Environmental Toxicology and Analysis

EHS425 - Chapter 5
Content

• Introduction
• Toxicology
• Classifications of Toxins
• Measuring Toxicity
• Dose-Response Relationship
• Acute & Chronic Toxicity
• Interactions Between Toxic Substances
• Risk Assessment
• Risk Management
 Introduction
• Environmental Toxicology and Analysis is a field that aims to understand the
behavior and effects of toxic substances on the environment and living organisms.
• Environmental Toxicology and Analysis involves studying how toxic substances
interact with the environment, move through various ecosystems, and impact human
health and wildlife.
• This field is essential in identifying and evaluating potential risks to environmental
and human health, developing effective environmental policies and regulations, and
designing strategies to mitigate the impacts of toxic substances.
• It encompasses various subjects, including environmental chemistry, ecotoxicology,
and risk assessment.
• Environmental Toxicology and Analysis can be applied to a wide range of applications,
such as studying the effects of pollution on aquatic ecosystems or evaluating the
potential health impacts of exposure to chemicals in the workplace.
• Environmental Toxicology and Analysis are crucial in promoting sustainable and
healthy environments for humans and other living organisms.
Toxicology
• Toxicology is a branch of science that studies the adverse effects of chemicals
and other agents on living organisms.
• Toxicology involves many terms and concepts essential to understanding toxic
substances’ effects on human and environmental health.
• Understanding these and other toxicology terms is essential for assessing the
risks posed by toxicants, developing effective regulatory policies, and promoting
the health and safety of humans and the environment.
• Here are some common terms used in toxicology:
o Toxins: are substances harmful to living organisms, including humans,
animals, and plants.
▪ Toxins can be produced by living organisms, such as bacteria, fungi,
and plants, or synthetic chemicals produced by humans, such as
pesticides and industrial chemicals.
o Toxicity: Toxicity refers to the degree or severity of harm caused by a
toxicant.
o Toxicologists: are scientists who specialize in studying toxic substances
and their effects on living organisms.
Classifications of Toxins
• Toxins can be classified into different groups based on their chemical structure,
origin, and mode of action.
• Some common groups of toxins include:
o Neurotoxins: These toxins specifically target the nervous system, disrupting
normal function.
o Neurotoxins can cause paralysis and respiratory failure.
▪ Examples include botulinum toxin and tetanus toxin.
o Hemotoxins: These toxins affect the blood and circulatory system, causing
damage to red blood cells and blood vessels.
▪ Hemotoxins can cause symptoms such as bleeding, organ damage, and
shock.
▪ Examples include snake venom and certain bacteria that cause
hemolytic anemia.
Classifications of Toxins
• Some common groups of toxins include:
o Carcinogens are substances produced by living organisms, such as
plants, animals, and bacteria, that can cause cancer in humans and other
living organisms.
▪ These substances can be naturally occurring or synthetic, and they
work by damaging DNA and leading to mutations that can develop
cancer.
▪ Aflatoxins: These are a group of toxins produced by certain species
of fungi that grow on crops such as peanuts and corn. Aflatoxins can
cause liver cancer and are considered a significant public health
concern in some parts of the world.
▪ Tobacco-specific nitrosamines: These are a group of carcinogens
that are produced when tobacco is cured and processed. They are
responsible for most smoking-related cancers, including lung, throat,
and bladder cancer.
• Some common groups of toxins include:
o Allergens: These substances can be naturally occurring or synthetic, and they
work by triggering the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize
and attack the substance.
▪ Plant allergens: include substances such as pollen, latex, and certain
proteins found in fruits and vegetables. They can cause allergic reactions
such as hay fever, asthma, and anaphylaxis.
▪ Insect venom: Venom from stinging insects such as bees, wasps, and
hornets can cause allergic reactions in some people, ranging from mild
swelling and itching to life-threatening anaphylaxis.
▪ Food allergens: These include substances such as peanuts, tree nuts,
shellfish, and dairy products. They can cause allergic reactions ranging
from mild symptoms such as itching to severe anaphylaxis.
▪ Fungal allergens: include substances such as spores produced by certain
species of fungi. They can cause respiratory allergies such as asthma.
▪ Formaldehyde: is a colorless, strong-smelling gas widely used in industry.
It is also produced naturally in the environment and is a byproduct of
certain metabolic processes in living organisms.
• Some common groups of toxins include:
o Teratogens: agents that can cause birth defects. The effects of teratogens
depend on the timing and duration of exposure, the dose, and the genetic
sensitivity of the developing organism.
o Some common examples of teratogens include:
▪ Alcohol: Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause fetal
alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD), which can cause a range of physical
and cognitive impairments in the child.
▪ Drugs: Certain drugs, such as thalidomide, can cause birth defects during
pregnancy.
▪ Infectious agents: Some viruses, such as rubella, can cause birth
defects when a pregnant woman is infected.
▪ Chemicals: Exposure to certain chemicals, such as lead and mercury, can
cause birth defects when a pregnant woman is exposed.
▪ Radiation: Exposure to high radiation levels during pregnancy can cause
birth defects in the developing embryo or fetus.
• Some common groups of toxins include:
o Endocrine disruptors: are chemicals or substances that can interfere with
the normal function of the endocrine system in humans and animals.
o The endocrine system produces and regulates hormones, which control
various biological processes, including growth and development,
metabolism, and reproductive function.
o Endocrine disruptors can mimic or block the actions of hormones in the
body, leading to various adverse effects.
o These effects can include developmental and reproductive abnormalities,
impaired immune function, and increased risk of certain cancers.
o Some common examples of teratogens include:
• Dioxins: Dioxins are highly toxic chemicals produced as byproducts of
some industrial processes and consumer products.
• Bisphenol A (BPA): BPA is a chemical used to produce polycarbonate
plastics commonly found in food and beverage containers and other
consumer products.
Measuring Toxicity
• Measuring toxicity involves determining the relationship between
the dose of a toxic substance and the biological response it
produces.
• This relationship can be described by a dose-response curve,
which shows the magnitude of the response as a function of
the dose.
• The dose-response curve can be used to determine the toxic
dose of a substance, which is the dose at which a specific
adverse effect is observed.
• This information is used to establish safe exposure limits for the
substance.
• Toxicity testing typically involves exposing experimental subjects
(such as laboratory animals or cell cultures) to varying doses of a
substance and observing the resulting biological responses.
• Depending on the tested substance and the measured
endpoints, these responses can include behavior, physiology, or
biochemistry changes.
Dose-Response Relationship

• Three parameters typically characterize the

dose-response relationship:
o Threshold: The lowest dose at which a
measurable biological effect is observed.
o Slope: The steepness of the curve reflects
the sensitivity of the response to changes in
dose.
o Plateau: The highest dose at which no
further increase in the response is
observed.
 Lethal Dose 50% - LD50
• LD50 is a measure of the acute toxicity of a substance. It represents the amount of a
substance that, when administered to a group of test animals (usually rodents) in a
single dose, will cause the death of 50% of the animals within a specified time.
• The LD50 value is typically expressed in the amount of substance per unit of body
weight (e.g., milligrams per kilogram).
• The LD50 value is influenced by factors such as the route of administration (oral,
inhalation, dermal), the duration of exposure, and the age, sex, and health status of the
test animals.
• However, it's important to note that the LD50 test only measures acute toxicity and
does not provide information on the potential long-term or chronic effects of
exposure to a substance.
• Due to ethical concerns, LD50 testing is increasingly being replaced by alternative
methods that do not involve the use of live animals.
o These alternative methods include in vitro tests using cell cultures and computer
modeling and in vivo tests that use fewer animals and/or less invasive
procedures.
LD50 values are commonly
used to compare the
relative toxicity of different
substances and to
determine safe exposure
levels for humans and
other animals.
 Acute Toxicity
• Acute toxicity is a type of toxicity that refers to the harmful effects that occur
shortly after a single exposure to a toxic substance. This can range from a few
minutes to a few days, depending on the substance and the level of exposure.
• Acute toxicity is often associated with high doses of a substance and can lead to
symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and even death.
• The severity of acute toxicity depends on several factors, including the dose, the
route of exposure, the duration of exposure, the individual's age, sex, and health
status, and the presence of other chemicals or substances that may interact with the
toxic substance.
• Acute toxicity testing is an important part of toxicology, as it helps to identify the
potential risks of exposure to new chemicals and other substances.
• Acute toxicity testing is typically conducted using live animals, although alternative
methods such as in vitro tests and computer modeling are being developed to reduce
the need for animal testing.
• The results of acute toxicity testing are used to determine the safe levels of exposure
to a substance and to develop appropriate warning labels and safety guidelines for
handling and use.
 Chronic Toxicity
• Chronic toxicity refers to the harmful effects that occur after repeated or prolonged
exposure to a toxic substance over a longer period of time, usually weeks, months, or
years.
• Chronic toxicity can occur even at lower doses of a substance that would not cause
acute toxicity.
• The effects of chronic toxicity may not be apparent until long after exposure and can
include organ damage, cancer, reproductive disorders, and developmental
abnormalities.
• Chronic toxicity testing is essential to toxicology, as it helps identify the potential risks
of long-term exposure to new chemicals and other substances.
• Chronic toxicity testing is typically conducted using laboratory animals over an
extended period, often months or years.
• The results of chronic toxicity testing are used to determine the safe levels of exposure
to a substance over the long term and to develop appropriate warning labels and
safety guidelines for handling and use.
 Interactions Between Toxic Substances
• Additive, synergistic, and antagonistic effects are terms used in toxicology to
describe the interactions between two or more toxic substances.
• Additive effects occur when the combined toxicity of two or more substances equals
the sum of their individual toxicities.
o For example, if substance A has a toxicity of 5 and substance B has a toxicity of
3, the combined toxicity of the two substances would be 8 if they are additive.
• Synergistic effects occur when the combined toxicity of two or more substances is
greater than the sum of their individual toxicities.
o For example, if substance A has a toxicity of 5 and substance B has a toxicity of
3, the combined toxicity of the two substances would be greater than 8 if they are
synergistic.
• Antagonistic effects occur when the combined toxicity of two or more substances is
less than the sum of their individual toxicities.
o For example, if substance A has a toxicity of 5 and substance B has a toxicity of
3, the combined toxicity of the two substances would be less than 8 if they are
antagonistic.
Why is Environmental toxicology and analysis
Important?

• Environmental toxicology and analysis play a crucial role in protecting human health
and the environment in several ways:
o Identifying potential hazards: Environmental toxicology and analysis can help
identify and assess the potential hazards of various chemicals, pollutants, and
other toxic substances in the environment. This information is critical for
developing strategies to manage or mitigate the risks of exposure to these
substances.
o Monitoring environmental pollutants: Environmental analysis can help
monitor the levels of environmental pollutants, such as heavy metals,
pesticides, and air pollutants, in various environmental compartments, such as
air, water, soil, and food. By monitoring the levels of these pollutants, it is
possible to identify potential sources of contamination, track trends over time,
and assess the effectiveness of regulatory policies and interventions.
Why is Environmental toxicology and analysis
Important?

• Environmental toxicology and analysis play a crucial role in protecting human

health and the environment in several ways:
o Evaluating the toxicity of new chemicals: Environmental toxicology and
analysis are essential for evaluating the potential toxicity of new chemicals
before they are released into the environment. This information is crucial
for assessing the risks associated with exposure to these chemicals and
developing appropriate regulations and guidelines to protect human health
and the environment.
o Developing risk assessment and management strategies:
Environmental toxicology and analysis can help develop risk assessment
and management strategies for various toxic substances. These strategies
can include setting exposure limits, developing exposure reduction plans,
and implementing remediation measures to reduce or eliminate the risks
associated with exposure to these substances.
Risk Assessment
Risk Management

• Example: Arsenic in drinking water

• 50 μg/L of arsenic in drinking water could cause cancer
• 1942-1999 federal govt. set acceptable concentrations at 50 μg/L
• 1999, EPA wanted to lower it to 10 μg/L
• The problem
• The new economic burden on mining companies that produced
arsenic as a by-product
• Several State municipalities had high concentrations of arsenic in their
drinking water
• In 2001, a study proved that the acceptable amount of arsenic was 5 μg/L
• EPA revised its ruling, setting safe arsenic concentrations at 10 μg/L.
Class Activity 02: Discussion & submission of 1-p report

Provide another example of a toxic chemical and how it

was regulated.