or a knowledge has passed from one
people to another, while an entirely new designation for the
acquisition has been coined by the receiving people. The English
names of the seven days of the week (§ 125) are a case in point. If
stress seems to have been laid here on names and numbers, it is
not because they are more inclined to diffusion, or most important,
but because their diffusion is more easily traced. They often provide
an infallible index of historical connection when a deficiency of
historical records would make it difficult, perhaps impossible, to
prove that the common possession of the thing itself went back to a
single source. If historical records are silent, as they are only too
often, on the origin of a device among a people, the occurrence of
the same device at an earlier time among another people may
strongly suggest that it was transmitted from these. But the indication
is far from constituting a proof because of the theoretical possibility
that the later nation might have made the invention independently. It
is chiefly when the device is complex and the relation of its parts
identical that the probability of diffusion approaches surety. If
however not only the thing but its name also are shared by distinct
nations, doubt is removed. It is obvious that peoples speaking
unrelated languages will not coincide one time in a thousand in using
the same name for the same idea independently of each other. The
play of accident is thus precluded in such cases and a connection by
transmission is established. In fact the name is the better
touchstone. An invention may be borrowed and be given a home-
made name. But a foreign name would scarcely be adopted without
the object being also accepted.
97. Divination
One other Babylonian invention may be cited on account of its
curious history. This is the pseudo-science of predicting the outcome
of events by examination of the liver of animals sacrificed to the
gods. A system of such divination, known as hepatoscopy, was
worked out by the Babylonian priests perhaps by 2,000 B.C. Their
rules are known from the discovery of ancient clay models of the
liver with its several lobes, each part being inscribed with its
significance according as it might bear such and such appearance.
In some way which is not yet wholly understood, this system was
carried, like the true arch, from the Babylonians to the Etruscans. As
there are definite ancient traditions which brought the Etruscans into
Italy from Asia, the gap is however lessened. The Etruscans, who
were evidently addicted to priestly magic, carried on this liver
divination alongside another method, that of haruspicy or foretelling

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