Stylistics.

Seminar 9
1. Applied stylistics (definitions).
Applied stylistics is a branch of stylistics that focuses on the
practical application of stylistic analysis and theories to various fields
such as literature, language teaching, translation, advertising, media, and
communication. It involves using stylistic principles to understand and
analyze texts, as well as to create and enhance communication in
different contexts. Applied stylistics aims to uncover the stylistic
features of texts, evaluate their effectiveness, and utilize this knowledge
to achieve specific communicative goals or objectives.
 Stylistics: Stylistics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the
study of style in language, including variations in language use,
linguistic choices, and the effect of such choices on meaning,
interpretation, and communication. It examines how language
features such as vocabulary, syntax, and imagery contribute to the
overall style and tone of a text or discourse.
 Language Teaching: Language teaching refers to the process of
imparting knowledge and skills related to a particular language,
typically focusing on aspects such as grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, and communication skills. Applied stylistics in
language teaching involves incorporating stylistic analysis and
techniques into language instruction to enhance learners'
understanding and appreciation of linguistic nuances and to
improve their language proficiency.
 Translation: Translation involves the rendering of a text or
discourse from one language into another while preserving its
meaning, style, and communicative intent. Applied stylistics in
translation involves analyzing the stylistic features of the source
text and making appropriate stylistic choices in the target language
to ensure that the translated text conveys the same effect and tone
as the original.
 Literature: Literature refers to written works, including fiction,
poetry, drama, and essays, that are considered to have artistic or
intellectual value. Applied stylistics in literature involves
analyzing literary texts to uncover stylistic features such as tone,
imagery, narrative voice, and figurative language, and to
 understand how these elements contribute to the overall aesthetic
and communicative impact of the work.
 Advertising and Marketing: Advertising and marketing involve the
promotion and selling of products, services, or ideas through
various media channels. Applied stylistics in advertising and
marketing focuses on using language and stylistic techniques to
create persuasive and compelling messages that appeal to target
audiences, evoke desired emotions or responses, and effectively
communicate brand identity and value propositions.
 Media and Communication: Media and communication encompass
the production, dissemination, and reception of information,
entertainment, and cultural content through various channels such
as print, broadcast, digital, and social media. Applied stylistics in
media and communication involves analyzing the language and
stylistic features of media texts, including news articles,
advertisements, films, and online content, to understand their
persuasive strategies, ideological implications, and audience
effects.

2. Literary stylistics (definitions).

Literary stylistics analyzes the use of linguistic devices in literary

texts to create aesthetic effects and evoke emotional responses in
readers.
 Stylistic Analysis in Literature: Stylistic analysis in literature
involves the examination of the linguistic and formal features of
literary texts to uncover patterns, themes, and meanings embedded
within the language. It encompasses the study of various stylistic
elements such as imagery, metaphor, syntax, rhythm, and tone, as
well as broader narrative structures and genre conventions.
Stylistic analysis aims to reveal how authors use language
creatively to convey complex ideas, evoke sensory experiences,
and engage readers on intellectual and emotional levels.
 Literary Language and Style: Literary language refers to the
distinctive use of language in literary texts, characterized by its
aesthetic qualities, figurative expressions, and creative
manipulation of linguistic forms. Style, in the context of literature,
encompasses the unique voice, tone, and manner of expression
employed by an author to convey their artistic vision and
 communicate with readers. Literary stylistics examines how
authors use language and style to shape the narrative perspective,
construct characters, and convey thematic messages, contributing
to the overall richness and depth of literary works.
 Aesthetic Function of Language: The aesthetic function of
language refers to its capacity to evoke beauty, emotion, and
sensory experiences through the use of literary devices and stylistic
techniques. In literature, language is not merely a means of
communication but a medium for artistic expression and aesthetic
enjoyment. Literary stylistics explores how authors harness the
expressive potential of language to create vivid imagery, convey
abstract concepts, and evoke powerful emotional responses in
readers, thereby enhancing the aesthetic impact of their writing.
 Interdisciplinary Approach: Literary stylistics often adopts an
interdisciplinary approach, drawing on insights from linguistics,
literary theory, psychology, and cultural studies to analyze the
complex interplay between language, style, and meaning in literary
texts. It combines linguistic analysis with literary interpretation to
illuminate the formal and functional aspects of language use in
literature, offering valuable insights into the creative strategies
employed by authors and the interpretive practices of readers.

3. The notions of connotation and denotation (definitions and examples).

Connotation is the use of a word to suggest a different association

than its literal meaning, which is known as denotation.
 For example, blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a
feeling of sadness, as in: “She’s feeling blue.”

Denotation is the objective meaning of a word. The term comes

from the Latin word “denotationem,” meaning “indication.” The
denotation of a word is its literal definition—its dictionary definition—
and contains no emotion.
 House - a building for human habitation, typically one that is
detached and surrounded by land.

This is in contrast to connotation, which is the subjective or associated

meaning of a word.
4. Types of connotations (definitions and examples).
Writers often use connotation to create emotional associations that can be
either positive, negative, or neutral.
1. Positive connotation. Words that conjure a favorable emotional
response. For example, describing someone ambitious as a “go-
getter” or someone who is lively and curious as “youthful.”

2. Negative connotation. When a negative connotation is made, it

presents the person or thing in an unfavorable light. Using the
examples above, the same ambitious person might be described as
an “overachiever,” while the curious person might be referred to as
“childish.”

3. Neutral connotation. This is when a word says what it means with

a neutral point of view, and no attached positive or negative
connotation. The statement, “He is ambitious” suggests a person
works hard and strives to achieve, without judgment on whether
the ambition is a good or a bad thing.

Stylistics. Seminar 10
1. Figures of substitution (definitions).

Figures of substitution are subdivided into the figures of quality –

metaphor, antonomasia, personification, allegory, epithet, metonymy,
synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism and irony.

Metaphor: is used to carry out the aesthetic function, to create imagery,

to make the author's idea more exat, definite and transparent, to reveal
the author's emotional attitude towards what he describes.
Antonomasia: is a peculiar variety of metaphor device in which a
proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa. The main
stylistic function of antonomasia is to characterize a person
simultaneously with naming him/her.
Personification: it is a transfer of features and characteristics of a
person to a thing. It is used only in fiction, can appear only within the
context, no matter how short. Personification gives vivid characteristics
to a phenomenon, creates the imagery, enhances the expressiveness of
the text.
Allegory: it is the expression of an abstract idea through some exact
image or object. It may be presented by the provebs or sayings, fables or
literary fictions. Allegory stresses the logical meaning of speech by
adding to it some emotive colouring and enchances the poetic
expressiveness of the text.
Epithet: it is an expressive means based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attribute word, phrase or even sentence used to
characterize an object and pointing out to the reader. From the semantic
point of view epithets can be divided into affective (associated) and
figurative (transferred, unassociated). They serve to convey the
emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Epithets are mostly
expressed by adjectives or qualitative adverbs, but also by nouns used
either as exclamatory sentences or as postpositive attributes.
Metonymy: it is realized on the basis of contiguity between the two
objects. Metonymy is more often found in the subject and object groups.
There are two kinds of metonymy: lexical and stylistic. Metonymy gives
more profound meainings to otherwise common ideas and objects, texts
exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawning reader's attention.
Synecdoche: it is a variety of metonymy in which the tranfer is based on
the association between a part and the whole, the singular and the plural.
Synecdoche is used to specify the description, to make it more specific,
to draw the reader's attention to a small, seemingly insignificant detail to
make him visualize the object.
Periphrasis: it is a stylistic figure which substitutes a word designating
an object for a word-combination which describes its most essential and
characteristic features. It can be classified into figurative and logical.
Periphrasis is used to bring out and intensify some features or properties
of the given object, to avoid monotonous repetition and to create
humorous effect.
Euphemism: it is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an
unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.
It can be divide into: religious, medical, moral, political and
euphemisms connected with some action or event. Euphemism is used to
give a more positive characterisation of the object described, to soften
the reader's perception of events, to cover up what the real situation is.
Irony: it is an utterance which formally shows a positive or neutral
attitude of the speaker to the object of conversation but in fact expresses
a negative evaluation of it. It may express irritation, displeasure, pity or
 regret. Since irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning, only
positive concepts can be used in their logical dictionary meanings.

2. Figures of quantity:
a) Hyperbole: it is a deliberate overstatement or exaggeration aimed at
intensifying one of the features of the object. Hyperbole is mainly used
to intensify physical qualities of objects or people: size, colour,
quantity, age etc. It intensifies one of the features of an object, creates
a humorous effect, expresses the intensity of strong feelings, ahows an
overflow of emotions.
b) Meiosis: it is a deliberate understatement or underestimation of some
feature of an object or phenomena with the aim of intensifying the
expressiveness of speech. The main function is to emphasize the
insignificance of an object. Meisosis is considered to be an opposition
to the hyperbole.
c) Litotes: it presents a statement in the form of negation. It is used to
weaken positive characteristics of a thing or a person, to convey the
speaker's doubts as to the exact value or significance of the object of
speech.

Stylistics. Seminar 11
1. Figures of quality:
а) Metonymy: it is realized on the basis of contiguity between the two
objects. Metonymy is more often found in the subject and object groups.
There are two kinds of metonymy: lexical and stylistic. Metonymy gives
more profound meainings to otherwise common ideas and objects, texts
exhibit deeper or hidden meanings and thus drawning reader's attention.
Synecdoche: it is a variety of metonymy in which the tranfer is based on
the association between a part and the whole, the singular and the plural.
Synecdoche is used to specify the description, to make it more specific,
to draw the reader's attention to a small, seemingly insignificant detail to
make him visualize the object.
Metaphor: is used to carry out the aesthetic function, to create imagery,
to make the author's idea more exat, definite and transparent, to reveal
the author's emotional attitude towards what he describes.
b) Personification: it is a transfer of features and characteristics of a
person to a thing. It is used only in fiction, can appear only within the
context, no matter how short. Personification gives vivid characteristics
to a phenomenon, creates the imagery, enhances the expressiveness of
the text.
Periphrasis: it is a stylistic figure which substitutes a word designating
an object for a word-combination which describes its most essential and
characteristic features. It can be classified into figurative and logical.
Periphrasis is used to bring out and intensify some features or properties
of the given object, to avoid monotonous repetition and to create
humorous effect.
Epithet: it is an expressive means based on the interplay of emotive and
logical meaning in an attribute word, phrase or even sentence used to
characterize an object and pointing out to the reader. From the semantic
point of view epithets can be divided into affective (associated) and
figurative (transferred, unassociated). They serve to convey the
emotional evaluation of the object by the speaker. Epithets are mostly
expressed by adjectives or qualitative adverbs, but also by nouns used
either as exclamatory sentences or as postpositive attributes.

c) Antonomasia: is a peculiar variety of metaphor device in which a

proper name is used instead of a common noun or vice versa. The main
stylistic function of antonomasia is to characterize a person
simultaneously with naming him/her.
Allegory: it is the expression of an abstract idea through some exact
image or object. It may be presented by the provebs or sayings, fables or
literary fictions. Allegory stresses the logical meaning of speech by
adding to it some emotive colouring and enchances the poetic
expressiveness of the text.
Euphemism: it is a variety of periphrasis which is used to replace an
unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one.
It can be divide into: religious, medical, moral, political and
euphemisms connected with some action or event. Euphemism is used to
give a more positive characterisation of the object described, to soften
the reader's perception of events, to cover up what the real situation is.
Irony: it is an utterance which formally shows a positive or neutral
attitude of the speaker to the object of conversation but in fact expresses
a negative evaluation of it. It may express irritation, displeasure, pity or
 regret. Since irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning, only
positive concepts can be used in their logical dictionary meanings.

Stylistics. Seminar 12
1. Figures of identity: simile
Simile: is a partial indentification of two objects belonging to different
spheres or bringing together some of their qualities. Simile is one of the
most frequent and effective means of making speech expressive. The
more unexpected the confrontation of two objects is, the more
expressive sounds simile. The use of similes makes it easier for the
readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may
have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended.
2. Figures of contrast:
Oxymoron: is also a combination of opposite meanings which exclude
each other. But in this case, the two semantically contrasting ideas are
expressed by syntactically interdependent words.Oxymoron produces a
dramatic effect in both prose as well as poetry. In everyday
conversation, however, people do not use oxymoron to make some deep
statement like the one mentioned above. Instead, they do it to show wit.
The use of oxymoron adds flavor to their speech.
Antithesis: is a stylistic device which presents two contrasting ideas in
close proximity in order to stress the contrast. Antithesis stressing the
contrast and rhythmically organizing the utterance.
Paradox: is one more type of utterance based on semantic and syntactic
opposition. Paradox is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory
but contains something of a truth. Paradox and antithesis are the oldest
of the stylistic devices known from the time of ancient rhetorics. Their
main communicative function was (and remains) to strike the readers or
hearers, to influence their believes, to convince them by the power of
the arguments the utterance contains and to force them to see the world
differently.
3. Figures of inequality:
Climax (gradation): is a structure in which every successive word,
phrase, or sentence is emotionally stronger or logically more important
than the preceding one. A climax, when used as a plot device, helps
readers understand the significance of the rising action earlier to the
point in the plot where the conflict reaches its peak. The Climax of the
story makes readers mentally prepared for the resolution of the conflict.
Anticlimax: presents a structure in which every successive word,
phrase, or sentence is emotionally or logically less strong than the
preceding one. Generally ludicrous or comic effect is produced by anti-
climax. When employed intentionally, it devalues the subject.
Zeugma: is a simultaneous realization within the same short context of
two meanings of a polysemantic unit. It adds flavor to literary texts as it
helps produce a dramatic effect, which could possibly be shocking in its
result.
Pun: is a device based on polisemy, homonymy, or phonetic similarity
to achieve a humorous effect. Apart from being witty and humorous,
puns add profound meanings to texts and shape the way in which the
text is interpreted by the readers. By playing with the words, the writers
reveal their cleverness and the cleverness of their characters.