Challenges in Water Sector & Necessity for Water Resources Policy in Post

Conflict Scenario in Northern Sri Lanka

Sivakumar S.S.,

Introduction

The second most essential natural resource next to fresh air required by living beings and
vegetation on Earth is fresh water. Though water is available in plenty on earth, its distribution and the
availability is not even. The availability of fresh water surface and groundwater constitutes only a very
small fraction of the total availability.

There are many indicators which point to the increasing problems associated with water resources
in Sri Lanka in the form of droughts, floods, depleting ground water aquifers and degeneration of the
quality of water, while the demand is increasing in form and quantity.

The rapid population increase has a huge bearing on the increasing demand for water for domestic
needs and for food production. A direct impact is also made by unplanned and illegal expanding land
clearance of forested areas, and occupation for shelter and productivity, uncontrolled deforestation. All
of these affect the capacity for surface infiltration and retention which reduce ground water recharge.
Some of the direct consequences include flash flooding, landslides, droughts, and result in water
shortages affecting agriculture and also potable water supplies

The population increase and the trends of increasing economic activity in the form of expanding
industry, diversifying agriculture, tourism and recreational interests are becoming legitimate stakeholders
in the competition for a share of the available water resources.

The available water requires to be protected by law from degradation. In many other countries,
catchments of surface water storage structures including dams and reservoirs are protected. Access to
the catchment areas is not allowed. Some of the ways pollution can be caused is through discharge of
petroleum waste, domestic waste, agrochemicals and partially or totally untreated effluents from varied
sources including sewage waste and its effluent.

The agriculture sector receives a substantial portion of government subsidies directly and
indirectly, given its importance for food security and in consideration of the large number of the
population dependent on the sector

However, such subsidies and price support schemes reduce the efficiency of resource allocation
and encourage less productive farming practices. While around two million people or a quarter of the
labor force are employed in the agriculture sector, its contribution towards GDP stands only at around 7-
8% in Sri Lanka. The GDP contribution in 2018 by Industry and Service sector is 26.5 and 57.7 respectively,
as per annual report of Central Bank 2018. Table 1. shows the summery.

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 A number of warnings sign point to increasing water resources problems and issues emerging in
the country. Competition and resulting water shortages will increase as a result of highly variable rainfall
and growing demand for water. Watersheds are being degraded, resulting in sedimentation of reservoirs
and more serious and more frequent floods and droughts.
Table 1:- Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Contribution to National Economy

Economic Activity As Percentage

2017 2018
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 6.9 7
Industries 26.7 26.1
Services 56.8 57.7
Equals Gross Value Added (GVA) at Basic Price 90.4 90.8
Taxes less subsidies on products 9.6 9.2
Equals Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at Market Price 100 100
Source: Central Bank Annual Report 2018

Water pollution from domestic, agricultural and industrial sources is contaminating surface and
ground water and affecting public health. Ground water is being over- abstracted in some areas, affecting
the availability of water for others and for environmental requirements.

Challenges in Water Sector

Water resources available in freshwater ecosystems in Sri Lanka are estimated as 52 BCM surface
water, 7 BCM groundwater and 7 BCM overlapping water which is renewable. The annual withdrawal
amount was estimated as 13 BCM in 2005. Even though these figures indicate no overall scarcity in terms
of aggregate statistics there are pronounced temporal and spatial aspects of water scarcity in the country
largely owing to the bimodal pattern of rainfall. Out of the total water withdrawal of 13 BCM, agriculture
will remain the major user with current usage of 87 percent, while nearly 6 percent is for the industrial
sector and another 6 percent was for the urban sector.
More than 90 percent of the land area of Sri Lanka is covered by 103 river basins, while the
remaining area is covered by 90 small non-perineal (seasonal) coastal basins. Except in a few river basins,
storage reservoirs with varying capacities and diversion schemes have been constructed that can be
counted as surface water resources. Apart from the flow from its own catchment, some of the Non-
perennial Rivers are augmented through transe-basin canals from perennial river basins with surplus
flows. Internal water bodies’ cover about 2,905 sq.km and a considerable portion of these consist of man-
made reservoirs. Water springs numbering about 3,540 are spread all over the island which are used as
water sources in the local use sense.
Groundwater is widely used for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes, and small-scale
irrigation. About 80 percent of rural domestic water supply needs are met by groundwater from dug wells
and tube wells. The demand for groundwater in Sri Lanka is steadily increasing. This trend still continues
to gain increase due to introduction of solar energy supported pumps. The quality of the groundwater is
fairly good and relatively constant throughout the year except in the Jaffna Peninsula where the ground
water is totally unfit for human consumption on account of:

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 1. 100 percent pollution by live E. Coli from the ubiquitous pit latrines;
2. Extremely high concentrations of agricultural fertilizers;
3. Astronomical levels of agricultural pesticides;
4. Severe levels of saline intrusion.
Groundwater in northern and northwestern areas have excessive concentrations of iron,
sulphates, phosphates and nitrates from agrochemicals and fertilizers, as well as excessive levels of
pesticides have been reported even from the year 2002 when the GTZ study (The Jaffna Rehabilitation
Project (GTZ- JRP) Sri Lanka of October 2002 carried out and published by GTZ) identified this.
Furthermore, quality and quantity of groundwater depletes rapidly specially in coastal areas including
Jaffna and Kalpitiya areas as a result of the uncontrolled abstraction of groundwater for domestic and
agricultural uses and sometimes for industrial uses, discharge of effluents from industries and brackish
water intrusion. Jaffna Peninsula has another characteristic in that the geomorphology is entirely of
Karstic Limestone which exacerbates the pollution situation.
Generally in the Northern and North Eastern Province, deteriorating water quality, in both surface
water and groundwater resources, is an emerging issue where sufficient information is not available for
analysis. However, the extremely poor quality of the ground water in Jaffna Peninsula has been well
known and documented from the publication of the GTZ –JRP report of 2002 and even much earlier. The
interdependency of surface water and groundwater cannot be overlooked. Pollution of either of the
sources of water will therefore have adverse effects on the other as well.
One of the petroleum oil polluted well of Mr. Navaratnam, Centre - J 206, Kalavavodi on
20.08.2020 is given in Figuer 1. People are still using this well for agricultural and other domestic uses.

Figure 1:- Oil polluted well of Mr. Navaratnam, Earlali Centre, Kalavavodi on 20.08.2020

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 Another well 200 meter away from the above oil polluted well, of Mr. Kumarasingam. Ramesh,
Earlali Centre – J 206, Kalavavodi on 20.08.2020 is given in Figure 2. This well is also used by people in that
area for agricultural and other domestic uses.

Figure 2:- Oil polluted well of Mr. Kumarasingam. Ramesh, Earlali East, Kalavavodi on 20.08.2020.

Both these wells are situated within 3 km radius of the problematic controversial Northern Power
Company, temporarily suspended operation (by court order for polluting Groundwater by oil spillage) to
supply electricity to Ceylon Electricity Board substation at Chunnakam.
Paddy is the single most important crop, occupying 34 percent of the total cultivated area. Since
rice is the staple food but not a healthy food, cultivating paddy provides food security for the nation, even
though economically it is not so lucrative for the small scale rural farmer. More than 800,000 farmers and
their families are directly involved in paddy farming. Rice accounts for 45 percent of the total calorie and
40 percent of the total protein intake of an average Sri Lankan. With the continuous intervention of
successive governments Sri Lanka has achieved self-sufficiency in paddy production.
However, consumption of high amounts of Rice and Wheat flour has negative impacts on health,
this becoming the main cause for non-communicable diseases.
Huge amount of foreign exchange is wasted for the import of large varieties of other food crops
(OFC), which government is planning to curb. With Introduction of different crop varieties and agricultural
techniques, the Government expects to achieve this goal.
The current population of 21.4 million would reach 25 million by 2042 and 25.8 million by 2062.
It is projected that the demand for rice will increase at 1.1 percent per year and to meet this increasing

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demand rice production should grow at the rate of 2.9 percent per year. Limiting the cropping intensity
to 1.4, increasing the national average yield together with encouraging OFC cultivation and a change in
food culture and dietary habits to keep the non-communicable disease to a minimum, are the options
available to manage this emerging situation.
An increasing population will escalate the demand for both water and food. The importance of
integrated urban water management in meeting the demand for water in a fast urbanizing Sri Lanka must
be stressed. The share of water used by the urban population in Sri Lanka is projected to increase from 45
percent in 2015 to 65 percent by 2030, and is bound to increase the pressure to meet the national targets
for drinking-water. The services sector which is expanding rapidly also places a high demand for large
quantities of water of high quality.
To enable development of the Northern Province as well as the country in a sustainable way,
sources of sufficient quantities of water of good quality must be identified and developed. As with any
other system, these future developments will be subject to appropriate guidelines in line with
International Best Practice. In preparing and implementing such development plans, full consideration
must be given to the realities of climate change which will bring more extreme weather events such as
floods and droughts, which are likely to need change of crops and cropping patterns and rising demand
for more Irrigation water. Due largely to the lack of topography and the flat terrain in the north along the
coastal belt, the drainage lines that discharged rainfall runoff to the sea have suffered sea water intrusion
both on the surface and underground. Salt water exclusion schemes can certainly help such areas in
preventing sea water intrusion. All of the above point to the lack of an appropriate planning framework
for the water resources sector.
Development of natural resources for the benefit of the communities must be planned properly
and then carried out in full consideration of all the relevant factors. It is important to ensure that the
interests and wellbeing of not only the present society and communities but those of the future
generations are considered fully. Towards this, the present document outlines a sound and equitable
planning and Policy framework.

Policy Objective

The objective of water resources development and management is to ensure the use of water
resources in an effective, efficient and equitable manner, consistent with the social, economic and
environmental needs of present and future generations. The following are expected to be the outcomes
of such a sound policy and Planning framework:
1. Facilitate Provincial and National development;
2. Recognize and conserve the value of scarce water resources;
3. Ensure equitable sharing of water resources for meeting current and future demands of
the population through an efficient allocation system;
4. Recognize the national importance of water allocation to domestic, industrial and
irrigation stakeholders in terms of the amount of water allocated, number of users and
potential for improved water conservation. One proposal is to allocate a minimum of

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 around 40% (even though 40% is too high as the World Standard is normally around 15%
or so in a multipurpose Dam or Reservoir) of the live storage in Irrigation Reservoirs for
purposes other than food production;
5. Ensure flexibility of water allocation in a way which promotes social harmony and
individual decision making;
6. Safeguard investments in water resources development by providing water rights and
entitlements;
7. Improve standards in the maintenance of safe quality of water sources required for all
water users;
8. Ensure a healthy environment and sustainable use of both surface and groundwater
resources using a comprehensive, river basin-oriented approach;
9. Ensure maximizing recharge of groundwater by maintaining a minimum of 10 – 15% of
the live storage in irrigation schemes by maintaining the minimum operational level;
10. Strictly implement all the major water supply projects with the following guidelines for
meeting drinking water demand:
a. Around 60% of water demand from existing surface irrigation schemes. Out of this
50 from existing irrigation schemes and 10 through new schemes or diversion
schemes;

b. Around 10% of water demand from seawater Reverse Osmosis (Mainly during the
drought periods) (even though we should not introduce RO as a dependable
source of potable water in the context of the Northern Province as this is simply
not suitable from financial, Technical and O& M points of view);

c. Around 15% of the water demand from ground water Except in the Jaffna
Peninsula as the entire ground water resource in the Peninsula is unfit for human
consumption, and even with possible extremely high cost chemical treatment to
remove the Sulphates, Phosphates and Nitrates, this leaves all the other three
known contaminants;

d. Around 15% of the water Demand from any other sources such as lagoon projects,
groundwater, mini RO…etc.

Policy Scope

The Proposed Water Resources Policy and planning framework applies to all fresh and brackish
water in the region and does not apply to marine waters.

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Policy Principles

All surface and groundwater are owned by the state and managed by it in partnership with water
users on behalf of all the people living in the province. These will be managed in a sustainable manner,
recognizing efficiency, equity and environmental objectives. State will take an open and participatory
approach to water resources management and will base decisions on available and verifiable resource
information and equitable sharing by all recognized stakeholders. In addition the following also to be
considered:
1. Water is a limited and valuable resource which has to be considered as a common
resource for the social wellbeing of community and the Eco- system;
2. Clear guidelines will be established to achieve prevention of pollution and over-extraction
from the sources, over-use and wastage of water resources;
3. Access to safe drinking water as a basic Human Right will be recognized. Potable water
and sanitation will be considered as highest priority needs while achieving food security,
followed by sustenance of eco-system needs will be other priorities;
4. While granting and upholding Riparian rights rest of the water will be allocated among
competing stakeholders on the principles of economically efficient use;
5. The priorities for uses of water resources shall be determined by the responsible
Provincial Authorities in line with the following descending order:
a. Drinking water;
b. Sanitation using centralized sewer based human waste collection and sewage
treatment;
c. Domestic requirements;
d. Food security;
e. Eco system and environmental requirements.
6. The authorities shall hold the right to allocate water from a less economically viable
application to a more viable and productive use;
7. All the elements in water cycle are interdependent. Hence River Basin/ sub
basin/connected basin is the hydrological unit for planning, development and
management of surface water resources. Clusters of river basins with a prevailing
situation of excess and surplus water also need to be identified as a unit;
8. Urban water bodies and wetlands will be treated as important constituents in the water
resources that need to be conserved;
9. Ground water aquifers are the hydrogeological units for planning, development and
management of ground water resources;

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 10. Impact of climate change is a key factor that will be considered in all planning activities to
ensure necessary resilience;
11. New water resources development plans will include compensatory reforestation to
mitigate and minimize any adverse effects as much as possible.

Sectoral Emphasis

The special role of the irrigation, water supply, agriculture and industrial sectors in the Province
is recognized. Some key policy provisions, such as granting water entitlements to existing users, increasing
the security of water allocation through regular monitoring of irrigation and other entitlement holders,
and an open and transparent approach to all aspects of water resource decision making will help to
safeguard the interests of irrigation water users in balance with other sectoral water users.

Strategies

This policy provides an integrated approach covering all aspects of water resources development
and management for the North Eastern Region. Co-ordination will be ensured with other natural
resources and with related national and provincial policies.
This Water Resources Policy will be implemented largely through planning at the provincial, multi-
basin and basin/aquifer levels (which will have to be conducted or coordinated by an authority formed
specifically for water resources) and through project and operational planning (which will be carried out
by other water agencies). Basin and aquifer plans will be implemented in a progressive manner through
declared priority basins.
A permanent authority for water resources will have to be formed to carry out selected water
resource management functions and to co-ordinate and guide the activities of other agencies, which will
also continue to play a role in this field.

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1526,
78. Ravi, V., Hareth, G.B.B., Manobavan, M and Sivakumar, S.S., ‘Management Plan to Reduce the Adverse Effects of Proximity of Dug
Wells and Septic Tanks in Urban Area to Diminish Coli form Contamination’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research
03/2016; 7(3): pp507-513,
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81. Resty Naigar, Marienna Penker, Karl Hogl. "Challenging Pathway to Safe Water Access in Rural Uganda: From Supply to Demand Driven
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of Jaffna Lagoon into a Freshwater Lake. 2013.
82. Sellaturai, A “Ancient History of the Tamils in Adankappattu Vanni 02” Homelands 7 Temples of Iyakar
83. Seneviratne, A.A.A.K.K. Groundwater Resources in Walawe Basin. A paper presented at the WWAP Workshop on Walawe Basin.
Unpublished Proceedings, 2008.
84. Short investigation report on water supply to the urban area of Vavuniya by the ADB Assisted Dry Zone Urban Water and Sanitation
Project Package C, RDC in association with NIRAS, January 2011.
85. Sivakumar S.S., “Water Policy for Northern Sri Lanka to Improve the Livelihood of Farming Community Together with Economic
Sustainable Growth of the Region” GSJ: 3/2021; 9(3) , pp 568-576.
86. Sivakumar, S. S., “Ground Water Quality Improvement of Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka by Regulating Water Flow in the Lagoon
Mouths”, International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 04/2014; 5(4), pp973-978,
87. Sivakumar, S.S., ‘Flood Mitigation Strategies Adopted in Sri Lanka A Review’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering
Research 03/2015; 6(2):pp607-611,
88. Sivakumar, S.S., ‘Irrigation Scheme Development and Management Strategy for Conflict Affected Northern and Eastern Provinces of
Sri Lanka’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research 08/2015; 6(8): pp1004-1008, ISSN – 2229 – 5518.
89. Sivakumar, S.S., “Alternate management options of small scale surface water resource system to develop ground water system for
the improvement in food productivity in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka”. Proceedings of Workshop on Challenges in Groundwater
Management in Sri Lanka. P63-72, 2011.
90. Sivakumar, S.S., “Application of Electronic Spread Sheet and Water Balance Error Optimization Technique in Ground Water Model
Study to Improve the Ground Water System in Restricted Area”, International Journal of Advanced Research. 07/2014; 2(6): pp792-
808.
91. Sivakumar, S.S., “Basic Statistical Information of Water Resources and Agriculture Sector of North East Province – As Base Data for
Pre and Post Conflict Scenario”, 2021.
92. Sivakumar, S.S., “Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater for Economic Food Production”, Voice for Change-Journal of Jaffna
Managers Forum pp149-154, 2013.
93. Sivakumar, S.S., “Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater to Improve Food Productivity in the Dry Zone Area”, ENGINEER,
Journal of Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka, Vol;XXXXVI, No.01, pp 21-29,January 2013,
94. Sivakumar, S.S., “Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater to Improve Food Productivity in Restricted Ares”, University of
Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, 2008.
95. Sivakumar, S.S., “Development Strategy and Food for Thought in Water and Agriculture Sector of Re-Emerging Conflict Affected
Northern Sri Lanka”, Transaction of Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka Northern Provincial Centre 09/2014; Session 2013/2014:29-52.
96. Sivakumar, S.S., “Effective Utilization of Available Water Resource by Following Proper Irrigation Practices in Sri Lanka”, International
Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research. 08/2014; 5(8):210-215.
97. Sivakumar, S.S., “Formulation of groundwater simulation model in restricted area and calibration of the model using optimization
technique with particular reference to Vavuniya” Proceedings of the 58th annual session of SLAAS, P86.
98. Sivakumar, S.S., “Groundwater balance study in a restricted catchments in Vavuniya to find effective recharge location by
introducing new operational policy on minor / medium irrigation schemes” Seminar on Irrigation for the Centenary program of
Irrigation Department, P163-174, 2001.
99. Sivakumar, S.S., “Management Policy of Water Table in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka to Subsdize the Pain of Non Rice Crop Cultivators for
the Food Productivity Improvement”, RJSITM, The International Journal Research Publications, Volume 02, Number 09, pp, July-
2013,
100. Sivakumar, S.S., “Northern River Basins Yield Study for Operational Policy of Irrigation Schemes & Water Resources and Agriculture
Development Strategy for North – 2020 – 2035”, 2020/12, ISBN978-955-0585-39-7.
101. Sivakumar, S.S., “Policy alternatives of the management of minor and medium irrigation schemes to develop groundwater system in
restricted catchments for the improvement in food productivity in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of National Conference on
Water”, Food Security and Climate Change in Sri Lanka Vol. 3, Page 73-88 (2009) IWMI Publication ISBN 978-92-9090-720-6

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102. Sivakumar, S.S., “Policy alternatives of the management of minor and medium irrigation schemes to develop groundwater system in
restricted catchments for the improvement in food productivity in the dry zone of Sri Lanka” Proceedings of National Conference on
Water, Food Security and Climate Change in Sri Lanka Vol. 3, Page 73-88 (2009) IWMI Publication ISBN 978-92-9090-720-6
103. Sivakumar, S.S., “Post Conflict Development Strategies”, Emergency Northern Recovery Project, 2012.
104. Sivakumar, S.S., “Reclamation of Land and Improve Water Productivity of Jaffna Peninsula of Northern Sri Lanka by Improving the
Water Quality of the Lagoons” RJSITM. 2(08): p. 20-27.
105. Sivakumar, S.S., “Reclamation of Land and Improve Water Productivity of Jaffna Peninsula of Northern Sri Lanka by Improving the
Water Quality of the Lagoons” RJSITM. 2(08): p. 20-27.
106. Sivakumar, S.S., “Strategies for Catchment Development Master Plan and Economic Aspects of Water Resource Planning”
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications 07/2014; 4(7):1-5.
107. Sivakumar, S.S., “Strategy to be adopted in Preparation of National Water Resource Master Plan”, International Journal of Scientific
and Engineering Research. 06/2014; 5(6): pp578-591.
108. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Management Strategies to be adopted in Sri Lanka to Improve Food Productivity to Accommodate the
Population Growth”, International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology. 05/2014; 3(5):pp207-211.
109. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources and Agriculture Development Strategy North East Province” Volume 1 & 2, 2002.
110. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources and Agriculture Development Strategy and Approach for the Re- Emerging Development of Conflict
Affected Regions of Sri Lanka”2021.
111. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources and Agriculture Development Strategy and Approach for the Re- Emerging Development of
Conflict Affected Regions of Sri Lanka”, 2021.
112. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources and Agriculture Potential in Northern Sri Lanka”, 2021.
113. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources and Water Policy Initiatives in Sri Lanka”, 2021.
114. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resources Policy for Northern Province”2021.
115. Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Utility and Management Policy for Effective Sharing of Natural Water Resource in the Costal Dry Zone of Sri
Lanka in the North East Region”, ENGINEER, Journal of Institution of Engineers Sri Lanka, Vol;XLVII, No.01, pp 37-42,January 2014
116. Sivakumar, S.S., Tharmendra, P., ‘Organizational Management of Groundwater by Farmers for the Sustainable Utilization of Water
Resource in Jaffna District of Northern Sri Lanka’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research 01/2016; 7(1): pp944-
948,
117. Sivakumar, S.S., WATER POLICY FOR NORTHERN SRI LANKA TO IMPROVE THE LIVELIHOOD OF FARMING COMMUNITY TOGETHER WITH
SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC GROWTH OF THE REGION GSJ: Volume 8, Issue 2, February 2021.
118. Sivakumar, S.S.,” Study of River Basins Yield and Operations of Irrigation Schemes to Propose an Operational Policy of Irrigation
Schemes and River Basin Development in Northern Sri Lanka to Improve the Livelihood of Farming Community”, INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON WATER, SOCIETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE WASO 2020 PROCEEDINGS - Part I CONCLUDING EVENT OF THE 7-YEAR
NORAD-NORHED PROJECT DECEMBER 15-16, 2020, pp 215-220.
119. Sivakumaran Sivaramanan, “Environmental Conflict on Exploitation of Fish Stocks in Palk Strait among Fishermen of India and Sri
Lanka” Central Environmental Authority, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280976117, 2015.
120. Statistical Abstract of Vavuniya District (2011), District Secretariat, Vavuniya
121. Stephen Gasteyer, “Water Conflict, resources management, and resolution: Trust, Tools, Technology, and Politics” Department of
Sociology, Michigan State University.
122. Subasini, U., Geographical Study of Kanakarayan River Basin, 2009
123. Subramaniam, K. “Master Plan for Crop Sector Development, Northern Province”2009.
124. Suthaharan, N., Ketheesan, B., Ratnaweera, H.C., and Sivakumar, S.S., “Challenges in Utilizing Water Resources in Lower Reaches of
Kanakarayanaru of Northern Sri Lanka for Efficient and Equitable Water Allocation” , International Journal of Scientific and
Engineering Research 7/2018; 9(7): pp 821-826
125. Suthakaran, N., Sivakumar, S.S., “Simulation of Surface Runoff using SWAT Hydrological Model for Un-gauged River Basin of
Kanakarayanaru of Northern Srilanka” INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER, SOCIETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE WASO 2020
PROCEEDINGS - Part II CONCLUDING EVENT OF THE 7-YEAR NORAD-NORHED PROJECT DECEMBER 15-16, 2020, pp 303-312.
126. Tharmendra, P and Sivakumar, S.S., ‘Organizational Management of Groundwater by Farmers for the Sustainable Utilization of Water
Resource in Jaffna District of Northern Sri Lanka’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research 01/2016; 7(1): pp944-
948.
127. Thileepan, K., and Sivakumar, S.S., “Impact of Water Resource Auditing - Integrated Development Approach - to Mitigate Water
Related Disasters in the Vavuniya Divisional Secretariat’s Division in Northern Sri Lanka” , International Journal of Scientific and
Engineering Research 8/2018; 9(8): pp 43-49,
128. Thinojah, T., and Sivakumar, S.S., “Water Resource Development in Jaffna Peninsula” Transactions of Institution of Engineers Sri
Lanka, Northern Chapter 11/2016; Session 2015/2016:70-71.
129. Thiruvarudchelvan T., Sivakumar S., “Operational Policy of the Reservoirs in Malwathu Oya River Basin to Minimize Flood
Damages in Anuradhapura, Vavuniya and Mannar Districts in Northern Sri Lanka” GSJ: 2/2019; 7(2) , pp 39-48 ISSN 2320-9186

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130. Thusyanthi, S., Karunainathan, T., Sivakumar, S.S., Mikunthan, T., “Seasonal variation of rainfall in Vadamaradchi area in Jaffna District
Sri Lanka” ICDA 2020.
131. Thusyanthi, S., Sivakumar, S.S., “Trend analysis of rainfall and temperature in Jaffna districts of Sri Lanka” INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON WATER, SOCIETY AND CLIMATE CHANGE WASO 2020 PROCEEDINGS - Part I CONCLUDING EVENT OF THE 7-YEAR
NORAD-NORHED PROJECT DECEMBER 15-16, 2020, pp 57-64.
132. Thusyanthi, S., Venugoban, V., Sivakumar, S.S., Mikunthan, T., “Drought Analysis using Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI): A Case
Study in Jaffna Peninsula in Sri Lanka” THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL CONGRESS Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, Peradeniya,
November 19 - 20, 2020
133. UNDP & CEA Integrated Strategic Environmental Assessment for the Northern Province, 2010.
134. United Nations, “World Water Development Report”, 2006.
135. Vijakanth, V., Sivakumar, S.S., and Ratnaweera, H.C., “Water Availability Study of Groundwater in Jaffna Peninsula of Northern Sri
Lanka” , International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research 1/2017; 8(1): pp 1563-1567, ISSN – 2229 – 5518
136. Visnuvarthanan, N., Sivakumar, S.S., ‘Cultivating Productive Water in Valukai Aru Catchment in Valikamam Division of Jaffna District
of Northern Sri Lanka’ International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research 01/2016; 7(1): pp1045-1048,
137. Water Resources Board, “Water Resources in Northern Province” 2009.

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