Difference between Insulators , semiconductor and Conductors.

Conductor

A conductor is a type of material that allows the electric current to flow through it i.e. it possesses least resistance
in the path of free electrons. In case of conductor, the valance and conduction bands overlap. Due to this
overlapping, a small potential difference across a conductor causes the free electrons to constitute electric current.

Insulator

An insulator is type of material that does not allow the electric current to pass through it, due to its high electrical
resistance. In the insulators, the energy gap between valance and conduction bands is very large (about 15 eV).
Therefore, a very high electric field is required to push the valance electrons to the conduction band. Due to this,
there are no free electrons in the conduction band. For this reason, the electrical conductivity of insulators is very
low and may considered nil under ordinary conditions.

Semiconductor

The semiconductors are the materials having conductivity in-between conductors and insulators. In a
semiconductor, the forbidden energy gap between valance and conduction bands is very small (about 1 eV) as
compared to insulators. Therefore, a smaller electric field (smaller than insulators but greater than conductors) is
required to push the free electrons from valance band to the conduction band.

Mobility and Conductivity

Mobility and conductivity are terms commonly associated with the electrical properties of materials, particularly in
the context of semiconductors and conductors. Let's explore each concept:

1. Mobility:

• Definition:Mobility refers to the ability of charge carriers (such as electrons or holes) to move through a
material in response to an electric field. It is a measure of how quickly charges can move under the influence
of an applied electric field.
• Units: Mobility is typically expressed in units of cm²/V·s (centimeters squared per volt-second).
 • Factors influencing mobility:The mobility of charge carriers is influenced by factors such as temperature,
impurities, and the crystalline structure of the material. In general, higher mobility is desirable for electronic
devices as it allows for faster charge transport.

2. Conductivity:

• Definition: Conductivity is a measure of a material's ability to conduct electric current. It is the reciprocal of
resistivity (σ = 1/ρ), where resistivity is the inherent property of a material to resist the flow of electric current.
• Units: Conductivity is measured in units of Siemens per meter (S/m) or mho/m (ohm spelled backward per
meter).
• Relation to mobility:The conductivity (σ) of a material is related to the mobility (μ) of charge carriers by the
equation σ = n * e * μ, where "n" is the carrier concentration (number of charge carriers per unit volume), "e"
is the elementary charge, and μ is the mobility.

Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

In semiconductor physics, materials can be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic based on the presence or absence of
intentional doping with impurities. Let's delve into the characteristics of both intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors:

1.Intrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition:An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor material with no intentional impurity doping. It
consists only of the basic semiconductor material, such as pure silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge).

Properties:

- Intrinsic semiconductors have a low concentration of charge carriers at absolute zero temperature.

- The charge carriers (electrons and holes) are generated through thermal excitation, where electrons gain
enough energy to move from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs.

- The number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band.

2.Extrinsic Semiconductor:

Definition: An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor material intentionally doped with specific impurities to
modify its electrical properties. The intentional introduction of impurities allows for control over the concentration
and type of charge carriers.

Doping Types:

• N-Type (Negative-Type):Doping with elements that provide extra electrons, such as phosphorus or
arsenic. These extra electrons become the majority charge carriers.
• P-Type (Positive-Type): Doping with elements that create holes by accepting electrons, such as boron or
gallium. Holes become the majority charge carriers.

Properties:
 - Extrinsic semiconductors have a much higher concentration of charge carriers compared to intrinsic
semiconductors.

- The type and concentration of charge carriers can be controlled by the type and amount of impurities added
during the doping process.

- Extrinsic semiconductors form the basis for the majority of electronic devices, as the controlled presence of
charge carriers is essential for the operation of transistors, diodes, and other semiconductor components.

Fermi level ::-

The Fermi level, named after physicist Enrico Fermi, is a concept in solid-state physics that describes the energy
level at which the probability of finding an electron is 50%. It plays a crucial role in understanding the electronic
properties of materials, particularly in the context of semiconductors and metals.

Here are key points about the Fermi level:

1. Definition:

- The Fermi level represents the highest energy level in a material at absolute zero temperature where electrons are
likely to be found. It is often denoted by the symbol \(E_F\).

2. Temperature Influence:

- At absolute zero (0 Kelvin), the Fermi level corresponds to the energy of the highest occupied electron state.

- As temperature increases, electrons gain thermal energy and may move to higher energy levels. The Fermi level
remains the energy level at which there is a 50% probability of finding an electron.

3. Role in Semiconductor Physics:

- In intrinsic semiconductors (pure semiconductors with no intentional doping), the Fermi level is located near the
middle of the band gap. It separates the valence band (lower energy) from the conduction band (higher energy).

- In extrinsic semiconductors (doped semiconductors), the Fermi level is shifted depending on the type and
concentration of dopants (N-type or P-type).

4. Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function:

- The distribution of electrons at different energy levels is described by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function. This
statistical distribution accounts for the Pauli exclusion principle, stating that no two electrons can occupy the same
quantum state simultaneously.

5. Metal vs. Semiconductor:

- In metals, the Fermi level lies within a band of partially filled states, contributing to the high electrical
conductivity of metals.

- In semiconductors, the Fermi level is crucial for understanding the behavior of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) and their movement between the valence and conduction bands.

Energy band :-
What is Energy Band?

The energy band definition states that the number of atoms in a crystal stone can be closer together, and a number
of electrons can interact with one another. Changes in electron energy levels within their shell can induce changes
in their energy levels. The key characteristic of the energy band is that the energy levels of electrons in electronics
are stable throughout a wide range of frequencies. As a result, the energy level of an atom will vary in the conduction
and valence bands.

Formation of Energy Band

The electrons in each orbit of an isolated atom have a certain amount of energy. However, in solids, the energy level
of the outermost orbit electrons is influenced by the atoms nearby. The electrons in the outermost orbit feel an
attractive attraction from the closest or adjacent atomic nucleus when two isolated charges are brought close
together.

Energy Band Theory:-

According to Bohr’s hypothesis, each atom’s shell has a different amount of energy at different levels. The major
focus of this theory is on electron communication between the interior and outer shells. The energy bands are
categorised into three categories according to the theory of energy bands, which include the following.

• Conduction Band
• Valence Band
• Forbidden Gap

Types of Energy Bands:-

The energy bands are divided into three categories:

• Insulators
• Conductors
• Semiconductors

Charges Densities in semiconductors :-

In a semiconductor, the number density of intrinsic charge carriers at 27∘C is 1.5×1016 m−3. If the semiconductor is
doped with impurity atom, the hole density increases to 4.5×1022 m−3. The electron density in the doped
semiconductor is ×109 m−3.

P-N junction diode:-

A p-n junction diode is a semiconductor device that is formed by joining a p-type semiconductor (which is positively
doped) and an n-type semiconductor (which is negatively doped). This junction creates a transition region where the
majority carriers from one side (holes in the p-type and electrons in the n-type) diffuse across the junction and
recombine with the majority carriers of the opposite type. This process forms a depletion region near the junction,
creating a potential barrier.
Here are key characteristics and behaviors of a p-n junction diode:

1. Depletion Region:

- The p-n junction establishes a depletion region near the interface where the majority carriers have diffused and
recombined. In this region, there are fewer charge carriers, resulting in a region depleted of free charge carriers.

2. Built-In Potential Barrier:

- The diffusion of carriers across the junction creates an electric field, leading to a built-in potential barrier. This
barrier prevents further diffusion of majority carriers.

3. Forward Bias:

- Applying a forward bias to the diode involves connecting the p-type material to the positive terminal of a voltage
source and the n-type material to the negative terminal. This reduces the potential barrier, allowing current to flow
easily through the diode.

- Electrons from the n-type material and holes from the p-type material move across the junction, resulting in a low
resistance state. The diode conducts in the forward-biased direction.

4. Reverse Bias:

- Applying a reverse bias involves connecting the p-type material to the negative terminal and the n-type material to
the positive terminal. This increases the potential barrier, making it difficult for current to flow across the junction.

- The depletion region widens, reducing the chance of majority carriers crossing the junction. The diode exhibits
high resistance in the reverse-biased direction, and only a small leakage current (due to minority carriers) flows.

5. Diode Equation:

- The behavior of a p-n junction diode in forward bias can be described by the Shockley diode equation:

Where:

Where:

I is the diode current.

Is is the reverse saturation current.

V is the applied voltage.

n is the ideality factor.

Vt is the thermal voltage

6. Applications:

- P-n junction diodes are fundamental building blocks in electronic circuits.

- They are used in rectifiers to convert AC to DC.

- Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) utilize the properties of p-n junctions to emit light when forward-biased.

- Photodiodes and solar cells are based on p-n junctions and are used for light sensing and energy conversion.

VI Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

A curve between the voltage and current across the circuit defines the V-I properties of p-n junction diodes. The x-
axis represents voltage, while the y-axis represents current. The V-I characteristics curve of the p-n junction diode is
shown in the graph above. With the help of the curve, we can see that the diode works in three different areas, which
are:

1. Zero bias
2. Forward bias
3. Reverse bias

Zero Bias
There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias, which implies the potential
barrier at the junction prevents current passage.

Forward bias

When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-type is linked to the positive terminal of the external voltage,
while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal. The potential barrier is reduced when the diode is placed in
this fashion. When the voltage is 0.7 V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, the potential barriers fall,
and current flows.

Reverse Bias

When the PN junction diode is under negative bias, the p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the external
voltage, while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal. As a result, the potential barrier becomes higher.
Because minority carriers are present at the junction, a reverse saturation current occurs at first.

Working of PN Junction Diode

If an external voltage is applied to the PN junction diode terminable, potential alteration between the P and N-region
will occur. The potential difference can alter majority carriers’ flow for the diffusion of electrons and holes by the PN
junction.

If the applied voltage helps decrease the depletion layer width, then the assumed diode will be in forwarding bias,
and if vice versa, reverse bias is assumed. If the width of the depletion layer has not altered one bit, then it is in the
zero-bias state.

Forward Bias: Potential barrier decreased by the external voltage

Reverse Bias: Built-in potential barrier increased by the external voltage.

Zero Bias: No voltage from exterior applied.

What is Rectifier?

A rectifier is an electronic device that converts an alternating current into a direct current by using one or more P-N
junction diodes. A diode behaves as a one-way valve that allows current to flow in a single direction. This process is
known as rectification.

A rectifier can take the shape of several physical forms such as solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury-
arc valves, silicon-controlled rectifiers, and various other silicon-based semiconductors switches

What Are Some Applications of Rectifiers?

Some common applications of rectifiers are:

1. Rectifiers are used in electric welding to provide polarized voltage

2. Half-wave rectifiers are used as a mosquito repellent
3. Half-wave rectifiers are used as a signal peak detector in AM radio
4. Rectifiers are used in modulation, demodulation and voltage multipliers
Half wave rectifier :-

Half-wave rectifiers transform AC voltage to DC voltage. A halfwave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the
transformation. A halfwave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage
waveform to pass while blocking the other half cycle. In this session, let us know in detail about the half-wave
rectifier.

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the construction of a
halfwave rectifier circuit.

A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:

• A diode
• A transformer
• A resistive load

Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The obtained secondary low
voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and reverse biased during the
negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Here are a few common applications of half wave rectifiers:

1. They are used for signal demodulation purpose

2. They are used for rectification applications
3. They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

1. Power loss
2. Low output voltage
3. The output contains a lot of ripples

FULL Wave Rectifier Circuit:-

A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) by allowing both half-
cycles of the AC waveform to be utilized. There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers: the center-tap (or two-
diode) full-wave rectifier and the bridge (or four-diode) full-wave rectifier.

1. Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier:

Circuit Components:

- Transformer:Converts the AC input voltage to the desired level.

- Center-Tapped Secondary Coil: The secondary coil of the transformer has a center tap.

- Two Diodes:Connected to the ends of the secondary coil.

Operation:

1. During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, the upper diode conducts, allowing current to flow through the load
in one direction.

2. During the negative half-cycle, the lower diode conducts, allowing current to flow through the load in the opposite
direction.

3. The center tap provides a reference point for both half-cycles.

Advantages:

- Utilizes both halves of the AC waveform.

- Produces a smoother DC output compared to a half-wave rectifier.

2. Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier:

Circuit Components:

- Transformer:Converts the AC input voltage to the desired level.

- Four Diodes: Arranged in a bridge configuration.

Operation:

1. During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, diodes D1 and D2 conduct, allowing current to flow through the
load in one direction.

2. During the negative half-cycle, diodes D3 and D4 conduct, allowing current to flow through the load in the
opposite direction.

3. The bridge configuration eliminates the need for a center tap on the transformer.

Advantages:

- No center tap is required, making the transformer simpler and more cost-effective.

- Higher efficiency compared to the center-tap full-wave rectifier.

Output Waveforms:

The output waveforms of both types of full-wave rectifiers are smoother than that of a half-wave rectifier, resulting in
less ripple (variations in voltage). The use of four diodes in the bridge rectifier allows it to have a higher efficiency and
is more commonly used in practical applications.

Zener diode and its applications:-

A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias conditions is called a Zener Diode. They are special
semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions. For the Zener diode,
the voltage drop across the diode is always constant irrespective of the applied voltage. Thus, Zener diodes are used
as a voltage regulator.

Zener Diode Explanation

Zener diode that is also known as a breakdown diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that has been
specially designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the potential reaches the Zener voltage which is also
known as Knee voltage and the voltage across the terminal of the Zener diode is reversed, at that point time, the
junction breaks down and the current starts flowing in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener effect.

Zener Diode Circuit Diagram

The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener diode. The Zener diode has applications in various
electronic devices and it works in reverse biasing conditions. In reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is
connected with the negative terminal of the power supply, and the n-type material is connected with the positive
terminal of the power supply. The diode consists of a very thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily doped
semiconductor material.
 \

Applications and Uses of Zener Diode can be seen in the following:

1. As a voltage regulator
2. Protects from overvoltage
3. Used in clipping circuits
4. Used to shift voltage

Varactor Diode :-

A varactor diode, also known as a varicap diode or variable capacitance diode, is a type of semiconductor diode
whose capacitance can be controlled by applying a variable voltage across its terminals. The term "varactor" is
derived from "variable reactor." Varactor diodes are primarily used in electronic circuits for their capacitance-
voltage (C-V) characteristics, making them suitable for applications such as voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs),
frequency modulators, and voltage-tunable filters.

Characteristics of Varactor Diodes:

1.Capacitance Variation: The most significant feature of varactor diodes is their ability to vary capacitance with an
applied voltage. When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to the diode, the width of the depletion region changes,
altering the capacitance.

2.Reverse-Biased Operation:Varactor diodes are typically operated in reverse-bias mode, where an increase in
reverse voltage results in a decrease in capacitance, and vice versa. The relationship between capacitance (\(C\))
and reverse-bias voltage (\(V_{\text{reverse}}\)) is approximately linear over a certain voltage range.

3. Symbol:The symbol for a varactor diode is similar to a regular diode symbol, but with double lines to represent
variable capacitance. The arrow points in the direction of conventional current flow when the diode is forward-
biased.

Applications of Varactor Diodes:

1. Voltage-Controlled Oscillators (VCOs): Varactor diodes are commonly used in VCOs in radio frequency (RF)
circuits. By varying the reverse-bias voltage, the capacitance of the varactor diode changes, leading to a
corresponding change in the resonant frequency of the oscillator.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Varactor diodes are utilized in FM modulators where the modulation signal causes
the voltage across the varactor diode to vary, resulting in frequency modulation of the output signal.
 3. Voltage-Tunable Filters: Varactor diodes are employed in voltage-tunable filters, enabling the adjustment of the
filter's characteristics by varying the reverse-bias voltage.

4. Frequency Synthesizers: Varactor diodes play a role in frequency synthesizers, where precise control of the
output frequency is required.

5. Tuning Circuitry: Varactor diodes are used in tuning circuits for radios and other communication devices.

Schottky Diode:-

The Schottky diode is popularly known as hot-carrier diode, low-voltage diode, or Schottky barrier diode. It is a type
of diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. We know that in a PN junction diode, p-type and n-
type semiconductors are joined collectively to form a PN junction. To the contrary , a Schottky diode replaces the p-
type semiconductor with metals like aluminium.

Schottky diode has multiple characteristics which makes it a better choice over other diodes in electronic industry.
It displays characteristics like fast switching action and a low forward voltage drop. The symbolic representation of
this diode, the construction of this diode, the energy band of the diode and how does the V-I characteristic graph of
this diode look like.

Symbol of Schottky diode

Working Of Schottky Diode:-

A Schottky diode is formed by joining a metal (commonly aluminum or platinum) with a semiconductor material
(usually silicon or gallium arsenide) to create a metal-semiconductor junction.

1. When the metal comes in contact with the semiconductor, a potential barrier, known as the Schottky barrier,
is created at the junction due to the difference in work functions between the metal and semiconductor. This
barrier prevents the flow of electrons from the metal into the semiconductor.
2. When a forward bias voltage is applied across the Schottky diode (anode connected to the metal side,
cathode connected to the semiconductor side), the applied voltage reduces the height of the Schottky
barrier.
3. The lowered barrier allows electrons to easily flow from the metal into the semiconductor, resulting in a low
forward voltage drop (typically 0.2 to 0.4 volts for silicon Schottky diodes). This characteristic minimizes
power dissipation and makes the diode suitable for low-voltage applications.
4. Schottky diodes exhibit very fast switching action due to the absence of a depletion region, which is present
in traditional PN junction diodes. This makes them ideal for high-frequency applications where rapid
switching is required.
5. In the reverse bias condition (positive voltage on the semiconductor side, negative voltage on the metal side),
the Schottky diode exhibits a small reverse leakage current due to thermionic emission of electrons over the
lowered Schottky barrier.
6. Unlike PN junction diodes, Schottky diodes have virtually no reverse recovery time. This means there is no
delay when transitioning from the conducting to non-conducting state, making them suitable for high-
frequency rectification.

Application And Characteristics

1. Low Turn-On voltage: The voltage required to turn on a Schottky diode is comparatively low as compared to
other diodes.
2. Low Forward Voltage Drop: Due to this property of diode it finds its application in Power Circuits because it is
well adapted due to low voltage drop. This property also makes them best devices to be used in Power
Rectifier Applications with high current density.
3. Fast Recovery Time: Due to the semiconductor contact , Schottky diodes show a very fast recovery time
making the circuits very fast. Thereby these diodes are used in Fast-Clamp Diode Applications where base
junction is forward biased.
4. Low Loss Energy: Schottky diode shows a very low energy loss even at higher frequencies. Due to this
Schottky diodes are generally used in Solar Cells. Solar cells generally store energy and Schottky diodes
prevents them from discharging.

LED:-

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when current flows through it. Electrons in the
semiconductor recombine with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band
gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting
phosphor on the semiconductor device.

Characteristics of LEDs:
1. Semiconductor Nature:LEDs are semiconductor devices made from materials such as gallium arsenide, gallium
phosphide, or indium gallium nitride. When current flows through the semiconductor material, it releases energy in
the form of light.

2. Directionality:LEDs emit light in a specific direction, unlike traditional light sources that emit light in all directions.
This directional nature makes LEDs more efficient for many applications.

3. Energy Efficiency:LEDs are highly energy-efficient, converting a large portion of electrical energy into light. They
emit light through a process called electroluminescence, which is more efficient than incandescent or fluorescent
lighting.

4.Long Lifespan: LEDs have a longer lifespan compared to traditional light sources. They can last tens of thousands
of hours, reducing the need for frequent replacements.

5.Color Range:LEDs are available in a wide range of colors. The color of the emitted light depends on the specific
semiconductor materials used in the LED.

6. Instant Lighting:LEDs light up instantly without a warm-up period, unlike some other types of lighting.

Applications of LEDs:

1. Lighting:LEDs are widely used for general lighting purposes, including residential, commercial, and industrial
applications. They are found in light bulbs, streetlights, architectural lighting, and more.

2.Display Screens:LEDs are used in various display technologies, such as LED TVs, computer monitors, and digital
signage. They provide high contrast ratios and vibrant colors.

3. Indicator Lights:LEDs are commonly used as indicator lights in electronic devices, appliances, and control
panels. They indicate the status of a device or system.

4.Automotive Lighting: LEDs are used in headlights, brake lights, turn signals, and interior lighting in automobiles.
They are valued for their energy efficiency and long lifespan.

5. Backlighting:LEDs are used as backlight sources in LCD displays for devices like smartphones, tablets, and
laptops.

6.Traffic Signals: LEDs are used in traffic lights due to their energy efficiency and visibility in various weather
conditions.

7. Phototherapy:Certain types of LEDs are used in medical applications for phototherapy, treating skin conditions
or promoting wound healing.

8.Grow Lights:LEDs are used in horticulture for indoor plant growth. They provide specific wavelengths of light
needed for photosynthesis.

PHOTODETECTOR :-

A photodetector definition is; an optoelectronic device that is used to detect the incident light or optical power to
convert it into an electrical signal is known as a photodetector. Usually, this o/p signal is proportional to the incident
optical power. These sensors are absolutely needed for different scientific implementations like process control,
fiber optic communication systems, safety, environmental sensing & also in defense applications. Examples of
photodetectors are phototransistors and photodiodes.

There are different types of photodetectors, each with its own working principle and characteristics. Some common
types include:

1.Photodiode:

- A photodiode is a semiconductor device that generates a current or voltage when exposed to light.

- When photons of sufficient energy strike the semiconductor material, they create electron-hole pairs, resulting in
a current flow.

- Photodiodes are widely used in applications such as optical communication, light detection, and imaging.

2. Phototransistor:

- Similar to a regular transistor but designed to respond to light, a phototransistor amplifies the current or voltage
produced by incident light.

- It is often used in applications where higher sensitivity or amplification is required, such as in optical switches
and sensors.

3. Photovoltaic Cell (Solar Cell):

- Photovoltaic cells convert sunlight directly into electrical power through the photovoltaic effect.

- When photons strike the semiconductor material, they create an electric current by releasing electrons from their
atoms.

- Photovoltaic cells are commonly used in solar panels for generating electricity from sunlight.

4.Photoconductor (LDR - Light-Dependent Resistor):

- A photoconductor's resistance changes with the amount of incident light.

- Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) are a type of photoconductor where the resistance decreases as light intensity
increases.

- LDRs are often used in applications like streetlights, cameras, and automatic light switches.

5. Avalanche Photodiode (APD):

- An avalanche photodiode is a specialized type of photodiode that uses avalanche multiplication to amplify the
photocurrent.

- It is employed in high-speed and low-light-level applications, such as fiber optic communication systems.

6. Photonic Integrated Circuit (PIC):

- A photonic integrated circuit combines multiple optical components, including photodetectors, on a single chip.
 - PICs are used in optical communication systems and can integrate various functionalities like lasers,
modulators, and detectors.

7. Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) and Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Image Sensors:

- These are used in imaging applications and convert light into electronic signals to capture visual information.

- CCDs and CMOS sensors are found in cameras, smartphones, and other imaging devices.