10 1108 - Ijtc 05 2019 0057

“Does the poor matter” in pro-poor
driven sub-Saharan African cities?

towards progressive and inclusive
pro-poor tourism
Regis Musavengane, Pius Siakwah and Llewellyn Leonard
Regis Musavengane is based Abstract

at the Department of Tourism, Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to question the extent to which Sub-Saharan African cities are
University of Johannesburg, progressing towards promoting pro-poor economies through pro-poor tourism (PPT). It specifically
Johannesburg, South Africa. examines how African cities are resilient towards attaining sustainable urban tourism destinations in light of
Pius Siakwah is based at the high urbanization.
Institute of African Studies, Design/methodology/approach – The methodological framework is interpretive in nature and qualitative in
University of Ghana, an operational form. It uses meta-synthesis to evaluate the causal relationships observed within Sub-Saharan
African pro-poor economies to enhance PPT approaches, using Accra, Ghana, Johannesburg, South Africa,
Accra, Ghana.
and Harare, Zimbabwe, as case studies.
Llewellyn Leonard is based at
Findings – Tourism development in Sub-Saharan Africa has been dominantly underpinned by neoliberal
the University of South Africa, development strategies which threaten the sustainability of tourism in African cities.
Florida, South Africa. Research limitations/implications – The study is limited to three Sub-Saharan African countries. Further
studies may need to be done in other developing countries.
Practical implications – It argues for good governance through sustainability institutionalization which
strengthens the regulative mechanisms, processes and organizational culture. Inclusive tourism approaches
that are resilient-centered have the potential to promote urban tourism in Sub-Saharan African cities. These
findings contribute to the building of strong and inclusive Institutions for Sustainable Development in the
Sub-Saharan African cities to alleviate poverty.
Social implications – These findings contribute to the building of strong and inclusive institutions for
sustainable development in the Sub-Saharan African cities to alleviate poverty.
Originality/value – The “poor” are always within the communities, and it takes a community to minimise the
impact of poverty among the populace. The study is conducted at a pertinent time when most African
government’s development policies are pro-poor driven. Though African cities provide opportunities of
growth, they are regarded as centres of high inequality.
Keywords Zimbabwe, Ghana, South Africa, Inclusive growth, Inclusive urban tourism,
Pro-poor development
Paper type Case study
1. Introduction
Globally, the poor appear to be victims of policies, even those that are intended to benefit them. This
is manifested in prevailing injustices and social ills that have been reported in recent studies
Received 1 May 2019
(Rogerson, 2017; Musavengane, 2018). Social, economic and environmental injustices seem to be
Revised 22 June 2019 “daily bread” for the poor who are often excluded in the decision-making process on the use and
Accepted 8 July 2019 allocation of resources within their communities, and they are the least in the social order of the
© International Tourism Studies “production” chain (Musavengane, 2018). Even where tourism is observed to be a panacea to
Association
economic, environmental and social ills, there is limited evidence of the extent to which macro-gains
The authors would like to thank Eric
Ndava for developing the map. from tourism are reaching the poor at the local community level (Chok et al., 2007). However, a
PAGE 392 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM CITIES j VOL. 5 NO. 3 2019, pp. 392-411, Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 2056-5607 DOI 10.1108/IJTC-05-2019-0057
growing body of literature recognises the importance of the pro-poor tourism (PPT) approach as a
tool that promotes the poor and the “poorest” of the society and their participation in and benefits
secured from tourism (Schilcher, 2007; Scheyvens, 2007; Truong, 2014). PPT is at the heart of
progressive tourism development that aims to promote equality and growth of the poor and “poor”
communities (Scheyvens, 2007). There is some evidence that cities have the potential to play crucial
roles in poverty alleviation through PPT approaches (Rogerson, 2006; Booyens, 2010; Musavengane,
2018). But while Sub-Saharan African (SSA) cities are the pivot of economic development, there are
myriad challenges due to poverty and increasing urbanisation (Fraser et al., 2017). An understanding
of current trends on PPT opportunities and challenges is therefore critical in SSA urban spaces.
SSA cities are growing at a faster pace, but with limited development strands. According to the
United States Local Government Commission, “growth means to get bigger, development means
to get better – an increase in quality and diversity” (cited by Pike et al., 2007, p. 1253). However,
SSA cities have growing urban population without the corresponding development to provide
support to the urban populace, hence the call for pro-poor local economic development (Rogerson,
2017; Musavengane, 2018). PPT emphasises on the need of simultaneous growing and
developing economies that prioritise the “poor” and poor communities. It aims to alleviate poverty
by encouraging tourism that positively impacts the livelihoods of the poor through the generation of
sets of tourism development and growth strategies (Ashley et al., 2001; Rogerson, 2006; Musasa
and Mago, 2014). Proponents of PPT highlighted opportunities associated with effective PPT
strategies. First, tourism provides an opportunity to directly benefit the poor through operating craft
and curio centres at destinations (Rogerson, 2012). Second, it encourages tourists and tourism
service providers to purchase goods and services provided by the poor, thereby boosting demand
levels of locally-made products (Booyens, 2010). Third, it supports diversity in poor communities so
that tourism becomes another revenue-earning avenue. Fourth, it supports the formulation of
policies that encourage resilience, adaptation, pro-poor and process change (Truong, 2014). In the
same vein, Mitchell and Ashley (2010) identified three avenues that PPT can alleviate poverty. First, it
is noted that PPT has direct effects on the poor through income earned through employment, and
sales from entrepreneurship (i.e. curio shops). Second, tourism provides secondary effects – mainly
indirect benefits that stem from tourism, such as induced income – money re-spend by tourism
workers in consumer products and services from third parties (i.e. retail shops). The third route is
tourism realizes macro-gains for the economy due to effective growth and development. Similarly,
Ashley and Roe (2002) categorised PPT strategies for the poor and poor communities to realize
meaningful tourism benefits: first, through increasing access of the poor to tourism economic gains,
and, second, by addressing the social and environmental impacts associated with tourism.
The pertinent question among researchers however is, is pro-poor a myth where the elite appear
to be the ones who stand to benefit from PPT? The Third World Quarterly (1989, p. viii) Editorial
Letter cited Zimbabwe’s first Finance Minister, Bernard Chidzero’s questions, which have not
been addressed fully for several decades: “the poor pay dearly for the self-centred environmental
probity and welfare of the rich. Whose environment is whose? Whose ‘common future’ requires
what?” These questions are pertinent to reconcile the claims of pro-poor growth and developing
economies in pursuit of the desired sustainable development through PPT strategies.
This study, therefore, questions the extent to which African cities are progressing towards
promoting pro-poor economies through PPT in pursuit of Sustainable Development Goal 11:
making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. It specifically
examines how African cities are resilient towards attaining sustainable tourism destinations in light
of increasing urbanisation. The cities selected for the analysis of the urban–PPT nexus are Accra,
Ghana; Johannesburg, South Africa; and Harare, Zimbabwe. Cities are magnets of attraction and
the relationship between them and tourism is of the essence. The paper unfolds as follows:
theoretical underpinnings on PPT and urbanism, an outline of the methodology, research findings
and discussions, and, finally, concluding remarks.
2. Theoretical underpinnings: the poor, urbanism and PPT thesis

This section outlines the theoretical framework of the paper. It discusses urbanisation and
urbanism and the related challenges in the SSA urban spaces. It then highlights the capacity of
VOL. 5 NO. 3 2019 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM CITIES j PAGE 393

developing states (DSs) in promoting better livelihoods of the poor. The poor, PPT and
sustainability nexus is then explained in the context of urban spaces. Inclusive tourism is then
situated in the SDGs’ framework.
2.1 Urbanisation and urbanism

Urban areas are human settlements with large and high population density and built infrastructure
(Satterthwaite, 2017). They are created through urbanization, a process of increasing
infrastructure and a population shift from rural to urban centres (Klaufus and Jaffe, 2015;
Zoomers et al., 2017). Due to increasing population pressure in the urban areas, limited economic
opportunities, inequalities, congestion, social vices, sanitation challenges and poor governance,
tourism is partly advocated as a remedy to some of these challenges (Siakwah et al., 2019;
UNDP, 2015; Boakye et al., 2013). However, despite the potentials of tourism in assisting to
address some of the challenges, including poverty reduction, tourism impacts are varied. It is
argued that the tourism industry has an inherent duality – positive and negative impacts (Boakye
et al., 2013; Holden, 2005). For instance, while tourism contributes positively to foreign
exchange, gross domestic product (GDP) and employment, it sometimes leads to social vices
and displacement of the poor from certain spaces, especially urban settings. It leads to
displacement of the poor by (re)possessing their spaces to build hotels and (re)designs to
improve the aesthetic of the environment instead of integrating the poor in a sustainable manner.
Indeed, Swanson (2007) is right to postulate that revanchism, a situation where urban politics is
driven by market-logics, anti-poor attitudes and aestheticism to attract international tourism and
a zero policy on “undesirable” behaviour in public spaces have often pushed and excluded
marginalized groups from the city spaces (see Falt, 2016). This tends to criminalize poverty, and
resonates with Steinbrink’s (2012, p. 217) study on urban poverty, where townships in
Johannesburg are associated with crime, squalor, drugs, poor housing, and unemployment. In
order to promote pro-poor cities in Africa, there is a need to shift from criminalizing the people to
mechanisms that integrate them in a sustainable manner into city spaces.
Some negative manifestations of crime in the urban space include lifestyle restriction, inferior
quality of life and decreased confidence. George (2003, p. 579) noted that “tourist’s fear of crime
may be derived from several sources, such as their own experience of crime, discussions about
crime with their friends and acquaintances, exposure to crime through mass media and
perception of actual crime rates as well as their perceptions of police effectiveness at the
destination”. Fear of crime or actual occurrence impact tourism destination centres.
Criminologists believe that sometimes, the fear of crime is often much larger than its
occurrence, with the media fingered as the culprit in heightening such fear (Allen, 1999). For the
tourist, crime firstsuppresses demand, where crime levels hinder the demand for tourism,
especially if news of deteriorating law and order is disseminated to would be tourists (Boakye,
2012; Levantis and Gani, 2000). Second, crime causes a shift in demand patterns (Boakye,
2012). Also, at the destination, negative images decline appeal to tourists (Allen, 1999).
Urban risks such as infrastructure deficits, population pressure and poor service provision pose
challenges to sustainable tourism development. In the absence of effective and accountable
urban governance, it is not possible to tap the potential of cities for PPT development. Some of
the urban areas in Africa are facing infrastructure crisis, with negative implications where a
substantial proportion of the populace live in those areas (Satterthwaite, 2017). Thus, following
Goldman (2011) and Watson (2014), Falt (2016) postulate that spatial rationality based on land
speculation is rife in urban spaces. The concept of speculative urbanism captures shifts in urban
governance where land speculation and dispossession become a core government business to
create world tourism cities (Goldman, 2011). Watson (2009) thus portrays the current land use
politics in Africa in terms of “clash of rationalities”, where the elites in the cities create “modernity”
and “order” that conflict with an urban setting where the poor struggle to meet their daily needs.
This precisely illustrates the discrepancies between government dreams and everyday life realities
of the urban poor in developing economies, especially in Africa (Falt, 2016, p. 468-9; Myers,
2015; Robinson, 2006). According to UN-HABITAT (2016), the emerging future of cities depends
on the way we plan and manage urbanization, and leverage how to transform the processes of
urban changes. Urbanization can be unsustainable and put people at risk by creating
PAGE 394 j INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM CITIES j VOL. 5 NO. 3 2019

unnecessary costs and negative effects on the environment and livelihoods. Thus, urbanization
should respond to challenges, such as inequality, insecurity and unsustainable infrastructure
expansion, via good governance to promote growth and development.
2.2 The poor, the DSs and growth

The convergent point in the agenda of “ALL” DSs and sustainability literature is that they both
agree on the need for deep structural transformation. Swilling et al. (2015) summarised the critical
characteristics of DSs that can promote sustainable development. First, DSs emphasise on the
modernisation of economies through structural adjustments. Chibber (2002) noted that the ability
to foster sustainable growth and development through industrialisation mechanisms is often used
as a variable to measure the legitimacy and relevancy of the DSs. Second, DSs have the ability to
promote sustainable development and growth through extraction and deployment of capital
productively via egalitarian and productivity-enhancing development programmes in sectoral,
local and national development projects and plans (Swilling et al., 2015). Third, the DSs should
value the seemingly existing high social capital in the business and communities. The cultivation of
strong and productive relations between the business and the community needs an astute state
leadership, where the state leaders spearhead and nature such relations and its followership.
Fourth, in relation to social capital, the DSs have the capacity to coordinate the efforts of individual
businesses by encouraging the emergence and growth of small businesses, including tourism,
and economic institutions, resisting popular forces that can result into political forces that may
suppress their operations.
Harmáˇcek et al. (2017) opined that economic growth and development are crucial for developing
countries which are often characterised with low incomes. They have to grow in order to enhance
the livelihoods of their populace. In return, the growth can lead to direct benefits to the poor, in the
form of economic optimism (i.e. employment and entrepreneurship), hope, healthy social
well-being and eventually poverty reduction (Saarinen et al., 2017; Rogerson, 2012). However,
Harmáˇcek et al. (2017) conceded that economic growth tends to impact development, poverty
and inequality variables differently in different countries, to the extent that countries that have
higher per capita or GDP growth may face enormous challenges in reducing poverty or increasing
their Human Development Index (HDI) (Harmáˇcek et al., 2017). Pro-poor growth is one of the
approaches used to evaluate how growth impacts development, poverty and inequality.
Pro-poor growth is broadly referred to as the effects of growth on the poor people in a society.
Similarly, PPT is a concept that seeks to enrich the poor by narrowing the inequality gap and
alleviating poverty (Ashley et al., 2001).
2.3 The poor, PPT and sustainability nexus

PPT focusses on how tourism impacts the livelihoods of the poor through the generation of sets
of tourism development and growth strategies with a flare to alleviate poverty (Ashley et al.,
2001; Rogerson, 2006; Musasa and Mago, 2014). Protagonists of PPT argue that the unique
characteristics of the tourism industry provide it with unique opportunities to alleviate poverty as
compared with other industries (Rogerson, 2006, 2012). First, tourism increases opportunities
for the poor. For example, they can operate tourist curio and craft shops at destinations.
Second, it boosts demand for products and services supplied and distributed by the poor.
Third, it supports diversified livelihoods, especially in remote or rural communities. Fourth,
it enhances the formulation of pro-poor policy and process changes (Truong, 2014). Ashley et
al. (2001) are also of the view that tourism contributes to harnessing sustainable tourism to
enhance poverty alleviation.
Mitchell and Ashley (2010) suggest three main routes through which poverty alleviation can be
achieved by a viable tourism sector: first, its direct effects on the poor, such as labour income or
sales generated by selling craft products. The second route is the secondary effects. This mainly
involves indirect benefits that emanate from tourism, such as induced income earned by third
parties when tourism workers re-spend their income in the local economy. The third route entails
long-term changes in the macro-economy due to tourism development and growth. Similarly,
Ashley and Roe (2002) grouped strategies for making tourism beneficial to the poor in poor

communities into two: first, by increasing access of the poor to economic benefits; and, second,
addressing the social and environmental impacts associated with tourism.
As noted by Rogerson (2006), governments in the Global South are reluctant to consider linking
tourism to poverty alleviation, although a handful of tourism initiatives are poverty-driven. Gerosa
(2003) also observed that, in Africa, tourism was scarcely incorporated in poverty reduction
strategies. It is only recently that governments have embraced the significance of the tourism
sector due to its macro-benefits. Chiutsi and Mudzengi (2012) noted that most SSA countries
have realised tourism macro-benefits and their governments have committed to developing the
sector. Thus, tourism is now advocated as a vehicle to alleviate poverty in developing economies
(Scheyvens, 2007; Sharpley, 2009; Zapata et al., 2011). However, translating these tourism
macro-gains into micro-benefits for the poor is still contested as the rich tend to control tourism
processes in the poor communities (Manwa and Manwa, 2014; Musavengane and Simatele,
2016). It is therefore critical to for governments, tourism developers and donors to define efficient
systems that will benefit the poor directly.
As a poverty alleviation approach, PPT is guided by eight underlying principles; participation, holistic
livelihoods approach, balanced approach, wide application, distribution, flexibility, commercial
realism and cross-disciplinary learning (see Table I for descriptions). The approach acknowledges
the subjectivity and multi-dimensional nature of poverty: expand beyond income generation to
embrace other variables that pertain and have an impact on the livelihoods of the poor.
Furthermore, although pro-poor scholarship recognises the insufficiency of tourism in reducing
poverty in its entirety, the sector is a potential component of a broader pro-poor growth strategy,
not least in the African context (Ashley and Mitchell, 2005; Rogerson, 2006). Ashley et al. (2001)
noted the four all-encompassing factors that needed to be attended to in PPT initiatives. First, it is
important to have access to the market by overcoming physical barriers such as location,
environmental, and social constraints on poor clientele. Second, establish commercially viable
products which are of high quality at a competitive price, augmented with comprehensive
marketing strategies. Third, there is a need for sustainable policies that address matters regarding
land tenure, planning processes and government capacity. Finally, policing is not adequate without
proper implementation mechanisms; there is a need to address skill shortage and implementation
of responsible best practices at destinations. Good governance is important in policing and
implementing PPT strategies in developing countries that seem to have political upheaval.
2.4 Situating inclusive tourism in the sustainability development goals framework

Having discussed the poor, PPT and their linkage to sustainability, we will now move on to
discuss and situate inclusive tourism in the SDGs framework. Inclusive tourism emphasises on
the inclusion of the marginalised persons in the tourism process by offering a holistic range of
Table I Pro-poor tourism principles
Principle Description
Participation Participation of poor people in tourism decisions is important for their livelihoods
A holistic livelihoods Having a broad view of livelihood concerns of the poor (economic, social and environmental; short-term and long-term) is
approach critical as a narrow focus on cash or jobs is derisory and inadequate
Balanced approach Diverse actions at both micro to macro levels are key to balance the tourism PPT. Linkages are crucial with wider tourism
systems. Complementary products and sectors are encouraged to support pro-poor initiatives
Wide application Pro-poor principles apply to any tourism segment, though strategies may vary between them (e.g. between mass tourism
and wildlife tourism)
Distribution For PPT to be attainable, distribution of benefits and costs should be fairly done
Flexibility Benefits that accrue to the poor tend to be limited by adopting blue-print approaches. It may be needed to adapt the pace
or scale of development; appropriate strategies tend to take time to develop; situations are widely divergent
Commercial realism The goal of PPT is to alleviate poverty. Thus, its strategies have to work within the constraints of commercial viability
Cross-disciplinary PPT relies on untested approaches, thus, learning from experience is essential. It is therefore important for PPT to draw
learning on lessons from poverty analysis, environmental management, good governance and small enterprise development
Sources: Ashley et al. (2001), Roe and Urquhart (2004), Chok et al. (2007)

operational options that can lead to more equitable and sustainable outcomes (Scheyvens and
Biddulph, 2018). It refers to “transformative tourism in which marginalized groups are engaged in
ethical production or consumption of tourism and the sharing of its benefits” (Scheyvens and
Biddulph, 2018, p. 592). Inclusiveness has the ability to establish critical relations between the
global goals including policies and a range of grass-roots initiatives. Thus, diverse actors involved
in the tourism production and consumption processes need to widen the participation of people
to ensure that they benefit from tourism.
Following a seminal, broader and holistic description on “inclusive development” by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2016), there has been an increased effort in making
and shifting policies, to be inclusive. It notes that, “people are excluded from development
because of their gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, disability or poverty, etc. Development
can be inclusive – and reduce poverty – only if all groups of people contribute to creating
opportunities, share the benefits of development and participate in decision-making” (UNDP,
2016). In the same vein, Lawson (2010) argued that for inclusive development to materialise,
there is need to appreciate the intricate relations between place, politics and societies, which are
oftentimes intrinsically embedded. She further noted that inclusive development should be
informed by an ethical concern for people and care, not solely economic growth (Lawson, 2010).
This said, inclusive development thesis informs the variables and characteristics of inclusive
tourism. Scheyvens and Biddulph (2018) identified seven elements of inclusive tourism:
marginalised people as tourism producers, marginalised people as tourism consumers, self-
representation in dignified and appropriate ways, power relations transformed in and beyond
tourism, widening of participation in tourism decision making, changing the tourism map to
involve new people and places, and promotion of mutual understanding and respect.
However, like its sister-concepts, inclusive tourism is not immune to challenges. Most notable is
the “dominance” syndrome of larger tourism companies in the industry, which tends to weaken
the development of small to medium enterprises (Niewiadomski, 2014). In the same vein,
Scheyvens and Biddulph (2018) pointed neoliberalism ideology as the key constraint to
inclusiveness. Mowforth and Munt (2009) argued that, although neoliberalism has an agenda to
alleviate poverty, the approach fails to show how economic growth can undermine sociocultural
well-being and the environment. In other words, neoliberalism anchors on the premise that
economic growth is the basis of development. We argue that development should be the
founding principle of economic growth. McEwan et al. (2017) also pointed neoliberalism’s heavy
reliance on private sector entities, mostly multinational companies, to act as development actors
as a weakness because they are not skilled in overcoming inequality and empowering the poor or
delivering on socio-economic goals. On the other hand, the poor and marginalised persons tend
to suffer from inherent barriers, that may hinder achievement of inclusive tourism, for example,
language barrier, lack of skills, networks and capital (Biddulph, 2015), discrimination (Scheyvens
and Biddulph, 2018) and may be disempowered by dominating players in the process of being
empowered (Knight and Cottrell, 2016). Despite these challenges, inclusive tourism has a role in
the UN’s 2030 SDGs framework.
The discussion so far points that a focus on tourism development as inclusive would ensure the
inclusion of the previously silenced voices in decision making about tourism, as well as
guaranteeing that they realise tourism benefits at micro-level. Generally, inclusion is one of the
central principles behind the UN’s SDGs. Inclusive tourism can successfully and directly achieve
at least seven of the seventeen UN’s SDGs, which are:
1. SDG 1. No poverty: aims to end poverty in all its forms globally.
2. SDG 5. Gender equality: aims to achieve gender equality and empowerment of all women
and girls. Oftentimes, women and girls are victims of violence and are excluded in decision-
making processes.
3. SDG 8. Decent work and economic growth: aim to promote sustainable and inclusive
economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work.
4. SDG 10. Reduced inequalities: aims to reduce inequality (also within and among tourism).
Economic growth is insufficient to reduce poverty if it is not inclusive.

5. SDG 11. Sustainable cities and communities: aims to make human cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
6. SDG 12. Responsible consumption and production: aims to ensure sustainable
consumption and production patterns. Entails providing access to basic services, green
and decent jobs and a better quality of life for all.
7. SDG 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions: aims to promote peaceful and inclusive
societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective,
accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.
The discussion provides a basis for discussing tourism in urban settings in view of promoting
social sustainability.
2.5 Cities, urban tourism and social sustainability

It is important to note that urban tourism is a commonly-used term in tourism. Yet, it is a complex
phenomenon to define precisely, and this has challenged scholars. Lerario and Turi (2018)
observed that urban tourism is more complex than just “tourism performed in the cities”, and it is
characterised by highly heterogeneous features compared to other forms of tourism (i.e. rural
tourism or sea tourism). Some authors individuate urban tourism complexity in its articulation in
“micro-destinations” (Hernandez-Martin et al., 2017), in its multifunctional character (Ashworth
and Page, 2011), and in its dense synchronicity of built forms, structures and cultures (Wirth,
1938). In view of this discussion, urban tourism can be described as an all-inclusive term of
different tourism classes, cultural, conference, sports and other city-based tourism forms.
Oftentimes, the urban environment offers cultural, economic, social, cultural and aesthetic
aspects which promote the existence, growth and development of tourism. Giriwati et al. (2013)
noted that these aspects form and shape urban tourism variants and define the experiences of
visitors as they interact with attractions and the infrastructure developed for non-tourism
purposes and local community members or residents. However, urban tourism features are
differentiated by the size of cities, hence the need to analyse sustainability and development
specifics of tourism in urban environments (Lerario and Turi, 2018).
Overall, the discussion presented in the theoretical provides evidence to the effect that tourism
has a significant role in pursuing the sustainability and development goals, specifically the 2030
UN’s Sustainable Development Goals.
3. Methodological underpinnings
The methodological framework of this paper is interpretive in nature and qualitative in operational
form. It uses meta-synthesis to evaluate the causal relationships observed within SSA pro-poor
economies to enhance PPT approaches, using Accra, Ghana, Johannesburg, South Africa, and
Harare, Zimbabwe as case studies. A meta-synthesis is an inductive, exploratory research design
that aims to synthesise primary qualitative case studies with the aim of drawing facts and making
contributions beyond those made in the primary qualitative studies (Hoon, 2013). The meta-
synthesis approach constitutes an interpretive approach and has a base of qualitative research as
its operational framework, aiming to synthesise case studies that have not been primarily intended
to achieve a unified goal (Hoon, 2013). Flyvbjerg (2011) and Yin (2009) noted that case study
research is regarded as an ideal approach to understanding contemporary community phenomena
in a real-life setting with the ability to gain in-depth data. Similarly, Eisenhardt and Graebner (2007)
are of the view that the case study tends to be rich contextually, rendering them to be of noble and
strength in producing novel theoretical underpinnings and insights. Thus, primary case studies are
understood to make the meta-synthesis a “complete study itself that aims at extracting, analysing,
and synthesizing qualitative evidence to build theory” (Hoon, 2013, p. 523).
The three cities, namely, Accra, Johannesburg and Harare (see Figure 1), are chosen on the basis
of their different levels of economic development, governance, poverty and tourism development.
Ghana is ranked 139 in the Human Development Report (HDR) (2016) and has an HDI[1] of
0.579. In the same HDR, South Africa is ranked 119 with an HDI of 0.666, whilst Zimbabwe is

Figure 1 Location of cities: Accra, Harare and Johannesburg
Legend
Harare City Name
Study Area
Rivers
Street
Accra
City Centre
Johannesburg Harare
City Centre City Centre
ranked 154 and an HDI of 0.516. Thus, these three cities seemingly can be used to represent
other cities in Africa. Inspired by (Hoon, 2013), the study’s meta-synthesis followed the eight
steps illustrated in Table II.
3.1 Step 1: framing the research

In the first step, we studied the existing literature on urban tourism in general and PPT in African
cities in specific, for the clear identification of a phenomenon. It is important to note that, generally,
meta-synthesis starts by deriving a problem in its conceptual framework. For organising the
meta-synthesis, we referred to sustainable urban tourism approaches with our interest gravitating
towards recent works seeking to enhance our understanding of inclusive tourism that can
culminate sustainable livelihoods in poor urban communities. Building on this framework, we
formulated a first broad topic on the role of urban tourism in promoting sustainable livelihoods in
African urban communities. Through a series of testing and re-testing, this topic against the
current literature and existing empirical evidence on urban tourism, a more nuanced research
question emerged. We finally focussed the meta-synthesis on this question:
RQ1. Does pro-poor tourism really benefit the poor in “poor” Sub-Saharan African urban
communities – is it a myth or reality?
Addressing this research question aids in shaping and enhancing our current understanding of
tourism “sustainability” and “inclusivity”, thereby providing insights to concerns on the extent to
which urban-PPT approaches are realistic in African pro-poor driven economies. This will further
enhance to establish the pursuance of Sustainable Development Goal 11: making cities and
human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable in the SSA cities.
3.2 Step 2: locating relevant research
In the next step, we started to identify relevant literature deemed suitable and relevant for our
meta-synthesis focus. To locate the set of existing case studies, we first used SCOPUS, an
international citation database owned by Elsevier with coverage of nearly 36,377 titles from
approximately 11,678 publishers, of which 34,346 are peer-reviewed journals. To widen our
search, we also used the database of Thomson-ISI Web of Science that we accessed through

Table II Meta-synthesis procedure adopted in this study
Meta-
synthesis Outcome to generate a theoretical
steps Analytical goal Analytical procedure used contribution
Framing the Conceptually embedding the meta-synthesis in A priori specification A well-specified research question
research the field of pro-poor local economic enables precisely operationalising
question development, and, more specifically, in the area variables and extracting appropriate data
of pro-poor tourism; identifying a clear research from primary pro-poor tourism studies
question addressing the role of the poor and
African local governments in promoting inclusive
and sustainable urban tourism
Locating Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) database of Keywords were determined (pro-poor Locating a sample of 51 studies on urban
relevant Thomson-ISI Web of Science and Authoritative tourism, inclusive tourism, sustainable tourism published in 24 journals; a final
research Reports were used to identify the body of pro- tourism, urban tourism, Sub-Saharan sample of 17 qualitative case studies was
poor tourism research that is relevant for the Africa, Ghana, South Africa, used to ensure reliability
research question of interest. Thorough literature Zimbabwe); a search string was
search ensured the inclusion of important established to formulate an exhaustive
information, thus strengthening the findings search strategy entailing main and
because they are generated from a broader base complementary search steps
Inclusion Five inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied; Developing an inclusion/exclusion Limiting the 17 qualitative case studies to
criteria on the method, theoretical underpinnings, criteria list; discussing clear exclusion a set of 8 case studies finally
research emphasis, initial research question and criteria incorporated in the meta-synthesis;
quality providing clear exclusion criteria; ensure
validity, reliability
Extracting Carefully read the full text of each urban pro-poor Developing and pretesting a coding Order, code and categorize evidence
and coding tourism study. Coding study characteristics as form; multiple coders; check for from each of the studies; sensitivity for
data well as the proceeded insights of the primary intercoder ratings contextual considerations; valid coding
studies according to the research question on form; intercoder ratings
pro-poor, inclusive and urban tourism
Analysing on Identifying emerging variables in a sequence that Case-specific causal networks Identifying themes, core concepts,
a case- has been found in each case to influence the patterns or relationships in each case
specific level progress of pro-poor tourism in urban settings to
enhance inclusive and sustainable livelihoods
Synthesizing Merging the case-specific causal networks into a Meta-causal network, variable ratings Identification of a pattern; pro-poor urban
on an meta-causal network. Accumulating the tourism as a central variable; a rating of
across-study sequencing of variables at the across-study level to the variables to ensure the validity
level arrive at a general pattern among these variables
Building Identification of the concept of pro-poor tourism Linking the results back to the literature Identification of the pro-poor tourism
theory from that explains the nexus between sustainable on pro-poor tourism and sustainable shifts; arguing for a contribution to
meta- tourism, inclusive tourism and enhancement of urban tourism development inclusive and sustainable pro-poor urban
synthesis livelihoods in poor communities and urban tourism approaches to promote
centres Sustainable Development Goal 8 and 11
Discussing Discussion of the findings of the meta-synthesis Discussing pro-poor tourism, inclusive Legitimizing the validity and reliability of
study in relation to promoting inclusive and urban tourism development the procedure and activities used
sustainable pro-poor urban tourism approaches approaches
in Sub-Saharan African cities
our Institution’s Affiliation. A search string was initially used “urban tourism” OR “pro-poor
tourism” AND “sust*” AND “case stud*” “Johannesburg*” OR “Accra*” OR “Harare*” which
yielded limited or no valid results, a search string we realized as too narrow to draw more articles.
At certain search instances, we obtained between zero and six articles. Consequently, we began
more broadly by retrieving urban tourism-related articles that were published in the tourism, cities,
sustainability and development categories of the ISI Web of Science database whose focus was
on Accra, Johannesburg and Harare. The search was between 2000 and 2018. The reason for
selecting the year “2000” is that this is the era when the thesis of PPT started to gain momentum.
This yielded a set of 651 contributions. We then refined the search by reducing the set of
contributions to the keywords “pro-poor” and the derivatives of the root “poor” (poo*: poor,
poverty), and “urban” (urb*: urban, urbanization, urbanism). These keywords were used as a
selection criterion in scanning the title, keywords and abstracts of contributions, resulting in an
initial sample of 77 published journals, book chapters and conference proceeding.

3.3 Step 3: inclusion and exclusion criteria
The next step was to select the relevant case studies for inclusion in the meta-synthesis. Clarifying
the inclusion and exclusion criteria are key to establish the validity of synthesis because the quality
of the primary studies to be included in the study provides a fundamental basis for the synthesis
(Dalton and Dalton, 2008). Our research question guided the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
First, articles that were qualitative in nature were included in the study. The criterion ensures the
obtaining of in-depth data on PPT. We, however, excluded articles that relied heavily on
quantitative approaches. This ensured that there is a minimum error on the type of data obtained
by primary researchers. Due to the nature of the field of pro-poor urban tourism, we included
articles that used case studies to illustrate their points. This helped us to strengthen the reliability
of the data obtained across the studies. Second, articles framed in the context of pro-poor urban
tourism were included. Those closely related to PPT were also included due to the cross-nature
of the subject. Nevertheless, for these articles to be included they should have proved that they
are discussing pro-poor issues in urban settings. We, however, excluded articles which were
framed on PPT but whose focus was outside urban settings. Third, the criterion of space was
considered, this means only articles that were focussing on Accra, Harare and Johannesburg
were meta-synthesized, thereby reducing the sample of 77 studies to 17 (see Table III).
Furthermore, the meta-synthesis was limited to studies that provide a substantive contribution to
inclusive and sustainable urban-PPT approaches.
3.4 Step 4: extracting and coding data

The next step is to extract, code and categorise evidence from the studies under synthesis. In this
step, guided by our research question, we developed a coding form where we classified
Table III Meta-synthesised articles
No. Authors Title Year Journal
1 Amoah and Kosoe Solid waste management in urban areas of Ghana: issues and 2014 Journal of Environment Pollution and Human
experiences from Wa Health
2 Boakye et al. Assessing Ghana’s contemporary tourism development 2013 Journal of Global Initiatives
experience
3 Boakye Tourists’ views on safety and vulnerability: a study of some 2012 Tourism Management
selected towns in Ghana
4 Frimpong-Bonsu Diagnostic study of tourism in Ghana 2015 African Center for Economic Transformation
5 Oteng-Ababio and Paradigm of mediocrity: poverty and risk accumulation in urban 2014 Journal of Urbanism: International Research
Arguello Africa – the case of Korle Gonno, Accra on Placemaking and Urban Sustainability
6 Ministry of Tourism Ghana National Tourism Development Plan, 2013–2027 2012 Ghana Ministry of Tourism
7 Satterthwaite The impact of urban development on risk in Sub-Saharan Africa’s 2017 International Journal of Disaster Risk
cities with a focus on small and intermediate urban centres Reduction
8 Booyens Rethinking township tourism 2010 Development Southern Africa
9 Kaplan Skills development for tourism in Alexandra Township, 2004 Urban Forum
Johannesburg
10 Rogerson in Urban tourism and economic regeneration: the example of 2004a Pretoria, Africa Institute of South Africa
Rogerson and Johannesburg
Visser (Eds)
11 Rogerson Urban tourism and small tourism enterprise development in 2004b GeoJournal
Johannesburg: the case of township tourism
12 Murtag ‘Exploring’ Maboneng as an international urban tourism attraction 2015 University of the Witwatersrand
within Johannesburg
13 Musavengane Toward pro-poor local economic development in Zimbabwe: the 2018 African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and
role of pro-poor tourism Leisure
14 Manjengwa et al. Understanding urban poverty in two high-density suburbs of 2016 Development Southern Africa
Harare, Zimbabwe
15 Government of National Tourism Plan 2014 Ministry of Tourism and Hospitality Industry,
Zimbabwe Government Printers, Harare
16 Manwa Is Zimbabwe ready to venture into the cultural tourism market? 2007 Development Southern Africa
17 Department of National tourism sector strategy 2011 South Africa Department of Tourism
Tourism

emerging issues into themes. The coding form remained open-ended to allow the addition of
emerging codes for theming. We further coded each primary article characteristics: case study
design, settings and a number of cases or sites included in the study.
3.5 Step 5: analysis on a case-specific basis

To enable addressing the meta-synthesis research question, a careful analysis of the studies was
done in order to capture the holistic phenomenon, instead of focussing only on case-specific
issues. This was of the essence to draw an effective and balanced analysis of inclusive and
sustainable urban tourism in the Sub-Saharan African region. As we were interested in
establishing the effectiveness of PPT approaches in benefiting the poor in “poor” African urban
communities, a causal network technique was chosen (Miles and Huberman, 1994). The
technique helps to determine the cause–effect relationships between variables. We, therefore,
explored each case study to establish the relationships between the identified variables. This
assisted us to group the variables with the same cause and/or effect into specific themes or
pattern. As a result, five case-specific causal networks emerged that connect the particular
variables to the identified themes to establish cause–effect relationships.
3.6 Step 6: synthesizing on a cross-study level

Further, the case-specific study provided a foundation to a cross-study level analysis where we
merged the sequence of variables identified. This facilitated the establishment of a meta-causal
network, which enabled us to explore the extent at which studies under synthesis are related or
dissonant through a compare and contrast exercise at a cross-case study level (Miles and
Huberman, 1994). This is also closely linked to configuration synthesis, defined by Sandelowski et al.
(2012) as, the action of placing study findings along one another in order to build up a picture of a
whole, and how they relate to one another. Thus, a meta-causal network has its strength in analysing
emerging themes across a set of studies which goes beyond the findings of a single study. The
meta-causal network result into establishing a pattern of a sequencing of variables that were found
to be meaningful across all cases, namely “shaping tourism development through neoliberalism”,
“race toward modernity of urban spaces vs survival of the poor”, “the poor and crime in sustainable
urban tourism discourse” and “tourism macro-economic gains vs micro-economic benefits”.
3.7 Step 7 and 8

These are discussed in the next section
4. Meta-synthesis discussion
The meta-synthesised articles and reports resulted in the emergence of four main themes on
inclusive sustainable urban-PPT, discussed in this section.
4.1 Shaping tourism development through neoliberalism

The meta-analysed data revealed that many DSs attained their liberation in an era when market
forces and neoliberal ideology, were globally dominant (Barchiesi, 2004). Neoliberalism has seen
the newly democratic states engage in macroeconomic policies that have increased urban risks
for vulnerable citizens (i.e. poor housing, unemployment, crime, xenophobia, lack of water, waste
and sanitation facilities, environmental challenges and lack of government support for local
tourism development to name a few) (Leonard 2017; Falt, 2016; Manjengwa et al., 2016), which
poses problems to development, including PPT-led development. For example, in Ghana,
neoliberal-driven policies and associated urban (re)development since the 1980s pose above
challenges to tourism development in Ghana. This has led to the question of whether PPT
development in African cities, Accra, is a myth or reality? Based on the theoretical framework, this
paper questions whether promoting PPT is feasible in African cities. This is based on policy
frameworks, opportunities for local goods and services to be used in the industry, and strategies
available for the poor communities to realize meaningful tourism benefits through increasing

access to tourism economic gains and addressing the social and environmental impacts
associated with tourism.
This has witnessed the use of the invisible hand of political parties to address the socio-
economic, environmental challenges. Thus, political parties’ ability to mobilize support from the
poorest strata of the population is under pressure and thereby not implementing good policy
initiatives (see McKinley and Veriava, 2004; Fig, 2005) Neoliberalism has actually increased
inequality and has not achieved the necessary economic gains, with developing countries (like
South Africa, Zimbabwe and Ghana) witnessing a sharp economic downturn (International
Monetary Fund, 2016), with Standard and Poors Global rating agent downgrading South Africa’s
credit rating to full junk status in November 2017 (Donelley, 2017). As one way to address issues
of poverty and unemployment, in African urban areas, most DSs, in their national tourism
development plans, have to use tourism, as one of their growth pillars, to address poverty and to
position their cities as globally recognised tourism destination brand. Using tourism as a strategy
to address inequalities can create economic development and tourism jobs (Rogerson, 2004a,
b). According to Ashley and Roe (2002), if countries fail to gain from tourism or achieve pro-poor
benefits, it is because the national and/or provincial governments fail to take the industry
seriously, fail to create a link between tourism, development and poverty alleviation, or both.
4.2 Poor governance and the poor urban citizens

Since attaining independence, most African countries (as reflected in all three meta-analysed) still
exhibits poor governance and enforcement of regulations which is impacting on sustainable
tourism development and for PPT. As noted above, due to poor governance, poor citizens are still
demanding basic social services with a lack of adequate attention to securing sustainable
tourism. For example, the lack of government response to address community concerns has
seen social movements emerge surprisingly quickly during the new democracies (see
Manjengwa et al., 2016; Ballard et al., 2005). Some have been directed against one or
another policy of the government, e.g. trade union opposition to macroeconomic strategy to
engage with trade liberalisation and pursue economic growth as the mechanism for promoting
social justice (Ballard et al., 2005). It appears that democratic consolidation in most SSA states is
not yet complete since appropriate institutions have not yet been established in state and society
to resolve social fractions. Democratic consolidation involves not only building a new state, but
also new interfaces between state and society. It is thus proposed that tourism can be a vehicle
that can assist in building such interfaces between the state and society (mostly urban) to solve
some of the developmental challenges in society.
However, government support for tourism businesses and education and awareness about the
importance of tourism will be required for tourism to become a pillar to address social ills and
strengthen governance. Having good governance is the first strategy in realising pro-poor
objectives SSA states where governance processes deteriorated for a number of years as
reflected in the Accra, Johannesburg and Harare meta-synthesised data.
4.3 Race towards modernity of urban spaces vs survival of the poor

As the theoretical framework of this paper noted, PPT can be promoted through the formulation
of policies that encourage resilience, adaptation, pro-poor and process change in the tourism
industry (Truong, 2014). Yet, in some African states, notably Ghana and Zimbabwe, a desire for
modernization due to increasing need for satisfaction of human needs (material and social) is
leading to the commodification of resources that the poor often depend on. Within the Ghanaian
context, especially in the city of Accra, speculation and commodification of the urban spaces,
engineered, supported and facilitated by neoliberal policies have been rife. The altering of the
social, political, economic and structure (built environment), based on neoliberal policies,
negatively affects PPT development. In both Accra and Harare, the poor are sometimes evicted
from spaces for (re)development purposes. Falt (2016) noted that the displacement of the urban
poor in Accra through forced eviction is underpinned by multiple rationalities – neoliberal
market-oriented policies and social desire for clean and beautiful surroundings. Neoliberal spatial
rationalities in urban development schemes are shaped by speculative urbanism and urban

revanchism (Falt, 2016). Urban revanchism elucidates how urban politics are driven by
market-logics and anti-poor attitudes and aesthetics construct and reconstruct (new) patterns of
socio-spatial segregation globally (Falt, 2016, p. 466; Smith, 2001). This is happing in African
cities (as reflected in the Accra and Harare meta-analysed data) where locals are sometimes
evicted from spaces they previously occupied for redevelopment and promotion of urban
tourism, risking the lives of the urban poor.
The decision to evict the people from aspects of Accra’s and Harare’s space is associated with a
disease-prone nature – cholera spreading from “unhygienic” neighbourhood to other areas and
negatively affecting development. Another reason included the dream of African cities to become
a global tourism magnet. For urban renewal, the global tourism hub discourse often underpins
the eviction of locals from African urban spaces (Falt, 2016). It is argued that the renewal and (re)
development of urban areas will increase their global attractiveness. However, despite this lofty
idea of global tourism city, the “poor” residents in African cities prefer an appropriate scale of
tourism (see Yankholmes, 2013).
4.4 The poor and crime in sustainable urban tourism discourse

The meta-analysed data (particularly Accra and Johannesburg) revealed that it is a reality that
crime in Africa poses a threat to tourism development and can also hinder the development of
sustainable PPT in urban areas. Mengich (2011), for example, explains that townships are often
characterised by a lack of security and are crime-ridden. Tourist becomes reluctant to visit
townships and other urban tourist’s sites because of the lack of safety and security, which is a
vicious circle as then the opportunity for sustainable tourism disappears and with it the potential
to contribute to the economy and communities. However, there is a need to involve citizens and
community members in tourism development (e.g. local labour and/or service providers). For
example, Durr and Jaffe (2012) note that by taking tours in Alexandra, visitors are given the best
opportunity to experience the township, converting insecurity and unfamiliarity into adventure and
pleasure. However, the township of Alexandra in Johannesburg is taking positive steps to
combat crime and ensure safety for both residents and tourists. Life (2013) notes that the
community is playing a key part in the deterrence of crime in Alexandra.
In order to stimulate PPT development in African urban spaces, government policies should
promote security for tourist and residents, so consumption of tourist products can thrive in a
conducive environment to the benefit of everyone, including the urban poor who can trade tourism
products. Security of the urban spaces and tourist sites is a challenge to tourism development in
some African spaces (as reflected in Accra and Johannesburg meta-synthesised data), where fear,
feeling and actual insecurity are hindering to tourist attraction into African urban areas.
4.5 Tourism macroeconomic gains vs microeconomic benefits

PPT advocates that tourism provides an opportunity to directly benefit the poor through craft and
curio centres at destinations (Rogerson, 2012). But, in Ghana, challenges with urban tourism
included translating macroeconomic gains into micro-benefits for the local people, and
displacement of the urban poor from spaces due to neoliberal policies. Investments in tourism
over the past three decades in Ghana to diversify the economy have been characterized by mixed
economic, social and human impacts. While there are indications of some impressive
macroeconomic gains from the tourism sector, this seems not to have translated into micro
gains for the poor (Boakye et al., 2013), especially those in urban areas. Whereas, theoretically, it is
anticipated that visitors’ presence, with increases in spending, will translate into enhanced business
and revenue generation (Boakye et al., 2013; Mitchell and Ashley, 2007), it is difficult to translate this
into meaningful local outcomes for the urban poor. Boakye et al. (2013, p. 134) noted that whereas
tourism in Ghana is expected to stimulate economic growth and poverty reduction through infusing
new demand for local goods and services; and generation of demand for other goods and services
that tourism businesses depend on, this appears not to be occurring for the poor. At the
macroeconomic scale, Ghana’s tourism performance conforms to Mitchell and Ashley’s (2006)
argument of the favourable macroeconomic impact of tourism in developing countries.
Micro-level benefits of the tourism sector, however, have been limited in Accra in particular and

Ghana in general. Thus, while the macroeconomic impact has mostly been remarkable in Ghana, it
is problematic in translating them into visible development outcomes, such as poverty reduction
and improved social services (Boakye et al., 2013). The development outcomes of tourism in other
urban centres have not been impressive as the case of Accra. For instance, the Cape Coast-Elmina
townships that form some of the most visited tourist destinations in Ghana rarely has positive
impacts for the locals. This is consistent with other studies that show that tourism has done little to
improve the livelihoods of inhabitants of tourism-rich areas (Boakye et al., 2013; Teye et al., 2002).
Koutra and Edwards (2012), Sonne (2010) ascribed such unfortunate situation to low host
community capacities, while Adu-Febiri (1994), Konadu-Agyemang (2001) attributed it to the
broader tourism political economy of Ghana.
5. Conclusions: towards creating “pro-poor”, sustainable and inclusive urban

tourism conscious destinations
In this meta-synthesis, the aim was to establish the extent to which African cities are progressing
towards promoting pro-poor economies through PPT. This study has identified four key themes
that emerged in the discourse of PPT in order to promote inclusive and sustainable tourism
practices. These include shaping tourism development through neoliberalism; race towards
modernity of urban spaces vs survival of the poor; the poor and crime in sustainable urban
tourism discourse; and tourism macroeconomic gains vs microeconomic benefits.
These results suggest that PPT appears not to entirely benefit the intended vulnerable group due
to seemingly “poor” governance systems in SSA urban communities, inclined to national
governance practices. The meta-synthesised data show that, oftentimes, the “poor” do not fight
the governance system, but fight to be included in the system. UNDP (1997) views governance as
consisting of systems, mechanism, processes, relationships, and institutions through which
groups and citizens articulate their interests, perform legal rights, recognize obligations and
resolve differences. Good governance in the tourism industry is often advocated for in order for
Africa to attain the macro and micro-benefits associated with the sector (Nunkoo, 2017; World
Travel & Tourism Council, 2017; Robbins, 2016).
Good governance promotes “sustainability inclusivity”, which is critical in realising sustainable
PPT in urban environments. The “poor” need to be included in “good faith” in making tourism
decisions and participating in the whole tourism system. There is, therefore, a need for African
states to reconfigure power and the way this operates with ordinary people who are excluded
due to a lack of power in developmental processes. Unequal power relations between the state
and people have resulted in the exclusion of the poor from decision-making processes and hence
effective PPT development. The study has shown that, excluding the poor will cause them to
push to a certain point, notably social uprisings, till they are included. The pertinent question is
whether this is sustainable? DSs in the SSA region, as reflected in the study, appear to have
created a mental attitude where governments are benefactors, not parties that have obligations
to the citizens. A revisit into this ideology will ensure sustainable economies in the SSA region and
in-turn promote PPT and positive development which will result in inclusive growth trajectories.
The study has also revealed that, the urban poor populace in some SSA countries are victims of
failing democratic practices, which are mostly partisan politics in nature. Some SSA political
parties tend to leverage on the poor to gain the votes that will keep them in power, hence the poor
are provided with cosmetic “entrepreneurship” opportunities whose sustainability is heavily
dependent on the “person” in power. As the common saying goes, “you cannot bite the hand that
feeds you”, the poor in urban communities often encounter challenges in sustaining their informal
businesses due to a transaction mind-set. The transaction mind-set entails the “give and take”
scenario. This has led people to be inclined to corruption, thereby weakening sustainability efforts
in cities. Thus, political will guarantees PPT in SSA cities. There is, therefore, a need to formalise
“entrepreneurship” in poor communities to ensure sustainable businesses (including tourism) and
livelihoods of the poor.
In conclusion, sustainable PPT will continue to be a myth (a challenge) in most Sub-Saharan
African cities, unless, the basic human needs are met and when tourism governance principles
and processes are well defined and uphold by multi-actors. Thus, solely pursuing Sustainable

Development Goal 11, sustainable cities and communities, cannot achieve the desired
development and growth of poor African cities. The evidence presented in the study points the
need to integrate SDG 11 with SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 2 (no hunger), SDG 10 (reduced
inequality), and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions) to attain sustainable and inclusive
PPT approaches in SSA cities.
Note
1. Each year, the United Nations Development Programme publishes its HDI, ranking all the world’s
countries according to life quality of its inhabitants. Major parameters include global access to education
and health services, longevity and equal income opportunities.
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About the authors

Regis Musavengane is a Tourism and Community Development Geographer. He holds a PhD in
Geography and Environmental Studies from the Witwatersrand University, South Africa. His research
focusses on political ecology in Sub-Saharan African contexts, with particular interest in
co-management of natural resources, conservation, environmental governance and tourism
systems that promote stakeholder participation. He has published on political economy, political
ecology, community development, tourism geographies, responsible tourism and environmental policy
in regional and international journals. He is a member of the IUCN’s World Commission on Protected
Areas (WCPA) Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group (TAPAS Group). Regis Musavengane is
the corresponding author and can be contacted at: regmuss2000@yahoo.com
Pius Siakwah a Development and Resources Geographer and Research Fellow at the Institute of
African Studies (IAS), University of Ghana. He holds a PhD in Geography from Trinity College Dublin
(TCD), Ireland. Pius has published in leading journals in geography, natural resources, development
studies and network geographies on issues concerning natural resource governance, political
economy, globalized assemblages, tourism and development. He is also Reviewer for a number of
peer-review journals, including Geoforum, Resources Policy, Environment and Society. He has
keen interest in political economy, natural resources, development geographies, governance,
livelihoods, network theories, and tourism and development.
Llewellyn Leonard is Associate Professor at the University of South Africa; he obtained his PhD from
Kings College, University of London. He has worked on environmental justice issues related to
industrial, medical and municipal waste, landfills, mining, air pollution, incineration, cleaner
production techniques and obsolete pesticides, to name a few, in South Africa and internationally.
Research interests include environmental justice, human rights, sustainability, democracy and
governance, social movements; civil society–state–industry relations, to name a few.
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“Does the poor matter” in pro-poor

driven sub-Saharan African cities?

Regis Musavengane, Pius Siakwah and Llewellyn Leonard

Regis Musavengane is based Abstract

2. Theoretical underpinnings: the poor, urbanism and PPT thesis

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2.1 Urbanisation and urbanism

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2.2 The poor, the DSs and growth

2.3 The poor, PPT and sustainability nexus

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2.4 Situating inclusive tourism in the sustainability development goals framework

Table I Pro-poor tourism principles

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2.5 Cities, urban tourism and social sustainability

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3.1 Step 1: framing the research

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3.4 Step 4: extracting and coding data

Table III Meta-synthesised articles

No. Authors Title Year Journal

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3.5 Step 5: analysis on a case-specific basis

3.6 Step 6: synthesizing on a cross-study level

3.7 Step 7 and 8

4.1 Shaping tourism development through neoliberalism

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4.2 Poor governance and the poor urban citizens

4.3 Race towards modernity of urban spaces vs survival of the poor

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4.4 The poor and crime in sustainable urban tourism discourse

4.5 Tourism macroeconomic gains vs microeconomic benefits

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5. Conclusions: towards creating “pro-poor”, sustainable and inclusive urban

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About the authors

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