2.3.

Chinese Art – An Introductory Chinese Art History Guide

C hina is one of the

largest countries in
the world, it spans
roughly over 9000
square kilometers and
is populated by over
1.4 billion people.
China is a large and
vast country, which
also means it has a
rich history and
culture. This article
will explore various
facts about Chinese
art and culture.

A Historical Overview of China

Chinese art history goes back to its prehistoric roots in ancient China artwork. For us to have a better understanding of ancient
Chinese art we will provide a brief historical overview starting from the Neolithic period all the way through the numerous
Dynasties that shaped not only Chinese politics and society, but the Chinese art culture.

The Beginnings of China: The Neolithic Age

When we look at the history of China, it dates to early prehistoric times (over two million years) when the fossils from what
is referred to as the Peking Man, or Homo erectus pekinensis, were found in northern China in the Zhoukoudian Cave, which
is in the Fangshan District in Beijing.
The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) in
China is also dated around 7000 BCE to
1700 BCE with various cultures that were
mainly hunting and farming communities.
They developed in other areas of
community life, for example, building
homes, using various tools, domestication
of animals, as well as the production of
pottery, which is a significant aspect of
ancient China artwork.

A Brief Overview of the Chinese

Dynasties

The first political and economic system in

China’s history is said to have started when
the first dynasties, or monarchies, were
established. In total, there were 83
dynasties with over 500 emperors during
China’s Imperial history.

Many sources state that it started with

the Xia Dynasty around 2070 to 1600 BC,
ruled by the emperor Yu the Great.

However, there is also minimal evidence

left behind that can verify this dynasty’s
existence and it has been described as a
“mythical” dynasty. Furthermore, sources state it was invented by the Zhou Dynasty that ruled after the Shang Dynasty,
which succeeded Xia (for simplification, it was the Xia Dynasty, then the Shang Dynasty, and then the Zhou Dynasty, but
we will explore these further below).

The Shang Dynasty (also known as the Yin Dynasty) ruled from 1600 to 1046 BCE with its roots in the Yellow River Valley.
From various excavations, this dynasty’s existence has been verified as factual. The Yellow River is believed to be the
second-longest river in China and was the originating source or “cradle” of the Chinese civilization. This age was marked by
numerous advancements like writing, astronomy, maths, and what is sometimes understood as the “Early Bronze Age”.

The Zhou Dynasty ruled from around 1050 to 221 BCE, and they shared a lot of similarities with the previous Shang Dynasty.
This period is also marked as being the “Late Bronze Age” of China. Another important political tool utilized and enforced
during this period was the Mandate of Heaven. This was really a philosophy and belief system that Heaven (Tian) decided
when a ruler would be overthrown and succeeded by the next rightful ruler.

During this time, the philosophies of Confucius and Laozi also developed, respectively, Confucianism and Taoism.
These philosophies became worldwide ways of thought, and are still present today.

The Zhou Dynasty ruled over 700 years and was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in ancient China’s history. It ended due
to ensuing wars and conflict between the individual states and when the King was forced to flee to the eastern capital, Luoyi,
the Eastern Zhou Dynasty developed (this was during 771 to 221 BCE). This period was further marked by the first half
called the Spring and Autumn Period and the latter half called the Warring States Period (475 to 221 BCE).

The Qin Dynasty (221 to 206 BCE) developed from the conflicts during the Warring States period with King Zheng of Qin
as the first emperor. The Qin Dynasty ruled for only a short period of time and ushered in new systems that organized the
state and laid foundations that became the structure of the Chinese government. This was also the first imperial dynasty in
China.

What was different about the Qin Dynasty was that it was centralized, with the ruling power being united compared to the
previous powers dispersed among the different states that eventually warred with one another for power (as mentioned
above).

The Qin Dynasty fell after the death of the first emperor and the strife of civil war, the beginnings of the succeeding
Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) developed.

The Han Dynasty was ruled by Liu Bang, otherwise Emperor Gaozu of Han, and as the second imperial dynasty introduced
many new developments in China. It was marked as a period of flourishing growth in various aspects, economically, as well
as establishing new trade routes like the Silk Road, which reached as far as the Mediterranean.

The Han Dynasty was divided into the

Western Han (202 BCE to 9 CE) and the
Eastern Han (25 to 220 CE). There were
over 20 emperors during this period with
Emperor Wu being one of the longest to
rule (over 50 years). When the Han
Dynasty fell, there was a time of division
between the states during the years 220 to
589 CE. This became known as the Three
Kingdom period, ruled by the three states,
Wu, Wei, and Shu.

The period of division lasted around

400 years and was only reunified again
by the Sui Dynasty (581 to 618 CE).

The Sui Dynasty was a short period, succeeded by the Tang Dynasty (618 to 907 CE). The other dynasties that followed
were, namely, Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 CE), the Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368 CE), the Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644 CE),
the Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1911/12 CE), and then what marks China as the Modern period, from 1912 to the present day.
The Republic of China was founded in 1912.
During all the imperial periods, there were significant changes to the development of China and periods of war and conflict
that divided the states and reunified them again under imperial rule. The period of the division after the Han Dynasty is when
the influence of the Buddhist religion developed and spread with many temples being built.

The Tang Dynasty, for example, was marked as a Golden Age during China’s history with improved economic and
military structures as well as a flourishing culture.

The Silk Road became a prosperous trade route that allowed cultures to exchange various goods like textiles, metals, and
glass. This further developed and encouraged the creation of Chinese artwork in the form of pottery (ceramics) and painting.

What Is Chinese Art?

Chinese art history encompasses all the visual arts originating in China and produced by the Chinese cultures and artists. It
is marked by many different types, ranging from Neolithic pottery to calligraphy, painting, poetry, porcelain, bronze work,
jade carving, and many others. It begins from the Prehistoric age up to the present, Contemporary age. Traditional Chinese
art shares commonalities, however, it was also produced differently within each dynasty, which are key distinguishing
periods marking the progression of Chinese artwork.

Below, we will discuss some of the key characteristics underpinning Chinese artwork, as well as take a closer look at
significant Chinese art through different modalities.

Characteristics of Chinese Art

The common underpinning characteristics that give Chinese art its nature come from philosophical, religious, and cultural
beliefs. Chinese culture has always valued nature and its inherent significance. We will find that a wide variety of subject
matter is often of natural elements, for example, foliage and plants like bamboo, flowers, animal life-like birds, as well as
landscape depictions.

Symbols used in ancient Chinese art, from Decorative textiles; an illustrated book on
coverings for furniture, walls and floors, including damasks, brocades and velvets, tapestries, laces,
embroideries, chintzes, cretonnes, drapery and furniture trimmings, wall papers, carpets and rugs,
tooled and illuminated leathers (1918); Internet Archive Book Images,
No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

This inherent significance of nature revolved around a deeper belief in the spiritual aspects of life and the external world
being a “manifestation” of that. Artists sought to depict the deeper meanings of life and the universe. This also ties in with
the strong moral and ethical beliefs many artists had.
Calligraphy and landscape painting were two of the most important types (or “highest forms”) of Chinese artwork.
Landscape painting would depict more ideal scenes of nature, sometimes these were not a true-to-nature reflection of the
actual landscape.

For example, depictions of mountains would represent the idea of heaven as they move upwards towards higher
aspects of nature and, ultimately, the spiritual. Other depictions would be to inspire people who looked at the artwork.

Chinese artists were followers of Confucianism, and their moral standpoints were reflected in their art. Chinese artwork
sometimes appears simpler and more minimal in its depictions without the need to be bashful or overzealous about the artist’s
talents or skills as an artist. Chinese artwork would often reflect the moral character of the artists themselves.

Another important point about

Chinese painters and
calligraphers is that most artists
also had a strong scholarly
background, in fact, it became a
prerequisite to have knowledge of
other artistic masters to be an
artist.

Court art was another aspect of

Chinese artwork, artists would
often be commissioned by the
patron or the Imperial court. This
type of artwork would act as
decoration for the interior of their
palaces, various buildings, and
tombs.

Types of Chinese Art

There were many contributing

factors surrounding Chinese
artwork and it is important to
remember the evolution of these
modalities throughout the
different developments of each
Dynasty and periods of conflict.
Some modalities served different
purposes and meanings.

As the ages progressed, artists

would utilize different media
and surfaces too.

Chinese Painting
We have what is known in
Chinese, wenfang sibao, or “Four
Treasures of a Scholar’s Studio” –
this was an important part of Chinese painters’ and calligraphers’ skills and toolsets. It consisted of paper, brushes, ink, and
inkstone. It is said to have originated during 420 to 589 CE, during the Southern and Northern Dynasties.

However, the paintbrush as an artistic tool in Chinese art culture is believed to date all the way back to the Neolithic
period and was utilized and considered as a creative tool during 476 to 221 BC, which is the time of the “Warring
States” in Chinese history.

The way the paintbrush was made usually consisted of animal hair for the bristles, which would come from different animals
giving varying degrees of thickness. This would then be attached to a stick, which would usually be bamboo.
 Paintings were usually created on paper, which would then be mounted
on silk. There were different types of ways paintings would be mounted,
for example, scrolls in the form of hand or hanging scrolls, fans, leaves
done as album leaves, among others.

Hanging scrolls were vertical in shape and supported by wooden rods

and strips as weights for the painting to be hung on a cord and stay
open.

They were also able to fold up easily. Handscrolls were also usually rolled
up and taken out to be viewed on special occasions. These would be
viewed from right to left, as it is unrolled the various scenes would appear
and viewers would take part in this as a ceremonial act.

An example is a hanging scroll simply titled, Mountain Landscape (c.

1600s), from the Ming Dynasty by Dong Qichang. It is 95.5 by 41
centimeters in size depicting a mountainous landscape with various
vegetation. The painting is composed in a way where our eyes, as the
viewers, are guided to move in an upwards direction towards the top tip of
the mountain in the background (near the upper part of the hanging scroll).
We also notice how the artist created depth to the painting by highlighting
areas with darker shades of ink.

An example of a handscroll painting is from the later 1900s by Zhu Xiuli

who repurposes a traditional Chinese art in his handscroll
titled, Landscape (1985 to 1989). This is a reproduction of what we will see
in traditional handscrolls. It depicts a landscape with houses and varying
types of trees here and there. The image is depicted with smooth lines and
dynamic fluidity.

Other forms of Chinese painting include fans, for example, Landscape in

the Style of Yan Wengui (c. 1707) by Wang Hui, which was painted in the
style of famous 10th-century painter Yan Wengui, and depicts classical
landscape as a subject matter. We notice several trees to the left with a
pavilion area to the right-hand side of the composition. There are also the
characteristic ink markings that delineate the mountains in the background,
and furthermore, the ink markings are horizontal and vertical in shape.

Next to the images, we also notice various calligraphic inscriptions

decorating the middle left part of the fan, which are reported to be done by
other artists alongside Wang Hui. Wang Hui was part of several other
painters, the group was called the “Four Wangs”, who were from the Qing
Dynasty period from 1644 to 1911.

Fans were usually made to be given as gifts with the typical landscape
painting as its subject matter.

Similarly, there would also be inscriptions on the fans like the above-
mentioned fan. The inscriptions would often vary as comments and notes
from peers. There were also
different types of fans, for
example, some were made of
stiffened silk and the other
would be made of paper. These
would be mounted between
bamboo sticks as support.

Other examples of landscape paintings from one of the famous artists, Fan
Kuan, who painted during the Song Dynasty from 960 to 1279 CE. Kuan is
well known for his landscape paintings of mountains and the natural
environments that he was inevitably inspired by. Many sources about him state that he lived as a recluse, away from the
politics of conflict from what was the “Five Dynasties” period.

In his work titled, Travelers by Streams and Mountains (c. 1000 CE),
there is an element of depicting the search for truth. The artist was also
influenced by Neo-Confucian thought at the time, which revered a sense
of truth that came from the natural world. The above-mentioned painting,
which is in the format of a hanging scroll around 7 feet high.
The composition is divided into three aspects, namely, the large boulders
in the foreground, the opening in the middle of the painting with various
trees and outgrowths of foliage, and the background growing into tall
mountains with its tips topped with bushy-like foliage.

There are various other details within this painting, which emphasize
the scale of the mountains compared to the minute details.

For example, the men and donkeys in the bottom right corner, including
the temple hidden between the trees. The scale of the figures against the
scale of the towering mountains suggests the sheer vastness of Kuan’s
landscape and its majestic qualities.

We will notice even more skill in the artist’s techniques to render the
subject matter in as much detail as possible. There are varying degrees of
thickness in the brushstrokes, we see this so delicately done in the
mountain crevices. Additionally, the artist also utilized ink wash and dots
to create the depiction of texture.

Another example is titled, Appreciating Potted Chrysanthemum in

Tranquility by Ming dynasty artist Shen Zhou. This painting depicts a
landscape with a gazebo standing to the far right of the horizontal
composition.

There are four figures beneath the canopy, three of whom are sitting at a table and the fourth figure standing to the left
holding a jug of sorts. Behind the canopy is a row of potted chrysanthemums. The remainder of the landscape is filled with
trees.

We will also notice the characteristic calligraphic inscriptions to the left of the painting, which are poems.

The painting, Eleven Dragons (c. 15th Century), by Chen Rong of the Ming Dynasty period is another handscroll, which
depicts eleven dragons along with the 16-foot-long scroll. The dragons are all depicted dynamically on mountain cliffs and
clouds.

The color of the dragons is

monochromatic ink along
with detailed lines delineating
the forms and shapes.
Dragons have been powerful
symbols throughout ancient
Chinese art and symbolize various qualities of strength like masculinity as well as attributes to imperial power or royalty and
wisdom.

Chinese Pottery
Chinese pottery goes back all the way to the prehistoric period when it was utilized for utilitarian purposes as well as for
burial purposes as many have been excavated from burial sites, known also as funerary jars. Chinese pottery has been
throughout the ages, developing into many different styles and forms as traditional Chinese art. Neolithic pottery was also
painted and decorated by carving bands of patterns into form.

Chinese pottery also spans ceramics and porcelain. When we look at Chinese porcelain, we will find there is a vast array of
delicately decorated pieces, a testament to the inherent artistic skill of this type of Chinese artwork.
Blue and white porcelain was prevalent in China during the 1300s and was utilized
in temples, these were also a widely made form of porcelain with a blue underglaze
instead of a red underglaze. The red underglaze was also produced during the Yuan
Dynasty (1279 to 1368 CE).

When we look at some of the examples, we will notice various designs and patterns
on different types of vessels. The Blue and White Porcelain Jug (c. early
15th Century), from the Ming Dynasty, depicts floral patterns painted on most of the
jug. The jug has a large belly, which tapers into a wider neck and opening (it is
believed the jug also had a lid).
Chinese art history almost does not seem complete without mentioning the
famous Terracotta Army warriors from the tomb of the first Chinese emperor during
the Qin Dynasty (c. 210 BCE) – masterpieces of Chinese sculpting to this day. The
warriors were found in Lintong County in the Shaanxi Province during 1974 in “pits”
or underground chambers that were dug up by farmers.

They were discovered as various terracotta fragments, which turned out to be

an entire army of terracotta warriors made to protect the tomb (mausoleum) of
the Qin Emperor.

The figures were all varied in their size and stature and there were also horses, chariots, and an assortment of other figures
like musicians and strongmen, which were believed to be entertainers for the emperor in the afterlife. Some of the more
important figures like generals were sculpted as taller than other figures that were warriors. In other words, the size would
indicate the “role”.

The terracotta warriors give us some interesting facts

about Chinese art, it is indicated that there were
around 8, 000 figures of soldiers with sources
reporting that even more figures have been found,
over 100 chariots, and over 600 horses.

Not only is this one of the largest archaeological

finds in history, but it is also considered the eighth
wonder of the world.

The creation of this vast terracotta army is estimated

to have taken around 40 years to complete with
around 700 000 people who worked towards its
completion. The detail of each terracotta figure is
another testament to the skill of ancient Chinese art and Chinese sculpting. When we look at each figure, we will notice that
each one is individualized and sculpted in fine detail, from facial features to clothing. When they were discovered, some
terracotta figures still had remnants of color from the paint that was on them.

Other Chinese Artworks

Ancient Chinese art is not limited to only calligraphy

and painting, there are multitudes of other art forms
within the history of Chinese arts. Some notable
modalities also include Chinese ritual bronzes, which
were made as part of graves. There is a significant
collection of these bronzes all made with incredible
skill and craftsmanship.

The bronzes were also made in different shapes

and forms, for example, some were in the shape of
different animals.

Apart from the primary utilization for ritual, bronzes

were also made for other reasons. It is reported that
during the Song Dynasty bronzes were made for different reasons, such as vessels for water, wine, food, sacrifice,
measurements, weapon containers, musical instruments, and others.

Chinese Art: Then and Now

Chinese art certainly has evolved since prehistory and to this day it is still going strong. In 1949 China became a republic
and art was created in a way that celebrated various governmental structures. The types of art included paintings, posters,
ceramics, woodblock prints, and various other propaganda-driven artwork.

Due to other conflicts during the 1900s, Chinese art was stifled in its expression, however, since the 1980s there has been a
new expansion and freedom of expression for China art. There has been more experimentation with new modalities and
techniques, as well as making art for the Chinese culture, revisiting traditional Chinese art modalities.

Chinese art is a continental art, it spans the whole of China and has been a creation of the hearts and minds of its
people. From the earliest fossil finds to the latest contemporary Chinese art, it has reached the rest of the world in
many ways, but undoubtedly has left its imprint as one of the biggest art movements in the world of art history.

When Did Chinese Art First Occur?

Chinese art occurred as early as the Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) dated around 7000 BCE to 1700 BCE. The history
of China dates to early prehistoric times (over two million years) when the fossils from what is referred to as the Peking Man,
or Homo erectus pekinensis, were found in northern China in the Zhoukoudian Cave, which is in the Fangshan District in
Beijing. Chinese art has evolved up until the present times and has developed new contemporary modalities and techniques
reaching across the entire art world.

What Are Some of the Main Forms of Chinese Art?

Calligraphy, Painting, and Poetry were some of the main forms of Chinese art. These were also referred to as the “Three
Perfections”. Artists would often utilize and combine the three modalities to create artworks. Calligraphy was an important
part of the Chinese art culture as it was, and is, handwriting, and with this meticulous care and intention goes into writing it.
Poetry and writing poetry were also important prerequisites for certain examinations.

What Are the Characteristics of Chinese Art?

The common characteristics that give Chinese art its nature come from philosophical, religious, and cultural beliefs. Chinese
culture has always valued nature and its significance. A variety of subject matter is often of natural elements, for example,
foliage and plants like bamboo, flowers, animal life-like birds, as well as landscapes of mountains and rivers. Furthermore,
religion and moral beliefs from Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism were important influencing factors to how artists
created art and its underlying meaning. Additionally, the court was also an influencing factor in how people created art and
the purpose it served.

What Was Chinese Painting?

Ancient Chinese landscape painting was one of the primary forms of painting, and is often also described as the “highest”
form of painting. Artists would depict landscapes with mountainous areas and rivers, in fact, the Chinese word for landscape
consists of two characters that mean “mountains and water”. Paintings were usually also created on paper, which would then
be mounted on silk. The painting was also done like calligraphy, for example, the paintbrush was dipped in pigments of
varying colors of ink. There were also two techniques in Chinese paintings, namely, “Gongbi” (meaning “meticulous”) and
“Ink and Wash”. There were different types of ways paintings would be mounted, for example, scrolls in the form of hand
or hanging scrolls, fans, and album leaves.

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