Research on Collaborative Object Detection and Recognition of Autonomous

Underwater Vehicle Based on YOLO Algorithm

TANG Leisheng' , XU Hongli-, WU Han3 , TAN Dongxir', Gao Lei s
I. Shengya ng In stitnte of Automation, Chine se Aca demy of Science, Shenyang 1100 l o.China: SR ENYANG JIANZRU
UNIVERSITY, Information & Control Engineering Facul ty, Shenyang 110 I68,China
E-mail : tangleisheng@sia .cn
2. Northeastern University, Shenya ng 110000, China
E-m ail: xuhongli@m ail.neu .edu .cn
3. Shengy ang In stitute of Automation, Chine se Academy of Science, Shenyang 110016, China
Esmail : wulk1n@sia .cn
4. Shenyang Li gon g University, School of Automation and Electrical Engineering, Shen yang 110000, China
E-mail : tandongxu@sia .cn
5. Shengy ang Institute of Automation, Chine se Academy of Science, Shenyang 11001 6, China
E-mail: gaolei @sia.cn
Abstract: Aut onomous underwater vehicle (AU V) is an important tool for hum an to explore and research marine
resources. Due to the influence of underwater environment, it is impossible to realize the rapid detection and recognition
of AUV and the reco gnition of cooperative objects. To solve thi s problem, underwater light vision and underwater ima ge
enh ancement technology are proposed to reali ze the rapid detection and reco gnition of underwater vehicles, so as to
2021 33rd Chinese Control and Decision Conference (CCDC) | 978-1-6654-4089-9/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/CCDC52312.2021.9601610

realize the reco gnition of cooperative objects. In thi s paper, YOLO algoritlun which has a good effect on target detection
precision and the recognition speed is used to recognize the underwater vehicle on the Yolo network. For the original
data set, histogram equ alization and CLARE algoritlun are used to enhance the image. They are respectively loaded into
the same training model and trained on the yolov2 and yolov3 networks. The analysis of the experimental result s show s
that the underwater image enhancement technology based on the YOLOv3 network and the CLARE algorithm can meet
the requirements of rapid reco gnition for underwater vehicle detection and reco gnition.
Key Words: Underwater Vehicle, YOLO, Neural Network, Real-time Detection, Target Recognition

which leads to the problem that the cooperative object

1 INTRODUCTION
Since Autonomous Underwater Vehicles can adapt to the
harsh ocean environment , they can replace human beings to
complete a variety of underwater tasks, so they gradually
become an important tool for human to explore marine
resources. It has been widely used in the fields of marine
environment observation, marine resources investigation,
marine security and defense (l.ll.Computer vision is widely
used in the tasks of underwater vehicle, and it can assist the
vehicle to complete various tasks, such as underwater map
drawing, 3D scene reconstruction, underwater target
recognition and tracking, underwater pipeline inspection
and positioning et a1 131.
When light travels under water, it is scaltered by particles
and impurities in water and absorbed by water medium,
resulting in strong attenuauon t' <l.As a result, the acquired
underwater images cannot directly meet the needs of human
beings, and to some extent affect the accuracy and
efficiency of target recognition 171. And the underwater
vehicle takes advantage of the underwater environment and
integrates it with the environment, making it difficult to
recognize the underwater vehicle from the underwater
environment.
Due to the influence of the environment, the underwater
vehicle cannot be detected and recognized in real time,
cannot be identified . In this paper , the recognition and
detection of underwater vehicle in underwater environment
are realized by using machine vision and image enhance-
ment technology.
1.1 Experimental platform - undenvater vehicle
Shkurti et al 181and Karim Koreitern et al 191from McGill
University in Canada designed the Aqua small underwater
vehicle, and they proposed a visnal recognition and tracking
system for underwater vehicle , in which the rear vehicle can
recognize and track the front vehicle through vision.
According to the experimental requirements , this paper
designs a kind of small underwater vehicle- "Dolphin I"
AUV based on real-time computer vision. This vehicle has
the functions of fixed-depth navigation, directional naviga-
tion, image acquisition and processing . It can realize auto-
nomous and remote control movement under water .
The AUV structural design of Dolphin I is shown in Fig
1. OpenMV camera and main camera Sony FDR-X 3000
camera are installed on it, as well as the image processing
version integrated with GPU(Graphics Processing Unit
(GPU)) computing module (Nvidia Jetson TX2).Three
tasks can be performed on this platform : I) Vehicle forward
environment monitoring .Z) Target identification;3) Posit-
ioning .

Tins work is supported by Independent project of State Key Laboratory

of Robo tics 2016-Z08V

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Nvidia Jctson TX2
.~~SOIlY FDR-X3000
Camera
/
Depth Gauge Vertical Thruster Counter Weight
Figl . Overall structure of "Dolphin I" AUV
The Dolphin I AUV (shown in Fig . 2) measures 520mm
by 430mm by 160nnn, weighs 13kg, uses two horizontal
and one vertical thrusters. It has six degrees of freedom and
operates at a depth of 30 meters with a maximum speed of
2.5 knots.
Fig2 . AUV undenvater motion diagram of "Dolphin I"
2 Relevant Work
According to the process of underwater target recogni-
tion and detection, the key technologies of undenvater
target recognition and detection based on optical image can
be divided into two parts: underwater image preprocessing
and underwater target recognition and detection.
2.1 Image Preprocessing
The scholars at home and abroad have also done in-depth
research on undenvater image preprocessing technology .
Because of the influence of light absorption and scatter-
ing in water, the undenvater light image presents a blue-
green color. Moreover, due to the influence of light
scattering from impurity particles in water, the underwater
light image will appear blurred and atomi zed. In order to
see the underwater target of interest more clearly, it is
necessary to enhance the underwater image processing, so
as to improve the accuracy of underwater target recognition
and detection, color constancy theory (Retinex) was pro-
posed by Land (101 and gradually developed into MCR,
MSRCR and other methods for image enhancement.
Carlevaris-Biano et al (Il( used attenuation errors between
channels of RGB color to eliminate image blurring.
Histogram Equalization and Adaptive Histogram Equaliz-
ation (CLAHE) algorithm (l 2( is able to better improve the
contrast of underwater images, and can more clearly see
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underwater targets of interest. In this paper, histogram
equalization and CLARE algorithm are used to enhance the
collected underwater images.
1) Histogram Equalization
The realization process of image enhancement process-
ing by histogram equalization is as follows :(l) Determine
the gray level ofthe image and convert the color image into
a gray level image with a gray level of 0-255 ; (2) Calculate
the probability of the original histogram, and calculate the
proportion of each gray level in the total pixel of the original
image , denoted as Pi; (3)Calculate the histogram of
probability cumulative value SCi), until finally a grayscale,
sum to 1:
I I
k k
s, = T(rk) = Pr (1J ) = ~
j =O j =O
(4) According to the formula to calculate the pixel
mapping,
SS(i) = int(max(pix) - min (pix)) * SCi) + 0.5
pix refers to grayscale, SSO) refers to maximum grayscale
- minimum grayscale) * accumulative probability rounded
after + 0 .5.
The image enhancement operation of histogram equaliz-
ation is carried out on the collected image data , and the
effect diagram is shown in Fig3 . By observing the histog-
ram changes, it can be seen that the gray level in the original
image is concentrated in the middle, and there are basically
no dark and bright pixels in the image , After equalized
histogram, the pixel distribution is more uniform, the darker
and brighter pixels in the image are prominent. The image
is brighter as a whole, but the performance of interesting
features in the image is poor.
2) CLARE Algorithm
The implementation process of the CLARE algorithm for
image enhancement processing is as follows : (1) Divide the
image into several N*N size small pieces; (2) Cut out the
gray histogram of each small block with clipping value of
Clipimit, and find out the part and total Excess higher than
this value in the histogram, and complete the balance
through operation; (3) To carry out the linear difference
between blocks, it is necessary to traverse and operate each
image block, and finally obtain the transformed value of
each pixel ; (4) Do layer color filter mixing operation with
the original image to get the enhanced color image .
As shown in Figure 3, the image data collected was
enhanced by the CLAHE algorithm. By observing the
histogram changes, it can be seen that the histogram
enhanced by CLAHE algorithm moves the pixel
distribution to the left , and the image is dark on the whole.
However, it has an obvious effect on the defogging of the
underwater image , and the features of interest in the image
are more obvious.
2.2 Target Recognition and Detection
To realize the recognition of the cooperative object of the
undenvater vehicle by vision, the first step is to complete
the target detection and recognition of the underwater
1665
 vehicle. At present , convolutional neural networks are
mainly used in the field of target detection. The more
mature networks mainly include :
• 10~

(a) Original image (b) Original image histogram

Il2 113 0.6 0,7

(c) The image after the histogram equalization operation (d) The histogram after the histogram equalization
operation

. ' "' '. I I I~ I [ 1111 . , ~~

."' . "' ....
111111""h'IfiE:
0_.8

(e) The image after CLAHE algorithm operation (f) The histogram after CLAHE algorithm operation
Fig3. Underwater image enhancement effect drawing by histogram Equalization and CLAHE algorithm

R-CNN network proposed by Girshic et al [l3].The Fast- set processed by CLAHE algorithm, the experi-mental
RCNN network model proposed by Girshic et al [14]. Ren [15] results were analyzed . The flow chart of YOLO detection
et al proposed the Faster-RCNN model. Redmon J et al [16] target is shown in Fig4.
proposed the YOLO model, which is an efficient target
detection model. Instead of the original stage of candidate
region generation, the network can simultaneously detect
and predict multiple categories of targets, and can directly
train the network end-to-end . Liu W et al [17] proposed the
SSD network model.
In the underwater environment, due to the influence of
the environment, it is impossible to detect and recognize the
underwater vehicle in real time, which leads to the problem
cooperative object cannot be identified. This paper
proposes to use machine vision, image enllancement
technology and YOLO algorithm to realize the recognition
and detection of the underwater vehicle in the underwater Class probability map

enviromnent. The YOLO network was mainly used to Fig4. Flow chart of YOLO detection target
perform the experiment. By comparing the recognition YOLOv3 uses feature fusion and multi-scale detection
effect ofYOLOv2 [IS] and YOLOv3 [19] between the original methods to effectively improve the accuracy and speed of
image data set, the histogram equalized data set and the data target detection. The YOLOv3 network structure has evolv-

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 ed from YOLOv2 Darknet-19 to Darknet-53. YOLOv3
Network draws on Residual Network Residual Network,
each Residual component has two convolution layers and a

LLI~bj [t( en +
B
shortcut link. Darknet-53 (2 + 1*2 + 1 + 2*2 + 1 + 8*2 + 1
S2

+ 8*2 + 1 + 4*2 + 1 = 53) was adopted in the network loge (1 - t()log(l - e()] -
structure adjustment. The last connected layer was the full i=O j =O

LL [t( ef) +
S2 B
connection layer, which was also counted as the convolu-
tion layer, and there were 53 in total. The network structure Anoobj IJoob
j
loge (1 - t()log(l - e()] -
i=O j =O
of the algorithm was shown in Fig 5.
LI~bj L [p/ +
S2

'~ "'~~~e8eXQx'e
Corw. loy....
~;;:6~~
M "~ poo l laro r
C~:;·~~;'t
Maxf'OOl l0l"' <
":b~rs"
3d.256
2 ~2 ....2 2.1 +2 l. h 2S6
-3_30.:;12
Ma.<POollaY'"'
2x2.\.o2
Ma. p~l llrl'e.
Fig5. Network structure of YOLO algoritlun
The YOLOv3 algorithm unifies candidate box extraction,
feature extraction, target classification and other functions
in a deep neural network. In YOLO, the input image is first
divided into SxS grids of equal size, and each Grid is called
a Grid Cell. Subsequent detection processes are related to
the grid information. The prediction box of the target object
is given based on the center point of the grid, and the size
of the prediction box can be customized. Each grid predicts
B Bounding Boxes, each Bounding Box has four coordi-
nates and one confidence , and the final prediction result is
SxS x(B*5+C) vectors . YOLOV3 sets 3 candidate boxes for
each grid cell. Each candidate Box has 5 basic parameters
(x, y, w, h, confidence) , where (x, y) is the offset of the
center of the Bounding Box relative to the cell, and (w, h)
is the ratio of the Bounding Box relative to the whole photo .
All parameters are normalized . Whether the confidence
response includes objects and the accuracy of the position
under the condition that objects are included are defined as:
Pr(Object ) x IOU~~Z~th, Pr(Obje ct) E [0,1]
Where, Pr(Object ) represents the probability that the
detection Boundary Box contains the target object , and
IOU~~Z~th is the overlap degree of two Boundary Boxes .
Finally , the class probability Ci = P(ClassdObject) of
each grid prediction is calculated.
The loss function of YOLOv3 was modified on the basis
of YOLOv2 . YOLOv3 eliminated Softmax and replaced it
with Logistic , replacing the classification loss with
dichotomous cross entropy. The smaller the cross entropy
is, the closer the two probability distributions are.
H(p,q) = -l>(x;)logq(x;)
Where p is the distribution of correct answers, q is the
distribution of predictions , and log base e.
The loss function of YOLOv3 is:
S2 B
_ "\' "\' obj [(
Loss - Acoord LL I ij
i=O j =O
log(P/) (1 - P/)log(l - p/)]
i =O cEcl asses
means that the target appears in the ith grid
Obj
Where, li
cell; li~bj represents the jth bounding box predictor in the ith
grid cell.
( ",,,,,.ln ye,, ( """.laren C<>
nn. l oye. (""". Loye'
1:~:;~~ } ~4 3~;~1oi~ }X2 ~:~::~~~ 2.3 Weight Training of Neural Network
hl.512 ~.3.IOU
3.3 . '02 ~ 3d.IQ2.-j-2
2..2....2 In the experiment , Jiamin VlRB XE undenvater motion
camera was used to shoot the undenvater motion state of the
AUV, and 2274 effective motion photos of the AUV were
extracted . Labelimg was used to calibrate the data sets for
training and testing, among which the training set consisted
of the original training set, the training set processed by
histogram equalization, and the training set processed by
CLAHE algoritlun. The sample image of the vehicle's
undenvater motion part was shown in Fig . 6. Table 1 shows
the number of training sets and test sets.
Table l . Calibration of data set
Label I Training I Testing
robot 1800 474
The computer used for training and testing in the
experiment uses Core i7 processor, NVIDIA GeForce GTX
1660 Ti, and CUDAIO.1.
In this paper, a small batch gradient descent method is
used to update the gradient in training . For accelerated
network training, set the Batch at 16 and the Subdivisions
at4 with a learning rate of 0.001.
In the training process, the learning rate decays 10 times
after 1000 and 8000 iterations . The training weight is saved
once every 1000 iterations, and the weight file at the end of
the algoritlun is used to detect the network training results.
3 Analysis of experimental results
The YOLO algoritlun is used to complete the detection
and recognition of the undenvater vehicle , and the change
curve of the loss function is drawn . The final expectation is
O. The loss change curve ofYOLOv2 algoritlun is shown in
Figure 7. Due to the large value of loss function in the first
700 iterations , the Loss change curve should be drawn from
700 times. From the observation of the change curve of loss,
it can be seen that after the completion of 1000 training
iterations, the loss value dropped to 2.0; after the comple-
tion of 2000 iterations , the loss value dropped to 1.0; after
the completion of 7000 iterations, the loss value basically
stabilized at 0.3; Loss value did not decline and tended to
be stable.
A j )2
Xi - Xi + ( Yi - A j )2 ]
Yi + The loss change curve ofYOLOv3 algorithm is shown in
Figure 8.The Loss curve is also plotted starting from 700
iterations . According to the curve, when the iteration reach-
es 1000 times, the loss value drops to 0.2 ; After 2000 iterati-

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 ons, the loss value decreased to 0.05. After 7000 iterations, After the completion of YOLO network training , the
the loss is basically stable at 0.01. final training weight was used to verify the test set. The
The loss curves
YOLOv2 weights were used to verify the test set, and the
I- .V9_'O" I test results were shown in Figl1. According to the
verification results, it can be seen that YOLOv2 algorithm
has a poor recognition effect on the vehicle that is far from
the fixed camera and relatively fuzzy, it is basically unable
to detect and identify the vehicle .
5.0

4.0

' .0
'.0 0.8
1.0

!~f-------J:::-~~~~~~~~~~#-d
o 2000 4000 flOOD 8000 100 00 12QOO 14000 IflQOO
0.'
batches

Fig7. Loos curve of the YOLOv2 algorithm 04

The loss curve s

02
- avgJo ss

1‫סס‬oo zeeoe )OQOO .&0000 50000

0 80

Fig 10. Avg IOU variation curve ofYOLOv3 algorithm

The test set was validated with YOLOv3 weights , and the
0.60

0.40 test results were shown in Fig12 . According to the test

results, the YOLOV3 algorithm has a better recognition
0)5
0.30
OJ>
0.20
0 15 effect on vehicles with a long distance and relatively fuzzy
010
00'
-~ ---+-:- distance, and achieves the expected result.
000 I r"
] 000 4000 6 000 IW OO 100 00
batches

FigS. Loss change curve of YOLOv3 algorithm

The IOU value represents the ratio of the intersection and
union between the candidate box and the real marker
border, and the IOU value finally approaches 1. The Avg
IOU change curve of YOLOv2 algoritlun is shown in
Figure 9. It can be seen from the observation curve that the
IOU value keeps rising with the increasing number of
iterations . When the iterations reach 10,000 times, the IOU
value is basically close to 0.9, and when the iterations reach
15,000 times, the IOU value is basically stable at 0.9 and Figl1. YOLOv2 algoritlun test recognition result
basically stable. diagram
1.0 ,---- _ _-""'-""".=.;=-=:..=-:.=-_----,

0.'

10000 20000 3QO<lO 40000 soeoe Fig 12. YOLOv3 algorithm recognition result diagram
batches
By observation of the recognition results, it can be seen
Fig9. Avg IOU variation curve ofYOLOv2 algoritlun
that YOLOv3 algorithm has a high recognition accuracy for
The Avg IOU change curve of YOLOv3 algorithm is
the AUV, and YOLOv2 algorithm will miss detection for
shown in Figure 10. It can be seen from the observation
images with a long distance and blurred target pixels. The
curve that the IOU value keeps rising with the increasing
recognition results of YOLOv2 , histogram equalization
number of iterations. When the iteration reaches 5000
+YOLOv2, CLAHE+YOLOv2, YOLOv3, histogram
times, the IOU value is basically close to 1 and basically
equalization+YOLOv3, and CLAHE+YOLOv3 algoritluns
stable.
in the test set were counted, and the accuracy, recall rate and

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 average accuracy of the statistical results were observed , as Mobile Networks and Applications, 2017 :1-8. Doi :
shown in Table 2. 10.1007/s110360 1708634 .
[4] Zhao Xinwei. The Research on Undenvater Imaging,
Undenvater Image Enhancement and Relevant Applic-
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2018 MTS /IEEE Charleston, 10 January 2019 . DOl:
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