MIS – 023

Safety in
Indira Gandhi
National Open University
Construction Industry
School of Engineering & Technology

Unit Name Page No

BLOCK 1 SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION 5

UNIT 1 General Safety in Construction 9
UNIT 2 Safety Aspects Underground Works 41
UNIT 3 Safety in Works at Height 77
UNIT 4 Safe Handling of Construction Machinery and 102
Material
BLOCK 2 PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS IN 135
CONSTRUCTION
UNIT 5 Environment Protection at Work Site 139
UNIT 6 Safety During Demolition Operations 162
UNIT 7 Training and Development of Construction 197
Workers
UNIT 8 Case Studies on Construction Safety 219
GUIDANCE
Prof. Nageshwar Rao
Vice-Chancellor, IGNOU
COURSE CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
Dr. S. Sarkar,
GM (Retd.), GAIL, Noida
Prof. Sagar Maji,
Director, GBP Engg. college,
New Delhi
Mr. G. P. Kumawat,
GM, IPGCL, New Delhi
Mr. P.K. Varshaneya,
Executive Director,
Maruti Udyog, Gurugram
Col. P.K. Dutta,
Ex Director, SOHS,
IGNOU, New Delhi
Mr. S.A. Khader,
Adviser, WCPD, New Delhi
Mr. Deo Jha,
IOCL (Retired), New Delhi
Prof. S. Mukherjee,
Director, KIET Ghazibad
Programme Coordinator
Dr. Sanjay Agrawal
School of Engg. & Tech.,
IGNOU, New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM
Units Written by
Er. Ashok Tripathi
Director,
Indian Institute of
Environment Health and
Safety Dwarka, New Delhi
(Unit - 1,2, & 4)
Ms. Sruthi Samuel
(Unit - 3)
SOET, IGNOU
Dr. M.K. Bhardwaj
(Unit - 5 & 7)
Er. Ashok Tripathi
(Unit - 6 & 8)
Director,
Indian Institute of
Environment Helth and
Safety Dwarka, New
Delhi
Prof. Satyakam Prof. Ashish Agarwal
PVC, IGNOU Director, SOET, IGNOU
Mr. Sudipta Chakarvarty,
Project Officer, TCS
Prof. Subhasis Maji
Director, School of Engg. & Tech.
IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. P Srinivas Kumar
Professor in Civil Engineering, School of Engg. &
Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Manoj Kulshrestha
Professor in Civil Engineering, School of Engg. &
Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. Ashish Agarwal
Professor in Mechanical Engineering
School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. N Venkateshwarlu
Professor in Mechanical Engineering
School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Dr. Sanjay Agrawal
Associate Professor in Electrical Engineering,
School of Engg. & Tech., IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Coordinator
Dr. Munish Kumar Bhardwaj
School of Engg. & Tech.
IGNOU, New Delhi
Content Editor Language & Format Block Coordinator
Editing
Block 1 Block 1 Dr. M.K Bhardwaj
Er.Thirthankar Mitra Dr. M.K Bhardwaj SOET, IGNOU
Oscar Equipment Pvt. Ltd. SOET, IGNOU New Delhi
Kolkata (Unit - 1)
Prof. P.S. Kumar
(Unit - 2)
Dr. M.K.. Bhardwaj
(Unit - 3 & 4)
Block 2 Block 2 Dr. M.K Bhardwaj
Er. Ashok Tripathi Dr. M.K Bhardwaj SOET, IGNOU
(Unit - 5 & 7) SOET, IGNOU New Delhi
Dr. M.K Bhardwaj
(Unit - 6 & 8)
PRODUCTION
Mr. Tilak Raj
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi
January, 2022
©Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN No. 978-93-5568-283-3
All rights reserved No part of this work may be reproduced in any from, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission is writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open
University.
Further Information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be
obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068.
Printed and published on behalf of the School of Engineering & Technology, Indira Gandhi
National Open University, New Delhi.
Cover Page Designed by Mr. Tamal Basu, Graphic Designer, Masjid Moth, New Delhi-
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Digital Material will be available at e-Gyankosh, IGNOU, New Delhi-110068.
SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
In construction industry hazardous conditions are part of the work environment.
Workers are prone to many hazards and accidents are bound to happen it safety is
ignored. Construction materials, machinery, tools and ways of handling all are
associated with some kind of hazard. In addition to health hazards, there may be
some fatal accidents causing serious injuries or death of construction workers if
safety measures are compromised.
This course aims at acquainting the learners with various hazards in construction
industry and ways to create a safe working environment by taking appropriate
measures. The course comprises of two blocks.
Block 1 is devoted to safety during construction. In addition to various aspects
related to general safety in construction, this block deals with safety aspects in
underground works, safety aspects in works at height like multistory buildings and
safe handling of construction machinery and materials.
Block 2 deals with Prevention of Accidents in Construction. During construction
activities atmost case should be taken to keep the environment pollution free at and
around the construction site. Environment protection at work site is dealt in this
block elaborately. Demolition activities are associated with many hazards. In this
block, due the coverage is given for safety during demolition operations. All
measures taken to create a safe environment will not give the desired result if
construction workers are not trained and prepared for this cause. Hence, training and
development of construction workers forms an essential part of this block. Finally to
give learners the exposure of real life experiences case studies related to accidents at
construction sites are given.
 BLOCK 1
SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION
 MIS – 023
Safety in
Indira Gandhi
National Open University Construction Industry
School of Engineering & Technology

Block

1
SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION

UNIT 1
General Safety in Construction

UNIT 2
Safety Aspects Underground Works

UNIT 3
Safety in Works at Height

UNIT 4
Safe Handling of Construction Machinery and Material
SAFETY DURING CONSTUCTION
This block covers various kinds of hazards associated with different type
construction activities and the precaution and measures that may be taken to
create safe working environment at site. The block has four units in all.
Unit 1 is an introductory unit which introduces the learners to the scenario of
risks and hazards in construction industry. Almost all major construction
activities are covered briefly touching the hazards and the measures and
precautions to avoid any accident at work site.
Unit 2 deals with safety aspects in underground works. Working below the
ground is challenging task and requires proper planing and implementation of
safety measures to make the work environment safe and accident free.
Unit 3 covers the aspects related to safety in works at heights. Working at
height poses many threats & hazards which may prove to be fatal if not
properly not take care of. Details of various kinds of hazards while working at
heights and safety measures are given in this unit.
Unit 4 deals with safe handling of construction machinery and materials.
There are some construction materials which may cause health hazards to the
construction workers. Handling of such materials is covered in this unit. To
avoid any accident at worksite the machinery and tools should be used with
proper care as per the instructions for use. These aspects are covered in detail
in the unit.
UNIT 1 GENERAL SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Overview
1.3 Meaning of Construction Safety
1.4 Need of Safety
1.5 Regulatory Jurisdiction
1.6 Project Factors Influence Safety
1.7 Causes of Accidents
1.8 Accident Causation Theories
1.9 Techniques of Accident Prevention
1.10 Benefits of Accident Prevention
1.11 Ill health
1.12 Safety in the Construction Industry
1.13 Studies on Labour Safety on Construction Sites
1.14 Employer's Obligations
1.14.1 Responsibilities of the Employer
1.14.2 Responsibilities of the Main Contractor
1.15 Obligations on the Construction Site
1.16 Typical Safety Issues in Building and Construction
1.16.1 Scaffolding Work Safety
1.16.2 Ladder Work Safety
1.16.3 Roof Work Safety
1.16.4 Safety in Excavations
1.16.5 Safety in Connection with Demolition
1.16.6 Safety When Working with PCB
1.16.7 Safety When Working with Asbestos
1.17 Personal Protective Equipment
1.18 Efforts in India to Ensure Construction Safety
1.19 Responsibility for Worker Safety
1.20 The Benefits of Proper Safety Training
1.21 Let Sum Up
1.22 Key Words
1.23 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The working environment of a workman can be termed as ‘safe’ when
effective measures have been taken to guard him or her and others present in
the work area from sustaining any physical injury or other impairment. Safety
of a workman can thus be defined as maintaining a safe working environment.
However, maintaining a safe working environment not only requires total
9
 Safety during commitment of the higher management or the site-in-charge but the workman
Construction too.
In the construction industry safety assumes additional importance since
working conditions can be very dangerous. The workmen are often required
to perform hazardous tasks and risky manoeuvres which can result in a host
of maladies ranging from a minor injury to a lifelong physical impairment or
even death. General health can also be affected on a short or long term.
Construction work often needs to be carried out in busy areas teeming with
people. Safety of workmen and passer-by’s assumes extra importance there
as collateral damage can be very high in case of an accident.
Life risk to workmen increase manifold when working at lofty heights. At the
ground level too, risk from falling objects, swinging cranes, toppling of
heavy earth moving equipment, mishandling or malfunction of heavy tools or
equipment like pneumatic hammers etc can cause serious injuries. Some
hazardous chemicals like asbestos, formaldehyde, di-isocyanates, flame
retardants, silica commonly used in the construction industry also calls for
safety procedures to be in place while handling them.
It is therefore of utmost importance that safety policies are clearly defined
and protocols outlined depending upon the type of construction work, the
working area and the environment. For example the safety procedure must
also cover the safety of pedestrians or motorists who may not have any prior
knowledge of the unsafe working zone they are passing by.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 understand the meaning of safety and its need,
 know the regulatory jurisdiction of safety in construction industry,
 identify the factor affecting safety,
 understand the accidents causation theory and techniques of accident
prevention with their benefits,
 meaning of ill health at construction industry,
 understand the employer's obligations with the responsibilities of
employer and workers,
 identify the typical safety issues in construction industries,
 know the types of personal protective equipment with their use,
 explain the government efforts for ensuring construction safety,
 understand the benefits of safety training for accident control.

1.2 OVERVIEW
As per ILO, 23,00,000 workers die around the world due to work related
accidents or diseases every year; this corresponds to over 6000 deaths every
single day. Worldwide there is approx. 34,00,00,000 occupational accidents
and 16,00,00,000 victims of work-related illness. A report published in Times
of India (Mumbai) of Nov 20, 2017, nearly 48,000 workers die in the country
due to occupational accidents, of which the construction sector contributes
24.20 per cent of the fatalities, says an international report.

10
Quoting the International Labour Organisation numbers, the British Safety General Safety in
Construction
Council, reported that 48,0000 people on average die in the country per
annum due to work-related hazards.
As per a research in 2016, in Indian construction sector, the number of people
dying per year in construction could be anywhere from 11,614 to 22,080.
Considering the minimum estimate of fatal accidents, i.e. 11,614, Indian
construction sector alone adds 24.20% fatality in the total 48,000
occupational accidents occurring annually in India. The fatality rate (fatal
accidents per 1000 workers) of UK, Singapore, and Taiwan are reported to be
0.02 in 2013, 0.05 in 2012, and 0.125 in 2011 respectively in their
construction sectors while fatality rate is estimated to be 0.22 in Indian
construction sector as per this estimate. The comparison also shows the safety
performance of construction industry in India in poor light in comparison to
UK, Singapore and Taiwan. These facts must draw the attention of various
stakeholders of construction sector and motivate them to make safe work
places and thus save the lives of workers.
Figure 1.1 shows more countries and the rate of construction site fatalities.

Figure1.1: Construction Site Fatalities in Different Countries

1.3 MEANING OF CONSTRUCTION SAFETY

Construction sites are deemed as “Safe” when it must have zero loss time
injury because with high fatality rate can be conjectured that non-fatal
injuries too must be proportionally high in the construction industry in India.
It is therefore imperative that construction sites have all required safety
policies, procedures and protocols in place and those are properly
implemented. These activities should ensure that there is no cause of any sort
of danger to any human in or around the site during the construction work
and also the lifetime of the finished construction which should be finally
certified to conform to the safety standards.
Earlier there was a standard followed globally to counter occupational health
hazards and safety. It is the Occupational Health and Safety Assessment
Series (OHSAS). To implement and monitor safety in construction work
OHSAS is a very effective Management system originally developed in UK.
OHSAS 18001:2007 and accompanying OHSAS 18002, as also Guidelines
for the implementation of OHSAS 18001 are accepted global Standards
11
 Safety during which can form the basis of Safety Policies to be followed by any
Construction organisation engaged in construction work.
Now from March 2018, OHSAS 18001 has been replaced with ISO 45001,
the first international standard for occupational health and safety management
systems (OHSMS).

1.4 NEED OF SAFETY

Construction industry, compared to other industries in India, is inherently
prone to injury and illness due to the nature of work involved, resulting in
higher rates of impairment to the persons concerned. Being only second to
agriculture in economic scale and being a labour intensive industry, accidents
and injuries to human workforce in the construction industry are considerably
higher in proportion to other industries. This not only results in human
suffering but also adds to the cost in terms of lost man-days and medical
expenses.
It is therefore imperative that proper safety practices are put in place in the
construction industry to ensure safe and healthy working conditions leading
to less human suffering and waste of capital. While the underlying causes of
accidents during construction are generally known, suitable preventive
measures are scarce. To alleviate the construction industry workforce from
this situation we need to have effective safety policies following international
standards and implement them with diligence.

1.5 REGULATORY JURISDICTION

The starting point to ensure safety in construction activities is to strictly
implement the various regulations that exist in the jurisdiction of the place of
work. These include local, state and central regulations that need to be strictly
enforced to achieve a safe working environment for the construction work
being carried out. Typical safety requirements for individual sites are also to
be carefully thought out and implemented.
Following is the list of some of the Acts and Regulations prevailing in India
related to safety in work place. All concerned, from the higher management
to the workmen level should be made aware of their importance and necessity
to be followed strictly to ensure a safe working environment during any
construction work.
 The Building & Other Construction Workers (Regulation of
Employment and Conditions of Service) Act,1996 and Rules
 The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 and Rules
 The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923
 The Petroleum Act,1934 and Rules
 The Factories Act,1948 and Rules
 The Workers’ State Insurance Act, 1948
 The Mines Act,1952 and Regulations
 The Workers’ Provident Fund Act, 1952
 The Personal Injuries (Compensation Insurance) Act, 1963
 The Explosives Rules, 1983
 The Explosives Act, 1984 and Rules
 The Environment (Protection Act), 1986 and Rules
12
 The Manufacture, Storage & Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, General Safety in
Construction
1989
 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

1.6 PROJECT FACTORS INFLUENCING

SAFETY
Safety in a project site is affected by various project factors as shown below.
 Project life cycle
 The construction team
 Project delivery methods
Apart from the factors mentioned above safety consciousness is the most
important factor influencing safe working conditions in a construction project.
This consciousness about safety has to be present/inculcated right from the
top management to the ground workmen level.
An accident can be defined as an unforeseen and unwanted incident usually
resulting in damage to property or injury to humans or both.
The most common causes of accidents can be listed as:
 Tripping: In construction sites, tripping is the most common cause of
injuries. Majority of these accidents can be avoided by marking out clear
work passages, footpaths and keeping working materials in designated
places.
 Falling: Construction work, almost without exception goes up vertically.
Working at elevated heights without proper safety equipment or safe
working attachments often lead to grievous or fatal injuries.
 Collapse of structures and falling materials: Structures can collapse
during construction or at a later period and can often cause hefty damage
to man and property. Various causes starting from faulty design,
substandard materials to unsound planning and execution can be
attributed to such accidents. Negligence to follow safe practices also
cause such disaster.
 Mobile equipment: In construction activities heavy vehicles like cranes,
dumpers, dozers are used which often cause accidents either due to bad
working conditions like muddy, uneven or soft ground, poor visibility or
due to negligence in observing safe practices.
 Electrical shock: Workmen can be partially or fatally injured from
electrical shock when they accidentally come in contact with live
overhead electrical lines or buried cables.
Figure 1.2 shows the safety influence curve which depicts the ability of
various stages of a project to influence the safety.

13
 Safety during
Construction

Figure 1.2: Safety Influence Curve

(Szymberski, R.(1997).Construction Project Safety Planning. TAPPI Journal, 80(11), 69-74)

1.7 CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

The immediate and visible causes of accidents are usually termed as root
cause, but failure of the management or site supervisor to ensure safe
working conditions and inculcate safe working habits among the workmen
are often the underlying causes of such accidents. Keeping proper checks
from the design stage to material procurement and final execution with safety
being allotted the right priority is the key to avoid/minimise accidents.
Some examples of the unsafe acts and conditions are given below:
Unsafe acts
 Entering an area marked as unsafe without protective gear
 Working without training and authority
 Failure to use or wear personal protective equipment
 Using defective equipment
 Removing safety devices like guards for convenience of working
 Failure to warn others of danger
 Leaving equipment in an unsafe condition
 Faulty use of equipment
 Over loading or faulty loading of vehicles
 Failure to lift loads correctly
 Faulty or no maintenance of heavy mobile equipment used in site
 Smoking in prohibited areas
 Drinking alcohol or using drugs during work
Unsafe conditions
 Fire hazards without proper warning and prevention methods
 Hazardous environmental conditions
14
 Inadequate light in working area General Safety in
Construction
 Unsuitable or defective tools and equipment
 Moving parts of machines not provided with proper guards
 Platform guardrails defective or missing
 Noise pollution
 Improper housekeeping
Secondary causes of accidents
 Proper quality control systems not in place
 Guiding quality standards not available
 Lack of commitment from management and workforce
 Improper risk assessment and inadequacy of knowledge
 Management pressures for faster completion of jobs
 Financial restrictions leading to inadequate safety equipment and
procedures
 Inadequate training and awareness on unsafe conditions
 Often prevalent practices and attitudes in the society can be reasons for
accidents
 In India safety consciousness has very little priority among workmen
 In a group of workmen the risk-taking attitudes of seniors are
adopted by the juniors and the cycle goes on
 People in general resist changes and quite often unsafe practices in
the industry being followed from the past are deep rooted
 Time pressures to finish a job also result in safety being
compromised
For many years now safety regulations have been trying to address only the
root causes of accidents in the construction industry. Only recently in a
number of countries that includes India too, legal requirements have started
to focus on the secondary causes of accidents which is forcing the
construction industry to frame safety policies that cover all the aspects.

1.8 ACCIDENT CAUSATION THEORIES

Accidents are defined as unplanned event which result in injuries, fatalities,
loss of production or damage to property and assets. It is difficult to
Preventing accidents without understanding the causes of accidents. Earlier
there are many efforts have been made to develop a prophecy theory of
accident causation, but so far none has been universally accepted.
Researchers have been trying to develop a theory of accident causation which
will help to identify, isolate and ultimately remove the factors that contribute
to or cause accidents. Some of the accident causation theories are as below:
The Domino Theory
According to W.H. Heinrich (1931), who developed the so-called domino
theory, 88% of all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of people, 10% by
15
 Safety during unsafe actions and 2% by “acts of God”. He proposed a “five-factor accident
Construction sequence” in which each factor would actuate the next step in the manner of
toppling dominoes lined up in a row.
The sequence of accident factors is as follows:
1. ancestry and social environment
2. worker fault
3. unsafe act together with mechanical and physical hazard
4. accident
5. damage or injury.
This sequence also depicted graphically in Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3: Sequence of Accident Factors

In the same way that the removal of a single domino in the row would
interrupt the sequence of toppling, Heinrich suggested that removal of one of
the factors would prevent the accident and resultant injury; with the key
domino to be removed from the sequence being number 3. Although Heinrich
provided no data for his theory, it nonetheless represents a useful point to
start discussion and a foundation for future research.
Multiple Causation Theory
Multiple causation theory is an outgrowth of the domino theory, but it
postulates that for a single accident there may be many contributory factors,
causes and sub-causes, and that certain combinations of these give rise to
accidents. According to this theory, the contributory factors can be grouped
into the following two categories:
Behavioural. This category includes factors pertaining to the worker, such as
improper attitude, lack of knowledge, lack of skills and inadequate physical
and mental condition.
Environmental. This category includes improper guarding of other hazardous
work elements and degradation of equipment through use and unsafe
procedures.
The major contribution of this theory is to bring out the fact that rarely, if
ever, is an accident the result of a single cause or act.
The Pure Chance Theory
According to the pure chance theory, every one of any given set of workers
has an equal chance of being involved in an accident. It further implies that
there is no single discernible pattern of events that leads to an accident. In
this theory, all accidents are treated as corresponding to Heinrich’s acts of
God, and it is held that there exist no interventions to prevent them.
16
Biased Liability Theory General Safety in
Construction
Biased liability theory is based on the view that once a worker is involved in
an accident, the chances of the same worker becoming involved in future
accidents are either increased or decreased as compared to the rest of workers.
This theory contributes very little, if anything at all, towards developing
preventive actions for avoiding accidents.
Accident Proneness Theory
Accident proneness theory maintains that within a given set of workers, there
exists a subset of workers who are more liable to be involved in accidents.
Researchers have not been able to prove this theory conclusively because
most of the research work has been poorly conducted and most of the
findings are contradictory and inconclusive. This theory is not generally
accepted. It is felt that if indeed this theory is supported by any empirical
evidence at all, it probably accounts for only a very low proportion of
accidents without any statistical significance.
The Energy Transfer Theory
Those who accept the energy transfer theory put forward the claim that a
worker incurs injury or equipment suffers damage through a change of
energy, and that for every change of energy there is a source, a path and a
receiver. This theory is useful for determining injury causation and
evaluating energy hazards and control methodology. Strategies can be
developed which are either preventive, limiting or ameliorating with respect
to the energy transfer.
Control of energy transfer at the source can be achieved by the following
means:
 elimination of the source
 changes made to the design or specification of elements of the work
station
 preventive maintenance.
The path of energy transfer can be modified by:
 enclosure of the path
 installation of barriers
 installation of absorbers
 positioning of isolators.
The receiver of energy transfer can be assisted by adopting the following
measures:
 limitation of exposure
 use of personal protective equipment.
The “Symptoms Versus Causes” Theory
The “symptoms versus causes” theory is not so much a theory as an
admonition to be heeded if accident causation is to be understood. Usually,
when investigating accidents, we tend to fasten upon the obvious causes of
the accident to the neglect of the root causes. Unsafe acts and unsafe
conditions are the symptoms—the proximate causes—and not the root causes
of the accident.

17
 Safety during
Construction 1.9 ACCIDENT PREVENTION TECHNIQUES
Framing the right safety policy and making routine safety inspections is
important to prevent accidents during construction but is not the end of it.
Managing the health and safety of all, which may include a passer-by in the
construction area, through a proper system in place that complies with the
legal requirements too, will actually benefit the organization.
Probability of accidents will be greatly reduced if seven basic principles are
followed while framing the health and safety management system of the
organization in the construction industry.
I. Eliminate the root cause of hazard at the design stage
The best way to avoid accidents is to remove the possible sources during
planning itself. Depending on workmen and supervisors to carry out an
activity maintaining all safety aspects is leaving the door open for accidents
to happen.
Examples:
a) When new construction is being done by demolishing a previous
structure or in a highly populated locale, it is possible that underground
live electrical lines are present on the site which may cause fatal injuries
if excavation is done without exact knowledge. This needs to be taken
care at the design stage specifying the exact hazard spots identified from
previous site plans.
b) Bamboo scaffoldings are prone to human error of improper tying or
using tying ropes liable to fail. If the design itself specifies metal
scaffolding with double guard-rail the risk of working at heights is
greatly reduced.
II. Remove the hazard at the source
Even if a hazard is not eliminated at the design stage suitable planning
before the construction starts can substantially reduce potential causes
for accidents.
Example: In a site where materials are to be taken uphill but proper roads
are absent or a small trench is to be crossed, it will be worthwhile in
terms of safety and cost to the organization to build a road first or a
suitable bridge over the trench or better still a conveyor to carry
materials uphill depending on the distance and cost involved. For short
uphill distance and a huge construction project, a conveyor will be
beneficial in all aspects of health, safety and cost.
III. Attach due importance to Ergonomics
Often more emphasis is laid on designing the work area to suit material
movement rather than ease of working for the persons. Providing
ergonomic methods for workmen is beneficial to their long term health
and reduced risks of accidents.
Example: Providing brick and mortar on a platform of suitable height to
the workman constructing a wall, eliminates the need to bend his back
every time he picks up a brick. This reduces his fatigue and allows him
to work longer in a day and throughout his working life.

18
IV. Adapting technology General Safety in
Construction
Use of existing mechanization processes or adapting to newer improved
technology benefits the organization both in terms of cost and safety.
Examples: Employing a simple pulley mechanism to lift materials for
construction of higher floors in a building instead of workmen carrying
them physically up the stairs, saves time, money and reduces risk of
accidents to the workmen.
Buying a less noisy model of a machine during replacement or fresh
purchase reduces the noise pollution for all concerned.
V. Secure the work area to ensure safety
Personal protective equipment (PPE) can never be the end all in safety.
PPE can be a protective measure to reduce the impact of an accident. To
ensure all round safety to all concerned, securing the work area from all
possible hazards is the only way.
Example: Extensive work on a flat roof may require the presence of a
large number of workers from different employers, in addition to
supervisory staff, clients, etc. In these circumstances, the appropriate
protection would be provided by perimeter barriers, rather than by giving
everyone’ a safety harness. Installing permanent edge protection during
the main construction process instead of at the end gives protection to
both constructors and end users.
Example: When demolition work of a large building on a busy road is
taken up, it is not possible to provide every passer-by with PPE. One
needs to secure the whole area and ensure all falling or flying objects are
arrested with suitable screens and nets.
VI. Safety Training
To train everybody concerned on the safety procedures is of prime
importance to ensure accident free construction work. Distribution of
safety instructions with the hope that everybody will read and abide by
them is never going to work. Safety consciousness has to be built up
through regular sessions on safety, mock drills and site inspections.
Example: Workmen with long experience tend to follow the same unsafe
practices they are used to and juniors follow suit. Safe working
procedures depending on the needs of the particular site, has to be
inculcated into the whole team’s psyche.
VII.No exceptions to safety rules
Any senior person from the management ignoring the safety procedures
can have a disastrous effect on the whole team. His negligence of safety
rules on a single occasion can jeopardize the whole project and even
result in loss of lives.
Example: Often due to demurrage clause applicable for a project not
completed in time, senior management often pressurize the site in-charge
and he in turn may neglect to strictly follow the safety rules. This can
lead to major accidents including loss of lives and also a case for
criminal prosecution against the person.

19
 Safety during
Construction 1.10 BENEFITS OF ACCIDENT PREVENTION
There are generally said to be five main reasons why accident prevention in
construction is worthwhile. These reasons also justify expenditure on safety
management in the construction industry.
i) One of the foremost reason to have safety management policies in place
and followed strictly, is the legal aspect. To get clearance for a project a
green signal from different government authorities like the Pollution
Control Board, Town and country planning, Municipal and local
authorities, Chief Inspector of Factories, Electricity Board, Chief
Controller of Explosives etc are required. Any non-compliance during
execution of the project can have serious implications including jail term.
ii) It is not possible to measure the suffering of a person and his family in
financial terms when death or permanent disability occurs due to
accidents. Yet hundreds of lives are lost each year and innumerable
persons suffer major or minor injuries in the construction industry. It is
certainly possible to stem this rot if not eliminate it entirely.
iii) When workmen participate in safety drills and activities it helps to build
the safety culture and boost the morale of the workmen. The reverse
happens with each accident and affects their output. Accidents also bring
negative publicity for the organization which may affect the business
prospects as a whole.
iv) Another important reason for industries to strictly implement effective
safety procedures is the financial loss to the organization in case of an
accident. Employers have to compensate workmen for injuries and ill-
health, in addition to cost towards production delays and damage to
property. Since all of these costs are not insurable these are known as
direct costs. Indirect costs can be listed as:
 Decreased output from those replacing the workman injured in the
accident
 Delays due to time spent by management on investigations
 Cost of overtime to cover delays
 Loss of expertise and experience
 Cost due to uninsured property and material damage
 Legal costs if the type of accident so demands
v) Fortunately, the moral outlook of the Indian society is changing. The
public and the industry captains have started realizing that it is morally
unacceptable to put the safety and health of others at risk, for profit or
any other reason. This awareness is taking root that something needs to
be done to raise the quality of life at work. Attention is being focused on
the ability of employers and project managers in the industry to handle a
wide variety of issues, previously seen only as marginally relevant to the
business. Environmental affairs, pollution, design safety, maintainability
and other matters are now commonly discussed.

20
 General Safety in
SAQ 1 Construction

a) What are the Acts and Regulations prevailing in India related to

safety at work place?
b) What is accident and what are the causes for accidents?
c) Define Root Cause and mention few examples of unsafe acts?
d) What do you understand by Domino theory?
e) What are the basic principles to be followed while framing the health
and safety management system of the organization in the
construction industry to reduce accidents?Mention few of the indirect
costs?

1.11 ILL HEALTH

The construction industry has a poor health record. Construction workforces
are likely to suffer ill health as a result of their work in the industry after
exposure to both harsh working conditions and hazardous substances. The
health record for the Indian construction industry is not encouraging at all.
Workmen in the industry suffer from ill health for a variety of reasons. Major
reasons are listed below:
 Manual handling: Lifting heavy and awkward loads causes back and
other injuries. Some injuries can result from a single lift, but more
commonly, long-term injury develops as a result of repeated minor
injury due to repetitive lifting.
 Noise and vibration: High levels of noise can cause hearing loss and
repeated use of vibrating tools can cause hand-arm vibration syndrome
(damage to nerves and blood vessels – most commonly in the hands and
fingers).
 Chemicals: Exposure to materials such as cement and solvents can cause
skin problems such as dermatitis.
 Asbestos: Exposure to asbestos can lead to serious respiratory diseases
such as asbestosis and cancer.
Finally, a well-structured documented safety management system and a good
working environment will help the construction industry more than repay the
time spent on it because of the time and money saved in avoiding accidents,
as also its value in gaining new business. Conversely, inability to
satisfy requirements for competence in safety can result in huge loss as well
as public reputation.

1.12 SAFETY IN THE CONSTRUCTION

INDUSTRY
In India, the Construction industry has earned a dubious record of huge loss
of manpower through accidents and health issues. To bring about a change in
this scenario, both the workmen and the management need to put serious
efforts. While the management is responsible for drawing up the safety plan
and procedure for the work area, the site supervisors and workmen too are 21
 Safety during responsible for proper implementation of the safety plan. Like avoiding
Construction walking under suspended load or walking into a cordoned area without safety
precautions.
Common causes of accidents in the construction industry can be broadly
stated as:
 Use of power operated machineries, for example pneumatic hammers or
angle grinders.
 Tripping on obstacles in the path or on slippery surface.
 Falling from a height, like scaffolding or ladders.
 Accidents while lifting heavy loads.

1.13 STUDIES ON LABOUR SAFETY IN

CONSTRUCTION SITES
In terms of manpower employment the construction industry in India is the
second to agriculture. The construction industry all over the world happens to
be one of the most hazardous industries. Each year a frightening number of
fatal accidents occur at the construction sites, the dominant cause of which
was found to be workmen falling from heights.
Currently the Indian construction industry is a huge cauldron of modern
technology and primitive construction methods. It competes with the best
technologies in the world at one end of the spectrum and uses primitive
methods solely based on manpower at the other end. However, the overall
safety record of the industry is quite poor compared to global standards.
Compared to the rest of the world, fatality rate among construction workers is
highest in India. A study by ILO (International Labour Organization) shows
that 165 out of every 1,000 personnel are injured on the job. Probability of an
injury is five times more likely in the construction industry than in
manufacturing and the risk of a major injury is two and a half times higher.
Construction labours of India constitute 7.5% of the total world labour force
and adds to 16.4% of serious occupational accidents globally. When
accidents happen, apart from the construction workers the public including
children also suffer. Due to this accident proneness public perception of the
construction industry suffers and as a result skilled labours avoid the industry.
Injuries to workmen on duty are very costly to the organisation due to loss of
time, workers compensation, insurance premium, indirect costs of injuries,
and litigation. So, the past couple of decades have seen a marked increase in
safety consciousness in the construction industry.
Several factors can be attributed to accidents on the construction site
accidents and related health problems. The OHSAS has published the result
of an examination on the causes of construction fatality rate, it showed that
39.9% of fatalities in construction were caused by falls, 8.4% were struck by
objects, 1.4% was caught unaware in accidents and 8.5% were electrocution.
Several methods can be adopted for labour safety such as safety organization
and management, safety policy, safety organization, safety training, safety
committees, site layout, first aid, lighting, personal protective equipment, and
welfare facilities.

22
In India lack of safety consciousness is the main reason of accidents in General Safety in
Construction
construction sites. This lacuna is observed right from the higher management
level to the ground level workmen. While the management may frame proper
safety policies on legal bindings, implementing the safety procedures at site
is often neglected by supervisors and workmen alike. Management
themselves might create pressure to override safety rules framed by them on
account of time pressure to complete projects. Also, lack of proper
inspections and lack of communication among the various departments
involved can be major causes of accidents occurring at a construction sites.
It is therefore imperative that a safety culture has to be inculcated in all
concerned to effectively reduce the rate of accidents in construction sites.
It is high time for the construction industry in India to sit up and take
comprehensive action by way of building a safety culture, frame right
policies and ensure their effective implementation to drastically reduce
accidents in construction sites. The goal must be to bring the rate below the
global standard.

1.14 EMPLOYERS’ OBLIGATIONS

Obligations of employers can be broadly stated as:
 Framing and implementing a Health and Safety policy if work
continues for more than 14 days and there are 5 or more workers at
the workplace.
 Suitably train up the employees and instruct them properly so that
work can be performed safely and securely.
 Effectively implement and monitor that safety rules and procedures
are being followed at work sites.
 Prepare a written workstation risk assessment involving the employees.

1.14.1 Responsibilities of the Employer

All employers are responsible for ensuring the safety of the workmen in a
construction site. Their responsibilities can be broadly stated as:
a) Proper training and instructions to workmen to follow safety policies and
guidelines.
b) Effective supervision to ensure that workmen are following the safety
standards and using safe equipment.
c) Risk of falling or structural collapse is avoided by suitably organising the
work site.
d) Ensuring that safe equipment and machinery are provided for working at
site and work facilities like scaffolding etc. are absolutely safe.
e) Ensure that workmen use personal protective equipment wherever
necessary and follow preventive measures like not walking under
suspended loads or walking inside a cordoned area to make a shortcut.
f) To make workmen aware that use of proper lifting tools and tackles
while lifting heavy loads are necessary to avoid spinal injury in the long
term.
23
 Safety during 1.14.2 Responsibilities of the Main Contractor
Construction

On large construction sites often more than one sub-contractor are engaged in
the construction work. On such sites it is the responsibility of the Main
Contractor to coordinate the health and safety measures across the
construction site. These will generally include shared scaffolding, common
lighting, storage areas, common pathways, transport of materials etc.
Going through safety inspection patrols and holding start-up and safety
meetings with all the sub-contractors is essential for the Main Contractor to
be able to review any unsafe conditions or work procedure and take
corrective measures, in large construction sites.

1.15 OBLIGATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION

SITE
As an employee on a construction site, one must help ensure that working
conditions are completely safe. All good intentions to work safely will fail
unless the employee himself is not safety conscious. His/her responsibilities
can be listed as:
 Any health or safety issues observed at site by an employee should be
immediately reported to the superiors or to the Health and Safety
Representative if he is available.
 Employees should make themselves aware of all the safety rules and
procedures applicable at the site and follow them diligently.
 Employees should use equipment and machineries as per instructions of
use by the manufacturer or any special instruction that may have been
laid down in the safety procedure. Scaffoldings should preferably have
double rail guards and safety nets.
 Use of PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) as required is a must for all
in a construction site.
As an employee one should not gamble with your and others safety on the
construction site. To ensure safety while working, instructions given in Table
1 should be followed.
Table 1: Instructions for Employees’ Safety

ACCIDENTS – Only work at height if you

DUE TO are secured against falling.
FALLING – Do not carry anything in
both hands when you are
climbing ladders or steps.
– Watch out for clutter on the
construction site.

24
 General Safety in
ACCIDENTS – Keep an eye on materials Construction
BECAUSE which could topple over,
THINGS FALL for example if they are hit
OR SLIDE by a machine or blown by
the wind.
– Make sure that your
materials and tools cannot
fall down (e.g. from
scaffolding or a lift) and hit
people working below.

ACCIDENTS – Be careful when you use

WITH TOOLS sharp or pointed tools, e.g.
circular saws, angle
grinders and knives.
– Follow the instructions for
use for each tool you work
with.

ACCIDENTS – Always use suitable

DUE TO technical equipment when
LIFTING AND you are to lift and move
CARRYING materials and machinery.
– Avoid oblique lifting and
uneven surfaces if you
have to handle lighter
loads.
– Do not lift a load without
knowing its weight or
centre of gravity.

ACCIDENTS – Watch out for yourself and

ON your colleagues when you
INTERNAL use trucks, cranes and other
ACCESS vehicles.
WAYS – Make sure that materials
are correctly loaded.

SAQ 2
a) Explain the major reasons for ill Health?
b) What are the common causes of accident in construction industry?
c) What is Probability of an injury in the construction industry in
comparison to manufacturing industry?
d) What is the main reason of accident at construction site in India?
e) What are the responsibilities of an Employer?

25
 Safety during
Construction 1.16 TYPICAL SAFETY ISSUES IN
BUILDINGAND CONSTRUCTION
Common health and safety issues in building and construction are accidents,
heavy lifting, noise, chemicals, dust etc. Other important issues related to
safety in construction are as below:

1.16.1 Scaffolding Work Safety

All scaffolding must be provided with crosswise bracing. Guard rails
comprising of hand, knee and foot rails should be provided for scaffoldings
over 2 metres high (Figure1.4).

Figure 1.4: Safety Provisions in Scaffolding

 Blocking-up must not be higher/greater than 20 cm.

 Scaffolding over 3 meters high must only be erected under the
direction of a qualified person and by workers who have undergone
the special training.
 The erection instructions must be at the erection site.
 Wheeled scaffolding must be secured against tipping, consulting the
Erection Instructions.
 Scaffolding wheels should have brakes and be protected against
falling out.
 A notice stating the scaffolding classification and what it is to be used
for must be provided with all fixed scaffolding.
 All scaffolding shall have safe access routes, which may consist of
steps, step-ladders or ladders, depending on the construction and use
26 of the scaffolding.
 General Safety in
1.16.2 Ladder Work Safety Construction

Ladders are the cause of many serious accidents. Therefore, it is better to

choose more suitable equipment when working at height, for example a lift.
Follow the maker’s instructions, which must cover:
 Ladder slope
 Warning against dangerous use
 Inspection and maintenance
 Storage
 Permitted load
 One should not work atop a ladder for more than 2.5 hours in a day.
A break is needed after every 30 minutes while working atop a
ladder. The top two rungs of the ladder must not be used.
 When working from a ladder, it is only permitted to use light and
manageable tools and materials that weigh no more than 10 kg and
can be used with one hand.
 Ladders should be set up on a solid surface and at an angle of 75
degrees or as per the instructions from the supplier. Ladders must
not be erected in front of doors or entrances.
 After setting up, stability of the ladder should be checked before
mounting.
 Ladder should be placed such that working area is easily accessible
while standing on the ladder. Do not step out of ladder to take
support. (Figure1.5(a))
 Ladders to be used as access routes must project at least 1 metre
above the access point and must be secured at the top (Figure1.5(b))
 Trestle ladders should have a chain.
 Damaged ladders should never be used. Therefore, check your
ladders before using them and in accordance with the supplier’s
instructions.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: Safe Working with Ladder

27
 Safety during 1.16.3 Roof Work Safety
Construction

Guard rails or scaffolding must be provided for the safety of roof work if the
fall distance is greater than 3.5 metres (Figure1.6). Holes, if any, must always
be covered.

Figure 1.6: Guard Rails for Roof Work safety

With sloping roofs, safety can be ensured by scaffolding with guard rails or
by catch barriers (Figure1.7and 1.8).

Figure 1.7: Catch Barrier for Safety on Sloping Roof

28
 General Safety in
Construction

Figure 1.8: Scaffolding Erected for Roof Work

 When putting up purlins, roof cassettes, trapezoidal sheets or wood

Crete sheets, if the fall distance is greater than 2 metres safety netting or
other fall protection arrangement must be mounted if there is a danger
of falling into the building.
 During laying of roof if the batten spacing, from edge to edge, is greater
than 46 cm then mounting safety netting and using walking boards is
essential (Figure1.9).
 When work is to be carried out closer than 2 metres from the end wall
at the end of the building, guard rails must be mounted. Materials must
be distributed on the roof surface to avoid concentrated load.

Figure 1.9: Walking Boards on Sloping Roof

1.16.4 Safety in Excavations

Before excavation work is started, the following needs to be ensured:
 Check the existing underground plan for any hindrances like pipelines or
live cables.
 Check if traffic conditions could give rise to vibration.
 A plan has been drawn up for signage of work in progress near or on
areas with traffic.
 Check soil conditions, including any contamination of soil. 29
 Safety during  Whether the required shuttering, bracing and marking materials are
Construction
available on site.
 Whether there is personal protective equipment, e.g. hard hats and safety
footwear.
 Whether there is availability of excavator suitable for the task.
Building Pits
Access and escape routes should be planned beforehand and should be via a
0.8-meterwide stairway with hand and knee rails on both sides (Figure1.10).
The edges of the building pit should be kept free of tools, material and
excavated soil for a distance of at least 1 meter. A 1-meter-high guardrail
with hand and foot rails shall be erected around the entire building pit.
(Figure 1.11).
In areas with traffic, speed control measures should be installed as well as a
safety zone of at least 1 meter, in which no tools and material are to be stored
and access is prohibited.
Barriers shall be clearly visible and durable, possibly using concrete blocks.

Figure 1.10: Access and Escape Routes in Building Pit

Figure 1.11: Other Safety Provisions in Building Pit

30
Trench Excavations General Safety in
Construction
Trench excavation in which pipes or cables are connected with each other, for
example, should have a suitable width. The connection point, e.g. for welding
district heating pipes, should be at least 0.6 meters wide on each side of the
pipe, and have a length of at least 1 meter on each side of the joint. There
shall be at least 0.7 meters under the pipe.
In trench excavations deeper than 0.6 meters, and in which standing/walking
work is performed, the width can be reduced to 0.6 meters.

1.16.5 Safety in Connection with Demolition

Demolition plan
A plan should be drawn up for performance of the work before beginning of
demolition work. Irrespective of the demolition job of the building or
construction being full or partial, the plan should be drawn up.
Inspection of building
The building has to be inspected for asbestos, mould, pigeon droppings,
insulation, live wires and other materials which have to be removed
separately before demolition commences.
Demolition work
Always plan for work methods and machinery that is likely to have least risk
of accidents, ergonomic impacts, noise, dust and vibrations. To protect
workers from falling objects and the building against complete collapse,
demolition work should be performed in a specified sequence which along
with temporary safety measures and likely time consumption should be stated
in a given plan. For partial demolition, the same safety measures need to be
implemented as applicable for construction. Waste management is an
important factor in preventing accidents from tripping and falling. If the total
amount of waste exceeds ten tonnes, the debris from demolition should be
separated at source.

1.16.6 Safety when Working with PCB

In buildings erected from the 1950s up to 1977, including older buildings
which were renovated in the same period there can be PCB (Polychlorinated
Biphenyls).
The PCB content needs to be assessed before replacing or demolishing
building components.
 In sealants and glue for double-glazed windows and in rubber-like fillers,
PCB is quite common.
 Rubber fillers containing PCB were often applied around windows,
doors and joints between various building components, like in gaps
between concrete elements and in wet rooms.
 PCB can also occur in facade paint, floor paint and on galleries and slip-
resistant floors.
 Storage and removal of waste containing PCB should be performed in
such a manner that workers are not exposed to harmful impacts of PCB
and it does not spread to others. 31
 Safety during  After working with PCB one should wash the hands and face and shower
Construction
before going home.
Figure1.12 illustrates details of the precautions to be taken while dealing with
demolition of the buildings having PCB content.

Figure 1.12: Safe Working with Demolition of Buildings Having PCB Content

1.16.7 Safety When Working with Asbestos

Three types of asbestos are mainly used in construction work, white, brown
and blue. While none are absolutely safe, the blue type is most dangerous
because its fibres are fine and sharp and can be easily inhaled causing internal
damage. So, using or reusing asbestos-containing materials is prohibited.
Before starting demolition work, one must assess the asbestos content if any
and plan accordingly. Workmen engaged in such work should be properly
trained and use PPE for safety. Special training is required if one has to work
with asbestos-containing materials, like
 Thorough cleaning after demolition work
 Dismantling of slates
 Removal of water pipes in soil
 Interior removal of few cement-bound plates.
 Clearing after fire or storm damage
 Encapsulation and wrapping
 Full containment exterior demolition of buildings
Special precautions are required when working with asbestos. In many older
buildings asbestos is found in floor coverings, roofs and ceilings, pipe
insulation, cladding panels for walls, and particularly in products such as
asbestos cement water pipes, sealants, ventilation ducts and plaster materials.
Sandblasting of materials and high pressure hosing containing asbestos is
prohibited.
In buildings where asbestos has been used, demolition work and maintenance
or repairs, and any subsequent cleaning, are permitted if special
32
precautionary measures are taken. Specially trained personnel are required General Safety in
Construction
for indoor asbestos removal.

1.17 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The employer is responsible for supplying necessary Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) and it must be used by all employees. The protective
equipment must be approved, designed, fitted and maintained so that it
provides optimal protection. There must be clear instructions in the user’s
language for use of the personal protective equipment. Important components
of PPE are discussed below and are illustrated in Figure 1.13.
HARD HAT must be used always when the “Hard hat required” sign is
displayed. A hard hat must be used when there is a risk of being hit by falling
or suspended materials or tools.
EAR DEFENDERS must always be used when the “Ear defenders required”
sign is displayed. It is recommended that ear defenders be worn when the
noise level exceeds 80 dB(A).
EYE PROTECTION must always be used when the “Eye protection
required” sign is displayed. Eye protection should also be used when there is
a risk of being hit in the eye by particles, sprays, corrosive gasses and
vapours as well as harmful radiation. Grinding and welding are prime
examples where eye protection is essential.
FALL PROTECTION has to be used when the “Fall protection” sign is
displayed. Fall protection is used, for example, for short tasks at height and
when working in sewer pipes.
WORK CLOTHES with reflective strips must always be used when
working in areas with traffic or low light areas.
PROTECTIVE FOOTWEAR must beused when the “Protective footwear
required” sign is displayed. To protect from foot injury protective footwear
must always be used to save the feet from treading on sharp or pointed
objects at worksite, falling objects and when working with heavy materials.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT must always be used
whenever the “respiratory protective equipment class:” sign is displayed.
There are three classes of respiratory protective equipment:
● Particle filter class P1 protects against dust to a limited extent - not
against asbestos fibres and silica dust
● Particle filter class P2 protects against harmful dust - including against
asbestos fibres and silica dust as well as liquid aerosols
● Particle filter class P3 protects as class P2 and additionally against
bacteria and virus. Gas filters which protect against gasses and vapours
are divided into three classes according to their performance.

33
 Safety during
Construction
Hard Hat Ear Protection Eye Protection

Fall Protection Work Clothes Protective Footwear

Respiratory Protective Equipment

Figure 1.13: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Furthermore, different type of filters are used to provide safety to workers in
different kind of exposures which are given below.
Type A protects against, e.g. mineral turpentine, toluene, and xylene
Type AX protects against vapours from organic solvents
Type B protects against, e.g. chlorine and cyanohydrates
Type E protects against, e.g. sulphur dioxide
Type K protects against, e.g. ammonia

1.18 EFFORTS IN INDIA TO ENSURE

CONSTRUCTION SAFETY
Efforts are being taken by the government by setting up, NSC (National
Safety Council) which generates, develops and sustains a voluntary
movement on Safety, Health and Environment (SHE) at the national level. It
carries out activities such as specialized training courses, conferences &
workshops; conducting consultancy services such as safety audits, hazard
evaluation & risk assessment; designing and developing HSE publicity tools
& publications; facilitating organizations in celebrating various campaigns
e.g. Safety Day, Fire Service Week, World Environment Day i.e. 4th March,
34
in India, is celebrated as National Safety Day/Week every year, during which General Safety in
Construction
various campaigns are organized in promotion of Safety, Health and
Environment (SHE) movement to different parts of the country. The Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) have conducted intensive researches and studies to
publish many SP and IS codes, for bringing standardization, marking and
quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto, acting as guidelines for construction, manufacturing,
processing etc. With growth in market competition, many construction giants
are taking up modern trends and technique, such as, ISO certification, under
which they are to undertake the safety of their workmen, set up safety
organization, issue safety policy, safety checklist, safety manuals, etc.
Realising that the overall cost of accidents in construction may turn out to be
tremendously high and can affect the current projects as also upcoming
projects of the company, these corporate giants have understood the
importance of safety. Now companies define standards for every project, for
health and safety guideline. Regular health and fitness check-up for every
member is carried out.

1.19 RESPONSIBILITY FOR WORKER SAFETY

In general, maintaining a safe worksite is the responsibility of the prime
contractor. In fact, according to OSHA Safety and Health Regulations for
Construction, “in no case shall the prime contractor be relieved of overall
responsibility for compliance with the requirements of this part for all work
to be performed under the contract agreement signed.” Basically, this means
that the general or prime contractor is responsible for the safety of the
workers and the general condition of the site.
The cost of accidents due to negligence in construction safety can go
anywhere from low cost to tremendous high cost, which not only affects the
current projects but also the upcoming projects of the company. At times,
prime contractors, in their subcontract agreements, seek to pass along liability
for site and worker safety to subcontractors. However, OSHA also states “to
the extent that a subcontractor of any tier agrees to perform any part of the
contract, he also assumes responsibility for complying with the standards in
this part with respect to that part…With respect to subcontracted work, the
prime contractor or subcontractors shall be deemed to have joint
responsibility.” While this may make the subcontractor partially responsible,
it arguably does not eliminate the prime contractor’s responsibilities. In fact,
it clearly creates a joint responsibility for both the Prime contractor &
Subcontractor.

1.20 THE BENEFITS OF PROPER SAFETY

TRAINING
Many of the common construction hazards can be avoided if proper safety
training is provided. Aside from the obvious benefit of keeping workers safe,
a safe workplace will reduce overall construction costs by reducing the
expense on accidents. For example, a good safety training can reduce insured
losses, administrative penalties/fines and litigation and attorney’s fees.
Regardless of delays or approaching deadlines, safety training should never
be viewed as a disposable task. It is mandatory that each and every employee,
35
 Safety during even seasoned veterans, attend safety meetings and training on a regular basis.
Construction Regular meetings on safety will help to inculcate the safety culture among the
employees. Managers and supervisors need to invest time in providing
relevant and useful safety instruction and guidance. By making safety a
priority, contractors can significantly reduce worksite injuries and fatalities.

SAQ 3
a) What safety measure to be taken before excavation?

b) What are the types of asbestos used in construction activity?

1.21 LET SUM UP

In this Unit, an overview of safety in construction is given which covers
various aspects ranging from meaning of safety to various methods for
ensuring safe and healthy work environment at construction sites. Employers
have great role and responsibilities in ensuring the safety of workers.
Training of workers is essential for safe working in various working
conditions. Workers should follow all instructions related to safe working
religiously and should not take it lightly otherwise they will compromise with
their own and others safety.

1.22 KEY WORDS

Manoeuvres:- To move to a different position using skill.
Maladies:- A disease or an ailment.
Impairment:- The state of having a physical or mental condition which
means that part of your body or brain does not work properly.
Labour intensive industry:- An industry that produces goods or services
requiring a large amount of labours.
Postulates:- To suggest or accept that something is true so that it can be used
as the basis for a theory, etc.
Acts of God:- An instance of uncontrolled natural forces.
Hazards:- A danger or risk
Ameliorating:- To make something better.
Ergonomics:- The study of peoples efficiency in working environment.
Jeopardize :- To do something that may damage something or put it at risk.
Fatal accidents:- An accident which cause someone to die.
Scaffoldings:- A structure of metal poles and wooden boards put against a
building for workers to stand on when they want to reach the higher arts of
the building or structure.
Trench:- A long narrow hole dug in ground.

36
 General Safety in
1.23 ANSWERS TO SAQS Construction

SAQ 1
a) some of the Acts and Regulations prevailing in India related to safety at
work place are:.
 The Building & Other Construction Workers (Regulation of
Employment and Conditions of Service) Act,1996 and Rules
 The Indian Boilers Act, 1923 and Rules
 The Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923
 The Petroleum Act,1934 and Rules
 The Factories Act,1948 and Rules
 The Workers’ State Insurance Act, 1948
 The Mines Act,1952 and Regulations
 The Workers’ Provident Fund Act, 1952
 The Personal Injuries (Compensation Insurance) Act, 1963
 The Explosives Rules, 1983
 The Explosives Act, 1984 and Rules
 The Environment (Protection Act), 1986 and Rules
 The Manufacture, Storage & Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules,
1989
 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
b) An accident can be defined as an unforeseen and unwanted incident
usually resulting in damage to property or injury to humans or both. The
most common causes of accidents can be listed as:
 Tripping
 Falling
 Collapse of structures and falling materials
 Mobile equipment
 Electrical shock:
c) The immediate and visible causes of accidents are usually termed as root
cause. Some of the examples of Unsafe acts are:-
 Entering an area marked as unsafe without protective gear
 Working without training and authority
 Failure to use or wear personal protective equipment
 Using defective equipment
 Removing safety devices like guards for convenience of working
 Failure to warn others of danger
 Leaving equipment in an unsafe condition
37
 Safety during  Faulty use of equipment
Construction
 Over loading or faulty loading of vehicles
 Failure to lift loads correctly
 Faulty or no maintenance of heavy mobile equipment used in site
 Smoking in prohibited areas
 Drinking alcohol or using drugs during work
d) According to W.H. Heinrich (1931), who developed the so-called
domino theory, 88% of all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of people,
10% by unsafe actions and 2% by “acts of God”. He proposed a “five-
factor accident sequence” in which each factor would actuate the next
step in the manner of toppling dominoes lined up in a row.
e) The basic principle followed while framing the health and safety
management system of the organization in the construction industry are:-
 Eliminate the root cause of hazard at the design stage
 Remove the hazard at the source
 Attach due importance to Ergonomics
 Adapting technology
 Secure the work area to ensure safety
 Safety Training
 No exceptions to safety rules
f) Indirect costs can be listed as:
 Decreased output from those replacing the workman injured in the
accident
 Delays due to time spent by management on investigations
 Cost of overtime to cover delays
 Loss of expertise and experience
 Cost due to uninsured property and material damage
 Legal costs if the type of accident so demands
SAQ 2
a) The major reasons for ill health are listed below:
 Manual handling: Lifting heavy and awkward loads causes back
and other injuries. Some injuries can result from a single lift, but
more commonly, long-term injury develops as a result of repeated
minor injury due to repetitive lifting.
 Noise and vibration: High levels of noise can cause hearing loss
and repeated use of vibrating tools can cause hand-arm vibration
syndrome (damage to nerves and blood vessels – most commonly in
the hands and fingers).
 Chemicals: Exposure to materials such as cement and solvents can
cause skin problems such as dermatitis.
38
  Asbestos: Exposure to asbestos can lead to serious respiratory General Safety in
Construction
diseases such as asbestosis and cancer
b) The common causes of accidents in the construction industry can be
broadly stated as:
 Use of power operated machineries, for example pneumatic
hammers or angle grinders.
 Tripping on obstacles in the path or on slippery surface.
 Falling from a height, like scaffolding or ladders.
 Accidents while lifting heavy loads.
c) Probability of an injury is five times more likely in the construction
industry than in manufacturing industry.
d) In India lack of safety consciousness is the main reason of accidents in
construction sites. This lacuna is observed right from the higher
management level to the ground level workmen. While the management
may frame proper safety policies on legal bindings, implementing the
safety procedures at site is often neglected by supervisors and workmen
alike. Management themselves might create pressure to override safety
rules framed by them on account of time pressure to complete projects.
Also, lack of proper inspections and lack of communication among the
various departments involved can be major causes of accidents occurring
at a construction sites.
e) Responsibilities of an employer are as mentioned:-
 Proper training and instructions to workmen to follow safety policies
and guidelines.
 Effective supervision to ensure that workmen are following the
safety standards and using safe equipment.
 Risk of falling or structural collapse is avoided by suitably
organising the work site.
 Ensuring that safe equipment and machinery are provided for
working at site and work facilities like scaffolding etc. are absolutely
safe.
 Ensure that workmen use personal protective equipment wherever
necessary and follow preventive measures like not walking under
suspended loads or walking inside a cordoned area to make a
shortcut.
 To make workmen aware that use of proper lifting tools and tackles
while lifting heavy loads are necessary to avoid spinal injury in the
long term.
SAQ 3
a) Before excavation work to be started, the following safety measures shall
be ensured:
 Check the existing underground plan for any hindrances like
pipelines or live cables.
 Check if traffic conditions could give rise to vibration.
39
 Safety during  A plan has been drawn up for signage of work in progress near or on
Construction areas with traffic.
 Check soil conditions, including any contamination of soil.
 Whether the required shuttering, bracing and marking materials are
available on site.
 Whether there is personal protective equipment, e.g. hard hats and
safety footwear.
 Whether there is availability of excavator suitable for the task.
b) Three types of asbestos are mainly used in construction work, white,
brown and blue. While none are absolutely safe, the blue type is most
dangerous because its fibres are fine and sharp and can be easily inhaled
causing internal damage. So, using or reusing asbestos-containing
materials is prohibite

40
UNIT 2 SAFETY ASPECTS IN UNDERGROUND
WORKS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 General Provisions
2.3 Training Required in Underground Safety
2.4 Safety in Excavations
2.5 Safety in Underground Construction
2.6 Tunneling
2.7 Safety in Shaft Sinking
2.8 Ventilation
2.9 Fire Protection
2.10 Electricity
2.11 Drilling
2.12 Transport, Storage and Handling of Explosives
2.13 Blasting
2.14 Haulage
2.15 Dust Control
2.16 Underground Pipelines
2.17 Site Control Procedures
2.18 Ventilation Requirements
2.19 Illumination Requirements
2.20 Special Air Monitoring Requirements
2.21 Let Us Sum UP
2.22 Key Words
2.23 Answers to SAQs

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The activity performed in underground tunnels, shafts, chambers and
passageways are though important but also have same level of risk included
in it. In addition to risk involved in these activities, dim light, difficult or
limited access and egress, potential exposure to air contaminants, fire &
explosions acts as catalyst for the risk already present in these activities. As
per the hazard involved, there is very less probability to overcome our
negligence towards safety in underground activity. To deal with these types
hazards in construction activity, Occupational Safety & Health
Administration (OSHA) has prepared numerous of guidelines, including the
underground construction regulations, found in part 1926, section 800 of
Title 29 of the code of Federal Regulations (29 CFR 1926.800). This
regulation was originally adopted in 1971 & as per increase in level of
criticality in this type of work and to provide better and secure environment
to workmen’s, it was revised several times over the years. This topic of 41
 Safety during “Safety aspects in underground work”, though summarize the OSHA’s
Construction
regulation related to Safety aspects in underground work but is not a
substitute for complete text of 29 CFR 1926.800.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 identify the hazards involved in underground construction Safety.
 describe the guidelines adopted by OSHAs for underground
construction.
 adopt and control measures for underground activity in terms of
safety.
 discuss emergency procedures for underground constructions.

2.2 GENERAL PROVISIONS

Adequate safety measures should be taken while performing critical activities
involved in any excavation, earthworks, underground works or tunnels. These
activities can be safely performed by following some basic safety measures
such as:
a) by suitable shoring, sheeting, putting wire mesh, rock anchoring or
otherwise, to guard against danger to workers from a fall or
dislodgement of earth, rock or other material;
b) to guard workmen’s performing these critical activities against hazards
arising from the fall of persons, materials or objects or the inrush of
water into the excavation, shaft, earthworks, underground works or
tunnel;
c) by providing adequate aeriation at every workplace so as to maintain an
atmosphere fit for respiration and to limit any fumes, gases, vapours,
dust or other impurities to levels which are not dangerous or injurious to
health and are within limits laid down by national laws or regulations;
d) providing safe access and egress to reach a safe place in the event of fire,
or an inrush of water or material;
e) avoiding risk to workers arising from underground dangers such as the
circulation of fluids or the presence of pockets of gas, by undertaking
appropriate investigations to locate them:
i) Excavation and other underground works: Shoring or other support
for any part of an excavation, earthworks, underground works or
tunnel should not be erected, altered or dismantled except under the
supervision of a competent person.
ii) Every part of construction site where activities such as excavation,
earthworks, underground works and tunnel where person are
employed should be inspected in addition to persons deployed for
their safety gears and health by a competent person at times and in
frequency / cases prescribed by national laws or regulations, and the
results recorded and monitored.
iii) Work should not commence therein until the inspection by the
competent person as prescribed by national laws or regulations has
42
 been carried out and the activities of excavation, earthworks, Safety Aspects
Underground Works
underground works or underpass has been found safe for work.

SAQ 1
a) Who is a competent Person?
b) What are the hazards present in underground construction?
c) What are to be inspected in underground activities and what is its
frequency?

2.3 TRAINING REQUIRED IN UNDERGROUND

SAFETY
All employees, who are involved directly or indirectly in underground
construction shall be trained to recognize and respond to hazards associated
with this type of work. Training shall be tailored to the explicit requirements
of the jobsite and include any unique issues or requirements as per local laws.
These training shall be performed by recognized agency and the persons shall
be certified for these activities. Training on emergency evacuation to
performed on regular basis as per the changing scenario in work activity.
These shall also include self-survival skill training in addition to first aid
training, Workers shall be also trained to handle critical situations such as fire,
explosion, dislodgement of Soil/Rock, etc.
The following are the major areas of consideration to be trained an
underground construction employee training program:
 Air monitoring and ventilation
 Supply of oxygen
 Leakage of toxic gases
 Illumination
 Communications
 Flood control
 Personal protective equipment
 Emergency procedures, including evacuation plans
 Check-in/check-out procedures
 Explosives
 Fire prevention and protection
 Mechanical equipment

2.4 SAFETY IN EXCAVATIONS

Excavation can be described as a “work involving the removal of soil or rock
from site to form an open face, hole or cavity by using manpower, tools,
machinery or explosives”. Any type of excavation which is carried out more
than 1.5 meters of depth or a tunnel is considered as high-risk construction
work. For these activities some of the safety precautions shall be taken such
as:
43
 Safety during a) all excavation work should be planned beforehand, and the method of
Construction
excavation and the type of support work required should be approved by
competent authority before the start of work;
b) the stability of the ground plays a vital role in safety of workmen
involved. Hence the process of work activity to be continued on that type
of ground should be verified by a competent person;
c) a competent person shall check that the underground work will not affect
adjoining/nearby buildings, structures or roadways and what measures to
be taken to avoid it;
d) the position of all the public utilities such as underground sewers, gas
pipes, water pipes and electrical conductors that may cause danger
during work should be verified and approved before commencement of
works;
e) if necessary or to avoid any mishap, the gas, water, electrical and other
public utilities should be shut off or disconnected;
f) if underground pipes, cable conductors, etc., cannot be removed or
disconnected, they shall be fenced, hung up and adequately marked or
otherwise protected and workmen involved should made aware about
presence of these type of hazard;
g) the position of bridges, temporary roads, other establishments and spoil
heaps should be determined and marked earlier only, before
commencement of work and workmen’s shall be informed about it;
h) if necessary, to prevent hazard, land should be cleared of trees, boulders
and other obstructions which can be probable hazard to underground
construction workers;
i) land to be excavated is not contaminated by harmful chemicals or gases,
or by any hazardous waste material such as asbestos to be ensured prior
to start of underground work/excavation;
j) first aid equipment’s/materials should be kept at an easily accessible
place, in case of any accident;
k) all personnel’s performing the work shall be aware of the hazard
involved in these activities and instruction given regarding this should be
clear and in local language understandable to all.

Figure 2.1: Safety Shematic

44
l) sides of excavations should be thoroughly inspected and are to be taken Safety Aspects
Underground Works
as shown in safety shematic in Figure 2.1:
 daily, prior to each shift and after interruption in work of more than
one day;
 after every blasting operation;
 after an unexpected fall of ground;
 after substantial damage to supports;
 after a heavy rain, frost or snow;
 when boulder formations are encountered.
m) no heavy load, plant or equipment should be allowed near the edge of
any excavated area where it is likely to cause its collapse and thereby
endanger any person unless adequate precautions measures such as the
provision of shoring or piling are taken to prevent the sides from
collapsing.
n) adequately affixed stop blocks and Cross barriers should be provided, so
that vehicles can be prevented from being driven into the excavation.
Heavy equipment’s/vehicles shall not be allowed near the excavation
unless the support work has been specially designed to permit it.
o) if an excavation is likely to disturb the safety of a structure on which
persons are working, precautions should be taken to protect the structure
from collapse.
p) sides of excavated pit where workers are exposed to danger from moving
ground/soil heap is to be made safe by sloping, shoring, portable shields
or other effective means.
q) all support structure as shown in Figure 2.2 should be regularly checked
to ensure that support from the props, wedges, etc., are tight and no
undue deflection or distortion is taking place and timber/wood used shall
be regularly checked for dryness, shrinkages and rot.

Figure 2.2: Sheltering Work

45
 Safety during
Construction
SAQ 2
a) What type of training is required for Underground work?
b) What is excavation?
c) Mention any five precautionary measures taken while performing
underground activity?
d) What are the situations when side of the excavation should be
inspected and at how frequently?

2.5 SAFETY IN UNDERGROUND CONSTRUCTION

The following measures to be taken very carefully while working in the
underground construction project site:
i) No underground work shall be carried out without the approval of
competent authority and to be as per approved and according to
national laws and regulations. Comprehensive planning shall be done to
define excavation methods, rescue and evacuation methods in case of
fire, flood and fall or dislodgement of earth or rock.
ii) All underground construction work should be supervised by a
competent person and operatives doing the work should be given clear
instructions and signages to be displayed at prominent locations.
iii) All workplaces occupied underground should be inspected at least once
in every shift and places occupied by solitary workers should be
inspected at least twice in every shift.
iv) All the machinery, equipment’s, structures, supports, roadways, means
of egress, magazines, medical facilities, sanitation and working places.
shall be inspected thoroughly at least once in every week.

Figure 2.3: Underground Construction Activity

46
v) Emergency arrangements shall be made for all workers to be Safety Aspects
Underground Works
withdrawn from underground workings if:
a) the ventilation fails; or
b) other imminent danger threatens.
vi) A suitable communication system should be maintained from the
vicinity of the face of underground workings to the surface with
stations at intermediate workplaces.
vii) In tunnels and other underground workings as shown in Figure 2.3,
where an explosive mixture such as methane and air may form,
operations should be carried on in accordance with national laws and
regulations applicable to gassy mines or coal mines.
viii) Air quality should be checked & verified to ascertain and if it is
hazardous, then no one shall be allowed to enter until it is fit for
breathing.
ix) Escape routes should be properly indicated with signs visible in dim
light also.
In some special projects as per requirement of site and nature of projects,
some special equipments such as cranes and hoists are to be used in
underground construction projects are as follows:
 As per OSHA standard, Cranes or hoists which are especially designed
for underground construction shall be only used. In addition to
provisions that apply to all construction activities using cranes or hoists,
Limit switch shall be installed in cranes used in underground
construction to prevent overtravel at the top & bottom of the hoist way
and shall be only used when operational controls malfunction. Hoist
controls to be arranged so the operator can reach all 16 controls and the
emergency power cutoff without reaching beyond his/her normal
operating position.
 Underground hoists shall be designed to allow powering of the hoist
drum in both directions and so that brakes are automatically applied
upon power release or failure. A closed-circuit voice communication
system with microphones to communicate with individual landing
stations shall be maintained. Also, hoists must be equipped with landing
level indicators (marking the hoist rope is not adequate) and fire
extinguishers (rated at least 2A:10B:C) in each hoist house to deal with
any emergency.
 The operator must test run the equipment and correct any unsafe
condition before using a hoist that has been put out of operation for a
complete shift or after repair or service. At least annual inspections and
load testing to be done mandatorily for 100% of capacity and after any
repairs or alterations affecting the structural integrity of the hoist.
 For material hoists, wire rope used in load lines must support at least five
times the maximum intended load or the factor recommended by the rope
manufacturer, whichever is greater. Personnel hoists must have at least 2
means to stop the load, each able to stop and hold 150% of the hoists’
rated line pull. If there is a case of personnel hoisting, a broken-rope
safety, safety catch, or arrestment device are not adequate means of
stopping and can lead to major accident.
47
 Safety during Some of the other aspects of hoist safety which are applied to underground
Construction
construction include:
■ Employees shall not ride on top of any cage, skip, or bucket unless
inspecting or maintaining the system and wearing a safety belt or harness.
■ Personnel and materials not hoisted together. (except small tools and
supplies secured in a nonhazardous manner).
■ When sinking shafts 75 feet (22.86 m) or less, cages, skips, and buckets
that can swing, bump, or snag against shaft sides must be guided by
fenders, rails, ropes, or a combination. If the shaft is more than 75 feet,
hoisted objects must be rope- or rail guided for the full length of travel.
Some of the additional safety requirements for personnel hoists in
underground operations include the following:
■ It must be ensured that the operator is able to see and hear signals at
the operator’s station.
■ A steel-plate protective canopy that slopes to the outside and can be
pushed up for emergency egress and have a locking door that opens
only inward shall be affixed to all cages.
■ Sides of personnel cages must be enclosed by 1/2 inch wire mesh to
a height of at least 6 feet (1.83 m). If the cage is being used for/as a
work platform and is not in motion, the sides may be reduced to 42
inches (1.07 m).
■ While sinking operations in shafts where guides and safeties are not
used, the personnel platform may not exceed 200 feet (60.96 m) per
minute and governors must be used during personnel hoisting. The
speed might increase to 600 feet (182.88 m) per minute when guides
and safeties are used and greater speeds when shafts are complete.

SAQ 3
a) What is the frequency of inspection of underground workplace
which is occupied by solitary workers?
b) Mention any two cases when workers shall be withdrawn from
underground working?
c) What are the benefits of using Hoist control?
d) What is the mandatorily required frequency of load testing to
100%?
e) What are the safety requirements for personnel hoists in
underground operations?

2.6 TUNNELING
Tunneling may be defined as an activity for making underground passage
provided beneath earth surface or water. Though it is an expensive process,
but it saves time and provides comfort. Large excavation of soil or rock etc.
is necessary for a tunnel construction. Some of the methods used for tunnel
construction are as follows: -
48
i) Cut & Cover method: - By this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it Safety Aspects
Underground Works
is covered by some support which is capable of bearing load on it.
ii) Bored Tunnel method: - It is most easiest process for tunneling, In
method tunnel boring machines (TBM) are used which automatically
work. It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high
traffic areas.
iii) Clay Kicking method:- This method is used, where strong clayey soil
condition is found. Though it is an old method, but generally preferred
for small works like sewage pipes installations etc.
iv) Shaft method:- This method is used where tunnel to be constructed at
greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is built up to the depth
where tunnel is required.
The hazards and risks which are involved in Tunneling work are:
1) Collapse of the sides of the excavated area.
2) Materials kept above the working area may fall onto the persons working
in the excavation.
3) People, vehicles, Materials falling into the excavation.
4) The undermining of adjacent structures causing their collapse into the
excavation or make the structure unstable.
5) Damage to underground services during excavation work causing
electrocution, blast, gas escape, flooding etc.
6) Ingress from the nearby water body or due to rain causing flooding in
tunneling area.

Figure 2.4: Tunneling Work in Progress

It must be ensured as shown in Figure 2.4 that equipment’s and materials
needed for safety of workmen’s shall be available on site before start of work.
Work to be directed by a competent supervisor and the works are inspected
daily by someone who understands the risks and precautions to be taken. At
least once a week the excavation should be thoroughly inspected and after
any event which may affect the temporary support and such inspections
should be documented.

49
 Safety during The precautions to be taken are:
Construction
a) By battering to the sides to a safe angle or by supporting them with
sheeting or proprietary support system trench collapse can be avoided.
For such high risk activities, it must be ensured that the workers are
competent and experienced as far as possible and that they have clear
instructions about safety norms.
b) To avoid falling of loose soil, Plant or materials in excavated pit, its shall
be stored away from the excavation area. The additional loading of
materials or soil can make the sides of the excavation more probable to
collapse.
c) Falling of the person into excavation can be prevented by substantial
barriers around the edges of the excavation. It is to be done mandatorily
if the depth exceeds 2 metres but is recommended for excavations of
lesser depths.
d) Avert vehicles from falling into excavations or surcharging and causing
the collapse of the sides of the excavation by keeping them out of the
area. Baulks and barriers may be provided for this purpose and should be
painted to be easily visible. If vehicles have to tip materials into
excavated area, then they should be prevented from over-running into the
excavation by using stop blocks.
e) Provide safe access in and out of the excavated area.
f) Hazardous fumes should be considered. Diesel and petrol engine
equipment should not be allowed into excavations without arranging for
exhausts to be ducted away or forced ventilation to be used.
g) Cable and / or pipe plans and service plans shall be used to locate
underground services which should be marked on the ground and where
practicable digging should take place as far as possible from them. Use
cable and pipe locators during the course of the excavation work to be
made mandatory. Care should be taken to ensure that mechanical means
of digging are not used within 0.5 metres of underground services and
spades and shovels should be used instead of picks and forks which are
more likely to pierce cables while excavating. Once services are located
and exposed, they must be supported. Both new and existing services
shall be permanently marked by the use of appropriate tapes over the
service and by placing permanent markers above ground indicating the
service type, depth, route etc.
h) Precautions to be taken against flooding by installing efficient means of
pumping out the excavations ensuring that the outflow from the pump
does not cause flooding problems elsewhere.

SAQ 4
a) Define Tunneling?
b) Though tunneling is expensive process, why it is preferred?
c) What is clay kicking method for tunnel construction?
d) Mention any three type of risk involved in tunneling process?
e) What are the precautions taken to mitigate the tunneling process
hazard?
50
 Safety Aspects
2.7 SAFETY IN SHAFT SINKING Underground Works

Shaft mining/sinking is excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel from the

top down, where there is initially no access to the bottom. When the top of
excavation is the ground surface, it is referred to as a shaft; when the top of
the excavation is underground, it is called a winze or a sub-shaft as shown in
Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Shaft Sinking Operation

Shaft sinking operations are as follows:
i) The shaft which are not sunk through solid rock should be cased, lined
or otherwise made safe.
ii) Shuttering for masonry lining of shafts should only be removed
gradually as the masonry progresses.
iii) All landings in shafts should be provided with gates that effectively
close the opening to a height of at least 2 m.
iv) Shafts to be equipped with a signaling system that warns the hoisting
engineer when a conveyance passes beyond the safe limit of travel.
v) Before tunneling operations are begun from a shaft, two separate
signaling or communications systems of different types should be
installed.
vi) The signal code should be posted in the hoisting machine room and at
each landing.
vii) Notices should be posted at conspicuous places at the hoisting
installation stating:
a) the maximum speed for shaft carrying the person;
b) the maximum number of persons and the maximum weight of
material that may be safely carried in each conveyance.
viii) Hoisting operations in shafts should be governed by suitable signals.

51
 Safety during
Construction

Figure 2.6: Generalized Cross Section of Shaft Drill

ix) Workers employed on sinking shafts should be provided with staging,
scaffolds or cradles from which they can work safely as shown in
Figure 2.6.
x) A thorough inspection of the shaft should be made:
a) before a shift descends;
b) after blasting.
xi) The shafts which are over 30 m in depth should have an adequate head
frame strong enough to withstand safely to the maximum load that it
will have to carry and preferably be of open steelwork construction.
xii) If head frames are of timber, they should be treated to make them fire
resistant.
xiii) Head frames should be earthed or otherwise it shall be adequately
protected against lightning.
xiv) Hoisting machines should be equipped:
a) with an adequate brake that will automatically stop and hold the
conveyance if the hoisting power fails;
b) with a reliable depth indicator.

52
 Safety Aspects
Underground Works

Figure2.7: Shaft Sinking

xv) Hoisting Engineer should inspect all hoisting machines at least once a
day.
xvi) Cages or cars for conveying persons should be equipped with safety
gear that automatically holds the cage or car as shown in Figure 2.7
when fully loaded if the suspension rope breaks or becomes slack.
xvii) There should be adequate means of blocking the cage or car at every
landing.
xviii) Buckets used for conveying persons in shafts should:
a) have no projections on the outside that could catch in an
obstruction;
b) be not less than 1 m deep;
c) be provided with adequate means to prevent them from
inadvertently tipping and spinning;
d) not be self-opening.

2.8 VENTILATION
Ventilation may be defined as the process by which fresh air (normally
outdoor air) is intentionally provided to a closed space and stale air is
removed. Underground workings should be traversed by a regular fresh air
current to keep them in a fit state for working and, in particular:
a) to avoid excessive rises in temperature at the construction site;
b) to dilute or eliminate harmful dusts, gases, vapors and fumes to safe
concentrations;
c) to prevent the oxygen content of the atmosphere from falling below 17%
or a level prescribed in national laws and regulations.
53
 Safety during Following points may be noted:
Construction
i) The air flow may be reversed in case of underground excavation.
ii) In tunnels where blasting is done:
a) Mechanical ventilation is used in case of blasting where an adequate
supply of air should be taken to the opening of excavated area.
Please refer Figure 2.8 as shown.

Figure 2.8: Ventilation System

b) after every blast the face should be cleared of harmful gases and dust
as far as practicable by exhaust ventilation; where necessary, the
dust should be controlled with water sprays or fog guns;
c) if necessary, to remove the fumes, auxiliary ventilation should be
provided.
iii) Workmen shall be provided suitable breathing apparatus where adequate
ventilation is not possible. People shall be allowed to work without
adequate ventilation only in very exceptional circumstances.
Ventilation air diminishes dust through both dilution and displacement
method. When workers are surrounded by dust cloud & additional air serves
to reduce the dust concentration by diluting the cloud. The displacement
mechanism operates when personnel are upwind of dust sources and the air
velocity is high enough to reliably keep the dust downwind.
Dilution Ventilation
The basic theory behind dilution ventilation is to provide more air and dilute
the dust present around the workmen’s surrounding. Most of the time the dust
is concentrated roughly in proportion to the increase in airflow, but not
always.
Displacement Ventilation
The elementary principle behind displacement ventilation is to use the
airflow in a way that confines the dust source and keeps it away from
workers by putting dust downwind of the workers. For every tunnel or mine
54
passage with an airflow direction that puts dust downwind of workers uses Safety Aspects
Underground Works
displacement ventilation. In mines, unceasing miner faces or tunnel boring
machines on exhaust ventilation use displacement ventilation. Enclosure of a
dust source, such as a conveyor belt transfer point, laterally with extraction of
dusty air from the enclosure, is another example of displacement ventilation.
Displacement ventilation can be hard to implement. However, if done well, it
is most effective dust control technique available, and it is worth considerable
effort to get it right. The difficulty in this situation is that when workers are
near a dust source, say, 10 to 20 ft from the source, keeping them upwind
requires a substantial air velocity, typically between 60 and 150 ft/min. There
is not always sufficient air available to achieve these velocities.
To compensate for the lack of air, two techniques are used. The first is to
reduce the cross-sectional area of the air course between the worker and the
dust source. This process confines the dust source by raising the air velocity.
Secondary, the turbulence of the dust source is reduced. A tempestuous dust
source creates dusty eddy currents of air that back up against the airflow and
push upwind toward the worker. When dust source is less turbulent, less air is
required to confine the dust cloud.

2.9 FIRE PROTECTION

i) It should be ensured that no combustible structure should be built or any
flammable material stored within 30m of a shaft, tunnel mouth, hoisting-
engine house or ventilation-fan house.
ii) As far as practicable, combustible materials and flammable liquids
should not be stored underground.
iii) Lubricating oils, grease and rope dressings underground should:
a) be kept in closed metal containers;
b) be stored in a safe place away from shafts, hoists, explosives and
timber.
iv) Unless there is no risk of fire or explosion, naked lights and smoking
should not be allowed underground as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: Fire Protection

55
 Safety during v) Petrol engines should not be used underground except under conditions
Construction
approved by the competent authority.
vi) If welding or flame cutting is done in underground site:
a) timber supports and other combustible structures or materials should
be protected by a fireproof screen;
b) suitable fire extinguishers shall be kept readily available all the time;
c) a constant watch should be kept for outbreaks of fire in the site/place
of work;
d) welding fumes to be removed by exhaust ventilation.

SAQ 5
a) What do you understand by Winze in shaft sinking?
b) When shaft shall be inspected?
c) What is ventilation and illustrate its type?
d) What is displacement ventilation?
e) What is the condition in which lubricating oil can be kept
underground?

2.10 ELECTRICITY
Electricity is defined as the set of physical phenomena associated with the
presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge and for
use of any power driven equipment electricity is required. While
underground construction activity lot of power driven equipment is used and
at same time the electricity brings hazards/risks to its users. There are some
guidelines for use of electricity in underground construction. The following
are some of the guidelines:
i) For cutting off the supply from all underground installations, main
switchgear should:
a) be installed on the surface;
b) be accessible only to authorized persons;
c) be attended by a competent person authorized to operate it.
ii) Where necessary suitable lightning arresters should be installed on the
surfaceas shown in Figure 2.10 to protect the installation below ground
from abnormal voltage due to atmospheric electricity.
iii) The main cables supplying current to electric motors installed in the
vicinity of shafts (such as those for underground fans or drainage pumps)
should be duplicated if the stopping of these motors would cause danger.
iv) All switches should be of the enclosed safety type.
v) Fixed lamps underground should be provided with a strong protective
cover of glass or other transparent material or with a guard.

56
 Safety Aspects
Underground Works

Figure 2.10: Underground Electricity Cables

vi) Whenever required by local conditions, lamp fittings should be proof

against dust, gases and water. The voltage of hand lamps (portable lamps)
used underground should not exceed extra-low safety voltage.
vii) Underground lighting
a) All places where workers have to work or pass should be adequately
lit.
b) In addition to the main lighting, there should be emergency lighting
that functions long enough to enable the workers to reach the surface
safely.

2.11 DRILLING
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-
section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often
multi-point.
While drilling process it shall be ensured that, when drilling is done in rock,
loose rock should be scaled down to protect drillers against falls of ground;
where this is not practicable, a protective canopy or overhead screen should
be provided. The prcoess can be seen in Figure 2.11 for understanding
purposes.

Figure 2.11: Drilling Operation

57
 Safety during
Construction SAQ 6
a) What are the precaution to be taken for main switchgears in
underground installation?
b) Define drilling?

2.12 TRANSPORT, STORAGE AND HANDLING

OF EXPLOSIVES
The transport, storage and handling of explosives should comply with the
requirements of national laws and regulations. The following are:
i) Explosives should be conveyed in separate container and it shall be
ensured that it is not be conveyed in a shaft cage or bucket together with
other materials.
ii) It shall be ensured that explosives and detonators should not be conveyed
together in a shaft unless they are in a suitable powder caras shown in
Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: Explosive Transportation Truck

2.13 BLASTING
Blasting: It may be defined as controlled use of explosives and other
methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics, to
reak rock for excavation. It is practiced most often
during mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam, tunnel or road
construction. The result of rock blasting is known as a rock cut. The
following procedures must be ensured while supervising the blasting
operationas shown in Figure 2.13 in that construction projects.
i) Blasting circuit shall be installed separately and no other electrical circuit
should be installed on the same side of the tunnel as the blasting circuit.
ii) All circuits except blasting circuit shall be de-energized which are
present within an adequate distance from the firing point before any shot
is fired. Only suitable battery lamps should be used during loading shot
holes

58
iii) Loose rocks shall be cleared from the sides, workface and roof after Safety Aspects
Underground Works
every blast.

Figure 2.13: Blasting Operation

2.14 HAULAGE
The following measures to be taken in Haulage process of a construction
project:
i) In tunnels where there are rail tracks, unless there is adequate clearance
between the rolling stock and the sides, recesses should be provided at
suitable intervals which should be large enough to accommodate two
persons and should be at least 60 cm deep. Suitable system shall be used
for control of mechanical haulage operations as shown in Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: Haulage Truck

ii) No rails and single cars should be allowed without headlights and tail-
lights.
iii) Rerailing by hauling with a winch should only be done under the control
and supervision of a competent person. Workers should not be
transported on locomotives or in cars other than those specially provided
for that purpose.
59
 Safety during
Construction 2.15 DUST CONTROL
Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the formation of, or to
suppress as close to the source as practicable, all dust in tunneling operations
and siliceous dusts consisting of particles less than 5 microns in size. The
following steps to be taken for controlling dust must be followed:
i) If drilling in rock is done dry, the dust produced should be effectively
exhausted and collected.
ii) In case if drilling in rock is done in wet condition, the drill should be so
constructed that it cannot be operated unless the water feed is operating
in the processes.
iii) During blasting, before any shots are fired on the floor, roof and sides in
the vicinity should be thoroughly wetted, if practicable.

Figure 2.15: Wetting Process

iv) Loose rock should be adequately wetted during loading, transport and
unloading underground. Figure 2.15 shows the wetting processes on a
project of involving trasnportation.
v) Excavated material should not be exposed to high-velocity air currents
during transport.
vi) If any stone-crushing equipment is used underground, adequate measures
should be taken to prevent any dust from it penetrating to areas occupied
by workers.
Employees may be at threat by dust, especially in closed areas such as
tunneas shown in Figure 2.16 construction and underground mining
operations. Successful dust control is very beneficial for the crew and also for
the machinery they use. It also helps to improve health condition of people
working in this construction work.
Now this dust particles only spoils/effect on the respiratory tracts of people
working in this dust in tunnel construction work; it also impairs the visibility,
which in turn increases the level of potential danger while causing out the
essential work. The technical equipment deployed can also be negatively
affected by the dust load, which can reduce the service life of the machinery
because of wear and tear taken place of the dust particles.
60
 Safety Aspects
Underground Works

Figure 2.16: Dust Control

It is also necessary to keep the noise levels to a minimum because work is
carried out in confined spaces. That is why smaller devices, such as the lance,
are particularly suitable for dust control during tunnelling activities. The
lances have a large angle of inclination, are lightweight and can be
transported and positioned by just one person. The appropriate solution is
decided upon during planning and construction project.
The following are some procedures to be adopted in controlling of dust in the
site of a construction project:
a) Wetting
Adequate wetting is extremely important for dust control where air
circulation is limited. The amount of dust particles created during
breakage are not released into the air, but stay attached to the surface of
the broken material. Wetting this broken material ensures that dust
particles stays attached to each other or to grounded. As a result, adding
extra water can usually (but not always) be counted on to reduce dust.
For example, coal mine operatives have been able to reduce the dust
from higher longwall production levels by raising the shearer water flow
rate to an average of 100 gpm. Compared to this amount of coal mined,
on a weight basis, this 100 gpm is equivalent to 1.9% added moisture
from the shearer alone. Unfortunately, excessive moisture level can
result in a host of materials handling problems, operational headaches,
and product quality issues, so an upper limit on water use is sometimes
reached rather quickly. As a result, a substitute to simply adding more
water is to ensure that the broken material is being wetted uniformly.
Hamilton and Knight (1957) recognized the uniformity of wetting issue
long ago and measured the amount of dust generated by dropping coal.
By far the best dust reductions came from respraying the coal with water
and then mechanically mixing the coal and water together to achieve a
uniformity of wetting. It can be better explained with the help of an
example, releasing water at the cutting picks of rotating shearer drums
has proven to be far more effective at suppressing longwall dust than
using external sprays on the shearer body. Since water released at the
cutting picks gets mixed in with the broken coal, whereas water from
external sprays usually provides just surface wetting.
Increasing the number of sprays is another way to promote uniformity of
wetting. In a case when 46 smaller orifice nozzles were replaced for the
61
 Safety during 17 original nozzles, dust was reduced by 60%. This is better than the
Construction
dust reduction given by most other dust control techniques.
The benefits of improved mixing and uniformity of wetting have been
obtained with foam, with far greater effectiveness when the foam was
mechanically mixed in with the coal or mechanically mixed with silica
sand.
The lessons from this knowledge about the use of water are twofold.
First, the material to be wetted fully during the breakage process.
Wetting during breakage confirms that the benefits will carry over to any
downstream secondary handling operation. Second, uniformity of
wetting is best achieved by increasing the number of nozzles at lower
flow rates and ensuring that the nozzles are aimed at the broken material
rather than just spraying into air and wetting an adjacent metal or rock
surface. While it is best to aim sprays at broken material, circumstances
dictate the impracticality of locating spray nozzles where they might be
easily damaged. For example, spray nozzles under the boom of a
continuous miner are more effective than those on the top of the boom.
However, top nozzles are more commonly used because sprays under the
boom are damaged more often and are harder to maintain.
b) Airborne capture.
In actual mining conditions, the typical water spray operating at 100 psi
and 1-2 gpm gives no more than 30% airborne capture of respirable dust.
c) Dust collectors
Dust collectors plays a valuable role in dust reduction—if space is
available to locate the collector and if the collector efficiency is high.
Dust collectors can range from low-volume filtration systems used in the
cabs of mining equipment to high-volume wet collectors used on
continuous miners in coal mines.
It is more important to recognize that the efficiency of a dust collector is
the filtration efficiency of the unit times the capture efficiency of its inlet.
For collectors properly designed to trap respirable dust, the filtration
efficiency is usually quite high, in the 90%-95% range. The inlet capture
efficiency is much more variable. The inlet capture efficiency of dust
collector may be as high as 80% or better, when the collector extracts air
from an enclosed or semi enclosed space. However, at places where there
is less enclosure, such as in continuous miner faces in high coal, road
header faces, or long wall shearer faces, inlet capture efficiency is poor,
50% or less, unless the collector air quantity is unreasonably high.
Collectors also exhibit many design and maintenance problems, few of them
are:
i) Design problems. The designers of dust collection systems have to take
many shortcuts to cut costs and decrease the amount of maintenance
required due to which efficiency of some of the dust collector is also
reduced. For example, some of the fiber filters on cab filtration systems
and the flooded-bed panels on continuous miners has been found to be
too porous. A porous filter permits more airflow & allows for a smaller
fan but exhibits a poor collection efficiency for hard-to-trap respirable
dust. In recent years, continuous miner booms have been redesigned to
move the collector inlets from the boom to the hinge point. This has
62
 many benefits in cost and maintenance, but this location is farther from Safety Aspects
Underground Works
the dust source & thus has lowered the inlet capture efficiency.
ii) Maintenance problems. Dust collectors installed in tunnels or mines
can be high-maintenance equipment and Screens and filters clog often,
sometimes more than once per shift. Gaskets disappear and access doors
leak. Often, filters are not seated properly & dusty air leaks around them.
Holes can be found in filters installed due to mishandling & from
abrasion by larger-sized particulate. Ductwork leading to the collector
filled with coarse particulate, cutting off the airflow. Fans located at inlet
side of the collector suffer rapid erosion of their blades and are usually
not designed for convenient blade replacement. High dust levels are the
result. It is observed that a major reason for excessive silica exposure
during coal mine roof bolting is lack of maintenance on the bolting
machine dust collector.

SAQ 7
a) What precaution shall be taken, if explosives and detonators has to
be conveyed in a shaft?
b) Mention some of the dust prevention steps while underground
construction activity?
c) Explain Wetting process and how it is important in dust control?
d) How uniformity in wetting process can be achieved?
e) Explain how design of dust collector affects its efficiency?

2.16 UNDERGROUND PIPELINES

The following are the safety aspects to be followed in underground projects:
iii) Ventilation
Adequate ventilation should be ensured for workmen’s working in
pipeline and in case if pipe is laid in water-bearing ground, a flood gate
should be provided at the end section.

Figure 2.17: Escape System

63
 Safety during iv) Escape Systems
Construction
When bodies of water or explosive gases may be encountered, trial
boreholes should be drilled ahead of the workings at opposite place to
escape the gases from the work space. Some of the site controls have
been shown in Figure 2.17.
v) Communication Systems
Reliable means of communication between workers inside pipes and
persons outside should be provided and it is to be ensured that it remains
in working condition at all the time while work is in progress..
vi) Infrastructure Systems
It should be ensured that workers employed in piping reaches a safe
place quickly, if any emergency arises. Adequate arrangements should be
made to rescue workers who are in danger while working are properly
aware of the facilities and trained in that system to reach the safe place in
that particular site.
Notification and Communication Requirements
Any time an employer receives a notification of a hazardous condition, all
oncoming shifts must be notified of occurrences or conditions that either
have affected or might affect their safety. Examples of this type of situation
include equipment failures, earth or rockslides, cave-ins, flooding, explosions,
or release of gas.
The employer has to maintain open lines of communication with other
employees at the worksite to ensure a rapid and complete exchange of
information concerning events or situations that may impact worker safety.
Communication systems shall be tested upon initial entry of each shift to the
underground and as often as necessary at a later time to ensure they are in
working order. Powered communication systems must operate on an
independent power supply & to be installed so that the use of or disruption of
any single communication device or signal location do not disturbs the
operation of the system in any other location.
In the case of an individual employee working alone underground at a
hazardous location who is out of range of natural unassisted voice
communication & not able to be observed by other employees, the employer
shall provide an effective means of obtaining assistance in the event of an
emergency.
All shafts are used for personnel access or hoisting require two effective
means of communication. In addition, hoist operatives must have a closed-
circuit voice communication system connected to each landing station, with
speaker microphones located so that the operator can communicate with
individual stations while the hoist is in use.

2.17 SITE CONTROL PROCEDURES

vii) Check-in/check-out procedures
The employer must maintain a check-in/check-out log/procedure to
ensure that above ground personnel maintain an accurate accounting of
the number of persons underground and to prevent unauthorized persons
from gaining access to the site. This is particularly important in the event
64
 of an emergency but is an important requirement at all times while Safety Aspects
Underground Works
performing such high-risk activity.
At any moment of time an employee is working underground, at least
one designated person should be on duty above ground. This person is
accountable for calling for immediate assistance and keeping an accurate
count of employees who remain underground in the event of an
emergency.
viii)Control of access and egress
In addition to establishing a check-in/check-out procedure, the employer
must ensure safe access to and egress from all workstations at the
construction site to protect employees from potential hazards, such as
being struck by excavators, haulage machines, or other moving
equipment.
To help control access, all unused openings, including chutes and man
ways, must be tightly covered, bulk headed, barricaded, or fenced off,
and posted with warning signs that read, “Keep Out” in local language
which is to be understood by all.
ix) Ground support of portal and subsidence areas
Portal openings and access areas must be guarded by shoring, fencing,
head walls, shot crating or equivalent protection to ensure that employees
and equipment have a safe means to access these areas. Subsiding areas
must be similarly guarded by shoring, filling in, or placing barricades
and warning signs to prevent entry. Adjacent areas to be scaled or
secured to prevent loose soil, rock, or fractured materials from
endangering portal, subsidence, and access areas.
x) Ground support of underground areas
A competent person should be deployed to inspect the roof, face, and
walls of the work areas at the beginning of each shift and as often as
necessary to ensure ground stability. The competent person tasked with
such inspection responsibilities must be protected from loose ground by
location, ground support, or equivalent means. The ground conditions
along all haulage ways and travel ways must also be inspected as
frequently as necessary to ensure safe passage and loose ground
considered to be hazardous to employees must be scaled, supported, or
taken down.
Any dislodged or damaged ground supports that create a hazardous
condition must be promptly repaired or replaced. The new supports to be
installed before removing the damaged supports. Some type of support,
such as a shield, must be used to maintain a safe travel way for
employees working in dead-end areas ahead of any support replacement
operations.
It must be determined by a competent person that how often rock bolts
need to be tested to ensure that they meet the necessary torque, taking
into consideration ground conditions, distance from vibration sources,
and the specific bolt system in use.
xi) Ground support of shafts
Shafts and wells more than 5 feet in depth (1.53 m) entered by
employees should be supported by steel casing, concrete pipe, timber,
65
 Safety during solid rock, or other suitable material. The full depth of the shaft shall be
Construction
supported except where it penetrates into solid rock that will not change
as a result of exposure.
It must be ensured that the casing or bracing must extend 42 (± 3) inches
above ground level unless a standard railing is installed, the adjacent
ground slopes away from the shaft collar, and barriers exist to prevent
mobile equipment operating near the shaft from jumping over the
bracing. If these conditions are met, the casing or bracing may be
reduced to 12 inches above ground.
xii) Fire prevention and control
Open flames and fires are prohibited in underground construction areas
except as permitted for welding, cutting, or other hot work operations.
Signage prohibiting smoking and open flames should be placed
throughout work areas. Fire extinguishers of at least 4A:40B:C rating or
equivalent extinguishing means must be available at the head and tail
pulleys of underground belt conveyers. Some of Fire Control Operatoers
shown in Figure 2.18.

Figure 2.18: Fire Control

All underground structures and those within 100 feet (30.48 m) of an opening
to the underground must be constructed of materials with a fire resistance
rating of at least one hour. Also, no flammable or combustible material may
be stored above ground within 100 feet (30.48 m) of any access point to an
underground operation. If space limitations make this unfeasible, the material
must be positioned as far as possible from the entrance with a fire-resistant
barrier that has at least a one-hour rating between the material and the
opening. Alternative precautionary measures may be adopted from industry
practices used under similar working conditions or measures recommended
under industry consensus standards. Any spill of flammable or combustible
material must be cleaned up immediately.
Due to volatile nature of gasoline it shall be not put underground at any time
for any purpose. Internal combustion engines (except diesel-powered engines
on mobile equipment) are prohibited underground. Acetylene, liquefied
petroleum gas, and methyl acetylene propidine stabilized gas may be used
underground for welding, cutting, and other hot work if all requirements of
OSHA regulations pertaining to such activities are met. (See 29 CFR 1926
Subpart J and 29 CFR 1926.800(j)(k)(m)(n) for a complete explanation of
these requirements.) Only enough fuel gas and oxygen cylinders for welding,
66
cutting, or hot work during a 24-hour period are allowed underground. Safety Aspects
Underground Works
Noncombustible barriers must be installed below such activities if they are
performed in or over a shaft.
Oil, grease, and diesel fuel stored underground must be kept in tightly sealed
containers in fire-resistant areas at least 300 feet (91.44 m) from underground
explosive magazines, and at least 100 feet (30.48 m) from shaft stations and
steeply inclined passageways. Storage areas must be positioned or diked to
ensure that if a container breaks open, any fluids will not flow out of the
storage area. Any hydraulically actuated underground machinery must use
fire-resistant hydraulic fluids unless it is protected by a fire suppression
system or multi-purpose fire extinguisher of sufficient capacity for the type
and size of equipment involved.
Some of the specific requirements apply to the use of diesel fuel in
underground construction operations, as follows:
■ The maximum capacity of tank holding diesel fuel to be pumped to an
underground storage site shall be not greater than the amount of fuel
required to supply underground equipment for 24 hours.
■ A surface level tank must be connected to the underground fueling
station by an acceptable pipe or hose system controlled at the surface by
a valve and at the bottom by a hose nozzle.
■ It must be ensured that the transferring pipe must remain empty at all
times except when transferring diesel fuel.
■ All hoisting operations in the shaft must be suspended during refueling
operations if the supply piping in the shaft is not protected from potential
damage.

2.18 VENTILATION REQUIREMENTS

Fresh air to be supplied to all underground work areas in sufficient amounts
to prevent any dangerous or harmful accumulation of dusts, fumes, mists,
vapors, or gases. If natural ventilation is not providing the necessary air
quality through sufficient air volume and air flow, the employer must provide
mechanical ventilation to ensure that each employee working underground
has at least 200 cubic feet of fresh air per minute.
When performing work which is likely to produce dust, fumes, mists, vapors,
or gases, the linear velocity of air flow in the tunnel bore, shafts, & all other
underground work areas must be at least 30 feet per minute. When such
operations are complete, the ventilation systems must exhaust smoke &
fumes to the outside atmosphere before 12 resuming work in all affected
areas.
The direction of mechanical airflow must be reversible but ventilation doors
must be designed and installed to remain closed when in use, regardless of
the direction of the airflow. If the ventilation system has been shut down and
all employees are removed from the underground area, only competent
persons authorized to test for air contaminants may be allowed underground
until the ventilation system has been restored and all affected areas have
tested at acceptable limits for air contaminants.

67
 Safety during
Construction 2.19 ILLUMINATION REQUIREMENTS
As in all construction operations, OSHA requires that proper illumination be
provided during tunneling operations. When explosives are handled, only
acceptable portable lighting equipment may be used within 50 feet of any
underground heading.

Figure 2.19: Illumination in Tunnel

For normal tunneling operations, shown in Figure 2.19, a minimum
illumination intensity of 5 foot-candles must be maintained, although 10 foot-
candles must be provided for shaft heading during drilling, mucking, and
scaling.

2.20 SPECIAL AIR MONITORING

REQUIREMENTS
Air monitoring shall be ensured by a competent person assigned by employer
on regular basis. If any of the individual determines that air contaminants
may present a danger to life at any time, the employer must immediately take
all necessary precautions and post a notice at all ingresses to the underground
site about the hazardous condition.
While performing air monitoring, the location of the jobsite (its proximity to
fuel tanks, sewers, gas lines, etc.); the geology of the site, including soil type
and permeability; the history of the site and the construction operation
(changes in levels of substances monitored over time); and work practices at
the jobsite (use of diesel engines, explosives, and fuels); hot work, welding,
and cutting; and the physical reactions of employees to working underground
should be taken into consideration.
xiii) Test for oxygen first
At first test of oxygen level shall be conducted prior to conduct testing
for air contaminants. All underground work areas to be tested as often
as necessary to verify that the atmosphere at normal atmospheric
pressure remains within the acceptable parameters of 19.5 and 22
percent oxygen.
After verifying oxygen levels, the competent person must test all
underground work areas for carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
68
 hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases, dusts, vapors, mists, and fumes Safety Aspects
Underground Works
as often as necessary to ensure that levels remain within permissible
exposure limits.
xiv) Testing for methane and other flammable gases
The competent person must also test all underground work areas for
methane and other flammable gases to determine whether the operation
must be classified as potentially gassy or gassy. If the atmosphere
meets the criteria for these designations, the precautions listed in the
section discussing gassy or potentially gassy operations later in this
booklet must be followed. Other precautions to take when testing for
methane or other flammable gases include:
 If 20 percent or more of the lower explosive limit for methane or
other flammable gases is detected in any underground work area or
in the air return, all employees must be evacuated to a safe location
above ground (except those employees required to eliminate the
hazard). Electrical power (except for acceptable pumping and
ventilation equipment) must be cut off to the area until
concentrations reach less than 20 percent of the lower explosive
limit.
 If 10 percent or more of the lower explosive limit for methane gas
or other flammable gases is detected near any welding, 14 cutting,
or other hot work, the work must be suspended until the
concentration is reduced to below 10 percent of the lower
explosive limit.
 When 5 percent or more of the lower explosive limit for methane
or other flammable gases is detected in an underground work area
or in the air return, steps should be taken to increase ventilation air
volume or otherwise control the gas concentration (unless all
requirements of operating under potentially gassy or gassy
operations are met).
xv) Hydrogen sulphide levels
When air monitoring reveals the presence of 5 ppm or more of
hydrogen sulfide, the affected underground areas must be tested at the
beginning and midpoint of each shift until the concentration is
measured at less than 5 ppm for three consecutive days.
Employees must be notified if hydrogen sulfide is detected in amounts
exceeding 10 ppm and a continuous sampling and indicating monitor
must be used to keep track of levels. If the concentration of hydrogen
sulfide reaches 20 ppm, the monitor must be designed to provide both
visual and audible alarms to warn that additional measures (respirator
use, increased ventilation, evacuation) may be appropriate.
Emergency Procedures
Whenever an employee is working underground at least one designated
person must be on duty above ground, responsible for maintaining an
accurate count of the number of employees underground and summoning
emergency aid if needed. Every employee working underground must have a
portable hand lamp or cap lamp for emergency use unless natural light or an
emergency lighting system provides adequate illumination for escape.
Employers must provide self-rescuers approved by the National Institute for 69
 Safety during Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in all underground work areas
Construction
where employees might be trapped by smoke or gas.
At least two 5-person rescue teams, one at the jobsite or within 30 minutes
travel time from the entry point to the site and the other team within two
hours travel time shall be deployed if 25 or more employees work
underground at one time. If less than 25 employees work underground, the
employer must have one 5-person rescue team at the jobsite or within 30
minutes travel time. In both situations, advance arrangements can be made
for local rescue services to meet this requirement. Rescue team members
must be trained in rescue procedures, the use and limitations of breathing
apparatus, and the use of fire Figure hting equipment with qualifications
reviewed annually. When flammable or noxious gases are anticipated at a
jobsite, rescue teams must practice using self-contained breathing apparatus
once a month. The rescue teams must be available through the duration of a
construction project.
In case if a shaft is used as the means of egress, the employer should arrange
for a readily available power-assisted hoisting capability in case of
emergency, unless the regular hoisting means will function in the event of a
power failure.
Record Keeping Requirements
Records of all air quality tests must be maintained above ground at the
worksite and be available on request to the Secretary of Labor or his or her
representative. The record must include the location, date, time, substance
and amount monitored. Records of exposures to toxic substances must be
kept for 30 years. All other air quality test records must be retained until the
project is complete.
Inspection certification records for all hoist equipment indicating the date of
the most recent inspection and load-test, the signature of the person
performing the inspection and test, and a serial number or other identifier for
the hoist must be maintained on file until the project is complete.

SAQ 8
a) Explain site control Procedure?
b) What is the minimum quantity of fresh air required for
underground construction activity?
c) While Air monitoring, which gas is tested first?
d) Describe emergency procedure for underground construction
activity?

2.21 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you are exposed to general provisions of various safety aspects in
excavation, underground construction, tunneling, shaft sinking at drilling
blasting and including transportation, storage of handling exposures. This
unit also gives indepth knowledge of safety aspects such as dust control,
haulage, ventilation and illumination requirements of underground
construction projects. It also explains special air monitoring and their record
70
keeping requirements in terms of safety. This unit also gives a necessity of all Safety Aspects
Underground Works
the above safety aspects of various underground projects of construction and
their training requirements.

2.22 KEY WORDS

Aeriation:It is process of circulating air through mixing or dissolving fresh
air in a liquid, substance or environment.
Shoring:It is a process of temporary supporting a structure or trench, when in
danger to collapse or during repair or collapse.
Excavation: The action or process of removing earth.
Limit Switch:A switch preventing the travel of an object in a mechanism
past some predetermined point, mechanically operated by the motion of the
object itself.
Winze:a Shaft or inclined passage leading from one level toanother, but not
rising to the surface.
Auxiliary Ventilation:A method of supplementing the main ventilating
current in a mine by using a small fan to draw air from the main current and
force it through metal pipe to some place.
Competent Person: A person who is capable of identifying existing and
predicatable hazards in the surroundings or working condition which are
unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees and who has authorization
to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.
Airborne:Carried through air.
Hoist:to lift or pull something up, often by using ropes, etc.
Shaft Sinking: A process for excavating a vertical or near-vertical tunnel
fromthe top down, where top of the excavation is the ground surface.

2.23 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ1
a) A person who is capable of identifying existing and predicatable hazards
in the surroundings or working condition which are unsanitary,
hazardous, or dangerous to employees and who has authorization to take
prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.
b) Fall or dislodgement of earth, rock or other material, fall of
Person/material/objects, Inrush of water into excavation, shaft, tunnel,
hazardous gas, fire, etc.
c) Every part of construction site where activities such as excavation,
earthworks, underground works and tunnel where person are employed
should be inspected in addition to persons deployed for their safety gears
and health by a competent person at times and in frequency / cases
prescribed by national laws or regulations.
SAQ 2
a) Following types of training are required for underground workmens:-

 Air monitoring and ventilation 71

 Safety during  Supply of oxygen
Construction
 Leakage of toxic gases
 Illumination
 Communications
 Flood control
 Personal protective equipment
 Emergency procedures, including evacuation plans
 Check-in/check-out procedures
 Explosives
 Fire prevention and protection
 Mechanical equipment
b) Excavation can be described as a “work involving the removal of soil or
rock from site to form an open face, hole or cavity by using manpower,
tools, machinery or explosives”.

c) Five precautionary measures while performing underground activity are:-

 all excavation work should be planned beforehand, and the method

of excavation and the type of support work required should be
approved by competent authority before the start of work;
 the stability of the ground plays a vital role in safety of workmen
involved. Hence the process of work activity to be continued on that
type of ground should be verified by a competent person;
 a competent person shall check that the underground work will not
affect adjoining/nearby buildings, structures or roadways and what
measures to be taken to avoid it;
 the position of all the public utilities such as underground sewers,
gas pipes, water pipes and electrical conductors that may cause
danger during work should be verified and approved before
commencement of works;
 if necessary or to avoid any mishap, the gas, water, electrical and
other public utilities should be shut off or disconnected;
 First aid equipment’s/materials should be kept at an easily accessible
place, in case of any accident;
 All personnel’s performing the work shall be aware of the hazard
involved in these activities and instruction given regarding this
should be clear and in local language understandable to all.
d) Sides of excavations should be thoroughly inspected:

 daily, prior to each shift and after interruption in work of more than
one day;
 after every blasting operation;
 after an unexpected fall of ground;
72
  after substantial damage to supports; Safety Aspects
Underground Works
 after a heavy rain, frost or snow;
 when boulder formations are encountered.
SAQ 3
a) Twice in every shift.
b) Two cases when workers are withdrawn from underground construction
are:-
 the ventilation fails; or
 other imminent danger threatens.
c) Hoist controls to be arranged so the operator can reach all 16 controls
and the emergency power cutoff without reaching beyond his/her normal
operating position.
d) After any repairs or alterations affecting the structural integrity of the
hoist and annually.
e) Safety requirements for personnel hoists in underground operations are:-
 Employees shall not ride on top of any cage, skip, or bucket unless
inspecting or maintaining the system and wearing a safety belt or
harness.
 Personnel and materials not hoisted together. (except small tools and
supplies secured in a nonhazardous manner).
 When sinking shafts 75 feet (22.86 m) or less, cages, skips, and
buckets that can swing, bump, or snag against shaft sides must be
guided by fenders, rails, ropes, or a combination. If the shaft is more
than 75 feet, hoisted objects must be rope- or rail guided for the full
length of travel.
 It must be ensured that the operator is able to see and hear signals at
the operator’s station.
 A steel-plate protective canopy that slopes to the outside and can be
pushed up for emergency egress and have a locking door that opens
only inward shall be affixed to all cages.
 Sides of personnel cages must be enclosed by 1/2 inch wire mesh to
a height of at least 6 feet (1.83 m). If the cage is being used for/as a
work platform and is not in motion, the sides may be reduced to 42
inches (1.07 m).
SAQ 4
a) Tunneling may be defined as an activity for making underground
passage provided beneath earth surface or water.
b) Though tunneling is an expensive process, but it saves time and provides
comfort. Large excavation of soil or rock etc. is necessary for a tunnel
construction.
c) This method is used, where strong clayey soil condition is found.
Though it is an old method, but generally preferred for small works like
sewage pipes installations etc.
d) Three types of risk involved in tunneling activity are:- 73
 Safety during  Collapse of the sides of the excavated area.
Construction
 People, vehicles, Materials falling into the excavation.
 Ingress from the nearby water body or due to rain causing flooding
e) The precaution taken to mitigate tunneling process hazards are:-
 By battering to the sides to a safe angle or by supporting them with
sheeting or proprietary support system trench collapse can be
avoided.
 To avoid falling of loose soil, Plant or materials in excavated pit, its
shall be stored away from the excavation area.
 Falling of the person into excavation can be prevented by substantial
barriers around the edges of the excavation. It is to be done
mandatorily if the depth exceeds 2 metres but is recommended for
excavations of lesser depths.
 Avert vehicles from falling into excavations or surcharging and
causing the collapse of the sides of the excavation by keeping them
out of the area. Baulks and barriers may be provided for this purpose
and should be painted to be easily visible.
 Provide safe access in and out of the excavated area.
SAQ 5
a) When the top of excavation is the ground surface, it is referred to as
a shaft; when the top of the excavation is underground, it is called a
winze.
b) Shaft shall be inspected:-
 before a shift descends;
 after blasting.
c) Ventilation may be defined as the process by which fresh air (normally
outdoor air) is intentionally provided to a closed space and stale air is
removed. It is generally of two types; Dilute Ventilation and
displacement ventilation.
d) The elementary principle behind displacement ventilation is to use the
airflow in a way that confines the dust source and keeps it away from
workers by putting dust downwind of the workers. For every tunnel or
mine passage with an airflow direction that puts dust downwind of
workers uses displacement ventilation. In mines, unceasing miner faces
or tunnel boring machines on exhaust ventilation use displacement
ventilation. Enclosure of a dust source, such as a conveyor belt transfer
point, laterally with extraction of dusty air from the enclosure, is another
example of displacement ventilation.
e) Lubricating oils shall be only kept underground if it is :
 kept in closed metal containers;
 stored in a safe place away from shafts, hoists, explosives and timber.
SAQ 6
a) Precaution taken for installation of main switch gear underground are:-
74
  be installed on the surface; Safety Aspects
Underground Works
 be accessible only to authorized persons;
 be attended by a competent person authorized to operate it.
b) Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular
cross-section in solid materials.
SAQ 7
a) If explosives and detonators are conveyed in same shaft it shall be
ensured that they are in a suitable powder car stored separately.
b) Dust control steps in underground construction activity are:-
 If drilling in rock is done dry, the dust produced should be
effectively exhausted and collected.
 In case if drilling in rock is done in wet condition, the drill should be
so constructed that it cannot be operated unless the water feed is
operating.
 During blasting, before any shots are fired the floor, roof and sides
in the vicinity should be thoroughly wetted, if practicable.
 Loose rock should be adequately wetted during loading, transport
and unloading underground.
 Excavated material should not be exposed to high-velocity air
currents during transport.
 If any stone-crushing equipment is used underground, adequate
measures should be taken to prevent any dust from it penetrating to
areas occupied by workers.
c) wetting is extremely important for dust control where air circulation is
limited. The amount of dust particles created during breakage are not
released into the air, but stay attached to the surface of the broken
material. Wetting this broken material ensures that dust particles stays
attached to each other or to grounded. As a result, adding extra water can
usually (but not always) be counted on to reduce dust. For example, coal
mine operatives have been able to reduce the dust from higher longwall
production levels by raising the shearer water flow rate to an average of
100 gpm. Compared to this amount of coal mined, on a weight basis, this
100 gpm is equivalent to 1.9% added moisture from the shearer alone.
Unfortunately, excessive moisture level can result in a host of materials
handling problems, operational headaches, and product quality issues, so
an upper limit on water use is sometimes reached rather quickly. As a
result, a substitute to simply adding more water is to ensure that the
broken material is being wetted uniformly.
d) Uniformity in wetting process can be achieved by respraying the coal
with water and then mechanically mixing the coal and water together. It
can be better explained with the help of an example, releasing water at
the cutting picks of rotating shearer drums has proven to be far more
effective at suppressing longwall dust than using external sprays on the
shearer body. Since water released at the cutting picks gets mixed in with
the broken coal, whereas water from external sprays usually provides just
surface wetting.
e) The designers of dust collection systems have to take many shortcuts to
cut costs and decrease the amount of maintenance required due to which
efficiency of some of the dust collector is also reduced. 75
 Safety during SAQ 8
Construction
a) Site Control procedure includes:
 Check-in/check-out log.
 Control of access and egress
 Ground support of portal and subsidence areas
 Ground support of underground areas
 Ground support of shafts
 Fire prevention and control
b) Minimum quantity of air required by individual in underground
construction has at least 200 cubic feet of fresh air per minute.
c) Oxygen.
d) As per emergency procedure whenever an employee is working
underground at least one designated person must be on duty above
ground, responsible for maintaining an accurate count of the number of
employees underground and summoning emergency aid if needed. Every
employee working underground must have a portable hand lamp or cap
lamp for emergency use unless natural light or an emergency lighting
system provides adequate illumination for escape. At least two 5-person
rescue teams, one at the jobsite or within 30 minutes travel time from the
entry point to the site and the other team within two hours travel time
shall be deployed if 25 or more employees work underground at one time.
If less than 25 employees work underground, the employer must have
one 5-person rescue team at the jobsite or within 30 minutes travel time.
In both situations, advance arrangements can be made for local rescue
services to meet this requirement.

76
UNIT 3 SAFETY IN WORKS AT HEIGHT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objectives
3.2 Scaffolding
3.2.1 Independent Tied Scaffolds
3.2.2 Single Pole or Put Log Scaffolds
3.2.3 Tower Scaffolds
3.2.4 Suspended Scaffolds
3.3 Ladders
3.3.1 Stock Ladders
3.3.2 Step Ladders
3.3.3 Extension Ladders
3.3.4 Safe Practices During Use of Ladders
3.4 Working on Roofs
3.4.1 Flat Roofs
3.4.2 Sloping Roofs
3.4.3 Fragile Roofs
3.5 Use of Related Machinery and Equipment
3.5.1 Using Cranes
3.5.2 Construction Hoists
3.5.3 Inspection of Hoists
3.5.4 Hazard Prevention and Safety Measures
3.5.5 Hoists for Persons
3.5.6 Pulley Wheels
3.5.7 Manual Lifting and Carrying of Material on Construction Site
3.6 Let Us Sum Up
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Answers to SAQs
3.9 References and Further Readings

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Multistory projects require personnel working at heights. As a result, fall
related accidents form a major part of the fatalities. In this unit, we will be
learning about the safety aspects to be observed while working at heights on
a construction site.
The various construction processes involve the hoisting and placement of
material and people to and from different levels. A large number of accidents
in construction sites occur due to persons falling from above, objects falling
from above causing casualties, accidents occurring while moving materials.
Out of this, persons falling from above resulting in death form the single
largest cause of casualties in construction projects. Over 60% of construction
related deaths are attributed to falling from heights. Some of the accident
prone areas while working at height are:
77
Safety during  Scaffolds, ladders, working platforms, edges of roofs and floors
Construction
 Fall from fragile roofs
 Falls and injuries as a result of hoisting materials or persons
In keeping with the value of every human life, it is the responsibility of every
person involved in a construction project to ensure that every person working
on the project gets to work under safe conditions and that no life is lost in the
process. In fact construction hazards can be eliminated when we follow
adequate safety measures, when we plan in advance and when we follow
complete procedures It is a matter of prioritizing value of human life even
while making human progress.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 identify the major hazard prone areas in works above ground,
 learn about some common mistakes or lacunae that lead to these
accidents,
 describe safety and maintenance measures to protect from accidents.
Let us now look at the precautions to be taken against the fall of
persons/materials and collapse of structures.
Working at Height
The complex variety of construction processes involves hoisting and
placement of material and people to and from different levels. One of the
fundamental ways of preventing falls is by erecting physical barriers, fences
or guards prevent fall of material and men during these processes. During the
course of construction, it is important to use stays, supports and or other
effective precautions to prevent the collapse of structures.
In a construction site, there would be occasions where cut outs and sleeves
are left for fitting with machineries at a later stage. For example, shafts for
ducts to pass through or lift well to install elevators may be left open until the
equipment is installed. In order to avoid accidents, these openings are to be
covered effectively or fenced, indicating their locations.
The usual practice to protect workers falling from elevated workplaces is to
use guard rails and toe boards. Where these are not feasible, safety nets or
safety harnesses are to be used. See Figures (3.1 & 3.2) given below:

78
 Safety aspects in
Multistory Building

Figure 3.1: Safety Net

The safety net ensures that a personnel falling on it does not hit any other object below it:
(Source:http://elcosh.org/document/1680/d000593/fall-protection-hazard-awareness-guide.html)

Figure 3.2: Safety Harnesses

A safety harness with D shaped clips at the middle of the back for workers to work while they are
working on heights.
(Source http://elcosh.org/document/1680/d000593/fall-protection-hazard-awareness-guide.html)

Studies show that approximately 60% of all deaths from falls occur from
heights less than 5 meters.
Working at height is defined as any location at, above or below ground level,
where a worker can be injured if the person fell from that place. Working at
heights isdetermined as 1.8 meters or more and applies to an area where it is
possible for a person to fall 1.8 meters or more from one level to another. The
first lift on a scaffold platform is 1.8 meters. That is why the height 1.8m
becomes relevant.
Some of the examples of work at height are :
 Working on trestles,flat roof, ladder
 Erecting formwork
 Working near or adjacent to fragile materials
Falls below 2 metres
79
Safety during
Construction Latest construction regulations does not distinguish between low and high
falls. Any fall that can cause personal injury is to be avoided. Earlier, guard
rails and working platforms were made mandatory for works above 2 m.
However, the latest safety practice is to have a sensible risk- based approach
to prevent injuries

3.2 SCAFFOLDING
While visiting a construction site, you may have noticed a mesh around the
building made up of horizontal and vertical members on which workers
climb up to work at higher levels of the building. These individual members
are fastened and tied securely to each other to erect the scaffolding. This
mesh is referred to as scaffolding. See Figure 3.3 below:

Figure 3.3: Scaffolding in a Construction Site

(Source :https://cdn.britannica.com/s:700x500/33/118633-050-B3988F27/building.jpg
Encyclopedia Britannica)

Scaffolding can be defined as a temporary structure, used in building

construction made up of platforms at intervals which are used to access
higher levels of a building. These platforms are used as work surfaces or for
storing materials or for climbing up. Scaffolds are used not just during
construction of buildings. They can be used during maintenances as well as
demolition process of a building. Once the construction work is over, the
scaffolds are dismantled.

Figure 3.4: Part of a Typical Scaffolding

(Source https://rlshumancare.com/types-of-scaffolding/)

80
 Safety aspects in
Multistory Building

Figure 3.5: Workers on Scaffold

(Source https://theconstructor.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/single-scaffolding-806x440.jpg)

Scaffoldings are used to access elevated parts of the building which cannot be
reached from the ground level. Working at elevated levels have the inherent
risks of workers falling from the height. The safety aspects to be used are
uniform across these materials irrespective of the material used. The material
should be able to bear the weight of the workers and the stress created due to
their movement. It should be stable and securely fastened and anchored. Most
importantly, it should be designed to prevent collapse and fall of persons
operating upon it. Materials like steel,aluminium are commonly used as
scaffold materials. Wood and bamboo are not recommended as compared to
the metal scaffolds. For our discussion purposes, we will focus on tubular
metal scaffolding. The types of scaffold are:
Independent Tied Scaffolds
Single Pole or Putlog Scaffolds
Tower Scaffolds
Suspended Scaffolds

3.2.1 Independent Tied Scaffolds

As the name suggests, these scaffolds are stand-alone structures, anchored to
the ground using its own mechanism .It may be tied to the building or
structure but does not taking support of it.
This kind of scaffolding consists of a framework of tubular members in
horizontal and vertical directions connected to each other using coupling
members. The vertical members are called uprights or standards and they
are secured to the ground. The horizontal tubes are secured to these uprights
and run in two directions-one 90 degrees to the building and one running
parallel to the face of the building. The ones running parallel to the face of
the building are called ledgers and the ones which run 90 degrees to the
building are called transoms. The platform of the scaffolding rests on these
horizontal members i.e. ledgers and transoms.

3.2.2 Single Pole or Putlog Scaffolds

Single pole or put log scaffolds are also called bricklayer’s scaffold. In this
type of scaffold, the weight rests partially on uprights and partially on the
building under construction which is typically at a bricklaying stage. Holes
are left in the brick work and ledgers ( transoms) inserted into these gaps
(“put log”)and the other side rests on the uprights. As they rest on the
building under construction instead of freestanding on the ground, they are
quite stable and resistant to the wind force etc. As there is only a single row 81
Safety during of uprights used, they are called as single pole scaffolds. The advantage of
Construction
this scaffold is that lesser number of members are used in the scaffold.
The single row of uprights are not secured to the ground in isolation, one by
one. Instead a pair of uprights are supported by a single timber base called a
sole board. The gap between the uprights is not more than 2 m and they are
set a distance of 1.3 m from the wall. This ensures that 5 boards can be
placed on the ledger. The ledgers are connected on the inside of the uprights
at a height of not more than 2m from the ground level or lesser as per the
work demands.
The putlogs and the ledgers together carry the weight of the scaffold. So the
placement of the putlogs also follows certain thumb rules and is dependent on
the thickness of the boards ( platform) placed on them. Therefore, for a
38mm thick board, the put logs are placed at 1.5 m centre to centre from each
other. The portion of the putlogs which are placed inside the gaps in the brick
work are usually flattened and are inserted by at least 75mm. There is a
likelihood of these putlogs getting displaced from the gaps in brick during the
course of construction. In order to avoid this, bracing is provided at an angle
of 45 degrees ( to the horizontal) and running from the face of the building to
the full height of the upright at every 30m

Figure 3.6: Put Log Scaffold or Single Pole Scaffold

(Source : Safety, health and welfare on construction sites a training manual)

3.2.3 Tower Scaffolds

Tower scaffolds are free standing structures used for work at height and used
as alternatives for ladders. They are also called by the names “access
towers” or a “scaffold towers”. As opposed to ladders, they can be used for
work at heights which involves long duration and eliminates the risk of
imbalance which the ladders are prone to. This is because unlike ladders, they
are self supporting and not leaning on to a wall or any other vertical support
system. They consists of work platforms which help in a wider range of
movements for the employee which a ladder cannot be provide. For example,
a painter can stand on top of the platform and can place the paint cans,
brushes and accessories next to him on the platform. Tower scaffolds can be
mobile or immobile and when mobile they have castor wheels attached to the
bottom.

82
 Safety aspects in
Multistory Building

Figure 3.8: Mobile Tower Scaffold

The Figure shows a mobile tower whose wheels are locked while in use. The ladder which is
provided for access is placed inside the tower
(Source : Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

All in all, they provide all the functions of a ladder with additional provisions
for stable working platform making it a better choice than a ladder.
a) Safety aspects to be considered while working on a Tower scaffold
Assembly - The primary consideration of safety is during the assembly
of a scaffold. It is important to follow the instruction of the manufacturer
and never deviate from them. Never try and supplant the scaffolding
material with nonstandard parts which does not come with the package.
Also check for the manufacturer’s credibility and that is in compliance
with the standards issued by the government.
These towers are vertical with a single platform and resting on firm and
level base or on adequate base plates. The castor wheels of mobile
towers should not be less than 125mm in diameter. The castor wheels
should be fitted with lock or brakes facility that helps the tower remain
stationary while in use as a static tower.
Material -Aluminium and steel are generally used for scaffold towers.
Aluminium is a light material and durable material. Both these materials
are reliable and safe as scaffolding materials. The scaffolds which are
used for electrical works are usually made of glass fibre as they do not
conduct electricity the way Aluminium and steel can.
Stability
Stability is an important factor of scaffold towers and is largely
determined by the ratio between the height and the base width of the
tower.
Some thumb rules for the height to width ratio are given below:
Table 3.1 : Recommended Height to base width
Mobility of the tower Location of use Height to base width ratio
Static Indoors Less than 4:1
Static Outdoors Less than 3.5:1
Mobile Outdoors Less than 3:1
Some thumb rules are given for the height of the tower scaffold
83
Safety during Table 3.2 : Recommended heights for tower scaffolds
Construction

Mobility of the tower Height Additional support

Static -freestanding < 12m Not required

Static -freestanding >12m Tying to a stable structure

required

Mobile <9.6m Not required

Mobile >9.6m and less Tying to a stable structure

than 12m required

Mobile towers beyond 12m are not advisable

The stability of such a structure is also determined by the position of its

centre of gravity; the loading on the platform can raise its centre of gravity,
thereby affecting its stability. Therefore excessive loading of the platforms is
to be avoided.
b) Working platform
Since ,the platform on top of the tower scaffold is accessed by a
ladder,these ladders are to be provided within the scaffold framework so
as to prevent overturning.The location where the ladder meets the
platform has a covered opening. The cover has to be held in place
securely when not in use as it forms part of the platform and also with a
handhold. Guard rails and toe boards also form part of the platforms.

Figure 3.9: Working Platform

(Source: CODE OF PRACTICE F OR ACCESS AND WORKING SCAFFOLDS
Published by the Health and Safety Authority, The Metropolitan Building, James Joyce Street, Dublin 1)
84
c) Movement Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
The tower is moved manually by applying pushing or pulling force at the
bottom of the tower. Vehicles are not used to tow the tower.
d) Causes of accidents in tower scaffolds
The main form of accidents in a tower scaffold is it tipping over. This
can happen because of instability and caused by movement of centre of
gravity. It is a simple principle that when the height of a structure is too
large as compared to its base, then it becomes unstable.The same
principle applies here. The Height to Width ratio becomes and important
factor.
When the top part of the structure is overloaded, there is a tendency for
the centre of gravity to be shifted up and the structure to fall over. This
tendency is possible when the working platform is overloaded with
materials or people. Therefore care has to be taken to allow only the
minimum required equipment and people on the tower scaffolding
platforms.
Another cause of toppling over is when the scaffolding tower is not
securely fastened to a permanent structure near it. This is a likely cause
in areas where there is windload.It is also important to not attach safety
nets boards or sheeting to these towers as these can act as sails and cause
toppling over.The other risk of tower toppling is when the access to the
tower is from outside.
Due to the conducting nature of the material of the tower scaffolding,
care should be taken to keep it at a safe distance from overhead
obstructions and electricity lines.

3.2.4 Suspended Scaffolds

Sometimes the ground conditions may not allow the erection of scaffolds
from the ground. One example of this would be constructions on a busy
street where movement of people prevents securing the scaffolds on the
ground. In such cases, we use suspended scaffolds.
They take support from the building itself and various fastening mechanisms
are used to secure them to the building. These scaffolds are accessed either
from the ground level or from the roof level.
The various types of suspended scaffolds are as given below;
 Suspended platforms
 Cradles
a) Safety aspects in suspended scaffolds
Most of the accidents in a suspended scaffold arises out of a) problems
while alighting and climbing into the suspended cradle b) counterweight
which are not adequately secured. The access to the suspended scaffold
is to be made at the roof level or the ground level. A fall arrest device
needs to be provided along with a secondary rope. Always wear the
safety harness while working inside a suspended scaffold. An
experienced and competent person should always supervise the
installation and use of the suspended scaffold.
85
Safety during
Construction SAQ 1
a) What is a scaffold?
b) Differentiate between a single pole scaffold and an independent
scaffold?
c) What are the hazards and precautions associated with tower
scaffolds?

3.3 LADDERS
Ladders are basic equipment used to access works at a higher level on a
construction site. It is the easiest tool to access height but it is also restrictive
in many ways. The primary constraint of a ladder is that it can be used only
by one person at a time and does not allow carrying of materials while
climbing. As the balance of a ladder is a challenging aspect of its operation,
the use of a ladder would require a support person to stand at the bottom of
the ladder to ensure the safety of the person climbing the ladder. This can,
however be avoided if the ladder is secured at the top.
 The design of the ladder shall confirm to IS 3696 (Part 2): 1991
 The design of a metal ladder shall conform to IS 1977:1975
 The design of an aluminium alloy shall conform to IS 617:1975
The basic types of ladders are listed below:

3.3.1 Stock Ladders

Stock ladders or single ladders are made of a single section and their length is
not more than 10 m. These are lean-to ladders which means that one end is
supported on a surface and the other leans against a wall. The side rails of
these ladders may either be parallel or tapering towards the top. The distance
between rungs shall be between 250mm to 350mm.The width between side
rails can be between 290mm to 3m in length. A stock ladder must be able to
support 4 times its maximum load.

Figure 3.10: Stock Ladder Figure 3.11: Step Ladder

(Source : Canadian Centre for Occupational health and safety)

86
3.3.2 Step Ladders Safety aspects in
Multistory Building

These are A shaped ladders which are self supporting. They are hinged at the
upper end and have a spreader arrangement. Overall height of these ladders
should not be more than 6 m. The minimum width at the top should be 30 cm
wide and there should be a spread of 25 mm for every 30 cm length.
Like in the general case of ladders, step ladders must be placed in level
surface while in use and preferably at right angle to the work. They are to be
drawn out to the maximum extent before use. If step ladders are used for
longer duration of work, make sure that there is sufficient handhold provision.
The mechanism used to keep the legs of the step ladder from spreading out
and causing unbalance have to be in good condition.

3.3.4 Extension Ladders

Extension ladders are also called as portable ladders. The heights of these
ladders is extendable using brackets or guides.Over-all length not to exceed
18 m; Sliding section not to exceed two in number

Figure 3.12: Extension Ladder

(Source: OSHA standard: 29 CFR 1926 Subpart X—Stairways and Ladders)

3.3.5 Safe Practices During Use of Ladders

More than half of the accidents associated with ladders are caused because
the ladders are not firmly resting on the ground or they slip from the top. The
base of the ladder is to be rested on flat and level surface. If the ground is
uneven, either make it leveled or if it is possible, insert the ladder bottom
into the ground.
In order to avoid the risk of tipping at the top of the ladder, the ladders are to
be placed in such a way that at least 1 m of the ladder extends above the
landing place. This would imply that sufficiently long ladders are to be used.
If the ladder falls short, under no circumstances can they be placed over
another object ( like vehicle, drum box) etc to increase the reach of the ladder.
The thumb rule for placing the ladder is that the ladder should be placed at a
87
Safety during distance of 1m from the base for every 4m height of the ladder or at an angle
Construction
of 75 degrees. For steeper angles, the ladder has to be secured at the top.
While using metal ladders, there is a risk of electrocuting if the ladder gets in
contact with overhead electric lines and hence the site has to be checked for
this risk prior to the use of ladders.
At the landing place, the person climbing the ladder must have the ease to
step off to the working place directly without the obstruction of guard rails or
toe boards.
While ascending and descending the ladder, the worker has to do so in the
direction facing the ladder.
For extension ladders, it is advisable to maintain a overlapping distance of 2
rungs for heights up to 5m and an overlap of 3 rungs for more than 5 m.
Before climbing on extensions ladders, they have to be raised and lowered
from the ground and it has to be ensured that the hooks or locks are properly
engaged.
While climbing the ladder, it is best advisable to use both the hands. If work
tools are to be carried up, they are best carried in a bag or other means so as
to leave the hands free.Overreaching and over balancing must not be
attempted as these are often a common cause of accidents while using
ladders
Three point contact method
A three point contact method is to be followed while using ladders. For this,
the person climbing the ladders has to ensure that both the hands are firmly
on the rungs before stepping onto a ladder. At all times, a 3-point contact -
one hand and two feet or two hands and one foot on the ladder is to be
maintained. This 3-point contact can only be broken on reaching ground or a
stable platform.

Figure 3.13: Three Point Contact Figure 3.14: Do not Overarch

(Source: Canadian center for occupational (Source: Safety, health and welfare on construction
health and safety) sites)

While climbing, the worker has to keep his/her body between the side rails
and not lean out on either side. Always avoid carrying tools, equipment, or
88 material in the hands while climbing.
It is advisable to wear footwear free of grease or dirt so as to not leave Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
residue on the ladder.

SAQ 2
a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of ladders?
b) List some of the common causes of ladder accidents
c) What is the three point contact of climbing ladders?

3.4 WORKING ON ROOFS

Many works are undertaken at the roof level during the construction of a
building as well as its maintenance. Be it specialist workers trained for
working at roof level or routine workers, a careful safe working system has to
be in place before embarking on working on roof tops.
Roof work is one of the most accident prone processes in a construction site.
Therefore it is of utmost importance to have proper mechanisms in place for
works undertaken on roof tops. The nature of accidents occurring in roof
tops are of the following types:
a) falls from roof edges
b) falls through openings in roofs
c) falls through fragile roof material
Below we will inspect the nature of accidents that occur on roof tops and
precautions to avoid them:
3.4.1 Flat Roofs
Any roof with a slope up to 10 degrees falls under the category of flat roofs.
Any point on the flat roof from where there is a likelihood of a fall greater
than 2 m needs adequate fall prevention in the form of guard- rails and toe
boards.

Figure 3.15: Edge Protection in Flat Roof

(Source: Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

If there is a parapet of similar structure of sufficient strength which can take

load, the guard rails and toe boards can be attached to these with the help of
scaffolding pipes. Edge protection can also be ensured by having precast
concrete cubes as counterweights.
89
Safety during
Construction
3.4.2 Sloping Roofs
In the previous section, we discussed about having edge protection in case of
roof slope upto 10 degrees. Edge protection is compulsory for roofs which
more than 10 degree slope or which are slippery or from where there is a
likelihood of a fall which is greater than 2 m. Roofs can become slippery due
to weather conditions like rainy weather or snow. Often in climatic zones
with long duration of rainy weather, moss growing on the roof surface can
make these surfaces to cause slip and fall.
Various forms of fall protection barriers which are sturdy and high enough to
prevent a body sliding or rolling down, can be used in sloping roofs . Some
such mechanisms are shown in the Figure below.

Figure 3.16: Edge Protection for Sloping Roofs

(Source: Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

In sloping roofs, great care has to be taken during inspection and

maintenance works of temporary nature also. Unless the slope by itself is
sturdy and have adequate leg and hands support for the worker to hold to,
special crawling ladders or boards as shown in Figure below are to be used.

Figure 3.17: Use of Roof Ladder For Work on a Sloping Roof or Over Fragile
Materials
(Source: Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

3.4.3 Fragile Roofs

There are many different types of roofing materials which may be fragile
depending on the purpose they serve.
90
1) Skylights made of polycarbonate or acrylic or wired glass which allow Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
sunlight enter inside the building. Corrugated plastic sheeting is also
widely popular roofing material used with the intent of allowing daylight
into the area it covers.
2) GI sheets ( Galvanised iron sheets) for roofing and plastic roofing sheets
used for agricultural buildings, sheds etc
3) Unreinforced cement sheets including asbestos roofs
4) Unreinforced insulation slabs
Before commencing work on roof it is important to check whether the roof is
fragile or not. Weathering can camouflage the fragility of the roof and give a
false impression of sturdiness. Painting or tarring especially after repair of a
roof can also sometimes give a false appearance of being strong enough to
take human weight but may give away when point load is applied. For safety
access of such roofs, it is better to use at least two crawling boards or roof
ladders to use one for support when the other is moved.
Many times, the valley of the sloping roof or the gutter is used for accessing
roofs. If there are fragile roofs adjacent to such works, it is important to have
guard rails in place to prevent rolling or slipping on to the fragile roof.
 Crawling boards and roof ladders
Crawling boards and roof ladders are mechanisms to access fragile roofs. In
the Figure above, a roof ladder is shown with its top having a system to
attach on to the roof for support. Care should be taken that the ladder takes it
support from the opposite of the roof instead of the ridge of the roofs as the
ridges can be susceptible to breakage. Alternatively, ropes can also be used to
secure these ladders. Using roof gutters must be avoided as they cannot be
supportive.

Figure 3.18: Fragile Roof Walking Equipments

(Source :https://www.safesite.co.uk/assets/uploads/Portable_mesh_walkway_for_fragile_roofs.jpg)

91
Safety during
Construction

Figure 3.19: Mobile Valley Frame

(Source : https://www.safesite.co.uk/assets/uploads/Mobile_valley_frame_for_fragile_roofs.jpg)

SAQ 3
a) What are some of the accidents occurring in roof work?
b) What are the various protection mechanism from fall from edge of
roofs?
c) What are the uses of crawling board or roof ladder?

3.5 USE OF RELATED MACHINERY AND

EQUIPMENT
In this section, we will be discussing the various ways of transporting and
hoisting materials on the site. The common practices for hoisting and moving
materials on site
a) Using cranes
b) Using Hoists
c) Using gin or pulley wheels
d) By manual handling

3.5.1 Using Cranes

Cranes are temporary structures used on construction sites to lift heavy loads
or move heavy loads from one place to another. They are usually mounted on
the ground or on special purpose vehicles. In built pulleys and cables are
used for the movement of materials.
Overloading
During the operation of the crane, it is important the operator or his assistants
have sufficient experience to estimate the load that the crane has to take.
Sometimes for odd shaped piles it would be difficult to estimate the load. An
operator might underestimate the weight of the load and lower the arm of the
crane too fast and combined with a sudden application of brakes, this can
often lead to damage of the jib of the crane ( the horizontal arm). There are
many way to take precautions for this. Of course, the experience of the
operator is important here but other aspects like marking the load capacity of
the crane arm and its various parts also play important roles in loading the
92
crane to its optimal use. The accessories of the crane like the pulley blocks Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
and the winches are also to be marked similarly. There are cranes with
variable length of radius of the arms- called derricking cranes. For such
cranes, the loading capacity at each radius is to be marked on them so that
while loading, it is within the range of its capacity.
Safety precautions in cranes
Cranes which give alarm signals to indicate overloading are safe options on
the site. Such cranes have alarm signals in the form of lights or hooters which
alerts the operators and assisting persons whenever the safe load is exceeded.
The soil on which the crane rests also plays a factor in safety load that the
crane can take. Soft grounds may not be able to withstand the load that a
firm ground can take. Therefore, an estimation of these periphery conditions
are to be made and overloading, or even close to overloading conditions are
to be avoided. It is also a good practice to raise the load slowly, stop at a
distance to check for the stability and to raise further. The bottom line would
be to never ignore any signals that the crane and attempt to overload it.
Inspection and maintenance
Apart from maintenance and inspection as mandated by the government, it is
important to follow the manufacturer’s recommendation of crane
maintenance. Additionally, before using a crane on a construction site, a
competent personal has to inspect the crane and certify it for safe use for the
particular activity. This is because often times, wear and tear of the metal
parts of the crane like hinges and bolts may not be apparent and would need
close inspection.
The sheaves of the crane and the wire ropes are common areas where
inspection is required as these parts undergo friction. Brakes of the crane are
to be checked and replaced if needed. The parts of the crane which are meant
for its safety- the safety lights, sirens, limit switches, overload cut out
switches are to be checked periodically because, it is likely that they are
turned off deliberately. Many a times, the limit switch’s function would be to
cut off the power to the lift motor. To avoid this perceived “annoyance”,
often the switch maybe in a switched off position. These are some of the
pointers to keep in mind during the inspection and maintenance of the cranes.
Ropes and slings
While using rings and slopes in connection with cranes, make sure that the
safety limit of the rope is marked clearly on them. When heavy objects are
being lifted by the crane, it is advisable to have a cushion between the heavy
object and the sling so as to prevent their wear and tear.

SAQ 4
a) Name some of the lifting machineries on a construction site?
b) What is a crane?
c) What are some of the safety measures while operating a crane?

93
Safety during
Construction
3.5.2 Construction Hoists
Construction hoists are equipment on construction site which are used to
transport of materials vertically. A construction hoist consists of a tower,
carriage or car, and a motor to help in the movement of the carriage.
Usually the material hoists are used for transporting materials vertically and
the hoists which are used to transport material are not used for transporting
people.
The operation mechanism of the hoists can vary - Electro-hydraulic, manual
or lever operated, base mounted, or pendant cranes but the safety measures
remain the same.

Figure 3.20: Material Hoist

(Source : http://elcosh.org/document/4041/d001406/osha-fatal-facts%3A-material-hoist-collapse.html)

Figure 3.21: Material Hoist with Enclosures at the Ground Level

(Source : Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

3.5.3 Inspection of Hoists

The manufacturers’ instruction have to be followed for inspection and safety
of the hoists. Additional safety practices are prescribed below:
 The hoists have to be inspected periodically as per the government norms
or as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Additionally, every time they
are used after keeping them not in use for a long time, a complete
inspection has to be carried out.

94
 The parts of the hoists like hooks, ropes, safety chains, safety breaks are Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
to be inspected daily. All defective chains and parts are to be replaced or
removed immediately.

3.5.4 Hazard Prevention and Safety Measures

a) During installation of the hoist
The hoist tower is to be secure to the building or the scaffold and
fastened at intervals of the tower.
b) Carriage
At the ground level of the hoist, where the carriage/platform rests, an
enclosure of height 2m is to be provided around the carriage. This
enclosure is usually of metal and has gates which allow access to the
carriage gates. Ramps maybe provided to access the carriage way from
the ground through the enclosure. The enclosures ensure that the workers
on ground do not get injured by the moving platform.
The platform or the carriage is to be sufficiently protected with wire
mesh ( or other protective covering)to protect from falling materials. At
the levels where the carriage has to be stopped, gates are to be provided.
These gates are to be kept unless transportation of materials is required
to this level.
c) Safety mechanisms
An overrun device and a fall arrestor device are important safety
mechanisms for a hoist. An overrun device,usually used with platform
hoists, is to be set at the top most landing.
The car arrestor device prevents the collapse of the car in the event of
the hoist rope failing.
d) Operation
Usually the operator remains at the ground level for the operation of
hoist. The operator of the hoist is to be in a position where he/s he can
view all the landings where loading and unloading takes place. It is
important in manual hoists that the hoists is not moved the time when
materials are being loaded or unloaded. In order to avoid this, the
operations control should be from one position and hand signal
communication is to be given before moving the hoist
e) Materials carried on the platform
Ensure that safe load that hoist can carry is displayed on the hoist and
never exceeded. If wheel barrows with goods is transported on the hoist
platform, ensure that the wheels are blocked from rolling during travel.
Never transport brick, sand and other loose material on an open platform
hoist. The workers are to be prohibited from traveling on top of the
carriage or even on the platform of a goods hoist unless for the purpose
of inspection.
f) Other safety measures
Allow only trained workers to install and operate the material hoist.The
safety break system of the hoist prevents the carriage from slipping and
falling and so it is essential that these breaks are inspected on a daily
basis.The manufacturer’s recommendations for erecting the tower is to 95
Safety during be followed.The workers are also to be sensitized regarding the fall
Construction
hazards and personal safety measures to follow in the event of a fall
The workers using the hoists during installation or use need to have their
personal safety fall protection system in place. These personal protection
mechanisms are to be tied to a building part or a stable structure and
never to the pole of the hoist

3.5.5 Hoists for Persons

Hoists for persons is a specialized one with covered carriages and installed
for the said purpose with electro mechanical safety devices.

Figure 3.22: Passenger Hoist

(Source : http://www.jaypee.in/media/brochures/passenger_hoist.pdf)

3.5.6 Pulley Wheels

Pulley wheels are a common way of hoisting objects on a site. While there
are special equipment to lift heavy loads, lighter loads can be transported
over shorter distances using pulleys. Pulley wheels are also called gin
wheels

Figure 3.23: Pulley Wheel on Site

(Source: Picture courtesy: Safety, health and welfare on construction sites)

96
Some of the safety measures while using pulleys: Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
 The pole on which the pulley is hung from is to be supported on at least
two points
 For the purpose of lifting, make shift hooks such as bent iron bars are to
be avoided at all costs. Hooks with safety latches are to be used.
 The hoisting rope has to be free from wear and tear and not prone to
breakage
 Due to the swaying nature of the rope, the contents of the bucket may
topple over. If the content is liquid, it is recommended to use a lid.
 Appropriate load which can be lifted by the container, the pulley and
hook may only be lifted
 Gloves are to be worn during the hoisting of the bucket
 For greater than objects being hauled to a height of more than 5m, fall
becomes a bigger hazard. In such cases, pulleys with ratchet and pawl
mechanism- which allows the turning of wheel in one direction only can
be used. This, by itself acts like a brake in case the control of the rope
goes while hoisting.
 Since there is a risk of forward momentum during hoisting using pulleys,
when they are installed near roof or floor edges adequate fall protection
mechanisms like guard rails and toe boards are to be used.
 It is advisable for two or more workers pulling the pulley to give verbal
communication to be able to pull the weight in a synchronous manner.

3.5.7 Manual Lifting and Carrying of Material on

Construction Site
Manual labourers employed on a construction site form the largest workforce.
They carry building materials and heavy loads on their heads. Death caused
due to manual lifting and carrying is the second most common cause of
construction deaths, after fall from heights.
Heavy lifting
Manual lifting is one of the leading causes of injuries on sites making up 36%
of injuries leading to loss of workdays. Most common of them are strain to
shoulders and backs caused by overexertion and cumulative trauma. Back
sprains, muscle pulls, injuries to wrists,elbows, spines are also common
injuries.
Employees are to be encouraged to practice ergonomical ways of lifting and
to use smart practice and work in their “power zone” so that they are less
susceptible to injuries.
Some factors to be considered during heavy lifting
Weight of the objects
Certain types of loads such as bundle of conduit wiring, some heavy
machinery can adversely impact the muscles and vertebrae.Carrying a load
greater than 22 kgs is likely to cause injuries to the person.
Alternative options It will be a wiser alternative to use fork lifts of duct lifts
when heavy loads are to be moved on site. For moving smaller loads, hand 97
Safety during trucks and pallet jacks can also be used. To open flat smooth surfaces,
Construction
suction tools can be used. To load trucks, ramps and roll up mechanisms are
to be used.

Figure 3.24: Lifting Bundle of Wiring can Cause Stress to the Muscles

Figure 3.25: Fork Lifts can be Used to Transport Heavy Materials and Machineries on
Site Instead of Using Manual Labour.
(Source: https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/electricalcontractors/materials/heavy.html)

Figure 3.26: Handtrucks

(Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Handtruck.JPG)

98
 Safety aspects in
Multistory Building

Figure 3.27: Pallet Jacks

(Source : https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Pompwagen.jpg)

Before lifting heavy loads, the following aspects have to be kept in mind:
a) Gauge the weight of the load.
b) The load to be lifted is to be placed in the “power zone”- between the
height between mid thigh and mid chest . The Power zone is where the
body can lift with least effort.
c) Use proper lifting principles maintaining a neutral and straight spine
position and bending from the knees instead of the waist.
d) If prefabrication process is involved, assign an area that is easily
accessible from the site and transport the finished products using material
lifts.
e) For weights exceeding 22 kgs, take the help of another person
f) While placing orders, work with supplier to send order in small batches
instead of in one go.

Figure 3.28: Material Lifts- Similar to Fork Lifts but with More Ease of Movement

99
Safety during
Construction

Figure 3.29: Power Zone for Lifting Heavy Equipment

3.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learned about the hazards caused to fall from heights. A
majority of accidents occurring on construction sites occur due to fall from
height or fall of objects from height. Work at height would include working
on ladders, scaffolds and roof tops. In this unit we saw the precautionary
mechanism to be taken while using ladders, various types of scaffolds and
also working on fragile roofs. In addition while persons and objects are
transported vertically on height, there is likelihood of accidents to occur. We
also learned what are the precautionary mechanism to be followed while
using cranes, hoists and pulleys and also during manual lifting of weights.

3.7 KEY WORDS

Formwork: wooden or metal casing into which concrete is poured to cast
beams and columns etc
Guard rails: protective rails placed at the edges or at hazard prone areas to
prevent fall of workers.A pproximate height is 42 inches
Toe boards: protective boards or raised platforms which are barriers from
slipping and falling. Size varies between four inches to twelve inches.

Figure 3.30: Typical Dimensions of Guardrails

(Source : https://www.ihsa.ca/rtf/health_safety_manual/pdfs/equipment/Guardrails.pdf)

100
Safety harnesses: personnel protection and equipment with belts and ropes Safety aspects in
Multistory Building
attached to the body of the personnel and also tied to a stable structure. It is a
safety mechanism to prevent injuries due to fall.

3.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
a) Refer section 3.2
b) Refer section 3.2.1
c) Refer section 3.1.3
SAQ 2
a) Refer section 3.3
b) Refer section 3.3
c) Refer section 3.3.4
SAQ 3
a) Refer section 3.4
b) Refer section 3.4
c) Refer section 3.4.3
SAQ 4
a) Refer section 3.5
b) Refer section 3.5.1
c) Refer section 3.5.1

3.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

“Safety, health and welfare on construction sites”,A
trainingmanual.Copyright © International Labour Organization 1995.

101
 UNIT 4 SAFE HANDLING OF CONSTRUCTION
MACHINERY AND MATERIAL

Structure

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Mechanical Material Handling Equipment
4.2.1 Commonly Used Equipment for Material HandlingApplications
4.2.2 Precautions to be taken by Workers while Moving Materials
Mechanically
4.3 Manual Material Handling
4.3.1 General Material Handling Precautions
4.4 Employee Hazard and Safety Training
4.5 Let Us Sum up
4.6 Key words
4.7 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
“Safe handling of Construction Machinery & Material” is in itself is a
confusing term, that says little but means a lot in construction field. It is well
known that no construction activity is possible without any type of material
handling. This process may include transportation or movement of trash,
debris, brush trees, earths, etc. As the job progresses you could be building
sewers, roads, parking areas, footing, foundation and host for other utilities
movement/shifting.
At construction site, presence of steel, concrete, wooden frames, panels, etc is
common and it is a challenge to get these materials where and when they are
needed. The transportation of these materials sounds simple enough but often
it is not so. Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations such as
hoisting tons of steel with a crane; driving a truck loaded with concrete
blocks; carrying bags or materials manually; and stacking palletized bricks or
other materials such as drums, barrels, kegs, and lumber.
The effective handling and storing of materials are very important for the
productivity of a industry. It not only includes handling & transportation of
raw materials but also ensures to provide a continuous flow of parts &
assemblies through the workplace and ensure it availability whenever
required.
Objectives
After studing this unit, you should be able to
 explain the meaning of safe handling of construction machinery and
materials,
 describe the various mechanical material handling equipment
andprecautions to taken for their safe operation,
 explain the safe procedures for manual material handling,
102  describe the need and process of employee hazard and safety training.
 Safe Handling of
4.2 MECHANICAL MATERIAL HANDLING Construction
Machinery and
EQUIPMENT Material

Construction machineries & mechanical material handling equipment’s are

one of the basic element of any construction activity and hence, safety
management with these materials forms an important necessity at
construction site. The construction equipment cover a variety of machineries
such as hydraulic excavators, wheel loaders, backhoe loaders, bull dozers,
dump trucks, tippers, graders, pavers, asphalt mix plants, vibratory
compactors, cranes, forklifts, dozers, off-highway dumpers, drills, scrapers,
motor graders, rope shovels etc. These procedures, on an overall is known as
the safety management system at the construction industries.
Safety First
While operating any equipment safety shall be top priority and in case of
lifting operation or material handling process the safety aspects are more
important as the criticality of work increases with type of work performed. In
case of lifting operation, once the load is up and, in the air, any mishap will
mean that is load is coming down…in some cases in a controlled descent, in
other cases outside of all control. Which can be catastrophic at work site.
Pre-start inspections shall be conducted on regular basis and should never be
glossed over: no short cuts! Walk around should be performed with the same
level of seriousness that you want a pilot to use on your journey. Some of the
measures to be taken are:
 Manufactures recommended checklist shall be followed.
 Cracks to be visually inspected.
 Inspection of missing or loose parts.
 Observe any fluid leakage.
 Cracked, Cloudy or missing mirrors shall be checked.
 Broken, Missing or burned
 Cracked windshields
 Bad/damaged wiper blades.

4.2.1 Commonly Used Equipment for Material Handling

Applications
Equipment commonly used for material handling applications are:
 Excavators
 Telescopic Handlers
 Cranes
 Hand trucks
 Forklift trucks
Excavators
One of the most adaptable material handling appliances is hydraulic
excavator because of its quick coupler systems and a wide array of
attachments. Most excavator manufacturers have "material handler" 103
Safety during configurations in both their crawler models and rubber-tired versions. The
Construction
big difference is the reach which can be considerably greater, the hydraulics
and the operating weight. Several of the manufacturers offer "pop-up" cabs or
tilt-back cabs. These machines are usually used in scrap- or waste-handling
applications and are usually equipped with grapples or magnets.One such
machine is illustrated in Figure 4.1.

Figure: 4.1: Excavator

Back to the standard excavator, most of the mid-size and larger hydraulic
excavators have buckets equipped with lifting eyes. The family of excavator
comprises of compact excavators, mini-excavators, zero-tail swing machines,
and rubber-tired machines. Because of its mobility, a wheeled excavator can
move about a job site or from one job site to another quickly and quite often
without having to be moved by truck. Its versatility is limited only by
operator’s imagination.
Additionally, a quick coupler can be put on any of the excavators. This will
enable to change from one type of bucket to another without leaving your
seat; or change to a grapple or thumb. Try a clamshell bucket and see how
broadly you have expanded your material handling capabilities. In addition to
these lifting-type attachments, there are other tools that can help you
demolish buildings, crush concrete, pulverize pavement, and chomp on steel
beams.
Telescopic Handlers
A forklift truck with variable reach is most common at job site for storage of
materials or can be seen at warehouses. Some of the other common names of
this equipment by which it is known are shooting boom forklift, telehandler
and material handler, it is also available in a tool carrier version.Figure 4.2
shows one such telescopic handler.
For the purpose of loading & unloading flatbed trailers and for placing loads
several stories up, telescopic handlers is excellent tool. Due to their reach,
they can also place loads in difficult-to-reach places on the job site. Typically,
they are provided with forks, but in other cases broad selection of
attachments make these machines versatile material handlers.

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Figure 4.2 : Telescopic Handler

For this type of equipment several types of buckets are available including
multipurpose buckets, general purpose buckets, light material bucket, etc and
number of forks and grapples available. Lifting hooks, truss jibs, material
handling arms and self-tipping hoppers are provided with this equipment.
They can be used extensively in landscaping operations and it also enables to
place loads in areas that would be difficult to reach by machine without
damaging turfs, flowerbeds, water treatments or other similar landscaping
arrangements.
Cranes
Cranes represent another family of material handler which are very common
on many job sites. They are used for lifting and placing such things as heavy
steel beams, pre-stressed concrete sections for buildings or bridges, materials
and supplies to the upper stories of a high rise, unloading trucks, and a host of
other essential jobsite material handling tasks.Figure 4.3 depicts a crane.

Figure 4.3 : Crane

All Terrain Cranes

All terrain cranes offer the highway travel speeds of the truck crane and share
off-road characteristics with rough terrain cranes due to which it becomes
Multiple axles — steer drive and tag — distribute the load. Multiple driven
axles provide traction to handle tough jobsite conditions, and multi-axle
steering provides added manoeuvrability. There are suspension options that
can provide added off-road clearance and enhance driving characteristics,
making a crane that is easy to take on the road from job to job no matter how
far the trek. All terrains have been moving into areas traditionally held by
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Safety during truck-mounted and rough terrain cranes, pushing both just a little. Capacity
Construction
on these machines can reach 1,000 tons. Jib tip heights can be measured at
over 600 feet and boom heights at 400 feet (plus or minus).Figure 4.4 shows
an all terrain crane.

Figure 4.4 : Terrain Crane

Rough Terrain Cranes

Though new technology changed the types of equipment used in day to day
construction activity, but rough terrain cranes remain king of the job site.
Four-wheel drive with various types of steering for manoeuvrability helps it
to handle tough off-road conditions. A two-axle configuration and simple
operating procedure makes it user friendly to operate it. (Figure 4.5)
These types of cranes do not require to travel at highway speeds, so
horsepower or drive train components are not required. The two-axle
configuration is another major cost saver which makes it one of the most
popular equipment at construction site. Their biggest drawback comes from
the fact that they have to be transported between jobs. Typical units seen on
job site ranges between 30tons to 70 tons. Its boom tip height exceeds to 150
feet and jib tip height to 200 feet approximately.

Figure 4.5 : Rough Terrain Crane

Truck Mounted Cranes

In truck mounted cranes it sits on a commercial truck chassis and truck
engine is used to power the crane operation (Figure 4.6). The attached
telescopic boom models perform the same functions as their all-terrain and
truck crane siblings although they are limited to ratings of about 40tons,
commercial truck chassis itself is its major limitation.
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Figure 4.6: Truck Mounted Crane

These types of crane costs less than all terrain crane or truck crane and also
may comes with fixed operator control station. Another variation is an
articulating boom unit; usually these are specialized horizontal boom units
designed to load/unload the truck’s payload. They are normally not used as
general-purpose cranes.
They can also travel safely at highway speeds and they use purpose-built
carriers with separate cabs for the carrier and crane operations. Its hydraulic
boom unit enables it for quick setup and smaller and mid-range models
generally carry boom, jib and counterweight on board.
Lattice Boom Cranes
Lattice boom cranes (Figure 4.7) are both truck-mounted and crawler-
mounted. With truck-mounted cranes, the crane's upper structure is mounted
on a truck-style carrier, which can travel at highway speeds. Major sections
of the crane usually have to be removed and transported separately on some
of the larger units. The advantage over crawler cranes, which must be
disassembled, is that the carrier is mobile and erection time is usually faster.

Figure 4.7: Lattice Boom Crane

Crawler-mounted cranes are mounted on car bodies and are propelled on

tracks. This design yields superior on-site mobility and lifting capacities.
Crawler cranes are not easily transported and require considerable setup time.
All of the modular components of a crawler crane have to be moved by
trucks.
Crawler cranes do offer a great deal of versatility, particularly for heavy lifts
or long-term lifting projects. From pick-and-carry capabilities to heavy duty
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Safety during or severe duty applications, such as pile driving and dragline, crawler cranes
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offer a great deal of application versatility.
Choosing a specific crane is typically based on job requirements. A lattice
crane is typically the best choice when the job requires long, vertical reaches,
significantly large lifts, or long-term work. Both truck and crawler-mounted
lattice boom cranes are well adapted for lifting and moving large quantities of
steel, constructing large tilt-up concrete panels, and for making very high and
far-reaching picks. The design of lattice booms is inherently stronger and
more stable at greater distances than telescopic boom cranes, plus lattice
boom cranes utilize larger-diameter wire rope, requiring fewer parts of line
for faster line speeds. Typically, a lattice crane yields higher capacity picks at
a nominal base capacity unit, making a 100-ton capacity lattice crane
outperform a 200-ton capacity telescopic crane.
The Hydraulic-Crawler-Mounted Crane is the latest innovation in crane
design and technology. It's available as a telescopic or lattice boom crane
mounted on a crawler excavator carrier and offers yet more versatility in your
choice of lifting device.
In the final analysis, determining which crane to use for which job comes
down to the same parameter we apply to any equipment selection: What is
the application? For cranes, the main application considerations are how high
do you have to lift the load, how far out must it be placed and what does it
weigh? The bulk of the load can also be a factor in that a bulky load may
require a larger crane to handle physical dimensions in order to obtain lift
height required at a given radius.
Other considerations include the terrain and if the crane will be working on-
or off-road, pick-and-carry considerations, single or repetitive lifts, travel
time and distance, and other factors. Cost considerations also enter into the
equation and will be viewed differently depending on the end user.
Please note that we haven't mentioned tower cranes. These lifting wonders
are extremely popular in Europe and are becoming more popular in major
metropolitan areas. Big cities don't have the room for large-capacity cranes
on the ground over extended periods. This is where the tower crane excels. It
has a relatively small footprint and can be erected to unbelievable heights and
has tremendous lifting capacity. Today's technology has added to the
functionality of tower cranes so that even though it is fixed in one place, it
has the ability to cover a lot of ground.
Safety Measures to Be Taken by employers regarding cranes
Employers must permit only thoroughly trained and competent workers to
operate cranes. Operators should know what they are lifting and what it
weighs. For example, the rated capacity of mobile cranes varies with the
length of the boom and the boom radius. When a crane has a telescoping
boom, a load may be safe to lift at a short boom length or a short boom radius,
but may overload the crane when the boom is extended and the radius
increases.
 To reduce the severity of an injury, employers must take the following
precautions:
 Equip all cranes that have adjustable booms with boom angle indicators.
 Provide cranes with telescoping booms with some means to determine
boom lengths unless the load rating is independent of the boom length.
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 Post load rating charts in the cab of cab-operated cranes. (All cranes do Safe Handling of
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not have uniform capacities for the same boom length and radius in all Machinery and
directions around the chassis of the vehicle.) Material

 Require workers to always check the crane's load chart to ensure that the
crane will not be overloaded by operating conditions.
 Instruct workers to plan lifts before starting them to ensure that they are
safe.
 Tell workers to take additional precautions and exercise extra care when
operating around power lines.
 Teach workers that outriggers on mobile cranes must rest on firm ground,
on timbers, or be sufficiently cribbed to spread the weight of the crane
and the load over a large enough area. (Some mobile cranes cannot
operate with outriggers in the traveling position.)
 Direct workers to always keep hoisting chains and ropes free of kinks or
twists and never wrapped around a load.
 Train workers to attach loads to the load hook by slings, fixtures, and
other devices that have the capacity to support the load on the hook.
 Instruct workers to pad sharp edges of loads to prevent cutting slings.
 Teach workers to maintain proper sling angles so that slings are not
loaded in excess of their capacity.
 Ensure that all cranes are inspected frequently by persons thoroughly
familiar with the crane, the methods of inspecting the crane, and what
can make the crane unserviceable. Crane activity, the severity of use, and
environmental conditions should determine inspection schedules.
 Ensure that the critical parts of a crane—such as crane operating
mechanisms, hooks, air, or hydraulic system components and other load-
carrying components—are inspected daily for any maladjustment,
deterioration, leakage, deformation, or other damage.
Hand trucks
Hand trucks (Figure 4.8) are for moving loads over short distances (typically
less than 100m), and shall be specially designed for lifting and moving
packages or pallets e.g. hand pallet trucks. In the latter case, the facility to
jack up the truck shall be incorporated. Hand pallet trucks are suitable for
loads up to 1500kg.

Figure 4.8: Hand Truck

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Safety during General Requirements
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 Hand pallet trucks must be clearly marked with their SWL and have an
in-date certificate of inspection / test from a third party competent person
as per Factories Act & Rules.
 Hand trucks must not be used on sloping steel surfaces such as ramps
and particularly not on long inclines (maximum recommended gradient
1:15). If there is no alternative, consideration should be given to using
trucks fitted with brakes.
 Hand trucks must not be used on uneven or soft surfaces. Such surfaces,
e.g. cracked concrete, distorted tarmac, sand and grassy areas, increase
both the physical effort required and the risk of toppling.
 Special care must be taken when using hand trucks in split level areas,
e.g. loading bays, especially where no guard rails are fitted.
 Hand trucks must have all their wheels in contact with the working
surface at all times during their use.
 Users of hand trucks must report any mechanical defects to the
appropriate supervisor.
Forklift trucks
Fork lift trucks (Figure 4.9) used in plant premise shall include industrial and
rough terrain types.
Operations
Only fork lift truck operators who have been properly trained and certified
(valid license from RTO) shall operate a fork lift truck. Before using a fork
lift truck, operators must check the truck and associated equipment to ensure
they are in safe and proper condition. Operators must ensure audible and
visual warning equipment is working correctly by carrying before using the
fork lift.

Figure 4.9: Forklift Trucks

Parking
When unattended, fork lift trucks must be left with the fork arms tilted
forward and lowered to rest on the ground. The engine must be switched off,
the key removed and the handbrake applied. Ignition keys must be kept in a
safe place and only issued to authorised operators for the duration of the duty
period or task. When not in use, fork lift trucks must be parked in secure
110 areas.
Operating Areas Safe Handling of
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 Care must be taken at all times during fork lift truck operations to avoid Machinery and
Material
pedestrians, other vehicles and hazards within their area of operations.
Fork lift truck operators must only drive in areas where they are
authorised to do so.
 Fork lift trucks must only be used in areas where there is enough room
for safe operation. Particular care must be taken to ensure that fork lift
trucks used in aisles have enough room to circulate and manoeuvre either
loaded or empty.
 Sharp bends and overhead obstructions must be avoided as far as
possible. Special care must be taken to avoid hazards such as loading
bays, excavations, columns, pipe work, racks and other plant.
 Industrial fork lift trucks must only be driven on suitable surfaces; road
humps and rough or soft surfaces are to be avoided.
 Fork lift trucks must not be operated on excessive gradients. (In general,
fork lift trucks should be driven forwards up a slope, backwards down a
slope and in line with the incline. It shall be necessary to raise the forks
slightly at the bottom of a slope to avoid grounding.)
 Fork lift trucks must not be operated across gradients.
Stability of Fork Lift Trucks
Loads and Handling
 Fork lift trucks must only be used to lift loads within their certified
capacity.
 Loads must be correctly placed and secured on the forks to avoid tipping
forwards or sideways.
 Wherever possible, fork lift trucks must be driven with the forks in the
lowered position and with the mast slightly tilted back. The forks should
be so adjusted that the fork heels should never touch the ground.
 Movement with loads in excessively raised positions must be avoided to
minimise the danger of toppling, especially on uneven surfaces and while
cornering.
 Fork lift trucks must only be used for loads which can be carried safely
on the forks or attachments fitted. Non-standard, un-packaged and
excessively wide loads must be avoided wherever possible. In particular,
long tubes must be carried using appropriate attachments.
Attachments
 Fork lift trucks must only be used with attachments which have been
specifically designed, constructed and certified for it and the intended
load, and attachments must only be used as prescribed.
 Attachments must be produced by a recognised specialist manufacturer
and must be certified in accordance with IS standards.
 Care must be taken to ensure that where attachments are used, any
consequential de-rating of lifting capacity is not exceeded.
General Operations
 Operators must not carry passengers anywhere on the fork lift truck.
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Safety during  Operators must not allow pedestrians to walk underneath the load.
Construction
 A load must not be picked up if someone is standing close to it.
 Fork lift trucks must only be driven in a direction where visibility is not
blocked.
 Stacking and un-stacking on inclines must never be attempted.
 Rapid acceleration, hard braking and sharp cornering which increase the
risk of load tipping must be avoided.
 Operators must exercise caution and drive slowly on slopes, uneven and
damaged surfaces.
 Particular care must be taken when operating in proximity to pedestrians
and other vehicles.
 Operators must obey site traffic regulations or, in their absence, must
keep to the left.
 Operators must be aware of hazards in and at the perimeter of their areas
of operation.
Rough Terrain
The operation of rough terrain forklift trucks involves special hazards which
requireadditional care and consideration:
 Care must be taken at all times to ensure that traction is retained. Loss of
traction due to the nature of the terrain or weight transfer taking load off
the driving wheels is to be avoided.
 Care must be taken, and speeds minimised to reduce the risk of load
toppling caused by the imbalance induced when operating on rough
terrain.
 Operators must ensure that the parking brake is capable of holding the
forklift truck stationary on an incline. (Some rough terrain vehicles are
capable of climbing inclines steeper than those on which the parking
brake will hold the vehicle.)
 Checks for overhead obstructions must be made before lifting and
transporting loads.
 Special care must be taken near power lines and other materials handling
vehicles such as mobile cranes.
 Driving rough terrain fork lift trucks on public roads must be kept to a
minimum. When public road travel is necessary, fork arms must be
removed, folded or protected in some way so that they do not present a
hazard to other road users. Where this is not possible, forks must be
painted or otherwise made highly visible.
 Rough terrain fork lift truck operators must wear seat-belts while
operating their vehicles.
Conveyor Systems
There are a number of manufacturers that produce portable conveyor systems.
Most job sites aren't laid out with conveyors (Figure 4.10) in mind; however,
there are times when they offer the best solution to a material handling
requirement.
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Material

Figure 4.10: Conveyor Systems

If you have a job that requires the movement of high volumes of loose
materials like sand, gravel, dirt, chips or the like, the portable conveyor
system may be effectively used for this purpose.

Safety Measures To Be Taken byEmployer Regarding Conveyors

When using conveyors, workers may get their hands caught in nip points
where the conveyor medium runs near the frame or over support members or
rollers. Workers also may be struck by material falling off the conveyor, or
they may get caught in the conveyor and drawn into the conveyor path as a
result. To prevent or reduce the severity of an injury, employers must take the
following precautions to protect workers:
 Install an emergency button or pull cord designed to stop the conveyor at
the employee's work station.
 Install emergency stop cables that extend the entire length of
continuously accessible conveyor belts so that the cables can be accessed
from any location along the conveyor.
 Design the emergency stop switch so that it must be reset before the
conveyor can be restarted.
 Ensure that appropriate personnel inspect the conveyor and clear the
stoppage before restarting a conveyor that has stopped due to an overload.
 Prohibit employees from riding on a materials-handling conveyor.
 Provide guards where conveyors pass over work areas or aisles to keep
employees from being struck by falling material. (If the crossover is low
enough for workers to run into it, mark the guard with a warning sign or
paint it a bright color to protect employees.)
 Cover screw conveyors completely except at loading and discharging
points. (At those points, guards must protect employees against
contacting the moving screw. The guards are movable, and they must be
interlocked to prevent conveyor movement when the guards are not in
place.)
Other Equipment
Backhoe loaders are primarily earthmovers ... or are they? They are designed
for digging and loading, which makes them great material handlers. Recently
the tool carrier design has been applied to these machines as well as others.
The result is a very flexible material handler. Although these machines
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Safety during started their existence on the farm, it didn't take long for them to become a
Construction
major piece of equipment for construction.
You can put a quick coupler on both ends of this machine. On the loader side
you have a selection of buckets that can satisfy any applications as well as
loader forks, material-handling arms, bale spear, and other material handling
devices. On the loader end, add a quick coupler so you can easily and quickly
change buckets and/or other attachments.
Integrated tool carriers and quick coupler-equipped wheel loaders are kissing
cousins, but that's about as close to each other as they get. The tool carrier is
designed and engineered to be a multipurpose work tool/work
platform/power source. No matter what you think, the most important part of
any machine is the part that gets the job done. You can dig holes, push dirt,
lift things any variety of ways; your interest is getting a specific job done.
The tool carrier is designed and balanced to accommodate the quick coupler
— adding several inches to the front of the machine — and engineered to
handle additional hydraulic flow. Yes, you can put a quick coupler on a
wheel loader and put forks on it, but it will not have the same lifting capacity
as a tool carrier. Wheel loaders are great material handlers but are purpose
built; so are tool carriers.
There is a variety of lifting arm configurations available on the market today.
You may want to do a little research before deciding on a wheel loader.
Check out the latest engineering innovations, since the machines have
improved.
Integrated tool carriers and wheel loaders have a broad selection of
attachments designed to meet most material handling jobs. In addition to all
the various buckets there are many different types of forks available that are
designed to make material handling on the job site easier, faster and above all
else safer.
Skid-steer loaders and compact track loaders (also called all-terrain vehicles
and multiterrain vehicles) definitely belong in the material handling
equipment category. There are two types of lifting arm configuration on these
machines: radial arms and vertical lift arms. The difference is that the vertical
lift machines move the load straight up from the ground to the top of the
travel path, keeping the bucket or pallet fork level through the cycle. This
configuration is a better choice if you are going to use the machine more as a
material handler than an earthmover. Many of the ground engaging tools
operate more efficiently with the radial arm configuration, as it tends to exert
a greater downward pressure.
There are numerous buckets, hooks, lifting arms, and fork attachments
available for skid-steer loaders and compact track loaders. The skid steer's
already dominating jobsite appeal has been enhanced with the recent
introduction of an all-wheel-steer version of the machine. This option should
improve its already strong material handling characteristics.

4.2.2 Precautions to be Taken by Workers while Moving

Materials Mechanically
Use of mechanical equipment for storage & movement of materials increases
the potential of injuries. Workers must be aware about safe operating process
of both mechanical & manual handling process. Employees should avoid
114 overloading equipment when moving materials mechanically by letting the
weight, size, and shape of the material being moved dictate the type of Safe Handling of
Construction
equipment used. Equipment shall only handle materials for which it is being Machinery and
designed and as per the rated capacity of the equipment to handle maximum Material
weight. It should be ensured that rated capacity of the equipment is displayed
on each piece of it and is not exceeded except for load testing.
Although workers may be knowledgeable about powered equipment, they
should take precautions when stacking and storing material. When picking up
items with a powered industrial truck, workers must do the following:
 Centre the load on the forks as close to the mast as possible to minimize
the potential for the truck tipping or the load falling,
 Avoid overloading a lift truck because it impairs control and causes
tipping over,
 Do not place extra weight on the rear of a counterbalanced forklift to
allow an overload,
 Adjust the load to the lowest position when traveling,
 Follow the truck manufacturer's operational requirements, and
 Pile and cross-tier all stacked loads correctly when possible.

SAQ 1
a) What safety measures should employers take regarding use of
cranes?
b) What are general safety requirement for hand pallet truck?
c) What safety measures should employers take regarding use of
conveyors?
d) What is the process of picking up items with a powered industrial
truck?

4.3 MANUAL MATERIAL HANDLING

Manual material handling (MMH) means manually moving or handling
things by lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling, carrying, holding or restraining.
MMH is also the most common cause of occupational fatigue, low back pain
and lower back injuries.
The National Safety Council suggests employers relay the following
information to employees to help reduce workplace incidents when handling
and moving materials:
 Avoid lifting materials from the floor or while seated.
 Make use of available handling aids.
 Refrain from using sudden or jerky movements.
 Never lift a load over an obstacle.
 Perform lifts in areas with adequate footing, space and lighting.
 Modify objects and redesign jobs to make moving easier.
 Seek assistance from co-workers.
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 Begin lifts close to the body.
 Use containers made of lighter materials.
 Reduce load sizes when possible.
 Do not twist or bend while lifting objects.
 Ensure repetitive, heavy and bulky lifts are not performed.
 Keep lifts between shoulder and knuckle height.
 Use conveyors, slides or chutes to eliminate pushing or pulling.

4.3.1 General Material Handling Precautions

 Inspect materials for surface hazards (slivers, jagged edges, slippery
surfaces).
 Wipe off greasy or slippery surfaces before attempting to handle them.
 Grasp the object with a firm grip.
 Avoid gripping near catch or shear points.
 Keep hands away from the end of long objects (lumber, pipe) to prevent
being pinched.
 Use gloves, safety shoes, eye protection, and other personal protective
equipment when appropriate.
 Store frequently lifted objects between knuckle and chest height.
 Avoid lifting above shoulder height as much as possible.
 Push rather than pull.
 Use mechanical assistance if the load is above the head or below the feet
(moving dolly, small step stool, portable carts, etc.)
 Ask for help if a load appears too heavy. Don’t try to lift it.
 Use mechanical lifting aids when possible (fork lift, dolly, moving dolly,
height adjustable tables, etc.)
 Take extra care with awkwardly shaped objects, liquids, and contents
that may shift.
Lifting a load
Two-handedlift
Position feet correctly: Correct positioning of the feet provides an increase in
balance. One foot should be placed alongside the object to be lifted, and one
behind it. Feet should be shoulder width apart and stable. The rear foot will
provide the upward power.
Straightbackandbentknees:A straight back is not necessarily a vertical back.
The spine should be in its natural curvature, about a 15 degree angle from the
hips. Knees should be unlocked and bent. Straightening the knees will give rise
to the lift.

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Load close to the body:the closer the centre of gravity of the load is to the Safe Handling of
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body the smaller the force on the lower back and arms will be. Keep elbows Machinery and
close to the body. Material

Correctgrasp:A full palm grip will reduce muscle stress and decrease the
possibility of the load slipping. Gripping with the ends of the fingers
increases the risk of muscle strain and slipping.
Chinin:Tucking the chin in and raising the top of the head straightens the
entire spine and provides the arms with a more efficient position for grasping.
Bodyweight:Centre body weight over the feet. This position increases
balance and provides a powerful line of thrust.
Assisted one handed lift (Golfer's lift)
This technique can be used when the worker is lifting something out of a
container or off the floor.
One hand should be placed on a stable surface, while the person leans to grip
the object.
Extend out the opposite leg and armto create a counter-balance.Push off
with the non-lifting hand to raise the upper body, while bringing down the
raised leg. Make sure the back muscles are not doing the work
The assisted one-hand lift should be used only if the object to be lifted is not
too heavy or awkward to be lifted by one hand or there is no stable surface
for support as shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: Golfer’s lift

Carrying a load
 Get help if the object is too bulky or heavy to be handled by one person.
 Inspect the route over which the load is to be carried. Plan a spot to set
the load down and rest.
 To change directions; lift the object to the carrying position and turn the
entire body, including the feet. Avoid twisting the body especially the
back.
 Carry the load close to the body, preferably resting against the trunk.
 Carry the load at its balance point.
 To set down a load; set the edge of the load on a bench, table etc. Adjust
hand position and push the object until it is secure.
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Safety during Team Lifting
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When lifting is done by two or more people the load should be adjusted so it
rides at the same level and the load is distributed evenly. Team lifting and
carrying should be synchronized, a team leader can help by calling out
commands (“lift”, “walk”, etc).
Special Precautions
 Check the weight of barrels and drums as it may change or shift
constantly
 Take extra care with sheet metal and glass, as it can be sharp
 If the load contain shazardous material, take protective measures
accordingly
 Beware of ‘floppy’ loads likes a csorbags

Figure 4.12: Team Lifting

Other ergonomic tips

 Avoid severebending
 Keepyourworkinfrontofyourbody
 Avoidbendingyourtorsobackward
 Avoidtwistingthetorsoandlongreaches
 Holdhandsinfrontof,andneartothebody
Moving, Handling, and Storing Materials
When manually moving materials, employees should seek help when a load
is so bulky it cannot be properly grasped or lifted, when they cannot see
around or over it, or when they cannot safely handle the load.
Handles or holders should be attached to loads to reduce the chances of
getting fingers pinched or smashed. Workers also should use appropriate
protective equipment. For loads with sharp or rough edges, wear gloves or
other hand and forearm protection. In addition, to avoid injuries to the eyes,
use eye protection. When the loads are heavy or bulky, the mover also should
wear steel-toed safety shoes or boots to prevent foot injuries if he or she slips
or accidentally drops a load.
All stacked loads must be correctly piled and cross-tiered, where possible.
Precautions also should be taken when stacking and storing material. Stored
materials must not create a hazard. Storage areas must be kept free from
accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may
contribute to the harbouring of rats and other pests.
When stacking and piling materials, it is important to be aware of such
factors as the materials’ height and weight, how accessible the stored
materials are to the user, and the condition of the containers where the
materials are being stored. Non-compatible material must be separated in
118 storage. Employees who work on stored materials in silos, hoppers, or tanks,
must be equipped with lifelines and safety belts. All bound material should Safe Handling of
Construction
be stacked, placed on racks, blocked, interlocked, or otherwise secured to Machinery and
prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing. A load greater than that Material
approved by a building official may not be placed on any floor of a building
or other structure. Where applicable, load limits approved by the building
inspector should be conspicuously posted in all storage areas.
When stacking materials, height limitations should be observed. For example,
lumber must be stacked no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually;
20 feet is the maximum stacking height if a forklift is used. For quick
reference, walls or posts may be painted with stripes to indicate maximum
stacking heights.
Used lumber must have all nails removed before stacking. Lumber must be
stacked and leveled on solidly supported bracing. The stacks must be stable
and self-supporting. Stacks of loose bricks should not be more than 7 feet in
height. When these stacks reach a height of 4 feet, they should be tapered
back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level. When masonry
blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, the stacks should be tapered back one-
half block for each tier above the 6-foot level. Bags and bundles must be
stacked in interlocking rows to remain secure. Bagged material must be
stacked by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least every
ten layers. To remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first. Baled
paper and rags stored inside a building must not be closer than 18 inches to
the walls, partitions, or sprinkler heads. Boxed materials must be banded or
held in place using cross-ties or shrink plastic fiber.
Drums, barrels, and kegs must be stacked symmetrically. If stored on their
sides, the bottom tiers must be blocked to keep them from rolling. When
stacked on end, put planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between
each tier to make a firm, flat, stacking surface. When stacking materials two
or more tiers high, the bottom tier must be chocked on each side to prevent
shifting in either direction. When stacking, consider the need for availability
of the material. Material that cannot be stacked due to size, shape, or fragility
can be safely stored on shelves or in bins.
Structural steel, bar stock, poles, and other cylindrical materials, unless in
racks, must be stacked and blocked to prevent spreading or tilting. Pipes and
bars should not be stored in racks that face main aisles; this could create a
hazard to passers-by when removing supplies.
Material Handling with Conveyors
When using conveyors, workers’ hands may be caught in nip points where
the conveyor medium runs near the frame or over support members or rollers;
workers may be struck by material falling off the conveyor; or they may
become caught on or in the conveyor, being drawn into the conveyor path as
a result as shown in Figure 4.13.

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Figure 4.13: Material Handling with Conveyors

To reduce the severity of an injury, an emergency button or pull cord
designed to stop the conveyor must be installed at the employee’s
workstation. Continuously accessible conveyor belts should have an
emergency stop cable that extends the entire length of the conveyor belt so
that the cable can be accessed from any location along the belt. The
emergency stop switch must be designed to be reset before the conveyor can
be restarted. Before restarting a conveyor that has stopped due to an overload,
appropriate personnel must inspect the conveyor and clear the stoppage
before restarting. Employees must never ride on a materials handling
conveyor. Where a conveyor passes over work areas or aisles, guards must be
provided to keep employees from being struck by falling material. If the
crossover is low enough for workers to run into it, the guard must be either
marked with a warning sign or painted a bright color to protect employees.
Screw conveyors must be completely covered except at loading and
discharging points. At those points, guards must protect employees against
contacting the moving screw; the guards are movable, and they must be
interlocked to prevent conveyor movement when not in place.
Flammable Material Handling And Storage
In adhering to fire safety precautions, employees should note that flammable
and combustible materials must be stored according to their fire characteristics.
Flammable liquids, for example, must be separated from other material by a fire
wall. Also, other combustibles must be stored in an area where smoking and
using an open flame or a spark-producing device is prohibited. Dissimilar
materials that are dangerous when they come into contact with each other must
be stored apart.

Figure 4.14: Flammable Material Handling And Storage

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Ergonomics of Material Handling Machinery and
Material
Ergonomics is defined as the study of work and is based on the principle that
the job should be adapted to fit the person, rather than forcing the person to fit
the job. Ergonomics focuses on the work environment, such as its design and
function, and items such as design and function of workstations, controls,
displays, safety devices, tools, and lighting to fit the employees’ physical
requirements and to ensure their health and wellbeing. Ergonomics includes
restructuring or changing workplace conditions to make the job easier and
reducing stressors that cause cumulative trauma disorders and repetitive
motion injuries. In the area of materials handling and storing, ergonomic
principles may require controls such as reducing the size or weight of the
objects lifted, installing a mechanical lifting aid, or changing the height of a
pallet or shelf. Although no approach has been found for totally eliminating
back injuries resulting from lifting materials, a substantial number of lifting
injuries can be prevented by implementing an effective ergonomics program
and by training employees in appropriate lifting techniques.
In addition to using ergonomic controls, there are some basic safety principles
that can be employed to reduce injuries resulting from handling and storing
materials. These include taking general fire safety precautions and keeping
aisles and passageways clear. A musculo-skeletal injury (MSI) is an injury or
disorder of the muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, nerves, blood vessels or
related soft tissue arising from exposure to risk factors such as awkward
postures, repetitive motions and forceful exertions. The injury can be acute or
cumulative.

Figure 4.15: Material Handling

Stages of Cumulative Musculo-Skeletal Injury (MSI)
Stage 1: Mild discomfort, present while working, but disappears when not
working. Does not affect work performance or daily living tasks. Completely
reversible.
Stage 2: Pain is present while working and continues when not working.
Begins to affect daily living tasks. Employees sometimes take non-prescription
pain medications. Completely reversible.
Stage 3: Pain is present all the time. Employees seek medical attention. May
not be able to complete simple daily tasks. May not be completely reversible to
reach full recovery. Employee participates in the workplace accommodation
process.

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In the early stage, employees should communicate the increasing pain to their
immediate supervisor. This is a great opportunity to prevent the MSI from
occurring.
Precautions To Be Taken By Workers WhileMoving Materials Manually
When moving materials manually, workers should attach handles or holders to
loads. In addition, workers should always wear appropriate personal protective
equipment and use proper lifting techniques. To prevent injury from oversize
loads, workers should seek help in the following:
 When a load is so bulky that employees cannot properly grasp or lift it,
 When employees cannot see around or over a load, or
 When employees cannot safely handle a load.
 Using the following personal protective equipment prevents needless
injuries when manually moving materials:
 Hand and forearm protection, such as gloves, for loads with sharp or rough
edges.
 Eye protection.
 Steel-toed safety shoes or boots.
 Metal, fiber, or plastic metatarsal guards to protect the instep area from
impact or compression.

Figure 4.16: PPE

Employees should use blocking materials to manage loads safely. Workers
should also be cautious when placing blocks under a raised load to ensure that
the load is not released before removing their hands from under the load.
Blocking materials and timbers should be large and strong enough to support
the load safely. In addition to materials with cracks, workers should not use
materials with rounded corners, splintered pieces, or dry rot for blocking.

Figure 4.17: Manual Handling - Do’s and Don’ts

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Potential Manual Material Handling Hazards for Workers Machinery and
Material
Workers frequently cite the weight and bulkiness of objects that they lift as
major contributing factors to their injuries. In 1999, for example, more than
4,20,000 workplace accidents resulted in back injuries. Bending, followed by
twisting and turning, were the more commonly cited movements that caused
back injuries. Other hazards include falling objects, improperly stacked
materials and various types of equipment. Employees shall be made aware of
potential injuries that can occur when manually moving materials some of
them are:-
 Strains and sprains from lifting loads improperly or from carrying loads
that are either too large or too heavy;
 Fractures and bruises caused by being struck by materials or by being
caught in pinch points, and
 Cuts and bruises caused by falling materials that have been improperly
stored or by incorrectly cutting ties or other securing devices.
Precautions to Be Taken During MMH
When moving materials manually, workers should attach handles or holders to
loads. In addition, workers should always wear appropriate personal protective
equipment and use proper lifting techniques to prevent injury from oversize
loads. Workers should seek help during the following: -
 When a load is so bulky that employees cannot properly grasp or lift it;
 When employees cannot see around or over a load or;
 When employees cannot safely handle a load.
Using the following personal protective equipment prevents needless injuries
when manually moving materials: -
 Hand and forearm protection such as gloves for loads with sharp or rough
edges
 Eye protection
 Steel toed safety shoes or boots.
 Metal fiber or plastic metatarsal guards to protect the in-step area from
impact or compression.
Stop & Think
Assess where, how long, how complicated can manual handling be.
Steps for Manual Lifting: -
 Keep feet apart to give a balanced and stable base for lifting.
 Bend the knees so that the hands are as near to the waist as possible.
 Keep the back straight, chin tucked-in, lean over the load if necessary
[Shoulders in same direction as hips]
 Try to keep the arms within the boundary formed of the legs.
 Carry out lifting smoothly without jerk.
 Then adjust if precise positioning is necessary.
 Give a command to gain group eff orts in synchronized ways.

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Figrue 4.18: Manual Lifting

Additional Safety Practices in Manual Handling: -
 Restrict the load to 55 Kg (as per Indian Statute)
 Trial lift before actual lifting
 Ascertain, intended path of movement is clear

SAQ 2
a) Mention some of the precautionary measures taken to reduce
workplace incidents when handling and moving materials:
b) What are the precaution taken while material handling?
c) What are the stages of cumulative musculoskeletal injury?
d) What are the conditions when worker shall seek help while manual
material handling?
e) What are the steps for manual handling?
f) What are the potential hazards for workers?

4.4 EMPLOYEE HAZARD AND SAFETY

TRAINING
A formal training program to allow employees to recognize and avoid
materials handling hazards is recommended. Instructors should be well-versed
in matters that pertain to safety engineering and materials handling and storing.
The content of the training should emphasize those factors that will contribute
to reducing workplace hazards including the following:
 Alerting the employee to the dangers of lifting without proper training.
 Showing the employee how to avoid unnecessary physical stress and strain.
 Teaching workers to become aware of what they can comfortably handle
without undue strain.
 Instructing workers on the proper use of equipment.
 Teaching workers to recognize potential hazards and how to prevent or
correct them.
 Awareness of health risks to improper lifting.

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 Knowledge of the basic anatomy of the spine, the muscles, and the joints Machinery and
of the trunk, and the contributions of intra-abdominal pressure while Material
lifting.
 Awareness of individual body strengths and weaknesses— determining
one’s own lifting capacity.
 Recognition of the physical factors that might contribute to an accident
and how to avoid the unexpected.
 Use of safe lifting postures and timing for smooth, easy lifting and the
ability to minimize the load-moment effects.
 Use of handling aids such as stages, platforms, or steps, trestles, shoulder
pads, and handles.
 Knowledge of body responses—warning signals—to be aware of when
lifting.
Precautions to be taken byWorkers to Avoid Storage Hazards
Stored materials must not create a hazard for employees. Employers should
make workers aware of such factors as the materials' height and weight, how
accessible the stored materials are to the user, and the condition of the
containers where the materials are being stored when stacking and piling
materials. To prevent creating hazards when storing materials, employers must
do the following:
 Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause tripping,
fires, or explosions, or that may contribute to the harboring of rats and
other pests;
 Place stored materials inside buildings that are under construction and at
least 6 feet from hoist ways, or inside floor openings and at least 10 feet
away from exterior walls;
 Separate non-compatible material; and
 Equip employees who work on stored grain in silos, hoppers, or tanks,
with lifelines and safety belts.
In addition, workers should consider placing bound material on racks, and
secure it by stacking, blocking, or interlocking to prevent it from sliding,
falling, or collapsing.
Safeguards To Be Followed ByWorkers WhileStacking Materials
Stacking materials can be dangerous if workers do not follow safety guidelines.
Falling materials and collapsing loads can crush or pin workers, causing
injuries or death. To help prevent injuries when stacking materials, workers
must do the following:
 Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and not
more than 20 feet if using a forklift;
 All nails from used lumber shall be removed before stacking;
 Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing;
 Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting;
 Do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles to avoid creating
a hazard to passersby when removing supplies;
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 Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and
 Stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the
bags at least every ten layers (to remove bags from the stack, start from
the top row first).
During materials stacking activities, workers must also do the following:
 Store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to the
walls, partitions, or sprinkler heads;
 Band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink plastic fiber;
 Stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically;
 Block the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from
rolling if stored on their sides;
 Place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier of
drums, barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat, stacking surface when
stacking on end;
 Chock the bottom tier of drums, barrels, and kegs on each side to prevent
shifting in either direction when stacking two or more tiers high; and
 Stack and block poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other
cylindrical materials to prevent spreading or tilting unless they are in racks.
In addition, workers should do the following:
 Maximum stacking heights shall be indicated by Painting walls or posts
with stripes to indicate for quick reference;
 Height limitations should be observed when stacking materials;
 Consider the need for availability of the material; and
 Stack loose bricks no more than 7 feet in height. (When these stacks reach
a height of 4 feet, taper them back 2 inches for every foot of height above
the 4-foot level. When masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet,
taper the stacks back one-half block for each tier above the 6-foot level.)
Precautions For Safe Use of Slings
An employer must designate a competent person to conduct inspections of
slings before and during use, especially when service conditions warrant. In
addition, he/she must ensure that workers observe the following precautions
when working with slings:
 Remove immediately damaged or defective slings from service.
 Do not shorten slings with knots or bolts or other makeshift devices.
 Do not kink sling legs.
 Do not load slings beyond their rated capacity.
 Keep suspended loads clear of all obstructions.
 Remain clear of loads about to be lifted and suspended.
 Do not engage in shock loading.
 Avoid sudden crane acceleration and deceleration when moving
suspended loads.

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Precautions For ProtectingWorkers OperatingPowered Industrial Trucks Machinery and
Material
Workers who handle and store materials often use fork trucks, platform lift
trucks, motorized hand trucks, and other specialized industrial trucks powered
by electrical motors or internal combustion engines. Employers must make
these workers aware of the safety requirements pertaining the design,
maintenance, and use of these trucks.
Safety Requirements For Design
All new powered industrial trucks, except vehicles intended primarily for earth
moving or over-the-road hauling, must meet the design and construction
requirements for powered industrial trucks established in the American
National Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks, Part II, ANSI B56.1-1969.
Trucks approved for fire safety also must bear a label, or some other
identifying mark, indicating acceptance by a nationally recognized testing
laboratory.
Safety Requirements For Modification
Employer and employees must not make modifications and additions affecting
capacity and safe operation of the trucks without the manufacturer's prior
written approval. In case of any modification, one must change capacity,
operation, and maintenance instruction plates and tags or decals to reflect the
new information. If the truck is equipped with front-end attachments that are
not factory installed, the user must request that the truck be marked to identify
these attachments and show the truck's approximate weight— including the
installed attachment—when it is at maximum elevation with its load laterally
centered.
Safety Requirements for Designation
There are 11 different designations of industrial trucks, and each designation is
suitable for use in certain locations and under specific conditions. Workers
must not use powered industrial trucks in atmospheres containing hazardous
concentrations of the following substances:
 Acetylene
 Butadiene
 Acetaldehyde
 Cyclopropane
 Ethylene
 Isoprene
 Hydrogen (or gases or vapours equivalent in hazard to hydrogen)
 Ethylene oxide
 Propylene oxide
 Diethyl ether
 Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
In addition, workers may not use these trucks in atmospheres containing
hazardous concentrations of metal dust, including aluminum, magnesium, and
other metals of similarly hazardous characteristics. In atmospheres containing
carbon black, coal, or coke dust, workers shall use only approved powered
industrial trucks. Where dusts of magnesium, aluminum, or bronze may be
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present, fuses, switches, motor controllers, and circuit breakers of trucks must
have enclosures specifically approved for such locations.
Industrial trucks are designed, constructed, and assembled for use in
atmospheres containing flammable vapours or dusts. These powered industrial
truck are equipped with the following:
 Additional safeguards to their exhaust, fuel, and electrical systems;
 No electrical equipment (including the ignition);
 Temperature limitation features; and
 Electric motors and all other electrical equipment completely enclosed.
Safety Precautions To Be ObservedWhileOperating /Maintaining
Powered Industrial Trucks
When operating or maintaining powered industrial trucks, you and your
employees must consider the following safety precautions:
 Fit high-lift rider trucks with an overhead guard if permitted by operating
conditions.
 Equip fork trucks with vertical load backrest extensions according to
manufacturers' specifications if the load presents a hazard.
 Locate battery-charging installations in designated areas.

Figure 4.19: Precautions to be ObservedWhileOperating

 Provide facilities for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolytes when
changing or recharging batteries to prevent fires, to protect the charging
apparatus from being damaged, and to adequately ventilate fumes in the
charging area from gassing batteries.
 Conveyor, overhead hoist, or equivalent materials handling equipment
shall be provided for handling batteries.
 Provide auxiliary directional lighting on the truck where general lighting is
less than 2 lumens per square foot.
 Don’t place arms and legs between the uprights of the mast or outside the
running lines of the truck.
 Set brakes and put other adequate protection in place to prevent movement
of trucks, trailers, or railroad cars when using powered industrial trucks to
load or unload materials onto them.
 Sufficient headroom should be provided under overhead installations,
lights, pipes, and sprinkler systems.

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 Provide personnel on the loading platform with the means to shut off Machinery and
power to the truck whenever a truck is equipped with vertical only (or Material
vertical and horizontal) controls elevatable with the lifting carriage or
forks for lifting personnel.
 Secure dockboards or bridge plates properly so they won't move when
equipment moves over them.
 Handle only stable or safely arranged loads.
 Exercise caution when handling tools.
 Disconnect batteries before repairing electrical systems on trucks.
 Ensure that replacement parts on industrial trucks are equivalent to the
original ones.

SAQ 3
a) What safeguards must workers follow when stacking materials?
b) What precaution workers must take when working with slings:
c) What safety precautions should employers and workers observe
when operating or maintaining powered industrial trucks?

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Material handling problems in construction sites contribute to the maximum
number of accidents. And MMHE’s play a critical role for the safety
management process in these construction sites. The selection and procurement
of construction and material handling equipment is important and should be
done carefully as it is the base for safer operation and easier maintenance. The
outcome of this research reveals that small scale construction industries have
lesser equipped safety systems when compared to that of medium construction
industries. Hence, proper regularization needs to be done in the small scale
industries. Further, the medium scale industries require technological
improvement and up gradation of their safety management system.
Implementation of effective safety measures is necessary on a continual basis
for the construction sites, which will greatly enhance the safety system and
protect the construction workers from injuries and fatalities.

4.6 KEY WORDS

Jib: A jib or jib arm is the horizontal or near-horizontal beam used in many
types of crane to support the load clear of the main support.
Deterioration: The process of becoming progressively worse.
Traction: The grip of a tyre on a road or a wheel on a rail.
Toppling:Overbalance or cause to overbalance and fall.
Multi-terrain :This Special Skill distinguishes its user as having a
specialcompetence to operate in a variety of environments.
Stacking: To arrange (a number of things) in a pile, typically a neat one.
Fatigue: OSHA defines fatigue as “a message to the body to rest. 129
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4.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs
SAQ 1
a) Safety measures taken by employee regarding cranes are:
 Equip all cranes that have adjustable booms with boom angle
indicators.
 Provide cranes with telescoping booms with some means to determine
boom lengths unless the load rating is independent of the boom length.
 Post load rating charts in the cab of cab-operated cranes.
 Require workers to always check the crane's load chart to ensure that
the crane will not be overloaded by operating conditions.
 Instruct workers to plan lifts before starting them to ensure that they
are safe.
 Tell workers to take additional precautions and exercise extra care
when operating around power lines.
 Teach workers that outriggers on mobile cranes must rest on firm
ground, on timbers, or be sufficiently cribbed to spread the weight of
the crane and the load over a large enough area.
 Direct workers to always keep hoisting chains and ropes free of kinks
or twists and never wrapped around a load.
 Train workers to attach loads to the load hook by slings, fixtures, and
other devices that have the capacity to support the load on the hook.
 Instruct workers to pad sharp edges of loads to prevent cutting slings.
 Teach workers to maintain proper sling angles so that slings are not
loaded in excess of their capacity.
 Ensure that all cranes are inspected frequently by persons thoroughly
familiar with the crane, the methods of inspecting the crane, and what
can make the crane unserviceable. Crane activity, the severity of use,
and environmental conditions should determine inspection schedules.
 Ensure that the critical parts of a crane—such as crane operating
mechanisms, hooks, air, or hydraulic system components and other
load-carrying components—are inspected daily for any maladjustment,
deterioration, leakage, deformation, or other damage.
b) General safety requirement for hand pallet truck are:-

 Hand pallet trucks must be clearly marked with their SWL and have
an in-date certificate of inspection / test from a third party competent
person as per Factories Act & Rules.
 Hand trucks must not be used on sloping steel surfaces such as ramps
and particularly not on long inclines (maximum recommended
gradient 1:15). If there is no alternative, consideration should be given
to using trucks fitted with brakes.
 Hand trucks must not be used on uneven or soft surfaces. Such
surfaces, e.g. cracked concrete, distorted tarmac, sand and grassy

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areas, increase both the physical effort required and the risk of Machinery and
toppling. Material

 Special care must be taken when using hand trucks in split level areas,
e.g. loading bays, especially where no guard rails are fitted.
 Hand trucks must have all their wheels in contact with the working
surface at all times during their use.
 Users of hand trucks must report any mechanical defects to the
appropriate supervisor.
c) Safety measures taken regarding use of conveyors are:-

 Install an emergency button or pull cord designed to stop the conveyor

at the employee's work station.
 Install emergency stop cables that extend the entire length of
continuously accessible conveyor belts so that the cables can be
accessed from any location along the conveyor.
 Design the emergency stop switch so that it must be reset before the
conveyor can be restarted.
 Ensure that appropriate personnel inspect the conveyor and clear the
stoppage before restarting a conveyor that has stopped due to an
overload.
 Prohibit employees from riding on a materials-handling conveyor.
 Provide guards where conveyors pass over work areas or aisles to
keep employees from being struck by falling material.
 Cover screw conveyors completely except at loading and discharging
points.
d) Workers frequently cite the weight and bulkiness of objects that they lift
as major contributing factors to their injuries. Other hazards include falling
objects, improperly stacked materials, and various types of equipment.
e) Process of picking of picking up items with a powered industrial truck
are:-
 Centre the load on the forks as close to the mast as possible to
minimize the potential for the truck tipping or the load falling,
 Avoid overloading a lift truck because it impairs control and causes
tipping over,
 Do not place extra weight on the rear of a counterbalanced forklift to
allow an overload,
 Adjust the load to the lowest position when traveling,
 Follow the truck manufacturer's operational requirements, and
 Pile and cross-tier all stacked loads correctly when possible.
SAQ 2
a) Some of the precautionary measure taken by employees to reduce
incidents when handling and moving materials are:
 Avoid lifting materials from the floor or while seated.
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 Make use of available handling aids.
 Refrain from using sudden or jerky movements.
 Never lift a load over an obstacle.
 Perform lifts in areas with adequate footing, space and lighting.
 Modify objects and redesign jobs to make moving easier.
 Seek assistance from co-workers.
 Stay in good physical shape.
 Begin lifts close to the body.
 Use containers made of lighter materials.
 Reduce load sizes when possible.
 Do not twist or bend while lifting objects.
 Ensure repetitive, heavy and bulky lifts are not performed.
 Keep lifts between shoulder and knuckle height.
 Use conveyors, slides or chutes to eliminate pushing or pulling.
b) Some of the material handling precautions are:-
 Inspect materials for surface hazards (slivers, jagged edges, slippery
surfaces).
 Wipe off greasy or slippery surfaces before attempting to handle them.
 Grasp the object with a firm grip.
 Avoid gripping near catch or shear points.
 Keep hands away from the end of long objects (lumber, pipe) to
prevent being pinched.
 Use gloves, safety shoes, eye protection, and other personal protective
equipment when appropriate.
 Store frequently lifted objects between knuckle and chest height.
 Avoid lifting above shoulder height as much as possible.
 Push rather than pull.
 Use mechanical assistance if the load is above the head or below the
feet.
 Ask for help if a load appears too heavy. Don’t try to lift it.
 Use mechanical lifting aids when possible.
 Take extra care with awkwardly shaped objects, liquids, and contents
that may shift.
c) Stages of musculoskeletal injury are:-
 Stage 1: Mild discomfort, present while working, but disappears
when not working. Does not affect work performance or daily living
tasks. Completely reversible.

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 Stage 2: Pain is present while working and continues when not Machinery and
working. Begins to affect daily living tasks. Employees sometimes Material
take non-prescription pain medications. Completely reversible.
 Stage 3: Pain is present all the time. Employees seek medical
attention. May not be able to complete simple daily tasks. May not be
completely reversible to reach full recovery. Employee participates in
the workplace accommodation process.
d) The condition when worker seek help while manual material handling
are:-
 When a load is so bulky that employees cannot properly grasp or lift it;
 When employees cannot see around or over a load or;
 When employees cannot safely handle a load.
e) Steps for manual Handling are:-
 Keep feet apart to give a balanced and stable base for lifting.
 Bend the knees so that the hands are as near to the waist as possible.
 Keep the back straight, chin tucked-in, lean over the load if necessary
[Shoulders in same direction as hips]
 Try to keep the arms within the boundary formed of the legs.
 Carry out lifting smoothly without jerk.
 Then adjust if precise positioning is necessary.
 Give a command to gain group eff orts in synchronized ways.
SAQ 3
a) Following safeguard worker shall follow while stacking of materials:-
 Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and
not more than 20 feet if using a forklift;
 All nails from used lumber shall be removed before stacking;
 Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing;
 Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting;
 Do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles to avoid
creating a hazard to passers-by when removing supplies;
 Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and
 Stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross keying
the bags at least every ten layers (to remove bags from the stack, start
from the top row first).
b) Precaution taken by employer while working with slings are:-
 Remove immediately damaged or defective slings from service.
 Do not shorten slings with knots or bolts or other makeshift devices.
 Do not kink sling legs.
 Do not load slings beyond their rated capacity.
 Keep suspended loads clear of all obstructions.
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Construction
 Remain clear of loads about to be lifted and suspended.
 Do not engage in shock loading.
 Avoid sudden crane acceleration and deceleration when moving
suspended loads.
c) Safety precautions observed when operating or maintaining powered
industrial trucks are:-
 Fit high-lift rider trucks with an overhead guard if permitted by
operating conditions.
 Equip fork trucks with vertical load backrest extensions according to
manufacturers' specifications if the load presents a hazard.
 Locate battery-charging installations in designated areas.
 Provide facilities for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolytes
when changing or recharging batteries to prevent fires, to protect the
charging apparatus from being damaged, and to adequately ventilate
fumes in the charging area from gassing batteries.
 Conveyor, overhead hoist, or equivalent materials handling equipment
shall be provided for handling batteries.
 Provide auxiliary directional lighting on the truck where general
lighting is less than 2 lumens per square foot.
 Don’t place arms and legs between the uprights of the mast or outside
the running lines of the truck.
 Set brakes and put other adequate protection in place to prevent
movement of trucks, trailers, or railroad cars when using powered
industrial trucks to load or unload materials onto them.
 Sufficient headroom should be provided under overhead installations,
lights, pipes, and sprinkler systems.

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