Full Ebook of Heinemann Chemistry 1 Vce Units 1 2 6Th Edition C Commons Online PDF All Chapter

Heinemann Chemistry 1 VCE Units 1 2
6th Edition C Commons

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmeta.com/product/heinemann-chemistry-1-vce-units-1-2-6th-edition-c-co
mmons/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Jacaranda Chemistry 1 VCE Units 1 2 3rd Edition Neale

Taylor
https://ebookmeta.com/product/jacaranda-chemistry-1-vce-
units-1-2-3rd-edition-neale-taylor/
Edrolo VCE Psychology Units 1 2 2020th Edition Edrolo
https://ebookmeta.com/product/edrolo-vce-psychology-
units-1-2-2020th-edition-edrolo/
Psychology VCE units 1 2 7th Edition John Grivas
https://ebookmeta.com/product/psychology-vce-units-1-2-7th-
edition-john-grivas/
Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 2 Sixth

Edition Kinnear
https://ebookmeta.com/product/jacaranda-nature-of-biology-1-vce-
units-1-2-sixth-edition-kinnear/
Cambridge VCE Accounting Units 1&2 3rd Edition Anthony
Simmons
https://ebookmeta.com/product/cambridge-vce-accounting-
units-12-3rd-edition-anthony-simmons/
Edrolo VCE General Maths Units 1 2 2nd Edition Edrolo
https://ebookmeta.com/product/edrolo-vce-general-maths-
units-1-2-2nd-edition-edrolo/
Psychology VCE Units 1 2 and ebookplus 8th Edition John

Grivas
https://ebookmeta.com/product/psychology-vce-units-1-2-and-
ebookplus-8th-edition-john-grivas/
VCE Philosophy A Student Text for Units 1 2 3rd Edition

Anna Symes
https://ebookmeta.com/product/vce-philosophy-a-student-text-for-
units-1-2-3rd-edition-anna-symes/
Applied Computing VCE Units 1 2 Student Book 7th

Edition By Gary Bass
https://ebookmeta.com/product/applied-computing-vce-
units-1-2-student-book-7th-edition-by-gary-bass/
HEINEMANN
6TH EDITION
•f)r, ,CHEM ISTRY

t EDUCATION
~ , , ~ ASSOCIATION VCE UNITS 1 AND 2 • 2023-2027
HEINEMANN
6TH EDITION
COORDINAT1ING AUTHOR
Melissa MacEoin
AUTHORS
Drew Chan
Chris Commons
Penny Commons
Lanna Derry
Elizabeth Freer
Elissa Huddart
Louise Lennard
Mick Moylan
Pat O'Shea
Bob Ross
KeUie Vanderkruk
VCE UNITS 1 AND 2 • 2023-2027

Pearso n A ustralia
(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty ltd)
459-471 Church Street
Level I , Building B
Richmond, Victoria 3121
www.pearson.com .au
Copyright © Pearson Australia and Chemistry Education Association 2023
(a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty ltd)
First published 2023 by Pearson Australia
2026 2025 2024 2023
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Repr oduction and communication for educational pur poses

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or I 0% of the pages of this
work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/ or communicated by any educational institution
for its educational purposes provided that that educational inst itution (or the body that administers it) has
given a remuneration notice to t he Copyright Agency under the Act. For details of t he copyright licence for
educat ional institutions contact t he Copyright Agency (www.copyright.com.au).
Repr oduction and communication for o ther purposes

Except as permitted under the Act (for example any fair dealing for the purposes of study,
research, criticism or review), no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retr ieval syst em, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means w ithout prior
written permission. A ll enquiries should be made to t he publisher at the address above.
This book is not to be treated as a blackline master; that is. any photocopying beyond
fair dealing requ ires prior written permission.
VCE Heinemann Project Leads: Bryonie Scott, Misal Belvedere, Malcolm Parsons
Senior Development Edi tor: Fiona Cooke
Development Editor: Leanne Peters
Schools Programme Manager: Michelle Thomas
Senior Production Editor: Casey McGrath
Series Designer: Anne Donald
Rights & Permissions Edito r : A mirah Fat in Binte Mohamed Sapi'ee
Publishing Services Analyst: Jit-Pin Chong
Illustrat ors: Bruce Rankin, D iacriTech, A nne Donald, QBS
Editor: Maryanne Park
Proofreader: Margaret Trudgeon
Indexer: Penelope Goodes
Printed in Aust ralia by Pegasus Media + Logistics
N ational Library o f A ustralia Cataloguing-in-Publicat ion entry
A catalogue record for this

tmmwnnt book is available from the
NATIONAL
LIBRARY National Library of Australia
Of MSl~ i\l IA
ISBN 978 0 6557 0006 7
Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd ABN 40 004 245 943

Disclaimer
The selection of internet addresses (URLs) provided for this book was valid at the time of publication and was chosen as
being appropriate for use as a secondary education research tool. However, due to the dynamic nature of the internet,
some addresses may have changed, may have ceased to exist since publication, or may inadvert ently link to sites with
content that could be considered offensive or inappropriate. While the authors and publisher regret any inconvenience
this may cause readers, no responsibility for any such changes or unforeseeable errors can be accepted by either the
authors or the publisher.
Indigenous Australians
We respectfully acknowledge the traditional custodians of the lands upon which the many schools throughout Australia
are !located. We acknowledge traditional Indigenous Knowledge systems are founded upon a logic that developed from
Indigenous experience w ith tlhe natural environment over thousands of years. T his is in contrast to Western science, where
the production of knowledge often takes place within specific disciplines. As a result there are many cases where such
disciplinary knowledge does not reflect Indigenous worldviews, and can be considered offensive to Indigenous peoples.
Some of the images used in Heinemann Olemistry J 6th edition might have associations with deceased Indigenous Australians.
Please be aware that these images might cause sadness or distress in Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander communities.
HEINEMANN
HEINEMANN
HEMI TRY 1 CHEMISTRY1

HM EDITION
6TH EDITION
Writing and development team

We are grateful to t he fo llowing people for t heir time and
expertise in contributing to t he Heiinemann Chemistry 1 project.
Melissa MacEoin Elizabeth Freer Pat O'Shea

Ch emistry teacher Chem istry teacher Chemistry teacher
Coordinating author and reviewer Au thor Author
Doug Bail Renee Hill Bob Ross
Education consultant Chemistry teacher, Head of Retired chemistry teacher
SPARKlab developer Chem istry Author
Reuben Bolt Au tho r Sophie Selby-Pham
Deputy Vice-Chancellor First Elissa Huddart Scient ist
Nations Lea dership Chemistry teacher, Head of Science Answer checker
Reviewer Author Karen Smith
Erin Bruns Carissa Kelly Laboratory technician
Chem istry teacher Chem istry teacher Reviewer
Author and answer checker Answer checker Kelllie Vanderkruk
Drew Chan Jacqueline Kerr Environmenta l scientist and
Chemistry teacher, Head of Chemistry teacher former chem istry lecturer
Chemistry Author Author
Author Rowan Kiidd Gregory White
Chris Commons Chemistry teacher Scientist
Retired chemistry teacher and Au thor Answer checker
honorary chemistry researcher Louise Lennard Laurence Wooding
Author and reviewer Chem istry teacher Laboratory technician
Penny Commons Author Reviewer
Honorary c hemistry lecturer Tanneale Marshall
and tutor Laboratory techn ician
Author Reviewer
Lanna Derry
Mick Moylan
Chemistry teacher, Head of Science
Chem istry lecturer
Coordinating author (Yea r 12)
Author
and reviewer
The Publ isher wishes to thank and acknowledge Warwick Clarke and Geoff Quinton
••)~ CHEMISTRY for their contribution in creating the original content for the 5th editi on and t heir
~.,v
t EDUCATION
ASSOCIATION
longstanding ded icated work wit h Pearson and Heinemann.
The Chemistry Education Association was formed in 1977 by a group of chemistry

teachers from secondary and tertiary institutions. It aims to promote the teaching and
liearning of chemistry in schools. The CEA has established a tradition of providing professional development opportunities for
teachers and up-to-date text and electronic mat erials, together with other resources supporting bot h students and teachers.
The CEA offers scholarships and bursari1es to students and teachers to further t he ir interest in chem istry, assists the
Science Teachers Association of Victor ia (STAV) to present the VCE Chem istry Conference and sponsors prizes for the STAV
Science Talent Search.
■ CHAPTER 1 Scientific investigation 01
1.1 The nat ure of scientific investigations 04
l.2 Planning investigati1ons 09
1.3 Data collection and quality 22
1.4 Data analysis and presentatiion 33
l.5 Eval uation and conclusion 44
1.6 Reporting investigations 48
Unit 1 How can the diversity of materials be

explained?
■ AREA OF STUDY 1
How do the chemical structures of materials explain their
properties and reactions?
■ CHAPTER 2 Elements and the periodic table 59
2.1 The atom ic world 60
2.2 Em ission spectra and the Bohr model 67
2.3 The Schrodinger model of t he atom 73
2.4 The peri od ic table 79
2.5 Trends in t he periodic table 89
Chapter 2 Review 95
■ CHAPTER 3 Covalent substances 99
3.1 Cova lent bonding model 100
3.2 Shapes of molecules 106
3.3 Polarity in molecules 110
3.4 Intermo lecular forces 116
3.5 Covalent lattices 122
Chapter 3 Review 129
■ CHAPTER 4 Metals 133
4.1 Metallic properties and bonding 134
4.2 Reactivity of metals 143
4.3 Produc ing and recycling metals 148
■ CHAPTER 5 Ionic compounds 159
5.1 Properties of ionic compounds 160
5.2 Formation of ionic compounds 167
5.3 Precipitation reactions 177
■ CHAPTER 6 Separation and identification of
components of mixtures 189
6.1 How substances dissolve 190
6.2 Pri nciples of chromatography 202
Area of Study 1 • Review questions 210
■ AREA OF STUDY 2
How are materials quantified and classified?
■ CHAPTER 7 Quantifying atoms and compounds 215
7 .1 Relative mass 216
7.2 Avogadro's constant 223
7 .3 Molar mass 230
7 .4 Percentage com position, empirical and
molecu lar formulas 236
■ CHAPTER 8 Organic compounds 247
8.1 Organic materials 248
8.2 Hydrocarbons 253
8.3 Haloalkanes 266
8.4 Alcohols and carboxylic acids 273
■ CHAPTER 9 Polymers and society 287
9.1 Polymer formation 288
9.2 Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers 298
9.3 Designing polymers for a purpose 301
9.4 Recycling plastics 308
9.5 Innovations in polymer manufacture 312
AREA OF STUDY 3
Heinemann Chemistry 1 6th edit ion includes a comprehensive set of resources to
support Area of Study 3 via your Pearson Places bookshelf.
Unit 2 How do clhemical reactions sha1pe the

natural world?
■ AREA OIF STUDY 1
How do chemicals interact with water?
■ CHAPTER 10 Water as a unique chemical 329
10.1 Essential water 330
10.2 Heat capacity 339
10.3 Latent heat 343
■ CHAPTER 11 Acid-base reactions 349
11.1 Acids and bases 350
11.2 Strength of acids and bases 357
11.3 Reactions of aciids and bases 361
11.4 pH: a measure of acidity 368
11.5 Measuring pH 374
11.6 Acid-base reactions in the enviironmient 378
■ CHAPTER 12 Redox reactions 387
12.1 Introduci ng redox reactions 388
12.2 Metal displacement reactions 398
12.3 Redox reactions in society 403
■ AREA OF STUDY 2 1
How are chemicals measured and analysed?

■ CHAPTER 13 Measuring solubility and concentration 417
13.l Measuring solubil ity 418
13.2 Calcu lating concentrat ion 428
■ CHAPTER 14 Analysis for acids and bases 443
14.1 Principles of volumetric analysis 444
14.2 Stoichio1metry 456
■ CHAPTER 15 Gases 469
15.1 Greenhouse gases 470
15.2 Introduci ng properties of gases 473
15.3 Calculations involving gases 486
■ CHAPTER 16 Analysis for salts 493
.1 6.1 Testing for salts in water 494
16.2 Quantitative analysis of salts 503
16.3 Instrumental analysis for salts 509
AREA OF STUDY 3
Heinemann Chemistry 1 6th edit ion includes a comprehe nsive set
of resources to support Area of Study 3 via your Pearson Places bookshelf.
APPENDICES 532
ANSWERS 535
GLOSSARY 583
INDEX 592
ATTRIBUTIONS 598
PERIODIC TABLE 600
How to use this book
Heinemann Chemistry 1
6th edition
Heinemann Chemistry 1 6th edition has
@~
C~/IJ>TER
been written to the new VCE Chemistry Elements and the periodic _Qul~ Chapter
Study Design 2023- 2027. The book opener
n r • ~ . r a , """tl~n c,y r.~,,• . , : u r ~rt,. at llllb:r-&• rat
covers Units 1 and 2. Explore how to

~fflT-. vr,.. '"ti l:flion ip,attf'Q r"ts 1-n;MM:\"'I W lttm .Jboli
n mnr- r-~ moct,,n &:t~ec-- ~uum m&,"«1GII "'l'OCIK ""'t. ,ou ._, too•
mer. dui.111 liil Dllil -.n.,f.:i ••tl ilM: kM D~,-.. ,t •n.• val
t.J"N """'7'0nt ~~'f'
t i rJ'- l'.l(rtlila.. lKJI■.

Chapter opening
• ba r -'1•1"'11 W"f 1em1 _.wnrb.•1• fVIII t.rw d•uc.d - cntU,
~:,u wt
.-na 1nd.qMlri f r-6y ,w w l LU !ta JMmdt ~ 111 ,cp&ltn HM b'e"d1 that pages Ii nk the
use this book below. ""' rr.-r.ffl r tM pl'fVrti,-; fl tM ~ l'ffl"""'f, w tttn !flt l'WP5- in:t ~b> r1
t'<e tziblt.
Key lcnowledg~ study design to t he

l'J): dra1111lu"IS GI •C11111rb. ~ i11id U"6. , t-t.,lirfl, o!J:VI.V..,,_ nu.u:»n.
al::inK. ramt:.r mna r•HrCw • nd n.mt :• d P'0h1tn. n affQ,- -,d
• lldrar.. 2.1
chapter content.
t-.w S-nc:llc _.,. :11roi _, ,:rp,aQl!fJ:.rul t:c:il 'b derfffj J1•ttilna Md lrwtS
f\ ~nd Offllon;,t,,t ~ lh!t ttn,~~ rt'l(l-'11, . ,._,,,.., .,~ ~Jb!hf•
Key knowledge
Case study ~:171lr..: vYffllll"iY1cins .,d _,,,,,._ r») 1n,j fJ"lP,-'16 (nck,drc
riliLb(HlillJ,ilh«y, l nl D"&ll!'.11 .......,. ,t, 1~
~ t ,Jcrt lllhnw,b ll2.l.2At.§
a lbml •n...b (Jr,, .._,.,s:t._
i;a,d n m ~ d,a,--.::ur
W ,.m, ph,:11J:i1Mn. ~~ •timmta.

•ta
addressed in the
.m p!JIIMnrl•t.,. nwt,,. ..
m ....,...nrhl s,c1 ttM 1"1'ff'llrn1 ci INlT•,.
Case studies place chemistry in an tinX~ lr,r*ff'l!f'll ff('r.'H)' Z4
chapter is clearly
applied situation or relevant context. listed. To help you
Text and artwork refer to the find where each
nature and practice of chem istry, outcome is covered
applications of chemistry and in the chapter, the
associated issues, and the historical re levant section
development of chem ical concepts numbers are written
;:~=:· ·· . .. . . . . .... .. . .. l..

and ideas.
... in bold .
Green chemistry: Biodegradat>le packing peanuts

o,. rn.t'lcct fi:,r P"ftlll1nc . . . . P"•h dilm• ,,.,•• II
lo1,U"1V..n::lhl~1rtt..,.b<:.i:lllft'I ,-d,flrp,Nnl1:I
('k'C'F9J111 l2.£). ThewPQDr-..litl~v,••c.fl;on
._,....,._1,.'J'll1,~,,..-()l'r'l1»~r,....,.,,. s-:i~" ATOMIC THEORY
...... Hrv!ill)' h Nl,w: ps:a ,11othn tM r.-tao,1_
Std~1•:M,l••l~J"l . .d•~rtkitf!II
.,,.;.,~ ~-·•n •rit-• t01"iii: w,•-:1". ~ to ,t...
Highlight In 1M'•l. - &.luh i,,;ICDJ11l ~ :d ) 1'-PIA.Jn IFt,:u~ ~ 1 IJ Ff'OCll l::ddu llnl
Mw.ul~ thoru,..,- !JC Uilaffff D .a II f -4q• ,w:J lttA "' l f..«kl • -..Jc u,, or '" '
1l ,J r ~ ... ■-J lh .. 11d.... .. _..... HnJ n.i,.,..,ru.""~
,,_.,.,hill, u .., ..J"d,r.-,,.."
,.,.... ~. ,,.._ b4_....,,. ,'llf't o.l'Wi:oJII• w ~ ~
tDJ•l'•dit:- tra• rJr-rtn ,, I >.n,-.. a1,., .a:-nl'l"lh h d,,i.,.cr,,.,d • l nrwinq ;,11 nuu,u k r-111, rxn-n J 11111 · "''
Yt•o,.,•~••.'l.,ntr,ltfl•u10"1•tr.,mt..1,-.J I ,~1•1.J.,.:."I
,:tNq'I... N 4..,,1t1-,.:t111r,ftU"'d'lll,.,hwtt-..n.-
Highlight boxes focus on O E,...••r~IWNU>•
•\IIMP,Jlll
_ ...»ff ~
_ _ tt.,_...d, . .•.O
. . .I
. .i.
t\r,td :aum:a.J c - a ~ aa mz,,;zu.1111 tDU:1uU1~d1tkn-n1 " ~ u ( 11-
h• :d nllllln ~ut.nr.-:1110:p::nmaah 1b.,,n:J ..,_ l>•h •a •~ 1km,-; lh:- ·, , •·I na1lct
•
r-K'fdrwJ1att. on. rt,""'., '-" Jh..,I H•1h'l...,u: , 1-u.:.lol1-h r. ... ._.""- d u l ,i't ,11, 1rc d1tC u d.1,h h l·••
dibul'l~f'lhl.
ll'\1trJ9':i,o,,~"Jlf{th11• c,b!"J,(IM'f'il'oJ--'IJ,i!<ll'I
~ • IJ . . l'tn. Hn _ . , tf'IIII HdUWIW!h'. ~ important information n J t,qu,,_irh! ,\!,,ff" .irt nu.h .... ,.,.,... vndkt ~ , pMT....k.L'"'
,al P•llba Ma:h H in,,')"IW
~ u.wdlal,
-.•di-. .,.11,t;f w.d
,, L._.,..,,.i C'lo>lct••liiir JWMI 1:-N~.,. "lido'
•~:11., """••• nm w-1 cun ~u,;a .Sh•
JJI a dl'lfNlr•~ ~ • 1•d waop,aht.-.
such as key definitions
mm
t ~ ~ " " i l e a m p W - r ~ f NI.
■ apcl'..,_-rl ■UZIN-c:t ■ mm.bf~"h,N'lla
fi.4 ,ft,.,mt1ltt,to•~1•1,., u...,•.Nflti• Dir. , Slll:NIIL ~ t t~ rn:,ie, -...med lttl .:IUM ll'f ~ .. (tier, IWM
~'h'III iuJ.o.1wt11., IMiitM-l:fl 1n·•de+}t ...,IMN •Ill
,)tffift~~J,n;t,1"1 ,,.., fllf....VJ • b«ffll!!K.,.Mla;
FM~ mi,j• frum ~ t=-■" '2-..atr. l'I . . .,
~ Cffl'INMlf" hn. ~ - 1 • iWm ttw .._Ml
hlr,,. .■ tnw ■ ~•~tDt.ll~bll!Tat'lllil
-·•-•bt•tufll&.~~t,.,1aq-..,nllll 1
and summary points. cwn::ll Ul1ia■t1•han•.-.uw111cnacos,.-1 Tht,....._..,....,ra ,,,rth:·
adrm11t st.c,to1 UJllS. ,ttJ Ill!] ,. Na l'Kfc«QM c,~t«- 14
-11r,,.klpajtf't8lnaM•:hnc.d8nq.-dtt.1•rt,lbtnr. Tto11..,.isl
-.cm "°"""
m-,.,.thrt.t , . . . -. . . wu...nto-..t•~
1,i,f"J,f t f ••...,ffl"w.,,.tlft'"'fll""'N~b,.,..(l...,(JI
.;.. ...'Ji!o1.t,,:t.>f•tulp•1~ol"'i m,;l'lUl&f s •• ,..~ J',J v••nu,>J•tlrc netr.(c,c,t, J'iTVI SO· •~ 1Js,rcs,
~hENun~hll ltt.pad..lP.~bl'l'PJrilillll! CU.. l'tJad l•1I a.I~ 111 t.t~41ipWlell
~ • ,.,_.,. 11111 da nwinw h.r1"l •n• tt., ,., b■ '1 f,9nd
1lal•••..... pteord~tM:ll-. . . t-. lhilN~~I
4 · ~ ••r µ.-, hbHOd V pd'""'" b,.-J: •ritt-1:$1
~•1':itry;,ut:irr:1,:a;;,1,■ • • .. • ..•U-n. AY"# 'TM
STHI 1.t• 1W1 ~ 5hw[l flrl,f _,to~ lbn,. lh!- l(l • IU'ftf'i. ••Htt'
o1L1ot,::i, I .. S u ~ U oll t~f.J.. A.. t I ~. lt111 l l 111i1i111,4..., ,a,u,;; ...., ~
1..
ft,1Wi,;;ni...,,,,,,,,..Hi»t• NF.""w••* .-... ••lt.r•,-J•l,_...,,t.utott, ,rct.wtu ~ l.._,, ... _.lc,. . n,•paf'llll'I
fMVt pt.J.n an, t.o.1•,~~tN, thF, .1• ml ~ • f : M ,
baham~• f=•Ul'IIII p-,la ... Uffl kl damM .... ,
IJ,._. ya..i at . .., kl tta-n ,.,,-, Hff1D'I.,.
I J ~ . _,..,... i.~.t,..,,~ , ..., h ... ~,..,~''Ill-'
~ . - 1 ..,,14,; ~ ' l l l ):t.-.f)1)710J'll.-JFJ.t1
-11•111a.M1f'QurMrt\f.,id,U1H ltll),II ~HUltir ....... piQt.. Tttlilllltt.llU-fh
t11 atN, ~rt-•
~ • - ~••I rz-r-.uct■ _, n.p rd IN....,._ .:C.IM •~I#•
~·~{"'"°f,OG-1'"4",fflil•'W5 1••P"... ~••)'5, p9aadhtl'W.. -a.....-ci.-na •Uf&•.. il£M•btd.O•Utt::Ui.:.ot•slt.Mtft!;Hli~611it tfl
ChemFile
W!~U~
twci.1~a,:11t._~1._ .. 1t1,._'h•••f'&Vtl-W."--• tta,,....,. t'tltl""
ChemFiles include
interesting information
Case study: Analysis and real-world examples.
These case studies include real -

world data that can be analysed
and evaluated.
Icons
Rhodamine B in waste-water
This icon is used to alert you to engage with auto-corrected
::•htd.tfftir 8 ,, e lUl•H • 1 , .... I'>~'"" 11 G- ~
OA questions th rough Pearson Places.
,a'1#1S,i,., WMd., l ~ k •~IK. "'-''' t.WJClo.
✓✓
•rup...-lllu;4~,osno,,,,.,, l;tant-■ 1J11'.'d
')J m1•• 'WJn: tv,vrl pn, ,Kll:t a pfll 1\J91 ')> o!I
llpdr• er to 1rtt .v , i'T..,u pr• a:1bn h .a ~NMt1
alpapr~~~-- ■ n-,--b■ .iMdk.t'
'W'El,_tha,... ■ndd1Kfa, :trla'.-. :t__. ntt.
,_,.,..,,_,lw:.h .. wmta"".."•'"W'IIIRI .,,.._.,
.hi~.s.
lho,*1• :rt~.,,..Etnlfl{, r,.....
These icons indicate when it is the best
,,[(I• .n'IM ,s !Is h'9', Nll.1titl"y ,n,1 """'-!'
«'). .
tut t,'1l1,.cl"'..,ltttdHaMlc,nd,-W:at.ffi'
~••rl"• C.R,a111• r,rw M,,.,._.,.,,.IHUMr.J-r• EQ time to engage w ith a worksheet (WS), a
mri 'lt.ur,cr--HIM11,aUnw-....
ll~l•... • ~ C,.l1dn1:J.11 n.t,d, .., 1/11...-tttit .,_clJOIM&IPf
U301
tK ·tuir!lllnr, ~4•~.ett.f'lu,
-.!tlurn~ by :Wlnrw U\' i::I' •a.lb• lltf. U•,or_.1,h ~
• ~'II/Ill "'~I b) e,1,1~~ 'Nlcll' llU,pic's ... td, IIM
... pract ical actfvity (PA) or exam questions
(EQ) in the Heinemann Chemistry 1 Skills
)ill j l'Jri, COfti:CM'llf>'l'I (( ~ , . . . f B ~11Wil
e,u,,.. rt'.>1.Yn,... E! II!, I •C » O'PW'Sff4
nthl . . . .,ftS~ln,11o•l• ....... ~ r t ,
'tTI nciUllnnlhManal'll'I ' " - ~ I O I ,net
i:--.b•.c~_.at,-1r:ll"--HI,__.
eou t•tD-tN mt .a.,nt ta LhMIAla. Jtn d_,. 11 and Assessment book.
VII
Worked example Workod eumplo 3.3 1
COMPARIN.. T~E POU.llllY or COVALENT BONDS Chapter review
Worked examples are set Campa"' Ille polarlly ol lM bond ., hydrogen luorlde (HF) M d carbon
moMll.ldl (0()). Each chapter conc ludes with a list
out in steps that show I Tlllnk111J: ~g of key terms and questiions t hat
Uu the Lllllit of • l l ~tlv,1y
thinking and working. Each vlllun Ir, rcun l l.2 IO Md tho
Hf. "rdrcpn " - lluorlM "-0
CO. carbon 2.6. G1ypn 3.4 test your understanding of the key
eciedtoftq:a1JV,ue$ ol lbe ~toms .,
Worked example is fol lowed ~di bond.
knowledge covered in the chapter.
ror •~ell bond, wlAfact tlit tow.i Hf ,0-2.2-1•
by a Wo rked example: Try •~•ly 'l'IIIU. "°m lht CO: 3.& - :2.6 ~ ru!I
hiahHt...-,._
yoursellf that allows you to o.t.nni,.,. whch bond hn tlM baHt
d111,,.noe ,11~1ro,...t1vll)t to
The bond in HF" mo~
"'00
~ tll~n
~termlN 11111 mor. polar bond.

test you r understanding.
2.5 Review Chepter review co

arm
• r• 6 : t... , .rlNtdui!!•~•~ ram••""""'"' ..,.,.. '"
luv n 11NS I
,,.,,...-J.,,...,.. ......
......
,nuU11i--n"Jn!
l••-i1r•tl I •,.lt11r,ll_,_.-1N • . I• ••
.~
_,........
··~•t .. ......
K&l... ktAll't'!~
,.,..,
--_
~ h t l l t . , l t '.... ~IJtlll: ~.~
IIH1k m::,... ~ 1•:llld•tllol
· T1,~1,.'!n1Cih'• '-i;•IU,U:~~
~na.,. tni .,,_ "•....,.141,,-. ..-1 Hllll"'rw ll°"kll,Mrpf/#,.-dJ.-
.........
1,11•11d...~~ ..,->J-: ....
Section summary
tl•fl• nt.H: · ii
,:,mtt,e-,.~;., , r
• l9Cr.su1d•t1 • NI IDltJ c,t _, ....,_... M
_,,..,.....,
b".'Htl~t,tti1'°"""'0-,.~l•f'IN"ol •f'N'iC•
,..,,,11..-..
,..... ..~,
lf9.:w.&.IIIU'I.,_.. - -·-- -- - ..
tHCk 1r-,n11kt1t1'1)
!b•r Pcdll
, ..n«aa41W1Mt
.~~,,.....
t-,...,~d
l"-~if.1.-h
r.fl"IICI IJWll)dc l~•I
.,.
,-nadcWIII
, ...,w ...,..,.
Jt"•On
..,_
--
....,.,.,,,,.,P"«Nil<S
c-arl~l'I Mh:t-
• >1"'9ac:0.1&A••,...~·-...,,,.,.ta, ......
,.-.111i..t11t'•~-- f1'M11PV,oL'•_.,,...,i kh-od,.-,n""'J..f
,_,.._H
~ , : t . J _ . btr Npr-0.J al,h tl)la-.~ tuft 11•
..,_,
.... •. -
~lrw-:t,illf cfh::.111__,j llll•tH'ICJiN'dl
Each section incl udes

a summary to help you
• r,,.,..<ir-s,i1-,,~,•• •th:'l'r,-•• ....,11)
. . , _ lfl· - n,unJ1• JrDTI U a, ..-nll'II I•
• l••lltlltl:l"l:hl'9'lhl'Tl'TWIWtrht>-fltta.
. ff(,HtoM,lOIO!- _.. I C lrl"f'.....•tr""~ ~.1"("(),_
..,,_
• ....,.,., . . . . l'.,.~,-;i,calpl!0~1',"41d<IIMUl'f
nt'Hlptr...=:l.tblluntwup.llnat~1t...-o
~1c1. ~"'"'•"·"'• s:,e,01

ri.("ao,Mcft.1•1,at,.1i.:a111~. . . . l'hfl,
tw,o,,, ..
,~1• l"l
---
■IKlH !'NC H r d'u1•p
......
,
••hu•-p,,_,-.
....
.-tP.1rw:: c.m-.itlf'Hr,
1lal•1--s: 1trwdlol'
p .....
ff(iJ•).,
,...,,~
ncib»Ju...-ni01
r&lbflaJH
n1 JCl\n._..,
. , , ~f'l:ld• tf lh9 ps,a-a: . . .. «h••11111 •~l1tb1"""'"ll•...,_1111tl• a1
conso lidate key points and 0t:-11:o1•M\~l"ll , 1G11htl$n1r,n.-n

l"ll:n.ltalO .... , tt. ...,ca .-;,-c,na . . Mrt••r
h:n1 It. !f'~Ji•..dar■ hlld .... ftlrll'I' IJ:no-.......•andu161ta.t.-iwi,'
concepts. ] It• IT"Jl•"'U'Tt ru,-G•• QII ■ IIKl~•• fl . . Int

I♦,_ th 1da1~-=
A ca-.,"
II- ,~...,.
IBif iii ·1611

#11 '-.IUII
9 •• ; '.
..
C ""U D -
Kmwhidp .,d lftd.l~Jl"I.I I ln11td11"1'41d-3)a.l-ltal::lllla■ol,,:."
D lAlB ti' t. 4 · t--'d..,..fflUf'll.. •111,._.-.w,ltd~ hi
-.n ..c1Ntch.rjtCl1111l111 r,:a,···••t-t•~p, ,c,
---......
t IP"f.nl-c:t1••11 ,, • • ~
] D1l,-htt..rm'llf't&t...
-1d#Wmr•Nlff'K1.•n..:k•~~_,N«- _, .,..., •~f•
f l
:,I , .-,.,,rt ;;::i;n:wi •1"""'11 runb1n.
·t•lllf'l..,.ot'JI --:t~U•1
• o,--,1( "•nW •.J n"lilcM tVfltc-1
fl . .,r •t*
t' <,,.~ +I l"111eltf••ttf'14H:f1,......,~••pH·I b Q,w,n,..,w r.~"'t•«•lrua,J,1t;i1N.-.,
Section review I SW..,_r-.Wa'llh"blltJlll11• • ~ t t • n d

~-ru::lurdlsWIL :S ~ u ~,~-.doinUi."l~(a'U·1TNU,nrt.
ti ......nina
7
~ ,,·~
1111"■11
,n l'W-c:t'I llufl 1-1 ,._
•ths~Jllt.tl1...,l'l'l.-.r.taa.,n.:frt-f'K:
Each section concludes with

..••
I: ,,, u,...--eit.o.rt.,.l:,t,__..,_,ie'.. ro .. ,u,0•1~
11-4..-•1 Q•llf!•-.,WhLA~""'-~•JrJ-...,,_.
I
......,.t ,.....
,. ••11cr1'6,. ~"'-~''"''"""• ~ "Ql'01""""95"8
N ;. Q, Al.Cl
Lp..,.tT'jl••n•rT-d~cprl-dnll.,
!
D • t ,.
Ultt •c...,cC1:F1•1•rwlD11NW."'..d ! -
l"IP" an•hft11at.-:ll..tU1t11
••••artw.1.1wr.-1t2U1
0-:Hl'flf"ll!'I r l( 11(1 ("l"MfN lo!'MtJfoffl
, ,1-,.,.ia,
,.,,v.,npu'lblult,..-.,,..;1,.--CAW
..._lrw,c mrl.-a, .2A6
< C.
• 0.,
_....,,._
...,,,,_..,.J'IA.lp,Mcc:lbul'1'1 .... 11ltta •
9
! ~·
C hl.&"2t'f'1'3,j'"-4i'
i "1' t LJNtt•f'HN-1r.lNl•t11..,...mw,t,tt».-,na,1Mt1~-
(l...,.1 I .."',.~~~
questions t hat test your • Sn

I I
1 ~ ••"-''"I. h lh1 r.~,o,J-.. ....... 11..,M
4111_,.,..,I a.tW!b in ant. d ,ncn_.., ••1111
cNalai---.~
fit D 1.-2r2p•
1 t4~tmtt.-t~rba.tl,ftb
• Hr~
b Cabe-fl
""""'" rita.Hk• P.~C.•-.t,- ,~ '(,.. •• ,.,~ 11~,.,...,... I ~ k ,•A

d C'4r•
abii lity to recall, explain and II rll?•• 1~llll'-.ilH~,.~o'llll.. "bt.,.
,._.fll'f'II
l•l-
l"lf"-"-('1,].21M 1J Ptllt""('""'.:•1 (
1 .SLBNI • ..__.. ~aN■.Un
'&VN"l,IP.lfl~
ti rTCn ..::t:M ,..,,.
#II t...- . . . runt-1r11tr.uram.ntt..-ru~.. 1
ti ""'
e
,-.,,te1et~inthlrru:ka
,,.,,,..,.Rt!411,r.l),!,i"
• Un."&.I"
apply key concepts. ,......

• r;_.. thl, ...,,.._.•d •~1
,11 lh,- •••H•I
WU'I Di ...-n..1t rn:wncm:i,,u
I tw-JtN-~~,....,
II Pl"'llll•d-sNpl•t,.
Area
•
of Study REVl~W QUESTIONS
U 'M "'""•dfitJl,let"~rto• 1..'•~...,,,..-..toon~ . , Tlc-'-'_,,_,l lf"IIPll>f"-.;"'11"$ tit t.i,••1 S.'fflbtl 11.,
review J f"9¢1 o. -g,. '(«{I-+ 'T'(l'JI o. &~
,..
1">1.p l OIT,td•dD
How do chemi:als inltrad wilfl w~ler? e Wp~ • OJ~ ~ sJ
C ~,-Jtl})(T) • rt,(&)•:.T.&lrCltt),l(J
7 a..W1;...,1rdAMt• cuai.• unc1ut n»pMr.,
,..,..,_.~.t-t:1)1:0
\ ~~
0 "61t{-o•l"l.,0(T)
1 ¥1"ttctlon1d._....,_,.n~a•an-.rtnilff
rt.-.1ccl.,.,,._,.,..,.," 1-.,,.. ....,.,-.• p.4 •• ~a,c.o
,. l••- B , I f,v,, lies. ,t'\.,,.,._,,. .,..,I um t.- IJ Y.' -1 rt. t.:.ilb.oirJ •1.ara-i lw ltt ,,,.,-1.v. blilftt,H
-··
HU!alal ■ ----Jl-::,;r.'
Each area of study concl udes o\ t..Q '-' 0-l_t(IOH

ti- 0JJJ 1,111 tH,t:octt
a.11.t.-= ■ bct.t ,-_ an,o-t,wttin d l'",:h1:.-.• a-. n P""lql•p,., .. ..,.., '-~. -1-clP••~Al •S
'l.'--•""-1' b-1•-.C'll ..-fltl !t IJ.. CMl,.•fll IJ! ...h) 1
A. H a l ' l - l " - ' l h l f ! f l ~ I M•O,r:.tl • ~IMI,) • o\r,;.ll -+
C 6..Q ~tttl
with a comprehensive set D DlllMIK1

■:: ti D S"'l·"'rd lt■ril n baNI ~
C. ti.,._.
t...M"('l1 hn.-- JI.fl irl b.._,..,... 8
.,
.Ho-'1N) • H Off • '-e"IH) ttJ IIS.
11111 flr.1'•Mrtt-l ••vtt~C91blc.lllru"•llot.

~fric•nM._.,
8
D ti III Ufl,-f'61l1•..:lt, it Ital ,r, .... ._. A
l~•it•u•~il_,..,•ti . .11Wn•
• I
.....'
of exam-style questions, I 01COCl't
ii
'l\l lo!
nalcc-nKl1
C •
OS r,pM1tt-.111--~
H lO,
......, ••pal w_... Uftlf1Wa-,ld CundJ 1 l"'1bH,.;PG"ldHS 1rnld!W-ttwtlt.a
.......'"" A 1111:■-~••-~■nl•._.,
II kM0 l-4 Y.hdt~lh
.. HO
dao.rtt. • •111"M .,,.._.rw.:: c41 to1r."'ntd !'Rn -1 s • .._ .,._. t•,n tut
includ ing mu ltiple choice ~ 11...-t ......,
IS "-•taa•h.O\llit:Pl~IIIIILa~mll ■
afHdCNwt
C ...... n:H,■h i • lrwl.t~ llr1!J 1-lil tlir~ t<e U.......-J
o,,(u,,Z, "(.,,]Jh.Jt(r41h1b,.,,1"•~1>Q.lt""' ,..,
A ~.,-.;,,J•..-,;••dtot>1"-,,,...-•Jm,o,u,1. . .,.~1
H
" '"' tNtrw ~ , d 11
olH ..
M'l"4,P't"'-Hl . . f.lfll ,f"l lln•••.Ylo"-l'1di1 ~r, . .
d ,1~• _,... • r.e,-., ~ a d..,.,_
an d short answer, to ~ ~l f1r/l.Nlol "''V~n.-c,Cl,o1b;w.il•1.-!U.-.-.f 0 .., tw 11111) •
,n ,-y c-HI
l,J"' )c.....o. tee I us.«1-, ..,:t to..,,. • n,,.,-,y,,_._..._~n:idltloUJ.: t .... a,c..t11-id "dfu.
.-...
bo'>l•t- .'lto1• I £~•n .-l'ty•'-•l•~•ltl1•or1g.-.l"IINltrdl~-
■,c..-t•l.' lll ar,,acC bad• ol _._. ITad■nu ~ a • l■ llt ( 1}v p,w1... -t1uwo,_u -.ild t., • •.., JWU 1fl• IC dwtftl•.._.dM... .,b ...,.,..._,~-1lha
I A•a&. . ..-rt ■ roat1c~•n•f'IK:tC1n a y.~ °' tt• ~ ...... •rt. fflln,~ .,.,..,~ _......,. .e1,,1 • .-,...:-.,dec ,, CUNdwmtltfttlfWID .n,.aw , ,...,.._
support you in your exam .......

Ii A•••u.~¥1'-tll'.lW:li-fof!1L.tr,.11r"-1!.c,l•
li t.•• ,(~fl\."""fl:"""""~"~t>lt• ........

..... .....
D ll,t lRIIH ML!ld bl JIN an:t ft1 a 11♦1n ~lM t,. l;qri tfl~l'l•l■ •1•---lcrl•• 11 g,-i«i1a
dlal_fl . . . . d
MW nb . . .;.1 _,N ,. uut.J
bl••fll,,t'4_..U'lrl . . f111'1'fJN'llar,,•lf1'"~
lt Ill.ta •-•xillltc,a1KA-1,.,t"-:trwl•• .,. ,.~1,o,..
•-:.1
preparat ion. •
b
I "tf
,in,
C Nr
o z,,
t• r"MMIIITlltl ll"ll l-'ll,.lllmpi,M"(l}lir,rwaa:«d,1•
(rblhU ~,).An.a3a•OCl:U'91an:tJ1p,Klp•1ttfl
l,ud - pRd.icml On It. t-1 clftl ra.l, ..,t a ,
«..r.lthfl~lo'l fWUrb11Hl.l"HI'
It ~-~t-.al~:1lt-1r.-•c:m-nnm,
~-lu.:.intlo•lm•b•.,_.
i&
C
4
!IndI U'tj
•M1 ■ (Ill,
llll"tal ol hi lokw... ,.at•CO o-1 lnh~I ths p-1 c,t
tt»n1oMrc•~tr11
h"--11 , CoJ '{.t_. - f h l'-1~, C.11J
Yt'-c:tlattdltt~"'"flJl•~lboalttu
■ _..., .......
A l'l"ld"'""' R,S-:t_..,.,.,,.......,,1,... ~m,ol'JIII!(
A ,a"9-a.- ca,1■,. ,arq t-J•• d n-■ bl:. .., rat ru~
.. • ]I
,,
• ml.I.a, MIU-:. ti N mat poe:1•J1rd t•1m-;li C N1blJl~llt.J1ta~;NIICIWl1•fHm•ot
K,_,l"I..,, MIJND1). IQ P''~h(•a JWW-.,llMi QII ~
• o,•,-1~n-.•b•
ti u■ ,1. ;-t.mtFHtahn 1111.ul:H
A t..;
S NI):
1•.:0•l't.c.d,,,l-,f~
■ c.,d..:l:JW'ldW
■ ~and C"irft-:.) ■ tt9 M . . . .f ..-fl

D l.Nd !NW .., .. b■ t blrl lo - 1 ,_,~ • 1KA4• ti "'
C Ul'i•1 •mwtU n:tut.l' C ~ .,,.,,,.1•11JW-t11.0•1t• 1-..... ,..-i11 l(J.0, 1, tz. t-rcd.lc■ 1 ptKI.. . . . 21 K I CaiaJ.llllt•.an-J ..nl-a-1....,_a,IIJ Nql.llW::I
~ ~ ~ l.-rl~fll411 - ,S,G I •I Mlw l'n".ffl
D ~ •1 •-.1 C,/ttOfl••ffl- "(" D ~""•nrd.,-:llld:JW'ldW l~•tt.rKllQ"l,:ire-'"1111 Short·1nrMllf Q..:ISlOra 18C')))00"C
~ ¥1"tll::h-d9"hba,. ■ 9ww~1•tr■ i.t.1 11 r....tJD1•1-••,dt.«h•U"'tM1k.l"~""~tit l t a R.,,..,11thnt .....,,~_.,.,,.,~.-Ct•drt~llff t,. -..,.n-um~""1aktl»1Npl"ldhnra..-.t,1
.
1tw11 d '"9'1,_ '""-.rMt-ntft • hll! t ■ OUlK by {117-11:D~ ~,.,., •.,._ « M f,1);!11 mt-A •ft IOI ~ t, fl"
"°''
A HO A. n,,. hnula, d ca~1't rn:i• aim•••
d..11 l:D ht dW'a -.J WWI.-. L11r~~1 ...W j,G .... 1,it1.-.th•._
•It J.O-..D:tun~"ri•
S.,,1,.,,.,:H,11l t
"'
CH 0
d,._,,.-,,ol RCff c.wbo• d-..,$_, N kN•I
IJ 1h11 rwctm t,■i---, arba•, .. un . . i ,,.c--.:i II £-t,&.a,f'l p 1-t ...f,(r~fh 4,ob'J1ri,r._,,,,.....~
I tlt.WNll'NUlllr.lllW'ff/ll.,pel1 b • ~ t o
...v- 2'"..:>o e,.,.,,• .;w: .. t.At1""" ,,...,~i.,,.
~IN IJ• " • .,.u..... hlf<bl ~ l_i... IJ" lol•.J .... ~ ... ti•11■Abt:!
, c.._11,.-. ....,. •ft('t r.,.,. ,.,. ~ I t ( r~
cc,ncarln.l-ot ~i:hlnunat1ntt.K--.1
6 11\td"lc,,.~hlJi...,_,.. _,-.JeWt,1::'-wQ.1_...
l.Ntt)-.,: Q1 N 9 . , _ , . . , ,• .,u..,,•
(lla-f-.:!ltls-.hritlltDihN-..
C T1,,arMtlc:alllbq<~lrTW1r1 , _ _aa.1a
dJ... CMG~ Ort:c1Nf•J1•d ~ .H~p , ...... a
m , 1 ~• .,~1-,
......,.
I c.,_-•NfafWIIH'--1 lll'I t . ..._.a;..-a;:
• H> <fft"""" P " t lt"-Yl f•ti1••,
I ~tt. D 11'111racu::a:lr■.1nt.M-~l1UrtlllnttaK. . .■ Elalt
C 00 o.,,..,,,,...,
o w,
Answers Glossary
Comprehensive answers for all section review, Key terms are shown in bold throughout
chapter review and Area of Study review and l isted at the end of each chapter. A
questions are provided via the Heinemann comprehensiive glossary at the end of t he
Chemistry 1 6th edition eBook + Assessment. book defines all key terms.
VIII
@ Pearson
Your one-stop shop for

VCE Chemistry success
Heinemann Chemistry 6th edition, written to the new VCE Chemistry Study Design
2023-2027, offers a seamless experience for teachers and learners.
C
- -·--
1.1 TM nnure of sdentUlc lnvest!ptlons lt11N lt44IIN
~ ~11
n_a.........
--
O Enhanced eBook with assessment
Save time by accessing content and assessment in one simple-to-use platform.
Teacher access Learner access

• digital assessment tool for informing planning, • digital assessment questions with scaffolded hints,
assigning work, tracking progress and identifying gaps auto-correction and instant feedback
• comprehensive sample teaching plans • student book fully worked solutions
• suite of practice exam materials • videos by Vol kScience
• rich support for Area of Study 3 • SPARKlab versions of the skills and assessment book
• solutions and support for the skil ls and assessment book practical activities, developed in col laboration with
PASCO
O Student book O Skills and assessment book

The student book addresses the latest developments and The skills and assessment book gives students t he
applications in chemistry. It also incorporates best-practice edge in applying key science skil ls and prepa ring for all
literacy and learning design to ensure the content and forms of assessment.
concepts are fully accessible to all learners. IKey features include:
Key features include: • a ski lls toolkit • VCM exam and exam-
• case studies with real-world data and analysis questions • key knowledge study style questions for each
• a smooth progression from low to high order questions notes area of study
in section, chapter and area of study reviews. • worksheets • sample Area of Study 3
investigations.
• practical activities
.•:~ CHEM ISTRY Find out more at

t EDUCATION
•.,~ ASSOCIATION C E pearson.com.au/vce-science
The development of a set of key science skills is a core component of the study
of VCE Chemistry and applies across Units 1 to 4. Chapter 1 scaffolds the
development of these skills. The opportunity to develop, use and demonstrate
these skills in a variety of contexts is important before you undertake investigations
and when you are evaluating the research of others.
Although this chapter can be read as a wholle, i t is best to refer to it and use it
when t he need arises as you work th rough other chapters. For example, you may
need a refresher on what is requ ired to be included in a conclusion. This chapter
also conta ins usefu l checkl ists to help you p 1an investigations, graph results and
1
complete aspects of a scientific report, such as t hat req uired for Area of Study 3 in
Unit 2. Similarly, when performing a practical investigation, refer to th is chapter to
make sure that you co llect data properly and that your data is of high quality.
Key science skills

Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions
• identify, research and construct aims and questions for investigation 1.1, 1.2
• identify independent, dependent and controlled variables in control led
experiments 1.2.
• form ulate hypotheses to focus investigations 1.2
• predict possible outcomes of investigations 1.2
Plan and conduct investigations
• determine appropriate investigation methodology: case study; classification and
identification; contro lled experiiment; correlationa l study; fie ldwork; literature
review; modelling; product, process or system development; simulation 1.1
• design and conduct investigations; select and use methods appropriate to
the selected investigation methodology, including consideration of sampling
technique and size, equipment and procedures, taking into account potential
sources of error and causes of uncertainty; determine the type and amount of
qualitative and/or quantitative data to be generated or colllated 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
• work independently and colllaborativelly as appropriate and within identified
resea rch constra ints, adapting or extending processes as requ ired and
record ing such modifications in a logbook 1.3
Comply with safety and ethical guidelines
• demonstrate safe laboratory practices when p!lanning and conducting
investigations by using risk assessments that are informed by safety data
sheets (SDS), and accounting for risks 1.2
• apply relevant occupational health and safety guidelines whi le undertaking
practi ca l investigations 1.2
• demonstrate ethical conduct when undertaking and reporting
investigations 1.2
Generate, collate and record data
• systematical ly generate and record primary data, and col late secondary data,
appropriate to t he investigation, incl uding use of databases and reputable
online data sources 1.3
• record and summarise both qualitative and quantitative data, including use of a
!logbook as an authentication of generated or co llated data 1.3
• organise and present data in useful and meaningful ways, including schematic
diagrams, flow charts, tables, bar charts and line graphs 1.3, 1.4
Analyse and evaluate data and investigation methods
• process quantitative data using appropriate mathematical relationships and
units, including ca lculations of ratios, percentages, percentage change and
mean 1.4
• use appropriate numbers of significant figures in calculations 1.3, 1.4
• plot graphs involving two variables that show linear and non-linear
relationships 1.4
• iidentify and analyse experimental data qualitatively, handling, where appropriate,
concepts of: accuracy, precision, repeatability, reproducibil ity, resolution, and
val idity of measurements; and errors (random and systematic) 1.3
• iidentify outliers, and contradictory, provisional or incomplete data 1.4
• repeat experiments to evaluate the precision of data 1.3
• evaluate investigation methods and suggest ways to improve precision, and to
reduce the li kelihood of errors 1.3,. 1.5
Construct evidence-based arguments and draw conclusions
• distinguish between opinion, anecdote and evidence, and scientific and non-
scientific ideas 1.1, 1.2
• evaluate data to determ ine the degree to which the evidence supports the aim
of the investigation, and make recommendations, as appropriate, for modifying
or extending the investigation 1.5
• evaluate data to determine the degree to which the evidence supports or
refutes the initial prediiction or hypothesis 1.5
• use reasoning to construct scientiific arguments, and to draw and justify
conclusions consistent with evidence and relevant to the question under
iinvestigation 1.5
• iidentify, describe and explain the limitations of conclusions, including
iidentification of further evidence required 1.5
• discuss t he implications of research find ings and proposals 1.5
Analyse, evaluate and communicate scientific ideas
• use appropriate chemical term inology, representations and conventions,
incl uding standard abbreviations, graphing conve ntions, algebraic equations,
units of measurement and significant figures 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6
• discuss relevant chemical information, ideas, concepts, theories and models
and the connections between t hem 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5
• analyse and explain how models and theo ries are used to organise and
understand observed phenomena and concepts related to chem i stry,
identifying lim itations of selected models/theories 1.1, l .2, 1.3, 1.4
• critical ly evaluate and interpret a range of scientific and media texts
(including journal articles, mass media communications and opinions in the
public domain), processes, cla ims and conclusions related to chemist ry by
considering the quality of available evidence 1.2, 1.5, 1.6
• apply sustainability concepts (green chemistry principles, development goals
and the transiition from a linear towards a circu lar economy) to analyse and
evaluate responses to chemistry-based scenarios, case studies, issues and
challenges 1.2
• identify and explain when judgments or decisions associated with chemistry-
related issues may be based on sociocultura l, economic, pol itical, legal and/or
ethica l factors, and not solely on scientific evidence 1.l
• use clea r, coherent and concise expression to commun icate to specific
audiences and for spedfic purposes in appropriate scientiific genres, including
scientific reports and posters 1.6
• acknowledge sources of information and assistance, and use standard
scientific referencing conventions 1.6
VCE Chemistry Study Design extracts© VCAA (2022); reproduced by permission.

1. 1 The nature of scientific
investigations
C hemistry is the study of m atter, how it behaves and interacts with other .m atter. As
scientists, chemists extend their understanding using the scientific method, which
involves investigations that are carefully designed, conducted and reported. Well-
designed research is based on a sound knowledge of what is already understood
about a subject, as well as careful preparation, measurements and observations.
OBSERVATIONS
\Vhen you m ake observations during a scientific investigation, you use yotff
senses and a vvide variety of instruments and laboratory techniques. Qualitative
observations provide information about what is present. For example, the colour of
a flame in a flame test, as shown in F igure 1.1.1, can indicate the metal ions present,
and the distance moved by a component in chromatography can help identify the
sample. In contrast, quantitative observations provide numerical information to
answer questions such as ho,;v many, how much and how often; for example, by
taking a reading on an electronic balance, or measuring the initial and final volumes
on a burette. Q u antitative observations are accompanied by relevant units su ch as
grams (g) or millilitres (mL) (Figure 1.1.2).
FIGURE 1.1.1 In this exa mple of flame tests, each sample of ethanol in a ceramic dish has a different
type of metal ion added to it. The red flame is produced by strontium ions, the yellow flame by
sodium ions and the green flame by copper ions.
FIGURE 1.1.2 Masses are an example of
quantitative observations and they are
measured using an electronic balance. • You will now be able to answer key question 4.
Interpreting observations
A student might observe that a solution of copper(II) chloride when sprayed into
a flan1e, creates a green flame. They may also observe that a solution of copper(II)
nitrate also creates a green flame. However, a solution of lithium chloride creates a
red flame.
How observation s are interpreted depends on past experien ce and knowledge,
but to an enquiring mind the above observation could provoke further questions,
such as:
• Do all coppcr(II) compounds create a green flame?
• Does the concentration of the solution sprayed into the flame change the
intensity of the flame colour?
• Are there any metal co1npounds that do not change the colour of the flame
when they are sprayed into it?
Many of these questions cannot be answered through observation alone, but
they can be answered through scientific investigation s. Good scientists have acute
po,;vers of observation and enquiring minds., they rely on evidence and trends in
evidence and they make the most of chance opporrunities. They gather and record
their observations carefully, so that they can be referred to in the future.
4 CHAPTER 1 I SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Scientists observe, consider what is already kn o,1/n by consulting the work of other
scientists, and then they ask questions.
Scientific inquiry is n ot a linear process . F igure 1. I . 3 illustrates the scientific
method, in \1/hich a research question is investigated by forming a hypothesis (a
prediction based on scientific reasoning th at can be tested experimentally) and then
testing it. Scientists will not necessarily complete these steps .in the order shown
below, and some steps may need to be repeated or altered to more accurately
address the research question that they arc trying to an swer.
research question
hypothesis
r - - - - - - - - i - - -1 design and perform experiment 1----~ aim
methodology
modify experiment and methods
and/or make a new
hypothesis eq uipment
risk assessment
resu lts
check hypothesis discussion
no
results su pport hypothesis?
yes
repeat experiment severa l times
conclusion
FIGURE 1.1.3 The scientific method
Scientific investigation methodologies

Scientists test their ideas about their research question u sing various investigation
methodologies. --r he methodology is a brief description of the general approach
taken to investigate the research question and the reasons why this approach is
taken. Using the evidence gained from those investigations, scientists suggest
possible explanations for the things they have observed.
Practical investigation s involve direct experiences or hands-on activities. Suitable
methodologies for a practical investigation vvould be controlled experiments,
simulations, fieldwork or modelling. In comparison, a research investigation could
foBow the m ethodology of a literature review or cou ld start \1/ith a case study.
~111e different approaches that you could use for investigations are outlined in
Table 1.1.1.
CHAPTER 1 I SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION 5

TABLE 1.1.1 Some scientific i11vestigation methodologies
O The methodology is the general Type of methodology Explanation
approach used to investigate t he
research question. The method
case study investigation of a rea l or hypothetical situation, such as
(procedure) is the set of specific steps
an activity, event or problem, often involving analysis of
that are taken to collect data during an
data within a real -world context
investigation.
classification and using features or properties to classify or identify a
ident ification substance
controlled experiment experimental investigation that involves formu lati ng

a hypothesis and testing the effect of an independent
variable on the dependent variable while control ling all
other variables in the experiment
fieldwork col lecting data outside the laboratory
literature review critical analysis of what has already been investigated

and published, using secondary data from other people's
investigations to explain events or propose new ideas or
relationships
modelling using models as representations of objects, systems or

processes to aid understanding or make predictions
product, process or system using scientific understanding and advances in

development technology to design a new tool, method or process to
meet the demands or needs of society
simulation using mathematica l models or computer simulations to

test hypotheses or conduct virtual experiments
• You will now be able to answer key questions 2, 3 and 5.
LIMITATIONS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method can be applied only to hypotheses that can be tested .
.A hypothesis that is not testable can be neither supported nor disproved by the
scientific method.
It is important to understand that although a hypothesis may be supported by
experimental data, the same hypothesis may not be supported in all circumstances-
it has only been found to be true under the conditions that have been tested.
The scientific method cannot be used to test morality or ethics. These
judgements belong to the fields of philosophy, history, politics and law. Science
can, however, provide valuable information that people can consider when making
these judgem ents. For example, science can be used to predict the environmental
consequences of pollution and the medical consequences of chemical weapons.
However, it is not designed to make value or moral judgements about either.
NON-SCIENTIFIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SCIENTIFIC

INVESTIGATIONS
\Vhen you investigate questions or issues related to applications of the principles
of chemistry in society, it is i1nportant to be able to distinguish between factors
that are scientific and those that are non-scientific. Often an investigation into a
chemical issue must consider non-scientific information, including socioculru.ral,
economic, political, legal or ethical factors.
For example, a discussion on the issue of climate change must involve scientific
data, such as the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, but it must
also consider political factors, such as governmental support of the United Nations
Paris Agreement (2015) on climate change.
Non-scientific factors may be classified under more than one category.

Sociocultural factors
Sociocultural factors are those related to ind ividuals., com m u nities, cultures and
society. Questions these may raise include:
• Who is directly involved?
• W h o will benefit?
• Who might be negatively affected?
Economic factors
Economic factors are those related to costs and resources. Examples might include:
• Who will pay for the research?
• Who will pay for the developm ent, production and ap plication?
• Will this cause a loss of profit for another stakeholder?
• Will there be any costs involved for the government?
Political factors
Political factors are those related to government or public affairs. Examples might
include:
• ~ ' hat is the relevant government policy?
• Is there a difference in opinion between political parties?
Legal factors
Legal factors are those connected to law (legislation) or rules. Examples might
inclu de:
• What state legislation covers this area?
• What federal legislation covers this area?
Ethical factors
Ethical factors are those related to moral principles, and the need to determine what
is right and what is wrong. Exam ples might include:
• Is one group of people advantaged over another by the desired outcome?
• D oes the desired outcome prevent anyone from meeting their basic needs?
• Has the investigation been reported honestly, or have som e results been omitted
because they didn't support the desired outcome?
'Table 1.1 .2 gives examples of non-scientific factors that may have been
con sidered during the rap id development of C OVID -19 vaccin es in 2020- 21 .
TABLE 1.1.2 Examples of non-scientific factors affecting the development of COVID-19 vaccines
t I I • Economic Political Legal Ethical
Why is Who will What Have t he Are there

vaccinat ion pay for the agreements vaccines been vu lnerable
necessary? research , have been approved for use groups who
development made for in Austra lia by should be O Non-scient ific factors, such as
and the supply the Therapeut ic prioritised for sociocultural, economic, political,
producti on? of various Goods vaccination? legal or ethical! factors, may influence
vacci nes? Administration? a chemical issue and should
be considered as part of some
investigations.
• Yo u will now be able to answer key questions 1 and 6.

r----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
1.1 Review
SUMMARY
• Examples of useful methodologies for an • A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a set of

investigation include case studies, classification observations that can be used to make predictions,
and identifi cation) a literature review, modelling, wh ich can then be tested experimentally.
simulations and contro lled experiments. • Controlled experiments allow us to examine
• Well-designed experi ments are based on a sound one factor at a time: they are a commonly used
knowledge of what is already understood or known, methodology for testing hypotheses.
and on careful observation. • Science helps us to understand a situation or
• The scientific method is an accepted procedure for phenomenon. It is used in conjunction with other
co nd ucti ng investigations. conside rations, such as sociocultural, economic,
political, legal and ethical factors.
KEY QUESTIONS
Knowledge and understanding 6 Copy this tab le into your workbook. Identify whether
1 List th ree non-scientific factors that m ight be the specific factor or resource related to the mining of
associated with an investigation. copper in Austra lia would be scientific or non-scientific
(identifying the category of non-scientific factor).
2 The scientific method is a multistep process. Which
two of the folllowing are important parts of the Factor Scientific Non-scientific
(sociocultural ,
scientific met hod?
economic,
A observations made by eye and with political , legal
instrumentation and eth1ical)
B subjective decisions based on data collected
geological
C careful manipulation of results to fit you r ideas assessment of
D the use of prior knowledge to help objectively the chosen area
interpret new data
needs of the
3 Distinguish between the te rms 'methodology' and residents for
'method'. employment
4 Distinguish between 'qualitative' and 'quantitative' local government

observations. regulations
Analysis opinions of local

residents about
5 Rewrite this table in your notebook, matching each mining
type of investigation to the appropriate methodology.
assessment
Type of I Type of investigation of nearby
methodology waterways
case study using secondary sources to find
for potential
polIution of
information about recyclling
ground water
of meta Is from second-hand
computers
simulation designi ng an experiment with

an independent and dependent
variables, and keeping everything
else constant
controlled using a computer program to

experiment loo k at rotating three-dimensiona l
models of molecu les
literature review in-depth study about a particu lar

chem ical process

1.2 Planning investigations
Taking the time to carefully plan and design an investigation before you begin will
help you maintain a clear and concise focus throughout. In this section you will
learn about som e of the key steps to take when planning an investigation :
• choosing a topic
• developing and refining your investigation (i.e . determining your research
question, hypothesis, aim, methodology and m ethods, and variables)
• modifying an existing investigation
• complying with safety guidelines
• applying ethical principles
• sourcing and evaluating information.
CHOOSING A TOPIC
\Xlhen you choose a topic, consider the following:
• D o you find the research topic interesting?
• Is there background information on your topic that relates to your course?
• Does your school laboratory have the resources for you to perform the
investigation?
• Can you collect dear., measurable data?
Several practical research areas are suggested in Table 1.2.1. You will learn more TABLE 1.2.1 Potential research areas that could
about useful research techniques for topics such as these later in this section. be investigated
Materials Chemical reactio ns

DEVELOPING AND REFINING YOUR INVESTIGATION (Unit 1 (Unit 2
When you begin a scientific investigation, you first have to develop and evaluate investigations) investigations)
a research question, d ecide on an appropriate investigation methodology and endangered analysis of
method, determine the associated variables, formulate a hypothesis and define the elements in the wa ter from local
aim. Each of these can be refined as the planning of your investigation continues. period ic table waterways for salt
content
Determining your research question
producing and effect of pH or
Once you have selected a research topic, you need to d esign a research question on using 'greener' temperature on t he
v1hich your investigation will be based. The research question must be focused on polymers rusting of iron nails
and limited to ideas that are within your abilities to investigate, or the resources and the chemistry acid- base titrations
equipment you have available. of Aboriginal of household
For example for an experimental investigation, you might form the research and Torres Strait products, such as
question: 'How docs the solubility of ionic compounds change as the tem perature Isla nder Peoples' vinegar
art practices
increases?' You will be able to investigate this research question using the ionic
compounds that you have at school, such as potassium nitrate and copper(II) the sustainability identify the process
sulfate. of a commercia l needed to develop
product or a UV-stable natural
In a controlled experiment the question should refer to the relationship
material indicator
benveen the independent variable and dependent variable. For example: How does
temperature affect the solubility of potassium nitrate in ,vater? Other exam ples of
research questions are shuwn in Table 1.2.2 on page 11.
Once you have decided upon a topic or idea of interest, the first thing you n eed
to do is conduct a search of the relevant literature· that is, you must read scientific
reports and other articles on the topic to find out what is already known, and
what is not known or not yet agreed upon. The literature also gives you important
information for the introduction to your report and ideas for experimental methods.
Use this information to generate potential research questions. Figure 1.2.1 on the
following page outlines steps for developing ideas for a proposed research question.

Do you have time
to conduct the
experiments? How
Do you have access many classes have Where will you
to appropriate been all ocated? conduct your
equipment (e.g. resea rch (e.g. in
waterbaths or data the school
loggers)? chemistry lab)?
Is the question
specific? Can you
Can you construct a
identify the
hypothesis from your
independent,
research question?
dependent and
controlled variables?
Does the question

proposed
Does t he question end in a question
research
interest you? mark? If it doesn't,
question
it is not a quest ion!
FIGURE 1.2.1 Developing ideas for a proposed research question
Your research question might be too broad or too vagu e to investigate effectively.
Consider using the foilowing checklist fo r the research question:
□ Relevance- make sure your question is related to your chosen topic.
D Clarity and measurability-make sure your prediction can be fram ed as a clear
hypothesis that can be m easured .
□ Kno,1/Iedge and skills-make su re you have a level of kn o,1/ledge and laboratory
skills that will allow you to explore the question. Keep the question simple and
achievable.
0 Advice-seek advice from your teacher on your question. Their experience may
lead them to consider aspects of the question that you have not thought abou t.
Making predictions and constructing a hypothesis

A hypothesis is a prediction based on scien tific reasoning that can be tested
exper imentally. Carefully designed experiments arc con ducted to determine
\1/hether the predictions m ade in a hypothesis are accurate or not. If the results of
an exp erim ent do not fall within an acceptable range, the hypothesis is rejected. If
the predictions are found to be accurate, the hyp othesis is supported . If, after many
differen t experim ents, one hypothesis is supported by all the results obtained so
far and is considered to have been verified u sin g the scientific m ethod, then this
explanation can be given the status of a theory or principle.
In a practical investigation, a hyp othesis defines a proposed relationship benveen
two variables and takes the form of cause and effect.
For example, an investigation is made into the effect of pH of an acidic solution
on the m ass of a seashell submerged in the solution for two days. A potential
hyp othesis could b e: If the pH of the solution decreases from 5 to 3, then the
mass of the seashell will decrease more in the lower pH solution because a lower
pH corresponds to a greater H ' con centration, and the calcium carbon ate in the
seashell reacts with H + ions.

Determining the aim
The aim is a statement describing in detail what will be investigated. For example: CHEMFILE
'1b determine how the pH of an acidic solution affects the mass loss of a seashell
Can a hypothesis be
that is left in the solution for tvvo days'.
absolutely proven?
Selecting an appropriate methodology and method The simple answer to this question
When you plan a scientific investigation, you will need to think about the best is 'no'. Whi le scientists can do
experiments that test a hypothesis,
v1ay to address the research question. The scientific investigation methodology
there is always the possibility that a
(Table 1.1.1) and the method/s (also known as procedure/s) selected will depend
different experiment or even a repeat
on the aim of the investigation and the research question.
of an experiment will contradict the
Factors to consider ,vhen selecting an appropriate methodology include: hypothesis, demonstrating that it is not
• Do you have access to a laboratory, materials and chemicals (for a controlled always true.
experiment or product/process/system development) ? If scientists perform a large number
• Do you have school or library access (for a literature review or case study)? of different experiments to test a
• Do you have computer access (e.g. international databases for classification and hypothesis and each experiment
identification or for access to simulations) ? supports the hypothesis, the hypothesis
The method is the set of specific steps that are taken to collect data during the can be said to be proven beyond
investigation. You will learn more about determining your method/s in Section 1.3. reasonable doubt.
The inability to absollutely prove a
Defining your variables hypothesis is of more importance in
The variables are the factors that change during your experiment. An experiment some fields of science than others.
or investigation determines the relationship between variables. For example, researchers in biology,
'Tbere are three categories of variable: medicine and environmental science
will usually perform large numbers
1
• The independent variable is the variable that is controlled by the researcher.

of experiments to ensure the validity
• The dependent variable is the variable that may change in response to a of a hypothesis. A new drug for the
change in the independent variable. This is the variable that you ,vill measure treatment of malaria wil l undergo large
or observe. numbers of laboratory tests, followed
• Controlled variables are all the variables that must be kept constant during by thousands of trials with human
the investigation. volunteers, before it is considered
A valid experiment should have only one independent variable. If it were to have effective and safe for use. On the other
more than one, you would not be sure which independent variable was responsible hand, experiments in chemistry are
for the changes observed in the dependent variable. Table 1.2.2 gives examples of usua l ly highly reproducible.
research questions and potential independent and dependent variables.
TABLE 1.2.2 Examples of research questions and corresponding independent and dependent
variables
Research question
How does the volume of water volume of water, e.g. 5 m l , temperature of the
affect the temperature at 10 ml, 15 ml1 20 ml solution at which
which a saturated solution of crystals start to form
potassium nitrate is formed?
How does the price per

O When writing a research question for
brand of vinegar and its concent ration of a controlled experiment, include the
100 ml of vinegar relate to the price, e.g. Brand A, 50c per ethanoic acid in mol L- 1 independent and dependent variables.
concentration of ethanoic acid 100 m l ; Brand B, $1.02 per For example, what is the effect of
in the vinegar? 100 m l ; Brand C, $3.50 per [the independent variable] on [the
100 ml dependent variable]?
How does the concentration concentration of Cu(NO 3) 2 mass of so lid copper
of Cu(NO3 ) 2 solution affect so lution, e.g. 0.01 M, 0.1 M, formed in the solution
the mass of copper t hat is 0.5 M after a given period of
displaced by zinc? time
Linking the planning parts of the investigation together

Your research question, hypothesis aim and variables should all link together.
Table 1.2.3 on the following page provides an example of a research question,
variables, potential hypothesis and aim that link together.

TABLE 1.2.3 Example of research question, variables, potential hypothesis and aim
Research question How does the pH of an acid ic solution affect t he mass of a

seashell subme rged in t he solution for two days?
Independent variable the pH of the solut ion
Dependent variable/s the mass of the seashell after t wo days
Controlled variables the acid used to make the solut ion, the volume of acidic
solution, the temperature of t he solution, the size and shape of
the seashell
Potential hypothesis If t he pH of t he solution decreases from 5 to 3 t hen t he mass of

the seashell wil l decrease more in the lower pH solution because
a lower pH corresponds to a greater H+ concentrat ion, and the
calcium carbonate in the seashell reacts with H+ ions.
Aim To determ ine how t he pH of an acidic solution affects the mass

loss of a seashell that is left in t he solution for two days.
• Yo u will now be able to answer key questions 3, 4, 5 and 7.
MODIFYING AN EXISTING INVESTIGATION

\XTh en you arc designing a research question for a controlled exp erim ent, it is often
easiest to modify an investigation that you have already conducted in class. For
example, you could use an existing method and choose a different independent
variable (which m ight change the dep endent variable). Table 1.2.4 shows p ossible
changes that could be made to a practical investigation that you have already
undertaken in class.
TABLE 1.2.4 Examples of how to change an existing practical investigation into a student-designed
investigation
Existing practical investigation Potential student experiment
investigate disp lacement How does t he reactivity of a meta l such as magnesiu m,

reactions of meta Is zinc, alumi ni um and iron, affect the rate at wh ich it
d isplaces copper from copper(II) su lfate?
acidity of soda water and the How does the pH of soda water change as the
effect of heating temperature of the water is increased?
ma king nat ural indicators from How does the colour of t he flowers used to make
flowers nat ural indicators affect the colours t hat t he ind icator
turns in acid ic and basic solutions?
The topics listed in Table 1.2.4 are only suggestions. Figure 1.2.2 shows how
you can m odify an existing research question.
Change t he
independent
variable. Change the
Why/
dependent
where ...
variable(s).
Start wit h
an existing
How can
research
-..... other
How... question.
variables be
controlled?
/
How can ...
What... be applied
to ...
FIGURE 1.2.2 How to modify an existing investigation

COMPLYING WITH SAFETY GUIDELINES
Everything we do involves some risk. A risk asse ssment is performed for a
Obtain saf ety data
controlled experiment to identify, assess and control hazards. Always identify the sheets (SDS) for all
risks and control them to keep everyone safe. chemicals.
To identify risks, think about:
• the activity you will be carrying out Consider safe work
• the equipment or chemicals you will be using or producing. For exa1nple, when practices for all
hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium thiosulfate the toxic gas sulfur dioxide equipment.
SO2 , is produced, so this reaction n1ust be conducted in a fume cupboard.
Figure 1.2.3 shows a flow chart of how to consider and assess the risks involved Write a risk
in a practical investigation. assessment for the
investigation.
Occupational health and safety
FIGURE 1.2.3 Steps involved in identifying risks
Occupational health and safety refers to all the measures that employers need
to provide to ensure their employees are safe at work. Schools must also ensUie
that equiprnent and processes used in school laboratories are safe for all students,
teachers and technical staff.
O Ethical and safety considerations
Chemical codes must be the highest priority at all times
The chemicals at school or at the hardware store h ave warning symbols on their during a practical investigation.
labels. These symbols are a chemical code indicating the nature of the contents
(Table 1.2.5). From 1 January 2017 the Globally Harmonised System of
Classification and Labelling of Chemicals ( GHS) pictograms were introduced into
Australia. Some of the pictograms that you might see denote chemicals that are
corrosive, pose a health hazard or are fla1nmable.
TABLE 1.2.s GHS pictograms used as warning symbols on chemical labels
GHS Use GHS Use GHS

pictogram pictogram pictogram
~ ~
flammable oxidising explosion,
liq uids, solids l iquids, solids blast or
,
and gases; and gases, projection
i ncluding self- may cause or hazard
heating and intensify fire
self-igniting
substances
~ ~
corrosive gases under fatal or toxic
chemicals;
may cause
severe skin and
eye damage
and may be
0 pressure if swallowed,
inhaled or in
contact with
skin
corrosive to
metals
~
hazardous
~ ~
low level chron ic health
toxicity; this to aquatic hazards;
i ncludes life and the this includes
respiratory, environment aspiratory and
skin and eye respiratory
i rritation, skin hazards,
sensitisers carcinogenicity,
and chemicals mutagenicity
harmful if and
swallowed, reproductive
inhaled or in toxicity
contact with
skin

Safety data sheets
Each chemical substance h as an accompanying document called a safety data
sheet (SDS) (Figure 1.2.4). An SDS contains important safety and first aid
infonnation about each chemical you cormnonly u se in the laborator y. If the
products of a reaction are toxic to the environment you must pour your waste
into a special container (not dovvn the sink). This is son1ething to discuss with your
teacher or the laboratory technician.
1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE MATERIAL AND SUPPLIER
Product Name: HYDROCHLORIC ACID-20% OR GREATER
2. HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
Classified as Dangers Goods by the criteria of the Austra lian Dangerous Goods Code (ADG
Code) for Transport by Road and Rail; DANGEROUS GOODS.
This material is hazardous according to Safe Work Austra liia; HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE.
Classification of the substance or mixture:

Corrosive to Meta ls - Cat egory 1
Skin Corrosion - Sub-category 1B
Eye Damage - Category 1
Specific target organ toxicity (single exposure) - Category 3
SIGNAL
.•,
WORD: DANGER
Hazard Statement(s):
H290 May be corrosive to metals.
H314 Causes severe skin burns and eye damage.
H335 May cause respiratory irritation.
Precautionary Statement(s):
Prevention:
P234 Keep on ly in original contai ner.
P260 Do not breath mist / vapours / spray.
P264 Wash hands thorough ly after handling.
P27 1 Use only outdoors or in a well-ventilated area.
P280 Wear protective gloves / protective clothi ng / eye protection / face protection.
FIGURE 1.2.4 Extract of a safety data sheet (SDS) for concentrated hydrochloric acid
Protective equipment
Everyone who works in a laboratory should wear items that help keep them safe.
This is called personal protective equipment (PPE) (Figure 1.2.5) and in clu des:
• safety glasses
• closed-toed shoes
• disposable gloves when handling chen1icals
• an apron or a lab-coat if there is risk of damage to clothes
• a fume cupboard that should be used when toxic or corrosive gases are being
FIGURE 1.2.s It is important to wear appropriate
handled or produced
personal protective equipment as identified in a • ear protection if there is risk to hearing.
risk assessment.
• You will now be able to answer key questions 1, 2 and 6.

APPLYING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Ethics are a set of moral principles by which your actions can be judged as right or
wrong. Every society or group of people has its o,:vn principles or rules of conduct.
Applying ethical principles in chemistry n1cans:
• using integrity and honesty when recording and reporting the outcomes of your
investigation and when using other people's data (such as in a literature review).
- This means you should always record your data in a bound logbook, rather
than on scraps of paper, using the correct number of significant fig1.1res/
decimal places for the reported value (see Section 1.3).
- You should NEVER make up raw or processed data and you should record
all data that you gathered in the investigation even if it is not used in later
calculations.
• recognising the importance of social., economjc and political values ,:vhen
forming conclusions using scientific understanding (see Section 1.1 )
• acknowledging the work of others by including in-text citations and details in a
list of references (see Section 1.6) .
Green chemistry
Green chemistry is an approach to chemistry that aims to design products and
processes that efficiently use renewable raw materials, and minimise hazardous
C, Many of the twelve principles of
green chemistry can be employed or
effects on human health and the environment. This approach is one of the key considered by VCE Chemistry students.
concepts related to sustainability in chemistry. The goals of green chemistry are
described in terms of t\vclve principles (summarised in Table 1.2.6) .
Since they were developed in 1991, interest in applying the twelve principles
of green chemistry to chemical processes across the world has continued to
increase. Of these, seven principles are particularly relevant to VCE Chemistry. The
replacement of petroleum-sourced plastics such as polystyrene, with plant-sourced
biodegradable plastics, which can break down in the environment over a number
of years (see the case study Green chemistry: Biodegradable packing peanuts), is
just one recent example of how green chemistry is being applied to solving real-
world problems. In the school laboratory, \1/e can apply the principles of green
chemistry by using minimum quantities of chemicals in experiments, thus reducing
the quantity of product that must be disposed of after the experiment is finished.
TABLE 1.2.6 Seven of the twelve principles of green chemistry that are most relevant to VCE Chemistry
Waste It is better to prevent waste than to treat it or clean it up after it has

prevention been produced.
Atom economy Chem ical processes should be designed to maximise incorporation of

all reactant materials used in the process into the final product.
Designing safer Chemical products should be designed to achieve their intended

chemicals function while m ini mising toxi city.
Design for Chemical processes shou ld be designed for maximum energy efficiency
energy efficiency and with minimal negative environmenta l and economic impacts.
Use of Raw materials or feedstocks shou ld be made from renewable (mainly

renewable plant-based) materials, rather than from fossil fuels whenever
feedstocks practicable.
Catalysis Catalysts should be selected to generate the same desired product(s)

with less waste and using less energy and reagents in chemical reactions.
Design for Chem ical products should be designed so that at the end of their
degradation use they break down into harmless degradation products and do not
persist in the environment.
You will now be able to answer key question 8.

ICASE STUDY I
Green chemistry: Biodegradable packing peanuts
One method for p rotecting fragile goods during t ransit is
to surround the goods in their box wi1th 'packing peanuts'
(see Figure 1.2.6). These peanut-shaped pieces of foam
were t raditionally made from po lystyrene, so despite
the ir versatility in f illing gaps within the packaging,
and providing additional padding and support to the
delicate goods wit hout adding sign if icant mass to the
package, they became very unpopu lar. Polystyrene is not
biodegradable, meaning that it can't be broken down in
the environment by liviing organisms, and it is very difficult
to recyc le, so usually ends up in landfill rather than a
recycling plant.
In the 1990s starch-based plastics were developed in
response to t he concern over the environmental impact FIGURE 1.2.6 Biodegradable 'packing peanuts' fill a box easily.
of plastics such as polystyrene, which were widely used
in packaging. Bi odegradable packing peanuts are made
still a difference between biodegradab le and compostable.
from starches, such as wheat, rice and corn starch. Starch
Compostable materials wi ll completely decompose if left
is a polymer of glucose which is made by plants, so the
for a few months in a compost ing envi ronment, such as a
starting materials for these plastics are widely avai labl e and
1
home compost bin. Biodegradable is a term that does not

often the starch is extracted f rom waste biomass. Packing
have a t ime span attached to it. Biodegradable materials
peanuts made from sta rch-based foam dissolve in water,
wi ll eventually completely degrade, but they may exist for
meaning that it is impossible for them to po llute oceans,
decades before fully degrading.
lakes or ot her waterways. If they are eaten by wildlife or
So, how can you tell if the packing peanuts in your latest
pets t hey wi ll do minimal harm, since they will be digested,
delivery are starch-based or petroleum1-based? The best
just as a small piece of bread might be. These packing
way is to try putting a couple in a glass of warm water. The
peanuts are even more soluble than most waste food. Whi le
biodegradable packi ng peanuts wi ll start to dissolve very
these plastics are biodegradable, they are not com postable,
quickly, whereas polystyrene peanuts wi ll stay floating in
unless you add water to them when composting.
the water all day.
Interestingly, while often materials are promoted as
biodegradable, and we all th ink th is is a great thing, there is
SOURCING INFORMATION
When you are sourcing information during your search of the literature, researching
experimental methods or investigating a broader issue., consider ,:vhether that
information is from primary or secondary sources. You should also consider the
advantages and disadvantages of using resou rces such as books or the internet.
Primary and secondary sources

Primary and secondary sources provide valuable information for research.
P rimary sources of information are created by a person directly involved
in an investigation. Examples of prim ary sources arc results from research and
peer-reviewed scientific articles. Peer-reviewed journal articles (articles that have
been reviewed by other experts in the field) are likely to be up to date and reliable.
Examples of secondary s ources of information include textbooks, newspaper
articles and websites that present a synthesis, revie,:v or interpretation of primary
sources. All sources of information may have a bias (a focus on only one part
or one direction of the data or evidence), so you need to determine if they are
reliable sources of inforn1ation. You will learn about assessing the quality of data in
Section 1.3. Table 1.2.7 compares characteristics and examples of primary sources
and secondary sources.
TABLE 1.2.1 Summary of primary and secondary sources
Character1
istics Examples
• first-hand records of • results of experiments

events or experiences • scientif1ic jou rnal or magazine
• written at the time the articles
event happened • reports of scientific discoveries
• original documents • photographs, specimens, maps
and artefacts
• interviews with experts
O Primary sources of information are
created by a person directly involved in
• websites (if they meet the criteria an investigation. Secondary sources of
above) information are a synthesis, review or
• interpretations of primary • textbooks interpretation of primary sources.
sources • biographies
• written by people who did • newspaper articles
not see or experience the • magazine articles
event • radio and television
• use information from documentaries
original documents but • websites that interpret the
rework it scientific work of ot hers
• podcasts
Using books and the internet

Peer-reviewed scientific journals are the best sources of information, but you are
unlikely to have access to many of these, and much of the information is difficult to
interpret if you are not an expert in the field.
As books, magazines and internet searches ,¥ill be your most commonly used
resources for infonnation, you should be aware of their limitations (Table 1.2.8) .
TABLE 1.2.s Advantages and disadvantages of book and internet resources
Book resources Internet resources

• written by experts • quick and easy to access
• authoritative information • allow access to hard-to-find
• reviewed to ensure information
information is accurate • allow access to a vast amount
• logica l, organised layout of information from around the
• content is relevant to the world
topic • up-to-date information
• contain a table of contents • may be interactive and
and index to help you find use animat ions to enhance
relevant information understanding
• may not have been • time-consuming looki ng for

published recently relevant information
• can only be used by one • search engines may not display
person at a ti me the most useful sites
• cannot always tell how up-to-date
information is
• difficult to tell if information is
accurate
• hard to tell who has responsibi lity
for authorship and if they are
biased
• information may not be well
ordered
• only a small proportion of sites
are educational

CRITICALLY EVALUATING INFORMATION
Not an sources of information are credible. Critical thinking involves asking
questions when evaluating the content and its origin, including:
• Who created this message? What arc the qualifications, expertise, reputation,
and affiliation (,vho they work for or are associated ,vith) of the author/s?
• Why was the information \.Vritten?
• Where was the information published?
• When was the information published?
• Ho,v often has the information been referred to by other researchers?
• Are the conclusions supported by data or evidence?
• What is implied?
• What has been omitted?
Peer review
Peer revie,v is a process in ,vhich other researchers who ,vork in the same field
review your work and provide feedback about your methodology and whether your
conclusions are justified. Scientists are expected to publish their findings in peer-
reviewed journals. Some examples of peer-reviewed chemistry journals are:
• Australian Journal of Chemist1y
• Journal of the American Chemical Society
• 1 ature Chemisny
• Chemical R eviews
• Progress in Polymer Science
• Green Chemist1y
Because scientific j oumals are peer-reviewed, this gives them more credibility
than other sources.
Evaluating books and journals

Your textbook is an excellent starting point for reliable information. Other
information should be consistent with it. Articles published in newspapers and
magazines often present findings of ne,v research, which may or may not be
confirmed later, so be careful not to treat such sources of information as established
fact. Peer-revie,ved journal articles are likely to be up to date and reliable.
Evaluating websites
Remember that anyone can publish anything on the internet, so it is important to
evaluate the credibility, currency and content of onlinc information. To evaluate
online information, follow this checklist.
0 Credibility-consider who the author is, their qualifications and expertise.
Check for their contact information and for a trusted abbreviation in the web
address; such as .gov or .edu. Websites using .com may have a bias towards
selling a product (although this product could be a reputable science magazine
or journal), and .org sites might have a bias towards one point of vie,v (although
these sites can be a good starting point for general information).
0 Currency-check the date the information you are using was last revised.
□ Content-consider whether the information presented is fact or opinion. Check
for properly referenced sources, and compare information to other reputable
sources, including books and science journals.
Table 1. 2. 9 gives an example of how sources might be compiled during an
investigation.

TABLE 1.2.9 Techniques used by Indigenous Australians to remove toxins from food
Type of bush Notes Source Rel'iability of

food source
bush tomato The fru its were 'proba bly Hegarty, M.P., Credible.
Solanum the most important of all the Hegarty, E.E. & Published by
centrale Central Australian plant foods' Wil ls, R. (2001). Rural Industries
(citing Latz 1995). Food Safet y of Research and
Purplish-green colour when Australian Plant Development
unripe. Traditionally eaten raw Bushfoods: Corporation
when greenish-white to yellow- Publication No (RIRDC), review
brown in colour. Dried on plant, 01/28, RIRDC, article wit h
then shaken from plant. rubbed Barton , ACT. cred ible primary
into sand, followed by poundi ng sources.
or grinding into a paste with
wate r, formed into bal ls or
cakes (citing Peterson 1979).
Macadamia Nuts treat ed by soaking and Hegarty, M .P., Credible.

robusta baking to remove toxins. Hegarty, E.E. & Published by
(t oxic type of Wil ls, R. (2001). Rural Industries
macadam ia Food Safet y of Research and
nut) Australian Plant Development
Bushfoods: Corporation
Publication No (RIRDC), review
01/28, RIR DC, article with
Barton, ACT. credible primary
sources.
Recognising evidence compared to opinion and anecdote

An important aspect of the scientific method is to make conclusions based on data
and evidence.
Data that is authoritative has been published by a credible source-.for example,
the VCAA Chemistry Databook.
Data is objective (free of personal bias) and may be used as evidence, ·whereas
opinion and anecdote are subjective (influenced by personal views). An anecdote
is a story that might not be typical or representative of a pattern. Table 1.2.10
compares evidence versus opinion and anecdote.
TABLE 1.2.10 Comparison of evidence versus opinion and anecdote
Data and evidence Opinion and anecdote
objective subjective
measured, unbiased, replicable, systematic, personal, individual story, non-systemat ic,

representative not necessarily representative or part of a
pattern
examp le: Scientific consensus among the example: Today is a cold day, therefore
majority of experts is that greenhouse global warming is not true.
gases are contributing to cl imate change.
Identifying scientific versus non-scientific ideas

Beware of publications or sources of information that are presented as science but
that are not scientifically valid. Non-scientific ideas and writing can be identified by:
• a lack of data or evidence
• bias-only part of the data or evidence is considered (usually the data supporting
the claim)
• poorly collected data or evidence; for example., basing data or evidence on a
group that is too small or not reprcsentative of the whole
• invahd conclusions (that is, not supported by evidence)
• lack of objectivity- appealing to emotion rather than presenting facts and
evidence impartially.
·- - ---------------- - ---- - --- ------------------------------------ - -------- - --- -- ------------------- -
1.2 Review
SUMMARY
• The first step in planning an investigation is to • Ethical and safety considerations must be t he
identify the topic. highest priority at all t imes during a practical
• A research question is a statement that broadly investigation.
defines what is being investigated. • Many of the twelve principles of green chem istry
• A hypothesis: can be employed or considered by VCE Chemistry
- is a statement that can be tested and is based on students.
previous knowledge and evidence or observations, • Primary sources of information are created by
and addresses the research question a person directly involved in an investigation.
- often takes the fo rm of a proposed relationship Secondary sources of information are a synthesis,
between two or more variables in a cause-and- review or interpretation of primary sources.
effect relationship • Use critical thinking to evaluate sources of
- must be testable; that is, able to be supported information by asking questions such as:
(verified) or not supported (falsified) by investigation. - Who created th is message?
• The aim of an investigation is a statement - Why was the information written?
describing in detail what will be investigated. - When was the information published?
• Th e scientific investigation methodology and - Are the conclusions supported by data or
method/s depend on the aim of the investigation evidence?
and the research question. - What is implied?
• The three types of va riables are: What has been omitted?
- independent- the variable that is selected and
manipulated by the researcher
- dependent- a variable that may change in
response to a change in the independent variable,
and is measured or observed.
- controlled variabl es-variables that are kept
constant during the investigation because they
may affect the dependent variab le.
KEY QUESTIONS
Knowledge and understanding 3 Define the fo llowing terms:

1 Explain what is meant by each of the following a research question
chemica l codes. b hypothesis
c aim
a ~ d independent variable
e dependent variable
f contro lled variables
b ~ 4 Ident ify whether each of the fo llowing statem ents is a
theory, a hypothesis or an observation.
a Spraying copper(II) ch loride solution into a fllame
causes the flame to t urn green
t ~
b Part icles in a gas move rapidly and randomly
c If 1.0 M sodium hydrox ide solution is gradually
2 Describe the purpose of a risk assessment. added to 1.0 M hydrochloric acid, t he pH of the
so lution will increase because sodium hydroxide
neutralises hydrochloric acid.
~----------------------,--------------------------------------------------------------------------- -
·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
Analysis 8 Th in-layer chromatography is a separation technique
5 A student conducted an experiment to investigate used to observe how many different components
if increasing the concentration of the acid wou ld are present in a m ixture. For a chromatography
increase the volume of hydrogen gas produced in the experiment designed to observe the pigments present
reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium in a green extract from spinach leaves, a student
ribbon. The student knew that the equation for the fo und two methods which were similar in procedure,
reaction is: but used different chem icals. Method A used 10 ml
acetone as the solvent for extracting the green
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ~ MgCl/aq) + H/g)
material! and a mixture of 2 ml etha nol and 2 ml
Write a possible hypothesis for th is experiment.
water as t he mobile phase for the experiment. Method
6 Complete the fo llowing ris k assessment table by B used 10 ml acetone as the solvent for extracting
inserting an appropriate safety measure for each the green material, and a mixture of 2 ml acetone
identified hazard. and 2 m l cyclohexane as the mobi le phase for the
Hazard Safety measure experiment.
I
a Using the internet sou rce and consu lt an SOS for
flammable liquid
each of acetone, ethanol and cyclohexane. Using
respiratory ir ritant the SDS as your source of information, record the
toxicity and flammability of each liq uid in a table.
corros ive solution
b State wh ich method would be most likely to be
contamination of wastewater considered as a 'green chem istry' method and
with organic compounds explain your answer.
toxic sol id
7 A pair of students developed the following hypothesis:

'For the precipitation reaction between silver nitrate
and sodium chloride, as the concent ration of sodium
ch loride solution increases, the mass of silver chloride
precipitated will increase.'
a Identify the independent variable.
b Identify the dependent variable.
c Suggest possible controlled variables.

1.3 Data collection and quality
In this section you will learn about data collection in a controlled experiment. You
CHEMFILE will learn how to record both quantitative and qualitative data. You will also learn
about the various factors that contribute to data quality, and the importance of
When entries in a logbook controlled experiments in producing valid results.
are legally vital
When a forensic scientist working in KEEPING A LOGBOOK
a laboratory is given samples from Throughout Units 1 and 2, and particularly during your practical investigation
a crime scene, or from a suspected for Unit 2 Area of Study 3, you must keep a logbook. This is generaHy thought
criminal or victim, they are required of as a bound book that includes every detail of your research (Figure 1. 3 .1 ) . l~he
to keep careful records of the tests reason for keeping a logbook, rather than recording information on random pieces
they do, as well as the results they of paper is primarily to stay organised and to prevent loss of details. The best
obtain. Well-established, peer-reviewed, place for your logbook to be kept is in the laboratory, so that it is alvvays accessible
reliable methods must be used, since vvhen you are doing your experimental research. Keeping track of all observations,
their results may determ ine whether
qualitative and quantitative raw data, modifications to the method and your plans to
the accused is given a criminal
analyse the data will ensure that you don't forget what you did, or spend extra time
conviction.
repeating vvork because you have lost your results.
If a blood alcohol test result is high
The follo,ving checklist will help you remember what to include in your logbook:
enough for the driver to lose their licence,
□ your ideas when planning the research
they may also lose their livelihood if they
drive as part of their work. □ tables ready for raw qualitative and quantitative d ata entry
It could be months or years that pass □ notes about ,vhat data you ,vill collect and how you intend to analyse it. Refer to
between when the tests have been done Section l .4 on page 3 3 for further details
and the case finally comes to court. □ records of all materials, methods, details of the experiment and raw data
The forensic scientist's records must be □ all notes sketches photographs and results
clear and unambiguous, so that when □ records of any incidents or errors that may influence the results.
the scientist is questioned in the wi1tness
Make sure to date all entries in your logbook. Figure l .3 .1 shows a sample page
box about the validity of their tests, they
of a student logbook.
can answer with confidence.
logbook entry--== =~ Metals;..l'.eacti~dt;y

title 1---D-!efi_n_it-io_!Jt_
:__,.-ea-c-tii-"'--vjt...L
-
,y - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - '
==========-;======- !logbook entry
date
The ease with which a metal reacts with other
---1 sul:,stances like O><.)lgtmJcid...water.
(2ource: Pearson Chem Qld 11 - textl:10
!logbook entry
A forensic scientist collects evidence, diluteHCl dilute HCI dilute HCI source
wearing gloves and full protective covering
M_g
to prevent contamination of the sample. ril:,bon
vecy least
reactive reactive
- - ~,(-So..,.y. .,rc.. . ,e:Chemistcy Action
www.cact-ion.edu) _ . - - - - -
=-~-u--+________,3 :test-=.tu.17es,__ _ _ _- + - - -
----+--------.. . . o_mLd~~teJ:t2so___ _- + - - -
FIGURE 1.3.1 Sample page from a student logbook showing development of ideas in planning and
conducting a practical investigation
• You will now be able to answer key question 3.

Determining the method
The method for a controlled scientific experiment must consider how the
independent variable will be changed how the dependent variable will be measured
and detern1ine the controlled variables that will not chan ge. Any decisions to
repeat measurements and change to the next variation (for example a different
concentration) of the independent variable should be included in the method.
Ensure that you have a detailed step-by-step method to follow, which other
people could follow if they were to replicate your experiment. Sometimes a diagram
of your equipn1ent set-up is a valuable addition to your method.
Modifying the method
The method may need modifying as the investigation is carried out. If this 1s
the case:
• record everything O Record any difficulties you encounter
• note any difficulties you encountered and the ways they were overcome. What in the investigation and any changes
were the failures and successes? that you make to the met hod as a
result of the difficulties.
If the expected data is not obtained, don't vvorry. Every test carried out can
contribute to the understanding of the investigation as a whole, no matter how
much of a disaster it may appear at first. Do you r best to critically evaluate the
data and identify the limitations of the investigation. Based on this information you
should be able to propose further investigations.
DATA COLLECTION
Before you begin your experiment, you should con struct data collection tables in
your logbook so that you can fill in the data as you conduct the experiment.
The measure1nents or observations that you collect during your investigation
are your primary data. This primary data is also knuwn as raw data. When you
start to do calculations with that raw data, even an average, then the data is known
as processed data. Processed data is raw data that has been organised., altered or
analysed to produce meaningful information (see Section 1.4 page 33) .
Raw and processed data

r-rhe data you record in your logbook during the investigation is raw data. This data
often needs to be processed or analysed before it can be presented.
Raw data that should be recorded includes:
• all quantitative data (measurements)
• all qualitative observations and other notes. O Record all raw and processed data in
tables in your logbook. Photographs of
The raw data may be presented in the form of: observations are also useful.
• tables of results
• diagrams and/or photographs of results
• graphs from dataloggin g equipment.
Processed data may include:
• graphs generated from raw data O Raw data is the data you measure
or observe during the course of the
• calculations in which raw data is used to determine other quantities investigation. Processed data is data
• graphs of processed data showing trends in that data. obtained by applying a calculation or
formula to raw data.
Qualitative and quantitative data

Qualitative data can be observed and relates to a type or category, such as colour,
or states (such as gas, liquid or solid).

Measured numeric values are quantitative data. Quantitative data should be
accompanied by a relevant unit such as mass (g) or time (s) . Numeric data can be
discrete or continuous:
• Discrete data are values that can be counted or measured, but which can only
have certain values. An example is the number of chemistry students in a class
or the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule of water.
• Continuous data may be any number value within a given range that can be
measured. Examples are time, temperature, mass, pH and concentration.
Determining whether a solution is acidic or basic can be qualitative or
quantitative. Figure 1.3.2 shows qualitative and quantitative tests for acidity.
Litmus paper gives a qualitative observation indicating the nature of the solution
(Figure 1.3.2a) whereas a calibrated pH probe or pH meter gives a quantitative
measurem ent indicating the nature of the solution (Figure l .3 .2b) .
FIGURE 1.3.2 (a) Litmus paper can be used to indicate the acidity of a solution. If the paper turns
blue, the solution is basic; if the paper turns pi nk, the solution is acidic. (b) A pH probe measures pH
quantitatively. If the pH < 7 at 25°C, the solution is acidic;. if the pH > 7 at 25°C, the solution
is basic.
Recording qualitative raw data

Examples of qualitative data that might be obser ved in an investigation, such as the
one being performed in Figure 1.3.3:
• disappearance of a substance
• appearance of a solid (precipitate)
• production of a gas
• colour change (e.g. from colourless to purple)
• temperature change ( e.g. increase or d ecrease without u sing a thermometer).
When recording qualitative data, focus on the observation. For example, \1/hen
magnesium is added to hydrochloric acid, bubbles are observed, indicating that a
gas is produced. However, don't assume that the gas is hydrogen unless you confirm
this; for example, using the 'pop' test.
Recording quantitative raw data
H ave your logbook ready, with prepared data collection tables, before you begin
your experiment. Accurately record the correct number of significant figures and
FIGURE 1.3.3 Qualitative observations include decimal places for measurements. For example burettes should be read to t\vo
the disappearance of a reactant, the formation decimal places. Mass m easurements should be recorded to the number of decimal
of bubbles and the increased heat of a test tube. places shown on the balance; for example, 2.034 g.

Presenting raw data in tables
'Tables organise data into ro,vs and columns, and they vary in complexity according
to the n ature of your data. Tables can be u sed to organise raw d ata and processed
data, and to summarise results. Results from all trials should be listed in tables of
raw data.
Figure 1.3.4 shows an example of ho,v to present quantitative raw d ata in a
table. ote that the table has the following features:
• a descriptive title
• column headings (including the u nit)
• the independent variables (distance between the electrodes) placed in the left
column
• the dependent variable(s) placed in the right column(s) .
The table is numbered and its t itle accurately

d escribes what is in the table.
I
Table l The effect of pH on t he mass of a seashell submerged in the acidic solution
pH Trial number Initial mass Final mass All headings incl ude
(g) (g) units and accurately
describe the data set
6 l 2.054 1.833, t hat is in the column.
2
3
2.309
2.443
2.089
2.224
"'~
5 1 2.332 2.082 Raw data from w hich
t he dependent
2 2.056 1.811 variable can be
3 2.764 2.512 Calcu lated is in right-
hand colu mn.
4 l 2.()03 1.723
2 2. 11 5 1.837
3 2.367 2.090 All raw data in the
3 1 "- 2.508 2.198 same column is
quoted to the same
---·~~
'~
2 2.600 2.292 accuracy.
3 I'-.. 2.845 2.531
The independent variable Each row shows a different trial; in this

is in the left-hand column. case 3 replicates for each pH value.
FIGURE 1.3.4 Features of a good raw data table
Units
Each column in a table of quantitative data should include relevant units. Commonly,
these ,vill be SI (International System of Units) units. Examples of commonly u sed
units are shown in Table 1.3 .1.
TABLE 1.3.1 Examples of units for various quantities
Quantity Possible units
mass g , mg, kg
volu me ml, L
pH no units
concentrat ion mol L- 1 (M), g L-\ %(m/m), %(v/v), %(m/v)
temperature oc

DATA QUALITY
The results of your data analysis \V-i1l only be as good as the quality of the data. You
should consider this when collecting primary data in your investigations, and also
when you evaluate the quality of secondar y data from other sources.
Accuracy and precision

If repeated measurements of the same quantity give values that are in close
agreement, the measurement is said to be precise. To obtain precise results you
must minimise random errors. The precision of a range of measurements can be
compared. For example, a measured mass of 3. 1 g is less precise than a measured
mass of 3.109 g.
If the average of a set of measurements of a quantity is very close to the
true value, the value that would be obtained under perfect conditions, then the
measurement is said to be accurate. To obtain accurate results you must 1ninimise
systematic errors. Precision gives no indication of how close the measurements are
to the true value and is therefore a separate consideration to accuracy. Figure 1.3.5
shows the difference between accuracy and precision.
precision
low high
If you hit the area around

If you hit the bullseye every
the bullseye each time but
don't always hit the bullseye, t i me you shoot, you are both
you are accurate, but not accurate and precise.
precise.
~
u
._
IU
::::,
u
u
IU
If you hit a different part If you hit the same area of

of the target every time ___,,__ the target every t ime but not
you shoot, you are neither the bullseye, you are precise
but not accurate.
accurate nor precise.
FIGURE 1.3.5 An example of a target illustrates the difference between accuracy and precision.
If the true value is known, then the difference benveen the true value and a
measured value is called the m easurement error. In many cases because the true
value is unknown, the measurement error will also be unknown.
Significant figures
\Xlhen reporting measurements in ra,v data tables, you should report a measurement
that is as accurate as possible \v-ithin the limitations of the equipm ent being used.
In doing so, you will be correctly stating the number of significant figures. The
significant figures indicate the precision of the instrument used and indicate a range
within which the value can be considered to exist. For example, a measure1nent
of 56.0 g has three significant figures and indicates that the value is somewhere
between 55.95 g and 56.04 g, whereas a measurement of 56 g, which has two
significant figures, indicates that the value is somewhere benveen 55.5 g and 56.4 g.
\"\Then giving an answer to a calculation, it is important to take care with the
number of significant figures that you use. An answer cannot be more precise than
the data or the measuring device used to calculate it. For example, if an electronic
balance that measures to the nearest 0.0 1 g sho,:vs that an object has a mass of
1.1 7 g, then the m ass should be recorded exactly as 1. 17 g (not as 1.170 g). The
number 56 has two significant figures. Recording to three significant figures (e.g.
56. 0 g or 5 5. 8 g) would not be scientifically ethical (see Section 1. 2, page 15). If this
mass of 56 g is used to calculate another value, it would also not be ethical to give an
answer that has more than t\vo significant figures. Similarly it is not correct to cut
off decim al places if the equipment is more precise than you require.
Working out the number of significant figures
When counting significant figures, the following rules apply:
• All non-zero digits count as significant figures.
• Zeros may or may not be significant, depending on ,:vhether they are part of the
measured value or arc simply used to position a decimal point.
• Whole numbers written v1ithout a decimal point will have the same number of
significant figures as the number of digits, with the assumption that the decimal
point occurs at the end of the number; for example, 500 has three significant
figures. 'Therefore a stated volume of '500 mL' ,:viii be considered as having
three significant figures .
Significant figures are only applied to m easurements, and calculations involving
measurements (see Section 1.4) .'Tney do not apply to quantities that are inherently
integers or fractions (for example, a stoichiom etric ratio such as 2 or ½ mole), defined
quantities (for example, 1 metre equals 100 centimetres), or conversion factors
(multiplying by 100 to get a percentage or adding 273 to convert °C to K). For
example, the accuracy of a temperature reading of 12°C cannot be increased from
two significant figures to three significant figures by converting to kelvin (285 K).
Types of errors
Most practical investigations have errors associated with them. The main errors
that you will encounter are described below.
Systematic errors
A systematic error produces a constant bias in a measurement that cannot be
eliminated by repeating the .m easurement. Systematic errors that affect a practical
investigation could include:
• a pH meter that has not been calibrated, so is consistently recording pH values
that are greater than they should be
• an unsuitable indicator being used in a titration (a precise form of volumetric
analysis)
• heat being lost to the surroundings due to lack ofinsulation during an experim ent
in which the temperature is being measured.
• a person reading the scale on a m easuring cylinder or burette with a constant
parallax error. In this case, the parallax error occurs in reading a volume
where the meniscus, the cmved upper surface of ·t he liquid, is not at eye level.
T his is shown in Figure 1.3.6.
FIGURE 1.3.6
l
It is important to read the bottom
Parallax error can also occur with analogue (non-digital) meters, such as
of the meniscus at eye level to avoid parallax
voltmeters and ammeters, and any insn·ument in which a line, or needle has to be error. Th is student is showing how you can use
compared to a fixed scale. a piece of white card {or a tile) to improve the
Whatever the cause, the resulting error is in the same direction for every contrast between the solution and the scale.
measurement and the average will either be too high or too low as a result. Repeating She is holding the white card to make it easier
for her partner to read the meniscus.
an experiment will not remove systematic error.

Random errors
Random errors follo,:v no regular pattern. The measurement is sometimes too
large and sometimes too small. Random errors in a practical investigation could
include:
• error in estimating the second decimal place in the volume read from a burette
• temperature variation within a solution that has not been mixed consistently
• error in estimating the colour of an indicator.
'Tbe effects of random errors can be reduced by taking multiple measurements
of the sam e quantity, then calculating a mean, or average. For example, when you
repeat an experiment in which a solid is produced in three separate trials the three
masses of the solid should be added together and divided by three.
Another way to reduce random error is to refine a measurement techniqu e by
repeating it until you are more skilled in the technique.
Mistakes
.M istakes, or personal errors are avoidable errors. Mistakes made during a practical
investigation could include:
• misreading the numbers on a scale
• not labelling a sample adequately
• spilling a portion of a sample.
A measurement that involves a mistake must be repeated if possible, or rejected
and not included in any calculations. Care in carrying out the experiment will
prevent the majority of n1istakes occurring.
Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the consistency of the results when the experiment is
1
repeated m any times. J\1aintain your investigation s repeatability by ensuring there
is sufficient replication of the experiment. In general, you should repeat each
experiment at kast three times (trials). Three is not necessarily a magic number,
and if you can do more trials your results should become more precise, at least
because you are becoming more familiar with the method and therefore better at
carrying it out.
Reproducibility
Reproducibility is the closeness of the agreement bernreen measurements
of the same quantity, carried out under changed conditions of measurements.
Reproducibility links closely to validity ( described below). Data is reprodu cible if
similar results are obtained by different operators in different laboratories, repeating
an experimental procedure and obtaining similar results. A benefit of an alysing
the reproducibility of data is to help identify possible systematic errors that would
affect the accuracy of the experiment.
Resolution
Various types of equipment can be used to measure quantitative data. For example,
tim e could be m easured u sing a stopwatch, phone or u sing a clock. Resolution is
the smallest change in the measured quantity that causes a perceptible change in
the value shown by the mcastuing instrument, an d has implications for the number
of decimal places that should be quoted.
Resolution is determined differently for analogue and digital instruments. For
example, if the resolution of a burette is 0.05 mL, then m easurement readings of
10.50 mL or 10.55 mL are possible, but a measurement reading of 10.53 mL
cannot be claimed. The meniscus of the liquid will either be on the burette line
marking, in w·h ich case the read ing would be 10.50 mL, or it \1/ill lie between 10.50
and 10.60, in which case it is measured as 10.55 mL.

Digital measuring equipment has a resolution to the last decimal place. For
example, an electronic balance that measures to 0.00 1 g would have a resolution CHEMFILE
of 0.001 g.
If ,ve compare analogue and digital devices, the resolution of an analogue clock Percentage uncertainty and
might be 1 s, the resolution of a stopwatch might be 0.01 s, and the resolution of choice of equipment
a phone app might be 0.001 s. Unfortunately, the reaction time of a human is The calibration of a measuring cylinder
commonly considered to be 0.2 s, so the apparent accuracy of the phone app is varies depending on the volume that
limited by the human who is recording the time. can be measured in that measuring
cylinder (see figure below). A 10 ml
Validity measuring cylinder is marked off in
Validity refers to whether an experiment or investigation is testing the set hypothesis increments of 0.2 ml , so its uncertainty
and aims. is 0.1 ml, whereas a 50 ml measuring
cylinder is marked off in increments
To ensure an investigation is valid, it should be designed so that only one
of l ml, so its uncertainty is 0.5 ml.
variable is being changed at a time. The other variables must remain constant so
If you wish to measure 5 mL of a
that meaningful conclusions can be drawn about the effect of each variable.
solution,. you could do so in the 10 ml
or 50 ml measuring cylinder1 but to
• You will now be able to answer key questions 2, 5, 6 and 8. do so in the 50 ml measuring cylinder
would introduce a greater uncertainty
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING DATA QUALITY in the measured volume than in the
Designing the method carefully, including selection and use of equipment, will 10 ml cyl inder.
help reduce random and system atic errors. Once you have chosen the appropriate Percentage uncertainty is an expression
equipment, you will need to calibrate the equipment to increase the accuracy of of the resolution of the equipment
your measurements. To increase precision with the sa1ne instrument, use a larger compared to the quantity measured, so
sample size. for t he 10 ml cyl inder:
Calibration percentage uncertainty= 0.1 x 100 = 2%

5
Calibration is the process of adjusting an instrument using a reference or standard. whereas for the 50 ml cylinder:
Some equipment, such as pH probes, need calibrating before use; for example to
check that a pH probe is giving a true reading of pH 4.0. By using calibrated percentage uncertainty= O.S x 100 = 10%.
5
equipment, you can be more certain that your measured values are accurate. In S0 to improve the precision of your
1
colorimetry a calibration curve is constructed showing the relationship betv.reen experiment, use the smalllest measuring
the concentration of known standards and absorbance. cylinder that will hold the volume you
want to measure.
Equipment
To minimise errors, check the precision of the equipment that you intend to use.
Pipettes burettes and volumetric flasks have greater precision than a measuring
cylinder for measuring volumes of liquids. However, you must still use all equipment
correctly to reduce error.
Sample size
In general, the larger the sample (for example, the mass of starting material that you
are using), the more precise the measured values will be.While wasteful experiments
are contrary to the principles of green chemistry, your results will be more precise
if you use 5 g of starting material than 0.5 g., given that you will still be using the
same electronic balance to determine mass in both cases. Even though any error in
the balance will be the same the percentage error will be smaller for the larger mass.
TECHNIQUES TO SUPPORT YOUR PRACTICAL

INVESTIGATION
A variety of techniques can be used for conducting practical investigations. The
choice of equipment is important to minimise error, to ensure your measurements
are accurate and your results are reproducible and reliable, and to nun1m1se
uncertainty. Techniques that you might use when conducting practical
It is more precise to measure 10 ml of
investigations are outlined in Table 1.3 .2 on the following page. liquid in the 10 ml measuring cylinder than
in the 25 ml measuring cylinder.

TABLE 1 .3.2 Techniques that might be appropriate for a practical investigation
Technique Purpose Dependent variable Example application
constant mass to determine mass of a solid determining water of

determination whether the mass of hydration in an ionic
a solid is changing salt
titration to calcu late volume of solution (titre) determining

the unknown concentrat ion of
concentra tion of a acids or bases
solution
data logging to collect data over change in pH , determining

a defined period of temperature, conductivity, temperature or pH
time colour, carbon d ioxide to see if a change is
concentration, pressure, occurring
time
colorimetry to calcu late absorbance using a measuring the
the unknown calibration curve concentration of
concentration of a coloured components
solution in solution
Data logging
In recent times, the ability to connect independent sensors to any device has enabled
simple and highly effective electronic data acquisition. Data logging in schools is
based around sensors, or probes, recording data to a standalone device, computer,
tablet or even a phone (Figure 1.3. 7). ~fhe software will generally graph and allow
advanced calculations directly without the need for an additional program. Some
probes can enable data collection to occur over an extended period of time. Examples
include pH probes, temperature probes, carbon dioxide or oxygen concentration
probes, conductivity probes, colorimeters and automatic mass balance equipment.
98.2°c
FIGURE 1.3.7 Data acquisition software produces real-time graphs that can be downloaded
or printed.

r----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
1.3 Review
SUMMARY
• Record all information objectively in your logbook, • Repeatabil ity is the consistency of your results when
including your data and method of investigation. they are repeated many times as trials under the
• The method is a step-by-step set of instructions exact same set of experimental cond itions.
that another person can follow to reproduce the • Reproducibility is the abiility to obtain the same
experiment.. results if an experiment is replicated.
• Raw data is the data you collect in you r logbook. • Accuracy is how close a measurement is to t he true
• Processed data is raw data t hat has been val ue.
mathematica lly analysed. • Precision is how closely a set of measurements
• Qualit ative data is observed and relates to a type or agree with each other.
category, such as co lour. • Resolution is the smallest change in the measured
• Quantitative data are measured numeric values and quantity that causes a perceptible change in the
have units included. value shown by the measuring instrument.
• Discrete data are values that can be counted or • Systematic errors result in errors in the same
measured, but which can only have certain values. direction for every measurement-either too high or
• Continuous data may be any number value within a too low.
given range that can be measured. • Random errors follow no regular pattern.
• Va lidity refers to whether you r results measure what • Mistakes or personal errors are avoidable and
the investigation set out to measure. should not be included in further analysis of resu lts.
KEY QUESTIONS
Knowledge and understanding 3 Explain why all data and observations should be
1 For each of the following masses, state the number of recorded in a logbook.
significant figures. 4 Rewrite the fol lowing table, identifying wh ich of
a 1.36 g the pieces of information about data collected in a
b 0.0205 g constant mass experiment are qualitative and which
C 1.5000 g are quantitative. Place a tick in the appropriate column .
d 0.004 060 g Information I Quantitative I Qualitative
2 Fill in the gaps in the following sentences using these colour of hydrated salt
terms:
repeatability; rep roducibility; resolution; accuracy; colour of dehydrated salt
precision; true value; val idity initial mass of hydrated salt
a _ _ _ _ is how close a measurement is to the
_ _ _ _ , whereas _ _ _ _ _ is how closely a texture of dehydrated salt
set of measurements agree with each other. final mass of dehydrated

b _ _ _ _ _ refers to whether your results salt
measure what the investigation set out to measure. 5 A journal article reported the materials and method
c ______ is the consistency of your resu lts used to conduct an experiment. The experiment was
when they are repeated many times as trials under repeated three times, and all values were reported
the exact same set of experimental conditions, in the results section of the article. Repeating an
whereas _ _ _ _ is the ability fo r another experiment and averaging the quantitative results
experimenter to obtain the same results if they reduces:
replicate your experiment. A precision
d _ _ _ _ _ is the sma llest change in the B random errors
measured quantity that ca uses a perceptible C accuracy
change in the va lue shown by the measuring
D systematic errors
instrument.
continued over page

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,
1.3 Review continued
6 Match the folllowing terms with their definitions: 8 a State the resolution and measured value for the
repeatability of data; precision; val idity of data; digital thermometer below.
accuracy; resolution
a how close a measured value is to the actual va lue
b the smallest change in the measured quantity th at
causes a perceptible change in the va lue
c how many decimal places an experimental value
can be reported
d how well an experiment tests a hypothesis; if the
data obtained is used to reach a logica l conclusion
b State the uncertainty and measured va lue for the
e how similar the resu lts of an exper iment will be measuring cylinder below.
when the method is fol lowed by another scientist
Analysis
7 Explain the difference between raw and processed - 90
data, using a titration as an example.

1.4 Data analysis and presentation
In Section 1.3 you learnt about different types of data and the factors that affect
data quality. In this section you will learn how to process and analyse your data and
present analysed data in graphs.
PROCESSING DATA
Whenever you process data, it is important to show the formula you used and a TABLE 1.4.l Summary results table indicating
sample calculation. Even if you don't include all of the information in your report the measured mass loss when varying the pH of
or scientific poster, everything should be recorded in your logbook. a sol ution in which a seashell is submerged
You might have measured the initial and final masses of seashells which ,;vere
pH Trial Change Mean
submerged in acidic solutions of different pH values (Table 1.3.2, page 30). You number in mass change in
can then process this data further. (g) mass (g)
For example,
6 1 0.221 0.220
change in mass= final 1nass - initial 1nass
The mean change in mass is found by adding all the changes in .mass for a 2 0.220
particular pH and dividing them by the number of trials. 3 0.2 19
1
. (change in mass 1 +change in mass 2 +change in mass 3 ) 5 1 0.250 0.249
mean c11ange 1n mass =- ·
3 2 0.245
\Vhen summarising processed data in a table, record the independent variable
3 0.252
in the left-hand colun1n and the dependent variable(s) in the column(s) that follow.
The processed or calculated values should be recorded in the final colurnn. 4 1 0.280 0.278
In Table 1.4. l , the data in the final two columns is processed data (the change in 2 0.278
mass = final mass - initial mass, and the mean of trials).
Calculation of the mean of a number of trials is commonly used in titrations. 3 0.277
This is covered in detail in Chapter 14. 3 1 0.310 0.311
2 0.308
3 0.3 14
Transforming decimal notation to scientific notation
Scientists use scientific notation (standard form) to handle very large and very
small numbers.
For example, instead of writing 0.000 003 5, scientists would write 3.5 x 10-6 .
A number in scientific notation (also called standard fonn or power of ten
notation) is written as ax 10 ,vhere:
11
,
a is a number equal to or greater than 1 and less than 10: that is, 1 $ a $10
n is an integer (a positive or negative whole number)
n is the power that 10 is raised to and is called the index (plural, indices) .
When large nun1bers are written in scientific notation, the 10 has a positive
index. When very small numbers are written in scientific notation, the 10 has a
negative index.
Two examples of how to transform deci1nal notation into scientific notation are
shown in Worked example 1.4. 1 on the following page.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Histoire du Bas-
Empire. Tome 02
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: Histoire du Bas-Empire. Tome 02
Author: Charles Le Beau
Editor: J. Saint-Martin
Release date: February 22, 2024 [eBook #73018]
Language: French
Original publication: Paris: F. Didot, 1836
Credits: Brian Wilson, MFR, Pierre Lacaze and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This book was produced from images made available
by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTOIRE

DU BAS-EMPIRE. TOME 02 ***
HISTOIRE
DU
BAS-EMPIRE.
TOME II.
A PARIS,
CHEZ
FIRMIN DIDOT père et fils, Libraires, rue Jacob, no 24;

LEQUIEN, Libraire, rue des Noyers, no 45;
BOSSANGE père, Libraire, rue de Richelieu, no 60;
VERDIÈRE, Libraire, quai des Augustins, no 25.
HISTOIRE
DU
BAS-EMPIRE,
PAR LEBEAU.
NOUVELLE ÉDITION.
REVUE ENTIÈREMENT, CORRIGÉE,
ET AUGMENTÉE D'APRÈS LES HISTORIENS
ORIENTAUX,
Par M. DE SAINT-MARTIN,
MEMBRE DE L'INSTITUT (ACADÉMIE DES

INSCRIPTIONS ET BELLES-LETTRES).
TOME II.
PARIS,
DE L'IMPRIMERIE DE FIRMIN DIDOT,
IMPRIMEUR DU ROI ET DE L'INSTITUT, RUE
JACOB, No 24.
M. DCCC. XXIV.
HISTOIRE
DU
BAS-EMPIRE.
LIVRE VII.
i. État de l'empire. ii. Caractère de Constant. iii. Ministres
de Constant. iv. Quel jugement on peut porter de ce
prince. v. Caractère de Magnence. vi. Il est proclamé
Auguste. vii. Mort de Constant. viii. Suites de la révolte de
Magnence. ix. Vétranion prend le titre d'Auguste. x.
Entreprise de Népotianus. xi. Tyrannie de Magnence. xii.
Guerre de Perse. xiii. Siége de Nisibe. xiv.
Commencement du siége. xv. Sapor inonde la ville. xvi.
Nouvelle attaque. xvii. Opiniâtreté de Sapor. xviii. Levée
du siége. xix. Miracles qu'on raconte à l'occasion de ce
siége. xx. Préparatifs de Constance. xxi. Députation de
Magnence. xxii. Vétranion dépouillé. xxiii. Conduite de
Constance à l'égard de Vétranion. xxiv. Constance jette
les yeux sur Gallus pour le faire César. xxv. Éducation de
Gallus et de Julien. xxvi. Gallus et Julien à Macellum.
xxvii. Différent succès des instructions chrétiennes
données aux deux princes. xxviii. Gallus déclaré César.
xxix. Il purifie le bourg de Daphné. xxx. Décentius César.
xxxi. Magnence se met en marche. xxxii. Propositions de
paix rejetées par Magnence. xxxiii. Il reçoit un échec au
passage de la Save. xxxiv. Insolence de Titianus. xxxv.
Divers succès de Magnence. xxxvi. Bataille de Mursa.
xxxvii. Perte de part et d'autre. xxxviii. Ruse de Valens.
xxxix. Suites de la bataille. xl. Magnence se retire en
Italie. xli. Il fuit dans les Gaules. xlii. Embarras de
Magnence. xliii. Il attente à la vie de Gallus. xliv. Mort de
Magnence. xlv. Lois touchant la religion. xlvi. Lois
concernant l'ordre civil. xlvii. Lois militaires.
CONSTANCE, CONSTANT.
L'empire, gouverné depuis douze ans par des
princes fort inférieurs en mérite à Constantin, perdait An 349.
peu à peu son éclat, sans avoir encore rien perdu de
ses forces. Constance, réglé dans ses mœurs, mais i.
sombre et bizarre, s'égarait dans des discussions Etat de l'empire.
théologiques, où l'hérésie pratiquait mille détours. Soz. l. 3, c. 18.
Obsédé par des évêques ariens et toujours Cod. Th. Lib.
environné de conciles, il négligeait la gloire de l'état, 16, tit. 10. leg.
et n'opposait qu'une faible résistance aux fréquentes 2, 3. et ibi God.
incursions des Perses. Constant, plus livré aux
plaisirs, tranquille du côté de ses frontières, dont il avait écarté les
Francs, s'en rapportait sur les questions de doctrine à Maximin,
évêque de Trèves, dont il connaissait la sainteté éminente et la
science consommée. Guidé par les sages conseils de ce prélat, il se
déclarait hautement le défenseur de l'orthodoxie; il réprimait l'audace
des païens et des hérétiques; il relevait l'éclat du culte divin par de
riches offrandes; il comblait les ecclésiastiques d'honneurs et de
priviléges. Il reçut de bonne heure la grace du baptême. A l'exemple
de son père, il portait de nouveaux coups à l'idolâtrie; il défendit les
sacrifices; il fit fermer les temples, sans permettre qu'on les détruisît,
ni dans Rome, dont ils faisaient un des principaux ornements; ni
hors de Rome, parce qu'il ne voulait pas priver le peuple des jeux et
des divertissements établis à l'occasion de ces temples.
Ce prince, placé entre les catholiques qu'il
protégeait, les hérétiques qu'il rejetait, et les païens ii. Caractère de
dont il tâchait d'anéantir le culte, a été regardé de Constant.
son temps et montré à la postérité sous des aspects
Athan. apol. ad.
entièrement opposés; et jamais souverain n'a laissé Const. t. 1, p.
une réputation plus équivoque. Les écrivains 296, 301 et
catholiques les plus respectables, et même des passim.
pères de l'Église, l'ont comblé de ces louanges Optat. de
générales que l'enthousiasme de la reconnaissance schism. Don. l.
produit souvent, mais n'accrédite pas toujours: ils ont 3, c. 3.
été jusqu'à lui donner le nom de bienheureux. Si l'on [Eutrop. l. 10.]
en croit, au contraire, les auteurs païens, c'était un
Zos. l. 2, c. 42.
tyran cruel, d'une avarice insatiable, fier, imprudent,
impétueux, exécrable par ses propres vices et par
ceux de ses ministres; un ingrat, qui ne payait que Aur. Vict. de
de mépris les services des gens de guerre. cæs. p. 173.
L'heureuse température de l'air, la fertilité des Vict. epit. p.
années, la tranquillité des Barbares auraient, 225.
pendant tout le cours de son règne, rendu ses sujets Zonar. l. 13, t. 2,
fortunés, s'il ne les eût affligés lui-même par des p. 13.
fléaux plus terribles que la peste, la famine et la Joan. Ant. in
guerre: c'étaient les magistrats pervers auxquels il excerpt.
vendait à prix d'argent le gouvernement des
provinces. On lui reproche même ce vice honteux qui fait rougir la
nature. Il était sans cesse environné de jeunes efféminés, qu'il
choisissait entre les otages que lui envoyaient les Barbares, ou qu'il
faisait acheter dans les pays étrangers; et pour les récompenser de
leur criminelle complaisance, il leur abandonnait les biens et le sang
de ses sujets. Passionné pour la chasse, souvent elle lui servait de
prétexte pour aller cacher au fond des forêts l'horreur de ses
débauches. Sa santé en fut altérée; il perdit l'usage des mains et
des pieds; et les douleurs de la goutte, dont il était tourmenté, le
punissaient sans le corriger.
Ses ministres abusaient de sa confiance: rien
n'échappait à leurs désirs, et il fallait leur céder tout iii. Ministres de
ce qu'ils désiraient, ou se résoudre à ressentir les Constance.
effets d'une haine puissante et implacable. Dans
Liban. or. 7, t. 2,
cette cour corrompue on ne trouve qu'un seul p. 212, ed.
homme digne d'estime: il se nommait Euthérius. Il Morel. Amm. l.
était né en Arménie dans une condition libre; enlevé 16. c. 7.
dès son enfance par des coureurs ennemis, il avait [Hieron. chron.]
été fait eunuque, vendu à des marchands romains,
et conduit au palais de Constantin. Son heureux Eunap. in
Prohæres. p.
naturel se développa dès ses premières années; il 89, ed. Boiss.
prit lui-même le soin de se perfectionner par l'étude
Ducange Gloss,
des lettres, autant que le permettait sa fortune. Il inf. Græc. in
avait des mœurs, beaucoup d'empressement à faire στρατοπε-
du bien, une grande mémoire, un esprit adroit, subtil, δάρχης.
pénétrant, plein de ressources sans s'écarter jamais
des règles de la justice; et l'histoire lui rend ce témoignage que, si
Constant eût voulu écouter ses conseils, il n'eût point fait de fautes,
ou n'en eût fait que d'excusables. On cite encore un homme de bien
qui eut quelque crédit auprès de Constant: c'était Prohéresius,
sophiste d'Athènes, célèbre par son éloquence, et plus encore par
son attachement à la religion chrétienne; ce qui était presque sans
exemple dans les sophistes de ce temps-là. Constant le fit venir
dans les Gaules; et quoiqu'il ne fût vêtu que d'un simple manteau de
philosophe, et qu'il marchât les pieds nus, l'empereur l'admettait à sa
table entre les principaux de sa cour. Il le renvoya comblé de
bienfaits, qu'on ne dit pas qu'il ait refusés, et il l'honora du titre de
Stratopédarque; ce qui signifiait alors tantôt un général d'armée,
tantôt le commandant d'un camp ou d'une troupe, tantôt l'intendant
des vivres: dignités peu assorties au caractère d'un sophiste.
Sur des mémoires si contradictoires, il est difficile de
porter de Constant un jugement assuré. Il est certain iv. Quel
que la protection qu'il a accordée à l'Église, et son jugement on
zèle pour le progrès et pour la pureté de la religion, peut porter de
méritent des éloges. Mais si l'on considère ses Constant.
qualités personnelles, je croirais volontiers que son Liban. Basil. t.
portrait a été chargé de part et d'autre, et que le 2, p. 141 et 144.
mélange de bonnes et de mauvaises qualités dans Eutr. l. 10.
son caractère s'est également prêté aux louanges de
ses panégyristes et aux satires de ses ennemis. Les
uns et les autres n'ont vu dans sa personne que ce qu'ils y voulaient
trouver. Pour approcher le plus de la vérité, le meilleur moyen serait
sans doute de consulter les auteurs contemporains, et les plus
voisins de son temps; de recueillir ses vices dans les chrétiens qui
lui sont si favorables, et ses vertus dans les païens qui lui sont si
contraires. Mais les premiers ne lui donnent point de vices, et les
autres point de vertus, si l'on en excepte un orateur mercenaire qui,
faisant son éloge de son vivant, doit être compté pour rien. Le seul
Eutrope adoucit un peu les traits odieux dont les autres païens le
noircissent. Selon cet auteur, il montra d'abord de l'activité et de la
justice; mais le dérangement de sa santé le mit hors d'état de bien
faire, et la corruption de ses courtisans l'entraîna à faire le mal.
Cependant, ajoute Eutrope, il se signala par ses exploits militaires,
et il se fit toujours craindre de ses troupes par une sévérité de
discipline qui n'avait cependant rien de cruel.
Au reste, la chute rapide de ce prince, et la facilité
qu'on eut à le détruire, montrent assez combien il
était haï ou méprisé de ses sujets. Au premier signal v. Caractère de
Magnence.
de la révolte, il se vit abandonné sans ressource.
Magnence projetait depuis long-temps d'usurper la Jul. or. 1. p. 34;
puissance souveraine, et la circonstance lui 2. p. 56 et in
Cæs. p. 315.
paraissait favorable. Des deux empereurs, les
Perses tenaient l'un dans des alarmes continuelles, Liban. or. 10. t.
l'autre s'endormait dans les bras de la volupté. Cet 2, p. 269.
ambitieux n'avait, pour aspirer à l'empire, d'autre titre [Athan. apol. ad
que son audace. Il était né au-delà du Rhin. Dès son Const. t. 1, p.
enfance il fut emmené captif et transporté en Gaule 299 et passim.]
avec son père, appelé Magnus. Devenu libre par le Zos. l. 2, c. 54.
bienfait de Constantin, il s'était instruit dans les Aur. Vict. de
lettres latines; il avait de la lecture, et une sorte cæs. p. 179.
d'éloquence qui ne manquait pas de force et de Vict. epit. p.
vivacité. Il était grand et puissant de corps. D'abord 226.
soldat dans les gardes du prince, il s'était ensuite Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
élevé jusqu'au grade de commandant des Joviens et p. 13.
des Herculiens, avec le titre de comte: c'étaient deux Steph. de urb.
légions formées par Dioclétien et par Maximien. Ces in Δεκέντιος.
deux princes, dont l'un avait pris le titre de Jovius et
Cod. Th. Lib.
l'autre d'Herculius, avaient donné leur nom à ces 16, tit. 10, leg. 5
légions: elles faisaient partie de la garde des et ibi God.
empereurs. Comme il se piquait d'une rigoureuse
Banduri, in
exactitude, ses soldats s'étant un jour soulevés Magnentio.
contre lui, il allait être massacré, si Constant ne lui
eût sauvé la vie en le couvrant de sa pourpre. Il [Eckhel, doct.
num. vet. t. 8, p.
conserva cette régularité apparente après son 121 et 122.]
usurpation, et dans le sein de l'injustice il affectait un
scrupule religieux pour l'observation des lois.
L'éducation n'avait réussi qu'à déguiser ses vices. Dur, intraitable,
avare, capable des forfaits les plus noirs, hardi dans le succès par
ostentation, timide dans l'adversité par caractère, il était infiniment
adroit à cacher ses noirceurs et sa timidité sous des dehors de bonté
et de courage. Un auteur païen croit achever le portrait de sa
tyrannie, en disant qu'elle fit à juste titre regretter le règne de
Constant. On ne reconnaît qu'il était chrétien qu'à ses médailles, qui
portent le monogramme du Christ. D'ailleurs il favorisa le paganisme
en permettant à Rome les sacrifices nocturnes défendus dans Rome
païenne, et proscrits par les empereurs chrétiens, lors même qu'ils
toléraient ceux qu'on faisait en plein jour. Julien, qui devait lui savoir
gré de cette indulgence pour l'idolâtrie, n'a pu s'empêcher de
convenir que même ce qu'il a fait de louable ne fut jamais fondé sur
des principes de vertu, ni dirigé par le bon sens.
Tandis que Constant, emporté par le plaisir de la
chasse, passe son temps dans les forêts, An 350.
Marcellinus intendant des finances, et Chrestus un
des plus distingués entre les commandants des vi. Il est
proclamé
troupes, se liguent avec Magnence. Ils gagnent Auguste.
plusieurs officiers du palais et de l'armée,
mécontents du peu de considération qu'ils avaient Vict. epit. p.
225.
dans une cour voluptueuse. Marcellinus était le chef
de l'intrigue; il aurait pu travailler pour lui-même; Zos. l. 2, c. 42.
mais dans ces entreprises hasardeuses le second [Socr. l. 2, c. 25.
rôle est toujours moins dangereux: il aima mieux être Jul. or. 2. p. 57.
le maître de l'empereur que de l'empire. Il fixa le jour ed. Spanh.
de l'exécution au 18 janvier, sous le consulat de Soz. l. 4, c. 1.]
Sergius et de Nigrinianus. C'était l'anniversaire de la
Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
naissance de son fils, et les pères de famille p. 13.
célébraient ce jour-là par un grand festin. La cour
était alors à Autun [Augustodunum]. Il invita Chron. Alex. vel
Pasch. p. 289.
Magnence avec les premiers de la ville, et les
principaux officiers de l'armée. Quelques-uns des Idat. chron.
conviés étaient du complot. La joie de la fête
prolongea le repas fort avant dans la nuit. Magnence, étant sorti de
la salle sans qu'on y fît attention, y rentre un moment après, comme
dans une scène de théâtre, escorté de gardes, avec tout l'appareil
de la dignité impériale. Les conjurés le saluent du nom d'empereur:
les autres restent interdits; il parle, et ses paroles appuyées de
menaces que l'effet allait suivre, déterminent les plus difficiles à
persuader: l'acclamation devient générale. Accompagné de ce
cortége, il marche au palais, s'empare des trésors, et les prodigue à
sa troupe. Il pose des gardes aux portes de la ville, avec ordre de
laisser entrer tous ceux qui se présenteraient, mais de ne laisser
sortir personne. Dès le point du jour tous les habitants environnent le
palais; le peuple des campagnes accourt à la ville; un corps de
cavalerie illyrienne, qui venait pour recruter les armées de la Gaule,
se joint à eux. Tous les officiers des troupes se réunissent; et la
plupart sans savoir la cause de ce tumulte, entraînés par l'exemple
des conjurés, reconnaissent à grands cris le nouvel Auguste.
Malgré les précautions de Magnence, Constant, qui
s'occupait de la chasse, dans un pays fort éloigné vii. Mort de
d'Autun, fut instruit de la révolte. Il voulait se sauver Constant.
en Espagne; mais Gaïson, envoyé par le tyran avec
Vict. epit. p. 225
une troupe d'élite, l'atteignit à Elne [Helena][1], au et 226.
pied des Pyrénées. L'infortuné prince, abandonné de Eutr. l. 10.
tous, excepté d'un Franc nommé Laniogaise, fut
massacré la treizième année de son règne, et la Amm. l. 15, c. 5.
trentième de son âge. Quelques auteurs rapportent Zos. l. 2, c. 42.
que se voyant sans secours, il quitta les ornements Zon. l. 13. t. 2,
de sa dignité, et qu'il se réfugia dans une chapelle, p. 13 et 14.
d'où on l'arracha pour l'égorger. Hier. chron.
[1] Cette ville, appelée antérieurement Illiberis, est à [Idat. chron.]
quelque distance de Perpignan, dans le Roussillon
(Pyrénées orientales).—S.-M.
L'usurpateur, afin d'assurer sa puissance, prit le parti
de se défaire des plus considérables de ceux qui viii. Suites de la
avaient servi Constant. En même-temps qu'il envoie révolte de
à la poursuite de ce prince, il dépêche des courriers Magnence.
pour les mander au nom de l'empereur, et les fait Jul. or. 1. p. 26,
assassiner sur la route. Il n'épargne pas même ceux ed. Spanh.
de sa faction, dont il avait quelque défiance. Il se Eutr. l. 10.
rend maître de tout l'Occident en deçà des Alpes.
Zos. l. 2, c. 43.
Bientôt après, l'Italie, la Sicile, l'Afrique se déclarent
en sa faveur. Il nomme Anicetus préfet du prétoire, Socr. l. 2, c. 25.
et Titianus préfet de Rome. Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
p. 14.
L'Illyrie lui échappa. A la nouvelle de la mort de
Constant, Vétranion, général de l'infanterie dans la Buch. Cycl. p.
Pannonie, fut proclamé Auguste le premier de 240.
mars[2], à Sirmium ou à Mursa, par les soldats qui le
chérissaient. C'était un vieillard expérimenté dans la
ix. Vétranion
guerre, qu'il pratiquait depuis long-temps avec prend le titre
succès. Il s'était fait aimer des troupes par sa d'Auguste.
probité, par sa douceur, et par une simplicité
Jul. or. 1. p. 26,
grossière qui le rapprochait beaucoup de ses 30 et 31, ed.
soldats. Né dans les pays incultes de la haute Spanh.
Mésie, il était resté dans une ignorance si barbare,
[Eutrop. l. 10.]
qu'il lui fallut apprendre à lire quand il se vit
empereur; mais il fut dépouillé de l'empire avant que Aur. Vict. de
d'avoir eu le temps de connaître toutes les lettres. cæs. p. 179.
Selon plusieurs historiens ce fut Constantine elle- Vict. epit. p.
même, fille de Constantin et veuve d'Hanniballianus, 226.
qui le revêtit de la pourpre impériale. Elle voulait Zos. l. 2, c. 43.
l'opposer au torrent de la révolte qui avait déja Hier. chron.
entraîné le reste de l'Occident. Elle craignait que son
Socr. l. 2, c. 25.
frère Constance, alors occupé contre les Perses, ne
pût arriver assez à temps pour y résister; et elle se Soz. l. 4, c. 1.
croyait en droit de donner le titre d'Auguste, parce [Idat. chron.]
qu'elle l'avait elle-même reçu de son père Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
Constantin. Vétranion fit écrire à Constance: il lui p. 15.
protestait qu'il ne se regardait que comme son Theoph. p. 37.
lieutenant; et qu'il n'avait accepté le nom d'empereur
Philost. l. 3, c.
qu'afin de profiter contre Magnence de l'affection des 22.
soldats; il lui demandait de l'argent et des troupes, et
l'exhortait à venir lui-même repousser l'usurpateur. Oros. l. 7, c. 29.
Ce vieux soldat connaissait peu le caractère jaloux Chron. Alex. vel
et insociable de la puissance souveraine; il ignorait Pasch. p. 289.
que c'est un crime de s'asseoir à côté d'elle, fût-ce Joan. Ant. in
pour la servir. Constance, plus politique, feignit de lui excerpt.
savoir gré de son zèle: il approuva son élection; il lui
envoya même le diadème et des sommes d'argent, et il ordonna aux
légions de Pannonie de se réunir sous ses drapeaux.
[2] Le 1er de mai selon Idatius.—S.-M.
Dans cette agitation de tout l'Occident, il s'éleva un troisième parti.
Népotianus,[3] qui avait, comme nous l'avons dit, échappé au
massacre de sa famille, refusa aussi de reconnaître
Magnence pour son empereur. Neveu de x. Entreprise de
Constantin, fils d'un consul, revêtu lui-même en 336 Népotianus.
de la dignité consulaire, il ne se croyait pas né pour
Aur. Vict. de
reconnaître les ordres d'un soldat de fortune. Ayant cæs. p. 180.
rassemblé une multitude de bandits, de gladiateurs
et de gens perdus de débauche, et abîmés de Vict. epit. p.
226.
dettes, il vient le 3 juin se présenter aux portes de
Rome avec le diadême. Anicetus préfet du prétoire Eutr. l. 10.
sort à la tête d'une foule d'habitants mal armés, Zos. l. 2, c. 43.
encore plus mal en ordre. Les troupes de Hier. chron.
Népotianus n'étaient guère mieux aguerries. Socr. l. 2, c. 25.
Cependant dès la première attaque ceux-ci mettent
les habitants en fuite. Le préfet, craignant pour la Soz. l. 4, c. 1.
ville, s'y retire avec une partie des fuyards, fait Idat chron.
fermer les portes, et abandonne les autres à la merci Chron. Alex. vel
des ennemis qui en font une horrible boucherie. Pasch. p. 289.
Népotianus avait des intelligences dans Rome: on Banduri, In
massacre le préfet; on ouvre les portes au Nepotiano.
vainqueur, qui laisse ses soldats se rassasier de [Eckhel, doct.
butin et de carnage. Les places, les rues, les num. vet. t. viii,
maisons, les temples sont inondés de sang; et le p. 119.]
nouveau tyran, fier d'une si belle victoire, prend le
nom de Constantin[4]. Il ne le porta que vingt-huit jours. Magnence
envoie contre lui une armée commandée par Marcellinus, qu'il avait
fait grand-maître du palais. Les habitants de Rome, trahis encore par
un sénateur nommé Héraclide, sont vaincus dans un grand combat.
Cette ville infortunée est une seconde fois le théâtre d'une révolution
sanglante. Népotianus est tué, et sa tête portée au bout d'une lance
annonce une nouvelle proscription.
[3] On voit par ses médailles qu'il s'appelait Flavius Popilius
Népotianus.—S.-M.
[4] Il existe quelques médailles, sur lesquelles il prend le nom de
Constantin. Voyez Eckhel, Doct. num. vet. t. viii, p. 119.—S.-M.
Magnence vient jouir de sa conquête: le massacre des citoyens les
plus considérables lui tient lieu de triomphe. Il fait mourir Eutropia,
dont tout le crime était d'être mère de Népotianus.
Les Barbares, tels que les Germains et les Iazyges, xi. Tyrannie de
qui composaient une partie de son armée, Magnence.
assouvissent la haine naturelle qu'ils portaient au
Ath. apol. ad
nom romain. Marcellinus le maître de Magnence, Const. t. 1, p.
plutôt que son ministre, s'attache surtout à éteindre 299.
tout ce qui tenait par des alliances à la maison Jul. or. 1, p. 34;
impériale. Au milieu de ces désastres, la crainte, qui or. 2, p. 58, ed.
affecte les dehors de l'admiration et de la Spanh.
reconnaissance, prodigue à l'oppresseur les titres de
Them. or. 3, p.
libérateur de Rome et de l'empire, de réparateur de 43.
la liberté, de conservateur de la république, des
Hier. chron.
armées et des provinces. On ne célèbre sur ses
monuments et sur ses monnaies que le bonheur, la Eutr. l. 10.
gloire et le rétablissement de l'état[5]. Magnence Aur. Vict. de
enivré de ces fausses louanges, pour persuader au cæs. p. 180.
peuple, et peut-être à lui-même, qu'il les a méritées, Socr. l. 2, c. 32.
fait arrêter plusieurs officiers de son armée, qui Grut. inscript. p.
s'étaient distingués dans le massacre; il les punit de 291, no 10.
lui avoir obéi, et les sacrifie à la vengeance publique.
Murat. inscript.
Mais en même temps il ne relâche rien de sa o
tyrannie. Il oblige par un édit tous les Romains sur p. 262. n 1.
peine de la vie à porter au trésor la moitié de la Banduri, in
valeur de leurs biens; et contre les lois anciennes et Magnent.
nouvelles, il permet aux esclaves de dénoncer leurs [Eckhel, doct.
maîtres. C'était les y exciter. Il contraint les num. vet. t. viii,
particuliers d'acheter les terres du domaine. Son p. 121 et 122.]
avarice n'était pas le seul motif de ces tyranniques
ordonnances. Il faisait d'immenses préparatifs, et rassemblait des
troupes de toutes parts, pour soutenir la guerre contre Constance:
car il méprisait la vieillesse imbécille de Vétranion. Les troupes
romaines répandues dans la Gaule et dans l'Espagne, les Francs,
les Saxons et les autres Barbares d'au-delà du Rhin, attirés par
l'appât du pillage, se mettent en mouvement pour se rendre sous
ses enseignes. Les garnisons quittent la frontière. Chaque ville de la
Gaule devient un camp. On ne rencontre sur les chemins que
fantassins, cavaliers, gens de trait. Les Alpes sont sans cesse
hérissées de lances et de piques; toutes ces bandes comme autant
de torrents fondaient en Italie; et la terreur était universelle.
[5] Les médailles de Magnence portent les légendes BEATITVDO.
PVBLICA. ou LIBERATOR. REIPVBLICAE. ou RENOBATIO (sic).
VRBIS. ROME (sic). ou RESTITVTOR. LIBERTATIS. Les mêmes
expressions se retrouvent dans les inscriptions faites en l'honneur
de ce tyran.—S.-M.
Constance était encore à Antioche, où il prenait des
mesures pour reconquérir l'Occident. Sur la nouvelle xii. Guerre de
de la révolte, il avait quitté la Mésopotamie toujours Perse.
infestée par les Perses. Après la bataille de Singara, Liban. or. 10, t.
Sapor, ayant pendant l'hiver réparé ses pertes, avait 2, p. 309 et 310.
dès le printemps repassé le Tigre. Constance de son
Zos. l. 2, c. 45.
côté passa l'Euphrate. On sait en général que
l'empereur reçut cette année-là plusieurs échecs; Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
mais on en ignore le détail. Il y a quelque apparence p. 13.
que le mauvais succès de la bataille de Singara
avait découragé les troupes romaines; et l'incapacité de leur chef
n'était pas propre à leur rendre le cœur. Ce fut apparemment alors
que les Perses prirent sur les Romains cette supériorité, qu'ils
conservèrent tant que Constance vécut. Ce prince ne se montra plus
sur les frontières de la Perse, que pour y recevoir des affronts.
Renfermé dans son camp et toujours prêt à prendre la fuite, il laissait
l'ennemi faire librement ses incursions. Les Romains à qui il
apprenait à trembler, s'accoutumèrent à se tenir cachés sous leurs
tentes, tandis qu'on enlevait jusqu'aux portes de leur camp les
habitants des villes et des campagnes qu'ils étaient venus défendre.
Ces braves soldats, qui jusqu'alors avaient préféré l'honneur à la vie,
commencèrent à ne plus craindre que la mort. Une nuée de
poussière, qui annonçait l'approche d'un escadron ennemi, les
mettait en fuite. Ils ne pouvaient soutenir la vue d'un Perse; le nom
même de Perse était devenu un épouvantail, dont on se servait soit
par raillerie, soit pour leur faire interrompre le pillage.
Après cette campagne, malheureuse dans le détail,
mais qui s'était passée sans action décisive, les xiii. Siége de
Perses s'étant retirés, il paraît que Constance avait Nisibe.
pris des quartiers d'hiver entre l'Euphrate et le Tigre; Jul. or. 1. p. 27,
et ce fut cet éloignement qui augmenta l'audace de et or. 2. p. 62-
67, ed. Spanh.
Magnence. L'empereur était à Edesse, quand il
apprit la mort de son frère et les désordres de Zos. l. 3, c. 8.
l'Occident. Il prit aussitôt le parti de retourner à Theod. l. 2, c.
Antioche, et d'abandonner la Mésopotamie. Il laissa 30. et vit.
des garnisons dans les places frontières, et les Patr. c. 1.
pourvut de tout ce qui était nécessaire pour soutenir Zon. l. 13, t. 2,
un siége. A peine eut-il repassé l'Euphrate, que p. 14, et 15.
Sapor, instruit des troubles de l'empire, recommença
Philost. l. 3, c.
ses ravages, prit plusieurs châteaux, et vint se 23.
présenter devant Nisibe. Dans l'histoire de ce siége
mémorable, je m'écarterai souvent du récit de M. de Theoph. p. 32.
et 33.
Tillemont: il me semble qu'en cette occasion il n'a
pas toujours rapproché avec succès les diverses Chron. Alex. vel
Pasch. p. 290 et
circonstances répandues dans les auteurs originaux.
291.
Sapor parut à la tête d'une armée innombrable,
suivie d'une multitude d'éléphants armés en guerre,
et d'un train redoutable de toutes les machines alors xiv.
en usage pour battre les villes. Les rois de l'Inde, Commencemen
qu'il avait soudoyés, l'accompagnaient avec toutes t du siége.
leurs forces[6]. Il somma d'abord les habitants de se
rendre, les menaçant de détruire leur ville de fond en comble, s'ils
osaient lui résister. Ceux-ci encouragés par Jacques leur évêque,
qui leur répondait du secours du ciel, se disposèrent à une
vigoureuse défense. Lucillianus beau-père de Jovien, depuis
empereur, commandait dans la place. Il se signala par une
constance à toute épreuve et par les ressources d'une habileté et
d'une valeur dignes des plus grands éloges. Pendant soixante-dix
jours, le roi fit jouer toutes ses machines; une partie du fossé fut
comblée; on battit les murs à coups de bélier; on creusa des
souterrains; on détourna le fleuve, afin de réduire les habitants par la
soif. Leur courage rendit tous ces travaux inutiles; les puits et les
sources leur fournissaient de l'eau en abondance.
[6] C'est Julien qui parle des Indiens qui vinrent avec Sapor au
siége de Nisibe. Voy. Orat. 2, p. 62, ed. Spanh.—S.-M.

Full Ebook of Heinemann Chemistry 1 Vce Units 1 2 6Th Edition C Commons Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Full Ebook of Heinemann Chemistry 1 Vce Units 1 2 6Th Edition C Commons Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full Ebook of Heinemann Chemistry 1 Vce Units 1 2 6Th Edition C Commons Online PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Heinemann Chemistry 1 VCE Units 1 2

6th Edition C Commons

Jacaranda Chemistry 1 VCE Units 1 2 3rd Edition Neale

Edrolo VCE Psychology Units 1 2 2020th Edition Edrolo

Psychology VCE units 1 2 7th Edition John Grivas

Jacaranda Nature of Biology 1 VCE Units 1 2 Sixth

Edrolo VCE General Maths Units 1 2 2nd Edition Edrolo

Psychology VCE Units 1 2 and ebookplus 8th Edition John

VCE Philosophy A Student Text for Units 1 2 3rd Edition

Applied Computing VCE Units 1 2 Student Book 7th

•f)r, ,CHEM ISTRY

VCE UNITS 1 AND 2 • 2023-2027

Repr oduction and communication for educational pur poses

Repr oduction and communication for o ther purposes

Printed in Aust ralia by Pegasus Media + Logistics

N ational Library o f A ustralia Cataloguing-in-Publicat ion entry

A catalogue record for this

ISBN 978 0 6557 0006 7

Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd ABN 40 004 245 943

HEMI TRY 1 CHEMISTRY1

Writing and development team

Melissa MacEoin Elizabeth Freer Pat O'Shea

The Chemistry Education Association was formed in 1977 by a group of chemistry

Unit 1 How can the diversity of materials be

Unit 2 How do clhemical reactions sha1pe the

Area of Study 1 • Review questions 414

How are chemicals measured and analysed?

covers Units 1 and 2. Explore how to

t i rJ'- l'.l(rtlila.. lKJI■.

Key lcnowledg~ study design to t he

W ,.m, ph,:11J:i1Mn. ~~ •timmta.

;:~=:· ·· . .. . . . . .... .. . .. l..

Green chemistry: Biodegradat>le packing peanuts

,al P•llba Ma:h H in,,')"IW

These case studies include real -

~termlN 11111 mor. polar bond.

2.5 Review Chepter review co

Each section incl udes

~1c1. ~"'"'•"·"'• s:,e,01

. , , ~f'l:ld• tf lh9 ps,a-a: . . .. «h••11111 •~l1tb1"""'"ll•...,_1111tl• a1

conso lidate key points and 0t:-11:o1•M\~l"ll , 1G11htl$n1r,n.-n

concepts. ] It• IT"Jl•"'U'Tt ru,-G•• QII ■ IIKl~•• fl . . Int

IBif iii ·1611

Section review I SW..,_r-.Wa'llh"blltJlll11• • ~ t t • n d

Each section concludes with

questions t hat test your • Sn

""""'" rita.Hk• P.~C.•-.t,- ,~ '(,.. •• ,.,~ 11~,.,...,... I ~ k ,•A

apply key concepts. ,......

review J f"9¢1 o. -g,. '(«{I-+ 'T'(l'JI o. &~

Each area of study concl udes o\ t..Q '-' 0-l_t(IOH

with a comprehensive set D DlllMIK1

11111 flr.1'•Mrtt-l ••vtt~C91blc.lllru"•llot.

support you in your exam .......

li t.•• ,(~fl\."""fl:"""""~"~t>lt• ........

■ ~and C"irft-:.) ■ tt9 M . . . .f ..-fl

Your one-stop shop for

Teacher access Learner access

O Student book O Skills and assessment book