An earlier version of the content of this article was previously published as:

Miškovic, V. (2021). Three equivalent formats of cubic functions. Australian

Mathematics Education Journal, 3(1), 39 – 42.

THREE EQUIVALENT FORMATS OF CUBIC FUNCTIONS

Vladimir Miškovic, KingsWay School, vladimir.miskovic@kingsway.school.nz

Quadratic functions are explained in the three equivalent formats: Standard (or
Expanded), Vertex and Factorised. However, cubic functions are represented only
in the two equivalent formats: Standard (or Expanded) and Factorised.
All cubic functions have 180 degree rotational symmetry around their point of
inflection. Hence, I believed that cubic functions (like quadratic ones), must have a
third equivalent format and I searched for it. As I could not find any prior references,
I did some mathematics myself.
This article describes the process of finding the third equivalent format of a cubic
function, which I have named “Point of inflection format”. It corresponds to the
Vertex format of a quadratic function:

b 2 b2
y = a (x + ) + c −
2a 4a

The vertex format gives the exact position of the parabola’s vertex, and the beauty
is that it can always be written using only real numbers - even when a quadratic
function has no real factors (no x - intercepts) and the Factorised format uses only
conjugate complex numbers.
I believe that this article could inspire some interesting and useful classroom
activities. By using the finest tools of secondary mathematics, students can be
guided into more demanding algebraic investigations of a currently uncharted
curriculum area. In this process of algebraic generalisation, students will not only
be challenged, but motivated to discover greater splendours of algebra, seeing its
ever - present elegance, beauty, and reliability unfold before them. In the process
of learning, students will again realize that a proper understanding of more complex
structures requires mastery at lower levels.

The two equivalent formats of any cubic function are well known and well explained
in mathematical literature: Standard (or Expanded) format is y = a x3 + b x2 + c x +
d, and Factorised format is y = a ( x – p ) ( x – q ) ( x – r ), where p, q and r are the x
– intercepts.
This is how I found the third equivalent format of a cubic function.

1
1. When a cubic function is given in the Standard (or Expanded) format y = a
x3 + b x2 + c x + d, the x - coordinate of the centre of 180 degree rotational symmetry
can be found by considering its gradient function: dy/dx = 3 a x2 + 2 b x + c. As a
parabola, it has a vertical line of symmetry going through its vertex. If we equate
the gradient function with zero, we will get the x - coordinates of the local maximum
and local minimum of the original cubic function 1.

3 a x2 + 2 b x + c = 0

− 2 b − √ 4 b 2 − 12 a c − 2 b − 2 √ b 2 − 3 a c − b − √ b2 − 3 a c
x1 = = =
6a 6a 3a

− 2 b + √ 4 b 2 − 12 a c − 2 b + 2 √ b2 − 3 a c − b + √ b2 − 3 a c
x2 = = =
6a 6a 3a

The x - coordinate of the point of inflection - the centre of 180 degree rotational
symmetry of a cubic function - is exactly in the middle between those two x –
coordinates:

1
Gordon, S. P. (1999). On symmetries of polynomials. Problems, Resources, and Issues in
Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 9(1), 13–20.

2
 x1 + x2 − 2 b b
x POI = = = −
2 6a 3a

The x - coordinate of the point of inflection can also be calculated by finding where
the second derivative (a linear function) d2y/dx2 = 6 a x + 2 b is equal to zero 2.

6ax+2b=0

6ax=-2b

2b b
x POI = − =−
6a 3a

Here I have shown two different ways to obtain the x - coordinate of the point of
inflection. The second one is much shorter. It is because the second derivative is
the rate of change of the first derivative: rate of the rate of the change, so that the
whole process of finding the x-coordinate of the point of inflection is accelerated
and hence (timewise) shortened.
The y - coordinate of the point of inflection is obtained by substitution:

y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d

b 3 b 2 b
y POI = a (− ) + b (− ) + c (− ) + d
3a 3a 3a

a b3 b3 bc
y POI = − + − + d
27 a3 9 a2 3a

b3 3 b3 bc
y POI = − + − + d
27 a2 27 a2 3a

2 b3 bc
y POI = 2
− + d
27 a 3a

To transform a cubic function from a Standard (or Expanded) format into its
equivalent Point of inflection format, we will use the method of completing the
cube:

y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d

2
Goehle, G., & Kobayashi, M. (2013). Polynomial graphs and symmetry. The College Mathematics
Journal, 44(1), 37–42.

3
 b 2
y = a ( x3 + x )+cx +d
a

3
b 2
b 2 b 3 b 2
y = a [ x +3 ( )x + 3( ) x +( ) ] + cx + d − a [3 ( ) x
3a 3a 3a 3a
b 3
+ ( ) ]
3a

b 3 3 a b2 a b3
y = a (x + ) + c x + d − x −
3a 9 a2 27 a3

b 3 b2 b3
y = a (x + ) + c x + d − x −
3a 3a 27 a2

b 3 b2 b3
y = a (x + ) + (c − )x + d −
3a 3a 27 a2

Note that for the x – coordinate of the point of inflection [x = – b / (3 a)], the cubed
term has a value of zero and the sum of the linear term and constant gives the size
of the vertical translation of the point of inflection of the cubic function from the x -
axis.

The Point of inflection format of a cubic function shows the exact location of the
point of inflection and gives a clear indication where the centre of 180 degree
rotational symmetry is. The beauty of this format of a cubic function is that it can
always be written using only real numbers - even when a cubic function has only one
real factor (one x - intercept) and then it can be written in the Factorised format using
conjugate complex numbers.

2. When a cubic function is given in the Factorised format y = a (x – p) (x – q) (x

– r), where p, q and r are the x – intercepts, we can obtain its derivatives and use
them to find coordinates of the point of inflection.

y=a(x–p)(x–q)(x–r)

y = a ( x2 – q x – p x + p q ) ( x – r )

y = a ( x3 – q x2 – p x2 + p q x – r x2 + q r x + p r x - p q r )

y = a [ x3 – ( p + q + r ) x2 + ( p q + p r + q r ) x - p q r ]

y = a x3 – a ( p + q + r ) x2 + a ( p q + p r + q r ) x – a p q r

4
 dy/dx = 3 a x2 – 2 a ( p + q + r ) x + a ( p q + p r + q r )

d2y/dx2 = 6 a x – 2 a ( p + q + r )

We can find the x – coordinate of this point of inflection (the centre of 180 - degree
rotational symmetry) by considering the gradient function

dy/dx = 3 a x2 – 2 a ( p + q + r ) x + a ( p q + p r + q r )

which, as a parabola, has a vertical line of symmetry going through its vertex. If we
equate this gradient function with zero, we will get the x – coordinates of the local
maximum and local minimum of a cubic function.

3 a x2 – 2 a (p + q + r) x + a (p q + p r + q r) = 0

2 a ( p + q + r ) − √[– 2 a ( p + q + r ) ]2 − 4 (3 a) [ a ( p q + p r + q r ) ]
x1 =
2 (3 a)

2 a ( p + q + r ) + √[– 2 a ( p + q + r ) ]2 − 4 (3 a) [ a ( p q + p r + q r ) ]
x2 =
2 (3 a)

The x – coordinate of the point of inflection (the centre of 180 degree rotational
symmetry of a cubic function) is exactly in the middle between those two x –
coordinates:
x1 + x2 4 a ( p + q + r ) p+q+r
x POI = = =
2 12 a 3

The x – coordinate of the Point of Inflection of a cubic function can also be calculated
by finding where the second derivative, which, as a linear function, d2y/dx2 = 6 a x
– 2 a (p + q + r) is equal to zero.

6ax–2a(p+q+r)=0

6ax=2a(p+q+r)

2a(p + q + r) p+q+r
x POI = =
6a 3

The y - coordinate of the point of inflection is obtained by substitution.

y=a(x–p)(x–q)(x–r)

5
 p + q + r p + q + r p + q + r
y POI = a ( −p )( − q )( −r)
3 3 3

p+q+r−3p p+q+r−3q p+q+r−3r

y POI = a ( )( )( )
3 3 3

q + r−2p p + r−2q p + q −2r

y POI = a ( )( )( )
3 3 3

a
y POI = (q + r −2p)(p + r −2q)(p + q −2r)
27

When a factorised cubic function has a quadratic term, then the graph touches the
x – axis. In that case either p = q or q = r. This is essential to keep in mind when we
are calculating coordinates of the Point of inflection.

The Factor theorem teaches us how to factorise a cubic function, but, in essence,
we are looking for the three numbers (read as roots or x – intercepts) which must
satisfy all these three conditions:

p + q + r = – b / a, p q + p r + q r = c / a, p q r = – d / a, or

– a ( p + q + r ) = b, a ( p q + p r + q r ) = c, –apqr=d

To see how those requirements are obtained, we need to look at the result of
algebraic expansion (at the bottom on page 4) from the section “When a cubic
function is given in the Factorised format” (just before differentiation). We will see
that each of those equations represents a corresponding equivalence of the
quadratic and linear coefficients and the constant term:

y = a x3 – a ( p + q + r ) x2 + a ( p q + p r + q r ) x – a p q r

y = a x3 + b x2 + c x + d

6
Based on these insights, the newly discovered Point of inflection format of a
cubic function can also be written as a function of x – intercepts p, q and r:

b 3 b2 b3
y = a (x + ) + (c − )x + d −
3a 3a 27 a2

3
[− a ( p + q + r ) ] [− a ( p + q + r )]2
y=a {x+ } + {a(pq+pr+qr)− }x
3a 3a
[− a ( p + q + r ) ]3
+ (− apqr − )
27 a2

p+q+r 3 a2 ( p + q + r ) 2
y= a (x− ) +[a(pq+pr+qr)− ]x
3 3a
[− a3 ( p + q + r )3 ]
− apqr −
27 a2

p+q+r 3 ( p + q + r )2
y= a { (x− ) +[pq+pr+qr − ] x− p q r
3 3
p+q+r 3
+ ( ) }
3

We can algebraically prove the equivalence of all the three formats of a cubic
function by converting a cubic function from the Point of inflection format into the
Factorised format:

p+q+r p+q+r 2 p+q+r 3

y = a { [ x3 − 3 ( ) x2 + 3 ( ) x−( ) ]
3 3 3
( p + q + r )2 p+q+r 3
+[pq+pr+qr − ] x− p q r + ( ) }
3 3

(p + q + r)2 (p + q + r)2
y = a { x 3 − (p + q + r) x 2 + [ ] x + (p q + p r + q r) x − [ ]x
3 3

−pqr}

y = a ( x3 − p x2 − q x2 − r x2 + p q x + p r x + q r x − p q r )

y = a ( x3 − p x2 − q x2 + p q x − r x2 + p r x + q r x − p q r )

y = a [ x 2 ( x − p ) − q x ( x − p ) − r x ( x − p ) + q r (x − p) ]

7
 y = a [ ( x − p )( x 2 − q x − r x + q r ) ]

y = a ( x − p )[ x ( x − q ) − r ( x − q )

y = a ( x − p )[ ( x − q ) ( x − r )]

y= a(x−p)(x −q)(x−r)

From the Factorised format, the Standard (or Expanded) format, can always be
reached by means of algebraic expansion.
This discovery that cubic functions (which have 180 degree rotational symmetry) can
be expressed in three equivalent formats like quadratic functions (which have line
symmetry) was a delightful experience for me and I wanted to share it with a wider
audience. Some readers may be motivated to share and explore these findings with
their senior mathematics students.
Mathematics can be further enriched with “what if” questions that open pathways to
even greater discoveries. What if, instead of cubic, we considered quartic or quintic
functions?

We know, from already published materials, that unlike quadratic and cubic
functions, quartic and quintic functions can be both symmetrical and asymmetrical
3
. Just because of that, we need to investigate those realities before making any
inferences.

References

1) Goehle, G., & Kobayashi, M. (2013). Polynomial graphs and

symmetry. The College Mathematics Journal, 44(1), 37–42.

2) Gordon, S. P. (1999). On symmetries of polynomials. Problems,

Resources, and Issues in Mathematics Undergraduate Studies, 9(1),
13–20.

3) Irwin, F., & Wright, H.N. (1917). Some Properties of Polynomial

Curves. Annals of Mathematics, 19(2), 152–158.

3
Irwin, F., & Wright, H.N. (1917). Some Properties of Polynomial Curves. Annals of Mathematics,
19(2), 152–158.