Introduction To Linguistics

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Introduction TO Linguistics
english linguitics (Trường Đại học Quốc tế, Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh)
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INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS
THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE
- The divine source
- The natural sound source
- The social interac琀椀on source
- The physical adapta琀椀on source
- The tool-making source
- The gene琀椀c source
 The natural sound source
- Func琀椀oning human auditory system
 Sound iden琀椀昀椀ca琀椀on
 Sound imita琀椀on
- Two theories:
 The “Bow – Wow” theory: imita琀椀ng natural sounds of objects
 E.g., cuckoo, bang, boom, buzz
 Onomatopoeia: từ tượng thanh
 Possible problems: soundless things, abstract
concepts, names for things.
 The “Pooh–Pooh” theory: Speech developed from the ins琀椀nc琀椀ve

sounds people make in emo琀椀onal circumstances
 E.g: Ah! Oh! Wow !
 Possible problem: Neutral / normal speech
produc琀椀on
 The social interac琀椀on source
- Sounds o昀昀 people in social interac琀椀on
- Developing human language in a social context
E.g: hums, grunts, groans, curses

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 The physical adapta琀椀on source

- Physical features of speech produc琀椀on:
 The rhythm of breathing (long ar琀椀cula琀椀ons on outgoing breath
with short in-breaths)
 Vocal tract / vocal system:

o Teeth & lips
o Mouth & tounge
o Larynx: thanh quản & pharynx: họng

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 The gene琀椀c source

- Deaf children without speech development can get 昀氀uent in sign
language
- Human o昀昀spring are gene琀椀cally born/ innate with a special capacity for
language
- The innateness hypothesis: changes in human diets  gene琀椀c changes

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- Upright posture (bipedal – on 2 feet) locomo琀椀on
THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE

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Problem: Sounds of spoken English do not necessarily match up with

le琀琀ers or wri琀琀en English
PHONETICS: is the general study of the characteris琀椀cs of speech
sounds
Interna琀椀onal Phone琀椀c Alphabet (IPA)
 Analy琀椀c framework for studying speech segments: mảng
 The symbols of the alphabet can represent the sounds of English
words
Ar琀椀culatory phone琀椀cs (ngữ âm học cấu âm) is the study of how speech sounds
are made or ar琀椀culated.
Auditory phone琀椀cs (perceptual phone琀椀cs: ngữ âm thính giác) is the study of the
percep琀椀on, via the ear, of speech sounds.
Acous琀椀c phone琀椀cs (ngữ âm liên quan đến sóng âm và cách tai nghe chúng) is the
study of the physical proper琀椀es of speech as sound waves in the air.
CONSONANTS

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 Three features of ar琀椀cula琀椀ng a consonant

o Voicing
o Place of ar琀椀cula琀椀on
o Manner of ar琀椀cula琀椀on
Consonants: Voiced (+V) vs. Voiceless (-V)

Pronounce these features of speech produc琀椀on:
1. Trachea (windpipe): khí quản
2. Larynx (voicebox): thanh quản
3. Vocal cords/ Vocal folds: dây thanh quản
Voiceless sounds Voiced sounds
Vocal folds are spread apart Vocal folds are drawn together
The air from the lung passes between the The air from the lungs repeatedly pushes
vocal folds the vocal folds apart
With no air obstruc琀椀on (no vibra琀椀on) (-v) With a vibra琀椀on e昀昀ect (+v)
E.g: ppppp, sssss E.g: bbbb, zzzz
PLACE OF ARTICULATION
 Lips – labial /ˈleɪbiəl/
 Teeth – dental
 Alveolar ridge – alveolar /ælˈviːələ(r)/ : lợi
 Palate – palatal /ˈpælətl/ : vòm miệng
 Velum/ so昀琀 palate – velar /ˈviːlər/ : vòm mềm
 Nose – nasal
 Glo琀�s – glo琀琀al : thanh môn
 Tounge – lingual

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IPA SYMBOLS FOR CONSONANTS

1. Familiar symbols:
Symbol ~ le琀琀er (e.g., [p], [b], [t]..)
2. Unfarmilar symbols
Symbol = le琀琀er (e.g., [g] for “g”; [θ] for “th”)
3. Transcribing sounds (not le琀琀ers)
Same symbols but di昀昀erent spellings (e.g., [f]: photo, enough; [s]: dance,
glass, dense)
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
1. Air昀氀ow through nose: nasal (m/n)
2. Air昀氀ow escapes through narrow gap: frica琀椀ves (f/v, ʃ/ʒ)
3. Air昀氀ow is blocked, going abruptly: stops (p/b, t/d)
4. Air昀氀ow has a brief stop with a frica琀椀ve: a昀昀ricates (ʧ/ʤ)
5. Air昀氀ow with li琀琀le obstruc琀椀on: glides (w,j)
6. Air昀氀ow escapes round the sides (raises & curl tounge): liquids (l/r)
GLOTTAL STOPS [ʔ] : the glo琀�s (space between the vocal folds) is
closed completely very brie昀氀y, the release

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E.g, uh-oh
In place of t: Batman
In place of 琀琀: bu琀琀on
FLAPS [ɾ]: the tongue 琀椀p tapping the alveolar ridge brie昀氀y
 Many American English speakers tend to 昀氀ap the [t] & [d] consonants
between vowels
 In casual speech:
E.g. bu琀琀er/budder; la琀琀er/ladder; metal/medal; writer/rider
CONSONANT CHART
VOWELS
 All typically voiced
 Manner of ar琀椀cula琀椀on: Produced with a rela琀椀vely free air昀氀ow
 Place of ar琀椀cula琀椀on: tongue posi琀椀ons in 2 dimensions
- Front – central – back
- High – mid – low

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VOWEL CHART
4. THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE

PHONEMES: the smallest meaning dis琀椀nguishing sound unit in a language.
E.g., /b/ voiced bilabial
/p/ voiceless bilabial
 /b/ and /p/ are two di昀昀erent sounds because they make seman琀椀c
di昀昀erence.
 /b/ and /p/ are two di昀昀erent phonemes
- An essen琀椀al property of a phoneme is that it func琀椀ons contras琀椀vely.
CONSTRASTIVE PROPERTY: If we subs琀椀tute one sound for another in a

word and there is a change in meaning, then the two sounds represent di昀昀erent
phonemes.
E.g. fat = vat ; fine = vine
PHONEMES AND PHONES

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A phoneme A phone
Smallest meaning-dis琀椀nguishing Sound segment produced in actual
sound unit in a language speech
Slashes / / to indicate phonemes Square brackets [] to indicate phones
Abstract/mental/cogni琀椀ve reality (“in Physically reality of speech sound (“in
the mind”) the mouth”)
Studied in phonology Studied in phone琀椀cs
PHONOLOGY
 The descrip琀椀on of the systems and pa琀琀erns of speech sounds in a
language.
 Phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of the sounds
in language.
PHONEMES: the technical terms used in crea琀椀ng the consonant chart are
called features
+ feature is present
-feature is not present
E.g., /p/ [ -voice, +biabial, +stop]
NATURAL CLASS OF PHONEMES
/t/ /ʧ/ /p/
Voicing Voiceless – voice Voiceless - voice Voiceless – voice
POA + alveolar + palatal + bilabial
MOA + stop + a昀昀ricate + stop
Phonemes /t/ and /p/ are members of a natural class

NATURAL CLASS OF PHONEMES: a set of sounds with phone琀椀cs
features in common
 Phonemes which have features in common behave phonologically in some
similar ways
 A phoneme which does not share those features is expected to behave
di昀昀erently
E.g., /p/, /t/ and /k/ which are all voiceless stops to be members of a natural class

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ALLOPHONES
Allophones of a phoneme = a set of phones, all of which are versions of one
phoneme
Which of the following phones are allophones of the phoneme / t/?
[t] in writer
[ph] in pea
[t] in eighth
[I] in play
[th] in tea
[?] in le琀琀er
[t] in feel
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION OF ALLOPHONES ~
Di昀昀erent pronuncia琀椀ons (allophones) of a phoneme (a sound type) are always
used in di昀昀erent places in words
E.g., : [p] as in spin or stop and [ph] as in pepper
[ph] is always at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
MINIMAL PAIRS AND SET
A minimal pair: when 2 words are iden琀椀cal in form except for a contrast in one
phoneme, occurring in the same posi琀椀on.
E.g., fan-van (word-ini琀椀al)
bat – beat (word-medial)
sit – sing (word-昀椀nal)
A minimal set: a group of words can be di昀昀eren琀椀ated, each one from the others,
by changing one phoneme (always in the same posi琀椀on in the word)
E.g., big-pig-rig-dig-wig

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Syllabi昀椀ca琀椀on ~ the process of breaking up words into syllables

SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
Ex: Dog [dɔːɡ] : CVC
Syllable
Onset Rhyme
Consonant Nucleus Coda
Vowel Consonant
d ɔː g
No coda = open syllable

With a coda = closed syllable
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
A consonant cluster: the onset and the coda can consist of more than a single
consonant (basic structure: CC or CCC)
E.g: throw, stress
PHONOTATICS: deals with the rules and restric琀椀ons languages have for
what strings of segments are permissible/acceptable.
E.g: The 昀椀rst consonant must always be /s/, followed by one of the natural class of
voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/), plus a liquid or a glide (/l/, /r/, /w/). Splash, spring,
strong, scream and squeeze (/skwiz/)

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CO – ARTICULATION EFFECTS
1. One speech sound changes due to the neighbouring speech T
2. The sounds under co-ar琀椀cula琀椀on e昀昀ects never occur in the middle of the
speech F
3. Isolated sound becomes more like the sound that occurs before or a昀琀er T
4. Co – ar琀椀cula琀椀on e昀昀ects occur in casual produc琀椀on of speech T
5. Only consonants are a昀昀ected F
Elision is the dele琀椀on of a sound or sound, such as [d] as in [frεnʃɪp] in friendship
Nasaliza琀椀on occurs when a vowel is produced with some air escape through the
nose,such as [æ] in pan
Assimila琀椀on occurs when a sound segment changes to be more similar to other
nearby sounds, such as /v/ into /f/ in have to
WORD FORMATION
ETYMOLOGY
 Etymology studies the origins and history of a word.
 How words change over 琀椀me
 Evolu琀椀on of new words or new uses of words
Ex: What is the connec琀椀on between “Salt” and “Salary” ?
- La琀椀n: sal (salt)  La琀椀n: salarium (salary)  Old French: salaire (salary)
BORROWING
Two types of borrowing
1. Loanword: a word to be adopted from a (source) language
2. Loan-transla琀椀on/ Calque: a direct transla琀椀on of the elements of a word
into the borrowing language. In loan transla琀椀on, it is the meaning or idiom
that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself.

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 Loanwords are used with li琀琀le or no change to the spelling (or phone琀椀cs
spelling) of the original word T
 A loanword is an idioma琀椀c word or phrase that is translated literally into
English F, loan transla琀椀on
 Loan transla琀椀on are used with the same or similar meaning as the original
T
 A loan transla琀椀on has a speci昀椀c meaning that (typically) does not
otherwise exist in a single English word F, loanword
COMPOUNDING
Compounding is the process of joining two separate words to produce a single
form. In compounding, the meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a
new meaning comes out which is di昀昀erent from the meanings of the words in
isola琀椀on.
Ex: ear + ring = earring
Tree + house = treehouse
BLENDING
 The combina琀椀on of two separate forms to produce one single new term
 A word blend = the beginning of one word + the end of the other word
Ex: brunch = breakfast + lunch
Bit = binary + bit
 In blending, only parts of the words are combined
CLIPPING
Clipping: Shortening a word by dele琀椀ng one or more syllables
Example:
1. Gasoline  gas
2. Hamburger  burger
3. Adver琀椀sement  ad
4. Telephone  phone
5. University  uni
6. Internet  net

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7. Professor  prof
8. Examina琀椀on  exam
9. Michael  Mike
10. Joseph  Joe
CLIPPING (HYPOCORISM)
Clipping (hypocorism): In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single
syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the end
Ex
- Movie (moving pictures)
- Telly (television)
- Aussie (Australian)
- Hankie (handkerchief)
- Nicknames: Lizzie, Susie, Gabby
CLIPPING (BACKFORMATION)
Backforma琀椀on: reducing a word of one type (usually a noun) to form a word of
another type (usually a verb)
Ex: television (n)  televise (v)
Dona琀椀on (n)  donate (v)
One of the regular sources of backformed verbs in English is based on the pa琀琀ern
Worker (n) – work (v)
CONVERSION
Conversion: the process of changing the func琀椀on of a word, such as a noun to a
verb (without any reduc琀椀on), as a way of forming new words.
 Category change / func琀椀onal shi昀琀
Ex: What are the originals?
1. She bu琀琀ered the bread. Bu琀琀er (n)
2. You can’t park here unless you have a permit Permit (v)

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COINAGE (NEOLOGISM)
Coinage: the inven琀椀on and general use of totally new terms
2 types of coinage:
1. Invented trade names for commercial products that become general terms
for any version of that product.
2. Eponyms: words derived from the name of a person or a place
Ex:
 Sandwich (The 4th Earl of Sandwich)
 Jeans (The Italian city, Genoa)
Technical terms
 Volt (The Italian, Alessandro Volta)
 Wa琀琀 (The Sco琀�sh, James Wa琀琀)
COINAGE (ACRONYMS)
Acronyms: A word formed from the ini琀椀al le琀琀ers of other words.
Ex:
Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each separate le琀琀er (ini琀椀alism):
1. CD = compact disk
2. USA = The United States of America
3. ATM = automa琀椀c teller machine
Some acronyms are pronounced as new as single words
1. United Na琀椀ons Interna琀椀onal Children’s Emergency Fund = UNICEF
2. Na琀椀onal Aeronau琀椀cs and Space Agency = NASA
DERIVATION
The most common word forma琀椀on process
 By using a昀케xes:
- Pre昀椀xes: subcatergory, misunderstand
- Su昀케xes: agreement, friendship

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- Both pre and suf : disrespectful, rearrangement

- In昀椀xes: spoonsful, passerby, mothers-in-law
MULTIPLE PROCESSES
More than one process at work in the crea琀椀on of a word:
Ex: deli (borrowed from German delicatessen, clipped)
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHEMES: MEANING UNIT
Morpheme: A minimal unit of meaning or gramma琀椀cal func琀椀onal
E.g: words: word +[-s]
-s: gramma琀椀cal func琀椀onal (plural)
MORPHOLOGY
 A study to inves琀椀gate basic forms in language/how words are formed
 The study of morphemes and how the morphemes are arranged
TYPES OF MORPHEMES
Lexical
Free
MORPHEMES Func琀椀onal
Deriva琀椀onal
Bound
In昀氀ec琀椀onal

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Free morphemes Bound morphemes

Can stand by themselves as single Cannot normally stand alone
words (i.e: nouns, verbs,adj and adv)
Known as stems when a琀琀ached with Are typically a琀琀ached to another
bound morphemes forms (e.g., a昀케xes)
STEMS VS BOUND STEMS
Stems Bound stems

Free morphemes Derived from La琀椀n elements treated as
E.g., care-les-ness stems
Stem-su昀케x-su昀케x E.g., re-ceive, re-duce
Free-bound-bound
1. Lexical morphemes:
- Words that carry content
- Open class of words ~ can be added to the language
2. Func琀椀onal morphemes:
- Ar琀椀cle
- Conjunc琀椀ons
- Preposi琀椀ons
- Pronouns
- Close class of the words ~ never be added to the language
3. Deriva琀椀onal morphemes:
- To make new words
- To make words of a di昀昀erent gramma琀椀cal category
- E.g., encourage-ment, class-ify
4. In昀氀ec琀椀onal morphemes:
- To indicate the grammar琀椀cal func琀椀on of a word
- E.g.,
- Tense of verbs: plays-played-playing
- Plural forms of nouns: cups, dresses
- Possesive of nouns: ‘s

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- Compara琀椀ve and superla琀椀ve of adj: cheaper, cheapest

MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
Purpose: To describe the order of deriva琀椀on and in昀氀ec琀椀onal su昀케x:
(1) + (2)
Deriva琀椀onal in昀氀ec琀椀onal
E.g., teach-er-s
MORPHS, ALLOMORPHS AND SPECIAL CASES

MORPHS
 Morphs = actual forms to realize morphemes
 E.g. Which of the following morphs is/are allomorphs(s) of “plural”?
1. /-s/ as in cats
2. /-z/ as in dogs
3. /-əz/ as in horses
4. /-ər/ as in cheaper
5. /ᴓ/ as in sheep
SENMATIC
Senma琀椀c  the study of meaning in language
 Focusing on the widely accepted objec琀椀ve or factual meaning of words,
rather than their subjec琀椀ve or personal meaning.
 Referen琀椀al meaning & associa琀椀ve/emo琀椀ve meaning.
TYPES OF MEANING
Referen琀椀al meaning Associa琀椀ve/Emo琀椀ve meaning
- Literal meaning of a - Associa琀椀ons/connota琀椀ons
word/denota琀椀on a琀琀ached to a word
- Described in dic琀椀onary - Determined by some
individuals or groups
- Use in linguis琀椀c seman琀椀cs - Use by poets, song-writers,
novelists,ads,lovers

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SENMATIC FEATURES
 Basic elements/features
- Used in an analysis of the components of a word meaning.
- Involved in di昀昀eren琀椀a琀椀ng the meaning of each word in a language from
every other word
 Helps to decide if the word 昀椀ts based on the context of a sentence.
E.g, The hamburger ate the boy
Animate: living en琀椀ty to perform an ac琀椀on
hamburger boy
Animate - +
Examples:
 Animate
 Human
 Female
 Male
 Adult
Table Horse Boy Man Girl Woman

Animate - + + + + +
Human - - + + + +
Female - - - - + +
Adult - + - + - +
WORDS AS CONTAINERS OF MEANING

 Problems:
- Di昀케cult to di昀昀eren琀椀ate the seman琀椀c features in analyzing basic
components of meaning.
- Words = containers to carry meaning components

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- Too restric琀椀ve and not very prac琀椀cal.

 Should look at the roles of words
SENMATIC ROLES: AGENT VS. THEME
Agent: En琀椀ty that performs the ac琀椀on.
Theme: En琀椀ty involved/a昀昀ected by the ac琀椀on, simply being described
E.g, The boy kicked the ball
agent theme
SENMATIC ROLES: INSTRUMENT

Instrument: the en琀椀ty that an agent uses to perform an ac琀椀on.
E.g, He drew the picture with a pen.
SENMATIC ROLES: EXPERIENCER

Experiencer: an en琀椀ty that is designed as the person who has a feeling,
percep琀椀on or state (e.g, feel, know, hear, enjoy)
E.g. : The woman feels sad/Did you hear that noise?
SENMATIC ROLES: LOCATION, SOURCE AND GOAL

 Loca琀椀on: where an en琀椀ty is
 Source: where the en琀椀ty moves from
 Goal: where the en琀椀ty moves to
E.g,
- We drove from Chicago to New Orleans
Agent source goal
- My family live in the city centre.

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Agent loca琀椀on
LEXICAL RELATIONS
1. Synonymy (Ex: buy/purchase)
2. Antonymy (Ex: hot/cold)
3. Hyponymy (Ex: 昀氀ower/rose)
4. Prototypes (Ex: bird/robin)
5. Homophones ( Ex: right/write) and homonyms (Ex: race-contest; race-
ethnic group)
6. Polysemy (Ex: Foot of a person/a bed/ a mountain)
7. Wordplay (Ex: 6 is afraid of 7 because 789)
8. Metonymy (Ex: Head/Head of ED)
SYNONYMY
Synonyms are two or more words with very closely related meanings.
Ex: almost/nearly,big/large…
 “Sameness” of meaning is not necessarily “total sameness”  though
not always be subs琀椀tuted for each other
Ex:
- Sandy had only one correct answer on the test.
- Sandy had only one correct *reply on the test.
 Di昀昀erences in formal and informal uses
- Ex: The researchers have found out big things.
- The researchers have discovered signi昀椀cant 昀椀ndings.
ANTONYMY
Antonyms are two forms with opposite meanings.
Ex: alive/dead, big/small….
 Gradable: opposites along a scale (Ex: big/small, short/tall …)
 Non-gradable: direct opposites (true/false, married/single….)

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 Reversive: reverse ac琀椀on (Ex: pack/unpack, enter/exist….)
Gradable Non-gradable
Used in compara琀椀ve construc琀椀on Compara琀椀ve construc琀椀on are not
Ex: bigger, smaller normally used (Ex: dead, *deader,
*more dead)
The nega琀椀ve of one member of a The nega琀椀ve of one member of a non-
gradable pair does not necessarily gradable pair does imply the other
imply the others (Ex: my car is not member (Ex: My grandparents are not
old. ≠ my car is new. alive = My grandparents are dead)
 Use “nega琀椀ve test” to di昀昀eren琀椀ate.
HYPONYMY
 When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another
Ex: rose is a hyponym of 昀氀ower.
Flower: superordinate (higher level)

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Q: What is the rela琀椀onship(s) among bird, duck and parrot?

Duck and parrot are hyponyms of bird.
 Bird: superordinate (higher level)
 Duck and parrot are co-hyponyms (share the same superordinate)
PROTOTYPES
Ex: Robin is the most characteris琀椀c instance of the category “bird”.
 The “characteris琀椀c instance” of a category is known as the prototype.
 Explain the meaning of certain words in terms of resemblance to the
clearest example.
HOMOPHONES
 Two or more words with di昀昀erent forms and the same pronuncia琀椀on.
HOMONYMS
 Two or more words with the same forms and pronuncia琀椀on that are
unrelated in meaning.

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POLYSEMI
 Two words or more with the same form and pronuncia琀椀on, and with
related meaning.
POLYSEMY AND HOMONYMS
Date = a point in 琀椀me is polysemous in terms of:
 A par琀椀cular day and month (=on a le琀琀er)
Ex: What’s the date today?
 An arranged mee琀椀ng (=appointment)
Ex: Let’s make a date to come over and visit.
 A roman琀椀c mee琀椀ng (=with someone we like)
Ex: I’ve got a date with Andrea next night.
 A person (that person we like)
Ex: Can I bring my date to the party?
METONYMY
 A word used in place of another which is closely connected in everyday
experience.
 A container-contents rela琀椀on:
Ex: He drank the whole bo琀琀le. (bo琀琀le/water)
 A whole-part rela琀椀on:
Ex: I’ve got a new set of wheels. (wheels/car)
 Representa琀椀ve-symbol rela琀椀on:
Ex: The White House has announced. (The President/the White House)
COLLOCATIONS
 ~words frequently occur together.
 Corpus linguis琀椀cs: the study of which words occur together and frequency
of co-occurrence.
 Corpus ~ a large collec琀椀on of texts, spoken or wri琀琀en, typically stored as a
database in a computer.

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PRAGMATICS
STUDYING MEANING
Senma琀椀cs Pragma琀椀cs
Referen琀椀al meaning and the Aspects of meaning depend more on
rela琀椀onships between words context and the communica琀椀ve
inten琀椀ons of speakers
Regconizing the meaning of words in Recognizing what speakers mean by
an u琀琀erance their u琀琀erances in a par琀椀cular context
The study of the meaning of words, The study of what speakers

phrases and sentences mean/speaker meaning
INVISIBLE MEANING
 Pragma琀椀cs is the study of “invisible” meaning, or how we regconize what is
meant even when it is not actually said or wri琀琀en.
 Speakers (or wri琀琀ers) depend on a lot of shared assump琀椀ons and
expecta琀椀ons when trying to communicate.
 Purpose of pragma琀椀cs: to inves琀椀gate how we understand:
- The linguis琀椀c content of u琀琀erance; and
- What is being communicated
Ex: “heated a琀琀endant”
“How would you understand the message of the sign?”
 We can park a car in this place, that is a heated area, and that there will be
an a琀琀endant to look a昀琀er the car.
CONTEXT
 De昀椀ni琀椀on: “ The context in which they occur , and some pre-exis琀椀ng
knowledge of what would be a likely message as we work toward a
reasonable interpreta琀椀on of what the producer of the sign intended it to
convey”

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 Interpreta琀椀on of the “meaning” of the sign is based on

- The words
- What we think the writer intended to communicate
Ex: Sale baby & toddlers
What is the 昀椀rst interpreta琀椀on that comes to your mind?
 The sale of clothes for those young, children
PHYSICAL CONTEXT
 The loca琀椀on “out there” where we encounter words and phrases (Ex: Bank,
park)
LINGUISTIC CONTEXT/ CO-TEXT
 The set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence.
 The surrounding co-text has a strong e昀昀ect on the intended meaning of the
word.
Ex: If someone said: “ You’ll have to bring it back tomorrow, because she is not
here today”
 Out of context, this sentence is impossible to understand.
DEIXIS
 Some very common words can’t be interpreted at all without the context.
Ex:
-Here and there, this or that, now or then, yesterday, today or tomorrow,
-Pronouns such as you, me, she, him, it, them.
=> Rely on knowledge of the local context for interpreta琀椀on.
DEICTIC EXPRESSIONS
 Using words as a way of “poi琀椀ng” with language.
 Are interpreted in terms of which person, place or 琀椀me the speaker has in
mind.
 Can be close/not close to speaker

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 Types of deic琀椀c expressions

- Personal deixis: I, you, he, she, his, her, their,….
- Spa琀椀al deixis: here, there, this, that, those, go, take,…
- Temporal deixis: Yesterday, tomorrow, now, then; past tense, present
tense, future tense,….
Ex: Underline the deic琀椀c terms in this sentence:
I met this chap at the concert, and we got talking.
- Personsal: I, we
- Spa琀椀al: at the concert, met
- Temporal: met, got (past tense)
REFERENCE
De昀椀ni琀椀on: Reference is an act by which a speaker (or writer) uses language to
enable a listener (or reader) to iden琀椀fy sth with.
 Proper nouns (Chomsky, Whikas),
 Other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she,
it).
 A “range of reference” = many en琀椀琀椀es in the world (ex: friend, Jenifer, she)
 Unsure what to call/refer to (Ex: stu昀昀, a thing)
 Use a proper name (Ex: Mr.Kawasaki)
INFERENCE
 An inference is addi琀椀onal informa琀椀on used by the listeners to create a
connec琀椀on between what is said and what must be meant.
 Two ways to create an inference:
- Use nouns associated with things to refer to people.
Ex: Where the caesar salad si琀�ng?
He’s si琀�ng by the door
- Use names of people to refer to things.
Ex: Do you have a Honda? (a Honda = a scooter)
REFERENTIAL RELATIONSHIP: ANAPHORA
When I spoke to Mary, she looked sad.

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She = Mary
 Mary is antecedent (昀椀rst men琀椀on) of pronoun she
 She is an anaphoric expression (subsequent/anaphor) of Mary
Ex: How many antecedents and 昀椀nd their anaphoric expressions
We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath. The
puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet. When he let go,
it jumped out of the bath an ran away.
Antecedents Anaphoric expressions
1. A boy The boy, he
2. A puppy The puppy, it
3. A small bath The bath
CATAPHORA
When he arrived home, John went to sleep.
He=John
 John is the cataphor of pronoun he
INFERENCE BETWEEN ANTECEDENTS & ANAPHORIC
DEPRESSIONS
Ex: We found a house to rent, but the kitchen was very small
Antecedent anaphoric expression
The connec琀椀on between antecedent and anaphoric expressions is o昀琀en based on

inference.
Ex: The vic琀椀m was shot twice, but the gun was never recovered.
Antecedent anaphoric expression
De昀椀ni琀椀on:

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1. Cataphora reverses the antecedent-anaphora rela琀椀onship by beginning

with a pronoun (he,it), then later revealing more speci昀椀c informa琀椀on.
2. Anaphora can be de昀椀ned as subsequent reference to an already introduced
en琀椀ty.
3. The connec琀椀on between antecedents and anaphoric expressions is o昀琀en
based on inference.
PRESUPPOSITION
PRESUME: To suppose sth with some probability or evidence.
ASSUME: To suppose without reason or evidence.
De昀椀ni琀椀on: Presupposi琀椀on = What a speaker/ writer assumes is true or known by
a listener/reader.
Ex: When did you stop smoking?
At least two presupposi琀椀ons:
1. You used to smoke.
2. You no longer smoke.
 “constancy under nega琀椀on”
 An underlying presupposi琀椀on of a statement remains true/constant even
when the statement is negated.
Ex: (+) My car is a wreck.
(-) My car is not a wreck.
Presupposi琀椀on: I have a car.
PRAGMATICS MARKERS
Purpose: to mark a speaker’s a琀�tude to the listener or to what is being said.
Ex:
- You know: to indicate that knowledge is being treated as shared.
- I mean: to self-correct or to mark an a琀琀empt to clarify sth.

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- I don’t know: to indicate hesita琀椀on or uncertainty when a speaker is

about to say sth poten琀椀ally in disagreement with another speaker.
- Well: to mark a shi昀琀 from conveying informa琀椀on to commen琀椀ng on it.
POLITENESS
 Face = public self-image, the emo琀椀onal and social sense of self that
everyone has and expects everyone else to regconise.
 Politeness = showing awareness and considera琀椀on of another person’s
face.
- Face threatening act: saying sth that represents a threat to another
person’s self-image.
- Face-saving act: saying sth that lessens the possible threat to another
face.
Ex: - Please be reminded to turn o昀昀 the lights. => Face-threatening
- It’s hard for him to balance his study and a part-琀椀me job. => face-saving
NEGATIVE FACE VS POSITIVE FACE
Nega琀椀ve face Posi琀椀ve face
The need to be independent and free The need to be connected, to belong,
from imposi琀椀on to be a member of the group
Face-saving act on nega琀椀ve face: Face-saving act on posi琀椀ve face: show
concern about solidarity and draw a琀琀en琀椀on to a
imposi琀椀on/expecta琀椀on common goal
Ex: I’m sorry to bother you… Ex: The same thing happened to me
SPEECH ACTS
De昀椀ni琀椀on:
 The ac琀椀on performed by a speaker with an u琀琀ernace.
 An ac琀椀on that involves language such as “reques琀椀ng”, “commading” or
“informing”.
Ex: I’ll be there at 6 => promising
SPEECH ACTS: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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Structure Func琀椀ons
Did you eat the pizza? Interrogar琀椀ve Ques琀椀ons
Eat the pizza (please)! Impera琀椀ve Command/Request
You ate the pizza Declara琀椀ve Statement
TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS

 Direct speech act:
- An ac琀椀on in which the form used directly matches the func琀椀on
performed by a speaker with an u琀琀erance
- Ex: interroga琀椀ve form & ques琀椀on
 Indirect speech act:
- An ac琀椀on in which the form used (ex: interroga琀椀ve) does not directly
match the func琀椀on (ex: request) performed by a speaker with an
u琀琀erance.
- Ex: interrogar琀椀ve form and request.
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Discourse: language beyond the sentence.
Discourse analysis:
- The study of language beyond the sentence,
- The study of language in text and conversa琀椀on.
INTERPRETING DISCOURSE
 Even inaccurate fragments
Ex: Newspaper headlines (“Trains collide, two die”), no琀椀ces (“no shoes, no
service”)
 Even with grammar and spelling mistakes,
My Town
My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital of Saudi Arabia. The
distant between my town and Riyadh 7 miles exactly. The name of this Almasani
that means in English Factories. It takes this name from the peopl’s carrer….

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Purpose:
1. To interpret people’s messages and
2. Make ourselves interpretable.
KEY ELEMENTS TO INTERPRET DISCOURSE
1. Cohesion
2. Coherence
3. Conversa琀椀on analysis
4. The Co-opera琀椀ve Principle
5. Background knowledge
COHESION
 The formal 琀椀es and connec琀椀ons that exist within texts.
 Strength: provide insight into how writer/speaker structure their message.
 Drawback: Not su昀케cient to enable listener/reader to make sense of the
message.
Ex: My father once bought a Lincoln conver琀椀ble. He did it by saving every
penny he could. That car would be worth a fortune nowadays. However,
he sold it to help pay for my college educa琀椀on. Some琀椀mes | think I'd
rather have the conver琀椀ble.
 Cohesive 琀椀es: people
 Cohesive 琀椀es: things
 Cohesive 琀椀es: money
 Cohesive 琀椀es: 琀椀mes and tense
COHESION RECAP
 Cohesion: the formal 琀椀es and connec琀椀ons that exist within texts
 Cohesive 琀椀es: the individual connec琀椀ons between words and phrases in a
text.
.Drawback: Not su昀케cient to enable listener/reader to make sense of the
message.
COHERENCE

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 Coherence: the connec琀椀ons that readers and listeners create in their

minds to arrive at a meaningful interpreta琀椀ons of texts.
 Readers/Listeners’ interpreta琀椀on is in line with their experience of the way
the world is.
 Coherent interac琀椀on can be understood even without cohesive 琀椀es.
HER: That’s the telephone. (She makes a request of him to perform ac琀椀on)
HIM: I’m in the bath. (He states reason why he cannot comply with request)
HER: OK. (She accepts reason)
COHESION VS COHERENCE
Cohesion Coherence
The 琀椀es and connec琀椀ons between The connec琀椀ons that readers and
words or structures that exist within listeners create in the minds to arrive
琀椀es. at a meaningful interpreta琀椀on of texts
With cohesive 琀椀es (individual With or without cohesive 琀椀es.
connec琀椀ons b/w words and phrases
in a text)
CONVERSATION
 An ac琀椀vity in which two or more people take turns at speaking.
 Only one person speaks at a 琀椀me (silence avoided between speaking turns)
 Par琀椀cipants wait un琀椀l one speaker indicates that he or she has 昀椀nished,
usually by signaling a comple琀椀on point.
CONVERSATION: TURN
Turn: in conversa琀椀on, the unit of talk by one speaker, eneded by the beginning of
the next speaker’s unit or talk.
Ex:
A: Didn’t you [know wh-
B: [ But he must’ve been there by two

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A: Yes but you knew where he was going

[ indicates overlapping speech
CONVERSATION: COMPLETION POINT

Comple琀椀on point: in conversa琀椀on, the end of a turn to mark the speaker’s turn as
complete/昀椀nished.
Signals of a comple琀椀on point:
 A pause at the end of a phrase or sentence.
 A ques琀椀on
Signals of taking a speaking turn:
 Short/repeated sounds
 Nonverbal signals: body shi昀琀s, facial expressions etc.
TURN-TAKING
Turn-taking: the way in which each speakers takes a turn in conversa琀椀on.
To keep a turn:
1. Avoid normal comple琀椀on points.
2. Avoid two markers (comple琀椀on point at the end of a sentence; & a pause)
3. Make sentences run on with and, and then, so, but
4. Place pauses at incomplete messages
5. Fill the pause with a hesitant marker (e.g., er, em, uh, ah)
PAUSES AND FILLED PAUSES
 Pauses before & a昀琀er verbs are di昀케cult to understand.
Filled pause:
X: Well that 昀椀lm really was… [was not what was good at
Y: [ when di

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X: I mean his other …em his later 昀椀lm were much more …er really more in
the roman琀椀c style and that was more what he was ….you know…em best
at doing.
Y: so when did he make that one.
INSERTION SEQUENCES
 In conversa琀椀on, an adjacency pair that comes between the 昀椀rst and second
parts of another pair
You: Do you want some milk? (=Q1)
Me: Is it soy milk? (=Q2)
You: Of course (A2)
Me: Okay, thanks. (=A1)
THE CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE

GRICEAN MAXIMS (1975)
The Co-opera琀椀ve Principle:
“Make your convera琀椀onal contribu琀椀on such as is required, at the stage at which
it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direc琀椀on of the talk exchange in which you
are engaged.”
 The Quan琀椀ty maxim: make your contribu琀椀on as informa琀椀ve as is required,
but not more, or less, than is required.
 The Quality maxim: Do not say that which you believe to be false or for
which you lack adequate evidence.
 The Rela琀椀on maxim: be relevant.
 The Manner maxim: Be clear, brief and orderly.
TAUTOLOGY
 An expression (o昀琀en a saying) that seem simply to repeat an element with
no apparent meaning.
 Related to the Quan琀椀ty maxim

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 Ex: Boys will be boys, A sandwich is a sandwich.

HEDGES
 Hedegs can be de昀椀ned as words or phrases used to indicate that we are not
really sure that what we are saying is su昀케ciently correct orcomplete.
 Related to the Quality maxim
 Ex: His hair was kind of long or The book cover is sort of yellow.; As far as I
know.; Correct me if I’m wrong, but….; I am not absolutely sure, but….
IMPLICATURE
- An addi琀椀onal conveyed by a speaker adhering to the Coopera琀椀ve
Principle.
 Speaker imply something that is not said.
 Assuming the Rela琀椀on maxim & the Quan琀椀ty maxim
Ex:
1. A sandwich is a sandwich  Implicature: the sandwich was not
worth talking about.
2. CAROL: Are you coming to the party tonight?
LARA: I’ve got an exam tomorrow.
FIRST LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION/LEARNING
REQUIREMENTS
1. Interac琀椀on with other language-users to bring the general language
capacity into contact with a par琀椀cular language. (the most important
requirement)
2. Physically capable: being able to speak (sending sound signal) and hear
(receiving sound signal)
INPUT: the language 琀椀ed words that an acquier is exposed to.

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CAREGIVER SPEECH (MOTHERESE, OR CHILD-

DIRECTED SPEECH): Speech addressed to young children by the adult
(s) or older children who are looking a昀琀er them.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CAREGIVER SPEECH:
 Frequent use of ques琀椀ons
 Exaggerate inota琀椀on
 Extra loudness
 Slow rhythm with long pauses
 Simple sentence structure
 A lot of repe琀椀琀椀on
 Paraphrasing
 Restricted reference (here, now)
 Babytalk forms:
 Simpli昀椀ed words (tummy, nana)
 Altera琀椀ve forms, with repe琀椀琀椀ve simple sounds and syllables for
things in the child’s environment (nana, nono, pee-pee, poo-poo,
dada, haw-haw, cocococo, choo-choo)
THE ACQUISITION SCHEDULE
1. Cooing (0-5 months)
2. Babbling (6-11 months)
3. The One-Word Stage (12-18 months)
4. The Two-Word Stage (18 months-2 years)
5. Telegraphic Speech (2 years-3 years)
1. Cooing 2. Babbling 3. The One- 4. The Two 5. Telegr
Word Stage Word Stage Spee
- Producing - Regconizing - U琀琀ering single - Producing - Producing
sounds consonant-vowel terms for u琀琀erances with a “mul琀椀ple-wor
similar to combina琀椀ons everyday objects more complex speech
velar - Producing a “milk”, “cookie”. phrase - Using prepos
consonants number of di昀昀erent - Regconizing - Receiving - Using in昀氀ec琀椀
[k] & [g] vowels, single-unit feedback during and func琀椀onal
- Perceiving consonants, and u琀琀erances interac琀椀on morphemes
the di昀昀erence combina琀椀ons like - Using - Building sent

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between the ba-ba-ba and ga-ga- holophras琀椀c

vowels [a] ga (wasa = what’s
and [i] and - Producing certain that) (single units
the syllables syllable sequences not single words)
[ba] and [ga] also appear (ma-
- Producing ma-ma & da-da-da)
sequences of - Producing nasal
vowel-like sounds
sounds - Regconizing
(par琀椀cularly varia琀椀on in the
high vowel [i] combina琀椀ons such
an [u]) as ba-ba-da-da
- Regconizing
inota琀椀on pa琀琀erns
THE ACQUISITION PROCESS

 Misconcep琀椀on: The child is being “taught” the language
 Accurate view:
- Children ac琀椀vely construct, from what is said to them and around them,
possible ways of using the language.
- Children try out construc琀椀on and test whether they work or not.
Two types: Imita琀椀on and Correc琀椀on
 Imita琀椀on: Young children repeat single words or phrases, but not the
sentence structures.
 Children understand what the adults are saying but have their own way of
expressing what they understand.
 Ex: The dogs are hungry ~ dog hungry
 Correc琀椀on: Adult “correc琀椀ons” are NOT a very e昀昀ec琀椀ve determiner of how
the child speaks.
 The child will con琀椀nue to use a personally constructed form.

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SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION/LEARNING
First language: Mother Tounge (L1)
Second language: Foreign or Second Language (L2)
FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND SECOND LANGUAGE
Foreign language Second language
Learning a language that is not Learning a language that is spoken in
generally spoken in the surrounding the surrounding community
community
SECOND LANGUAGE (L2) LEARNING

L2 learning:
 Can be referred to as either foreign language or second language
 The process of developing ability in another language, a昀琀er L1 acquisi琀椀on
ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
Acquisi琀椀on Learning
 The gradual development of  The concious process of
ability in a 昀椀rst or second accumula琀椀ng knowledge
languge by using it naturally in
communica琀椀ve situa琀椀ons.
 With teachers
 Without a teacher & without
much a琀琀en琀椀on to the details of
what is being acquired  Typically in an ins琀椀tu琀椀onal
 In social interac琀椀on with na琀椀ve se琀�ng
speakers  Learning acivi琀椀es result in more
 Acquisi琀椀on ac琀椀vi琀椀es result in knowledge “about” the
young child’s “picking up” a language
language.
ACQUISITION BARRIERS OF L2
Adults may not reach na琀椀ve-like pro昀椀ciency in L2:

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 Insu昀케cient 琀椀me in devoted to the process (a few hours each week rather
than the constant interac琀椀on experinenced as a child)
 Insu昀케cient focus on the process (adults have a lot of other things to do and
think about, unlike very young children)
 Insu昀케cient incen琀椀ve (adults already know a language and can use it for
their communica琀椀ve needs)
 The ‘cri琀椀cal period’ for language acquisi琀椀on has passed
 A昀昀ec琀椀ve factors, such as self-conciousness, create more inhibita琀椀ons for an
adult than a young child.
However: Adults can achieve great exper琀椀se in the wri琀琀en language.
- Vocabulary & Grammar can be easier to learn (cf. pronuncia琀椀on)
- Sounds & inota琀椀on can be perceived as “accent”
FACTORS OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
 Age Factor:
- The cri琀椀cal period: inherent capacity for language
- Around the 琀椀me of puberty (10-16 years old)
 A昀昀ec琀椀ve facfor:
- Emo琀椀onal reac琀椀ons such as self-conciousness or nega琀椀ve feelings that
may infulence learning
- Ex: unwillingness or embarrassment in producing the di昀昀erent sounds,
lack of empathy with the other culture, self-con昀椀dence, anxiety etc.
L2 REASEARCH STUDIES FOCUS
 Focus on Teaching Method:
1. Communica琀椀ve Approaches to language teaching that are based on
learning through using language rather than learning about language.
2. The Grammar-Transla琀椀on Method is the tradi琀椀onal form of language
teaching, with vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules; encouraging
memoriza琀椀on, & emphasizing wri琀琀en language
3. The Audiolingual Method is a mid-20th century approach to language
teaching, with repe琀椀琀椀ve drills used to develop 昀氀uent spoken language as a
set of habits
 Focus on Learners

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1. Fossiliza琀椀on is the process whereby an interlanguage, containing many

non – L2 features, can not easily corrected; ex: misprouncia琀椀on of /l/
and /n/ in some Northerness
2. The more recent acceptance of L2 learners’ errors is based on a
fundamental shi昀琀 in perspec琀椀ve from the more tradi琀椀onal view of how
L2 learning takes place.
3. Interlanguage is the language produced by L2 learners contains a large
number of ‘errors’ that seem to have no connec琀椀on to the forms of
either the L1 or L2 (ex: I no smoking)
4. Transfer means using sounds, expressions or structures from the L1
when performing in the L2. Ex: A Spanish student’s error in “take it from
the side inferior”, in which inferior means lower and is used as a noun.
Posi琀椀ve transfer occurs when similar features in L1 are used in
performing L2.
MOTIVATION
 Instrumetal mo琀椀va琀椀on: the desire to learn an L2, not to join the
community of L2-users, but no achieve some other goal.
 Intergra琀椀ve mo琀椀va琀椀on: the desire to learn an L2 in order to take part in
the social life of the community of L2-users.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
 De昀椀ned as the general ability to use language accurately, appropriately and
昀氀exibly

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COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
Grammar琀椀cal Sociolinguis琀椀c Strategic

Competence Competence Competence
Use words and Use language Organize e昀昀ec琀椀ve

Appropriately Messages and
Structures According to the Overcome poten琀椀al
Accurately Social context communica琀椀on
Problems
SOCIAL VARIATION AND LANGUAGE

SPEECH COMMUNITY: is a group of people who share a set of norms
and expecta琀椀ons regarding the use of language
SOCIOLINGUISTIC
 The study of the linguis琀椀c features that have social relevance for
par琀椀cipants in those speech communi琀椀es.
 Is used generally for the study of the rela琀椀onship between language and
society.
SOCIAL DIALECT
 A variety of language with features that di昀昀er according to the social
status (ex, middle class or working class) of the speaker
 De昀椀ne groups of speakers as having something in common

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Two groups:
1. Middle class: who have more years of educa琀椀on and perform non-manual
work.
2. Working class: who have fewer years of educa琀椀on and perform manual
work of some kind.
SOCIOLECT
 Socio dialect, a variety of a language that is strongly associated with one
social group (ex: working-class speech)
 Indicator of social status
 “upper” and “lower” are used to subdivide the groups, mainly on an
economic basis.
ANALYZING SOCIAL DIALECTS
 Only certain features of language use (such as pronuncia琀椀ons, words or
structures) are treated as relevant in the analysis of social dialects.
 Ex: home in Edinburgh, Scotland
- Lower-working-class speakers: [heim]
- Middle-class speakers: [hom]
 Ex: working-class speech: ain’t, as in I ain’t 昀椀nished yet.
A VARIABLE TO DIFFERENTIATE SPEAKER GROUPS
Social Variable: a factor (such as working class or middle class) that is used to
iden琀椀fy one group of speakers as di昀昀erent from another.
Linguis琀椀cs Variable: a feature of language use that dis琀椀nguishes one group of
speakers from another.
 There is rela琀椀onship between social variable and linguis琀椀c variable
SOCIAL VARIABLES: EDUCATION AND OCCUPATION
 Idiolect: the personal dialect of an individual speaker
 Some social variables:
- Educa琀椀on: Ex: Them boys throwed* sth or it was not us what* done
- Occupa琀椀on
- Socio-economic status

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Ex: postvocalic /r/ as in fourth 昀氀oor

 Finding: Upper-middle class: did not pronounce /r/ (ex: mahvellous,
dahling! )
 Par琀椀cipants: salespeople at each score
 Target feature: postvocalic /r/ in fourth 昀氀oor (responding Where are
the women’s shoes?)
 Findings: The higher the socio-economic status of the store, the
more /r/ sounds were produced, and the lower the status, the fewer
/r/ sounds were produced.
LINGUISTIC VARIABLE: SOCIAL MARKERS
- A linguis琀椀c feature that marks the speaker as a member of a par琀椀cular
social group
- Ex: Working-class (lower class and less educa琀椀on group) pronounce
 -ing with [n] rather than [ŋ] such as si琀�ng’ and thinking’
 [h] at the beginning of words: with [h]-dropping such as I’m so
‘ungry I could eat an ‘orse.
 Several grammar琀椀cal features: he’s went* (gone) to bed already,
we was* (were) too late.
SPEECH STYLE AND STYLE-SHIFTING
Speech style: a way of speaking that is either formal/careful or informal/casual
Style-Shi昀琀ing: changing speech style from formal to informal or vice versa
PRESTIGE
Overt pres琀椀ge: status that is generally regconized as ‘be琀琀er’ or more posi琀椀vely
valued in the larger community
Covert pres琀椀ge: the status of a speech style or feature as having posi琀椀ve value,
but which is “hidden” or not valued similarly among the larger community
SPEECH ACOMODATION: modifying speech style toward
(convergence) or away from (divergenece) the perceived style of the person
being talked to

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CONVERGENCE
 Adop琀椀ng a speech style that a琀琀empts to reduce social distance by using
forms that are similar to those used by the person being talked to.
 Ex: (to friend) C’mon Tony, gizzalook, gizzalook
(to friend’s mother) Excuse me. Could I have a look at ur photos too,
Mrs. Hall?
DIVERGENCE
 Adop琀椀ng a speech style that emphasizes social distance by using forms that
are di昀昀erent from those used by the person being talked to.
 Ex:
Teenager: I cannot do it, sir.
Teacher: Oh, come on. If I can do it, you can too.
Teenager: Look, I cannae dae it so….

Introduction To Linguistics

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Introduction To Linguistics

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 The “Pooh–Pooh” theory: Speech developed from the ins琀椀nc琀椀ve

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 The physical adapta琀椀on source

 Vocal tract / vocal system:

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 The gene琀椀c source

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- Upright posture (bipedal – on 2 feet) locomo琀椀on

THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE

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Problem: Sounds of spoken English do not necessarily match up with

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 Three features of ar琀椀cula琀椀ng a consonant

Consonants: Voiced (+V) vs. Voiceless (-V)

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IPA SYMBOLS FOR CONSONANTS

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4. THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE

CONSTRASTIVE PROPERTY: If we subs琀椀tute one sound for another in a

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Phonemes /t/ and /p/ are members of a natural class

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Syllabi昀椀ca琀椀on ~ the process of breaking up words into syllables

Consonant Nucleus Coda

No coda = open syllable

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- Both pre and suf : disrespectful, rearrangement

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Free morphemes Bound morphemes

STEMS VS BOUND STEMS

Stems Bound stems

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- Compara琀椀ve and superla琀椀ve of adj: cheaper, cheapest

MORPHS, ALLOMORPHS AND SPECIAL CASES

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Table Horse Boy Man Girl Woman

WORDS AS CONTAINERS OF MEANING

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- Too restric琀椀ve and not very prac琀椀cal.

SENMATIC ROLES: INSTRUMENT

SENMATIC ROLES: EXPERIENCER

SENMATIC ROLES: LOCATION, SOURCE AND GOAL

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 Reversive: reverse ac琀椀on (Ex: pack/unpack, enter/exist….)

 Use “nega琀椀ve test” to di昀昀eren琀椀ate.

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Q: What is the rela琀椀onship(s) among bird, duck and parrot?

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The study of the meaning of words, The study of what speakers

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