OCP - SQL&PL - SQL (Vol3)

Introduction to Oracle: SQL
and PL/SQL Using Procedure

Builder
Volume Three S Participant Guide
Edition 1.1
M03991
T1001E11
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18
Overview of PL/SQL
18Ć2 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder
Objectives
This lesson provides an overview of how to create and use PL/SQL program
units and subprograms using Oracle Procedure Builder.
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
D Determine the benefits of accessing the Oracle7 database with PL/SQL.
D Describe basic PL/SQL program constructs.
D Describe the Oracle Procedure Builder tool.
Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć3

Overview
What Is PL/SQL?
PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) is an extension to SQL, incorporating many of
the design features of programming languages of recent years. It allows the data
manipulation and query statements of SQL to be included within block-structured and
procedural units of code, making PL/SQL a powerful transaction processing
language.
Benefits from PL/SQL

You can take advantage of the procedural capabilities of PL/SQL, which are
unavailable in SQL.
Modularize Program Development
D Group logically related statements within blocks.
D Nest sub-blocks inside larger blocks to build powerful programs.
D Break down a complex problem into a set of manageable, well-defined, logical
modules, and implement them with blocks.
Declare Identifiers
D Declare variables, constants, cursors, and exceptions, and then use them in SQL
and procedural statements.
D Declare variables belonging to simple and composite datatypes.
D Declare variables dynamically based upon the data structure of tables and
columns in the database.
Program with Procedural Language Control Structures
D Execute a sequence of statements conditionally.
D Execute a sequence of statements iteratively in a loop.
D Process individually the rows returned by a multiple-row query with an explicit
cursor.
D Combine PL/SQL with Oracle tools, such as Developer/2000 Forms, to group
associated commands together to control execution.
Handle Errors
D Process Oracle7 Server errors with exception handling routines.
D Declare user-defined error conditions and process them with exception handling
routines.
Continued

Overview continued
Benefits of PL/SQLĊcontinued
Portability
D Since PL/SQL is native to Oracle, you can move programs to any host
environment that supports Oracle and PL/SQL.
D You can also move code between the Oracle7 Server and your application
environment using Procedure Builder’s drag-and-drop capabilities.
Integration
D PL/SQL plays a central role to both the Oracle7 Server (through stored
procedures, database triggers, and packages) and Oracle development tools
(through Developer/2000 component triggers).
D Variables and datatypes in PL/SQL and SQL are compatible. Therefore, PL/SQL
bridges the gap between convenient access to database technology and the need
for procedural programming capabilities.
Improve Performance
D PL/SQL can improve the performance of an application. The benefits differ
depending upon the execution environment.
D PL/SQL groups SQL statements together within a single block and sends the
entire block to the server in a single call, therefore reducing network traffic.

PL/SQL Block Structure
A basic PL/SQL block of code can contain up to three parts. The order in which the
sections of the blocks are written is shown below.
Section Description Inclusion

Declarative Contains all variables, constants, cursors, Optional
and user-defined exceptions that will be
referenced within the Executable section.
Executable Contains SQL statements to manipulate Mandatory
data in the database and PL/SQL
statements to manipulate data in the block.
Exception Handling Specifies the actions to perform when Optional
errors and abnormal conditions arise
within the Executable section.
Note: In PL/SQL, an error or warning is called an exception.

Section keywords DECLARE, BEGIN, and EXCEPTION are not followed by
semicolons. However, END and all other PL/SQL statements do require a semicolon
to terminate the statement. You can string statements together on the same line.
However, this method is not recommended for clarity or editing.

PL/SQL Block Structure continued
Every unit of PL/SQL comprises one or more blocks. These blocks can be entirely
separate or nested one within another. Therefore, one block can represent a small part
of another block, which in turn can be part of the whole unit of code.
PL/SQL Program Constructs

The following list outlines a variety of different PL/SQL program constructs using
the basic PL/SQL block. They are available based on the environment where they are
executed.
Program
Construct Description Availability
Anonymous Block Unnamed PL/SQL block that is All PL/SQL
embedded within an application or environments.
is issued interactively.
Stored Procedure or Named PL/SQL block that can Oracle7 Server with
Function accept parameters and can be Procedural Extension.
invoked repeatedly.
Application Named PL/SQL block that can Components of
Procedure or accept parameters and can be Developer/2000, for
Function invoked repeatedly. example Forms.
Package Named PL/SQL module that Oracle7 Server with
groups together related procedures, Procedural Extension.
functions, and identifiers.
Database Trigger PL/SQL block that is associated Oracle7 Server with
with a database table and is fired Procedural Extension.
automatically.
Application Trigger PL/SQL block that is associated Components of
with an application event and is Developer/2000, for
fired automatically. example Forms.
Note: A function is similar to a procedure, except that a function must return a

value.

PL/SQL Block Structure continued
The two types of constructs covered in this course are anonymous blocks and
subprograms.
Anonymous Blocks
Anonymous blocks are unnamed blocks. They are declared at the point in an
application where they are to be executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for
execution at runtime. You can embed an anonymous block within a precompiler
program and within SQL*Plus or Server Manager. Triggers in Developer/2000
components consist of such blocks.
Subprograms
Subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks. You can declare them either as procedures
or as functions. Procedures perform actions, and functions return values.
Developer/2000 components allow you to declare procedures and functions as part of
the application (a form or report), and call them from other procedures, functions, and
triggers.

The PL/SQL Environment
PL/SQL is not an Oracle product in its own right; it is a technology employed by the
Oracle7 Server and by certain Oracle tools. Blocks of PL/SQL are passed to and
processed by a PL/SQL engine, which may reside within the tool or within the
Oracle7 Server. The engine used depends on where the PL/SQL is being invoked.
PL/SQL Engine at the Oracle7 Server

When you submit blocks from a Pro* program, user-exit, SQL*Plus, or Server
Manager, the PL/SQL engine in the Oracle7 Server processes them. It breaks the SQL
within the block into separate statements and sends them to the SQL Statement
Executor. This means that a single transfer is required to send the block from the
application to the Oracle7 Server, thus improving performance especially in a
client-server network. Stored subprograms can be referenced by any number of
applications connected to the database.
PL/SQL in Oracle Tools

Many Oracle tools, including Developer/2000, have their own PL/SQL engine, which
is independent of the engine present in the Oracle7 Server.
The engine filters out SQL statements and sends them individually to the SQL
Statement Executor in the Oracle7 Server. It processes the remaining procedural
statements in the Procedural Statement Executor, which is within the PL/SQL engine.
The Procedural Statement Executor processes data that is local to the application (that
is already inside the client environment, rather than the database). This reduces work
sent to the Oracle7 Server and the number of memory cursors required.
Note: Procedures and functions declared as part of a Developer/2000 application are
distinct from those stored in the database, although their general structure is
the same. Stored subprograms are database objects and are stored in the Data
Dictionary. They can be accessed by any number of applications.
Application subprograms pass blocks to that application’s local PL/SQL

engine. Work is done at the application site, not at the server site.

About Procedure Builder
Oracle Procedure Builder is a tool you can use to create, execute, and debug PL/SQL
programs used in your application tools, such as a form or a report, or on the Oracle7
Server through its graphical interface.
Integrated PL/SQL Development Environment

Procedure Builder’s development environment contains a built-in editor for you to
create or edit subprograms. You can compile, test, and debug your code.
Unified ClientĆServer PL/SQL Development

Application partitioning through Procedure Builder is available to assist you with
distribution of logic between client and server. Users can drag and drop a PL/SQL
program unit between the client and the server.

19
Basics of Procedure Builder

Objectives

Objectives
A key feature of procedural programming is the ability to create and debug code
quickly and easily. Procedure Builder provides all of the functionality necessary
for you to successfully develop and debug PL/SQL programs. This lesson
enables you to manipulate PL/SQL code using Procedure Builder.
D Identify the advantages of developing and debugging PL/SQL programs in
Procedure Builder.
D Manage program units by using the Object Navigator.
D Execute program units and SQL statements by using the PL/SQL Interpreter.
D Define and compile procedures by using the Program Unit editor.
D Define and compile database procedures by using the Stored Program Unit editor.
D Set a breakpoint to suspend program execution.
D Control the execution of an interrupted PL/SQL program unit.
D Test possible solutions by changing variables and procedures at runtime.
Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć3

Overview
Procedure Builder is an integrated development environment. It provides for the
editing, compiling, testing, and debugging of PL/SQL programs within a single tool.
In addition, it enables developers to drag and drop program units between the client
and server. You can improve your application development efforts by using the
features available in Procedure Builder. You will become familiar with these features
by learning about each component’s function. Once you are familiar with the
Procedure Builder environment, you will cover the PL/SQL syntax.
Procedure Builder Features
Component Description
Object Navigator Manage PL/SQL constructs.
Perform debug actions.
PL/SQL Interpreter Debug PL/SQL code.
Evaluate PL/SQL code in real time.
Program Unit Editor Create and edit PL/SQL source code.
Stored Program Unit Create and edit server-side PL/SQL source code.
Editor
Database Trigger Editor Create and edit database triggers.
For more information, see

Oracle Procedure Builder Developer’s Guide, Release 1.5.

Procedural Programming Capabilities

Oracle Procedure Builder Capabilities
Procedure Builder is an integrated, interactive environment that you can use to create,
execute, and debug PL/SQL programs. Using Procedure Builder, you can build
portable database programs quickly and easily.
Integrated PL/SQL Development Environment

D Create and edit subprograms.
D Compile subprograms to perform syntactical error checking.
D Test subprograms.
D Debug subprograms.
Unified ClientĆServer PL/SQL Development

D Create database triggers.
D Create stored procedures and move them to the client to debug.
D Build and edit client-side libraries.
D Create client-side program units and move them to the server.

Procedure Builder Components

The Object Navigator

The Object Navigator provides an outline style interface to browse objects, view the
relationships between them, and edit their properties.
The Interpreter
The Interpreter is the central debugging workspace of Procedure Builder. It is a
two-pane window where you display, debug, and run PL/SQL program units. It also
interactively supports the evaluation of PL/SQL constructs, SQL commands, and
Procedure Builder commands.
The Program Unit Editor

The easiest and most common place to enter PL/SQL source code is in the Program
Unit editor. You can use it to edit, compile, and browse warning and error messages
during application development.
The Stored Program Unit Editor

The Stored Program Unit editor is a GUI environment for editing server-side
packages and subprograms. The compile operation submits the source text to the
server-side PL/SQL compiler. To debug server-side program units you can drag a
copy of the program unit to the client side using the Object Navigator.
The Database Trigger Editor

The Database Trigger editor is a GUI environment for editing database triggers. The
compile operation submits the source text to the server-side PL/SQL compiler.
Online Help
Oracle Procedure Builder has a help facility that provides assistance at any time
during your session. You can access it from the menu bar.

Using the Quick Tour

Procedure Builder Components continued
Using the Quick Tour

The Quick Tour, another type of online help, introduces you to product terminology,
workflow, and theoretical concepts. This is an excellent resource to get started with
Procedure Builder. You can invoke the Quick Tour by choosing the Quick Tour menu
item from the Help menu.
Procedure Builder Basics

Become familiar with the Object Navigator to create and manage your PL/SQL
objects. Also, learn the terminology used in the Object Navigator.
Developing a Program Unit

Review each step to develop a program unit. Create, edit, and compile a PL/SQL
program unit using the Program Unit and Database Trigger editors.
Debugging a Program Unit

This section describes how to debug a program unit using the PL/SQL Interpreter. It
describes how to set breakpoints, step through your code, and peruse the Stack node
to change the value of the variable.
Organizing PL/SQL
Step through application partitioning between the client and server, including using
libraries and moving subprograms between the client and server.
Procedure Builder Features

Review the kinds of application-building tasks you can perform using Procedure
Builder.

Using Cue Cards

Procedure Builder Components continued
Using Cue Cards

Developer/2000 provides further help in the form of Cue Cards. Their purpose is to
provide just-in-time coaching for frequently performed tasks. You can invoke Cue
Cards by selecting the Cue Cards menu item from the Help menu.
Cue cards contain two types of content: task and concept. Task cards list the steps to
complete a task, while concept cards describe a particular concept with static
graphics. When invoked, Cue Cards display a list of topics that are divided into two
categories:
D Task: What would you like to do?
D Concept: Learn About
To display the cue card for any of these topics, click the appropriate button to the left
of the item.
Cue Cards include a set of six buttons that you use to navigate to the information you
require.
Button Action
Next Card Advance one card.
Back Return to the previous card.
Tell Me Obtain more information about a topic.
Show Me View a short movie or animation on a task.
Options Set Cue Card options.
Exit Exit Cue Cards.

1 5
4
5
2
3 4
1 Navigator drop down list 2 Subobject indicator 3 Type icon
4 Object name 5 Find field

The Object Navigator provides immediate access to every object in your development
environment. You can create and manipulate all of your PL/SQL program units,
libraries, debug actions, and variables from the Object Navigator.
Object Navigator Components
Navigator Component Description

Navigator drop down list Indicates the name of the currently selected object.
Subobject indicator Indicates whether an object can be expanded to view
its subobjects.
Type icon Indicates the object type.
Object name Indicates the name of the object.
Find field Used to search for a named object.

The Object Navigator Vertical Button Bar
1 Open/save 2 Cut/copy/paste 3 Create/delete
4 Expand/collapse/
expand all/collapse all

The Object Navigator continued
The Object Navigator Vertical Button Bar

The Vertical Button Bar on the Object Navigator provides a convenient access for
many of the actions frequently performed from the File, Edit, and Navigator menus.
Elements of the Vertical Button Bar
Element Description
Open Opens a library from the file system or from the Oracle7 Server.
Save Saves a library on the file system or on the Oracle7 Server.
Cut Cuts the selected object and stores it in the clipboard. Cutting an
object also cuts any objects owned by that object.
Copy Makes a copy of the selected object and stores it in the clipboard.
Copying an object also copies any objects owned by that object.
Paste Pastes the cut or copied module into the selected location. Note
that objects must be copied to a valid location in the object
hierarchy.
Create Creates a new instance of the currently selected object.
Delete Deletes the selected object with confirmation.
Expand Expands the first level of subobjects of the currently selected
object.
Collapse Collapses the first level of subobjects of the currently selected
object.
Expand All Expands all levels of subobjects of the currently selected object.
Collapse All Collapses all levels of subobjects of the currently selected object.

Objects of the Navigator

Object Navigator Objects

By using the Object Navigator, you can display a hierarchical listing of all objects
you have access to during your session.
Object Node Description

Program Units PL/SQL construct that can be independently recognized and
processed by the PL/SQL compiler.
Program Units – Name, parameter, and return type (functions only) of the
Specification program unit.
Program Units – Procedures, functions, anonymous blocks, and tables that the
References program unit references.
Program Units – Procedures, functions, anonymous blocks, and tables that
Referenced By reference the program unit.
Libraries Collection of PL/SQL packages, procedures, and functions
stored in the database or the file system.
Attached Libraries Referenced libraries stored in the database or the file system.
Built-in Packages PL/SQL constructs that can be referenced while debugging
program units.
Debug Actions Actions that enable you to monitor or interrupt the execution
of PL/SQL program units.
Stack Chain of subprogram calls, from the initial entry point down
to the currently executing subprogram.
Database Objects Collection of server-side stored program units, libraries,
tables, and views.

Managing Objects Using the Object Navigator

Use the Vertical Button Bar and the Find Field on the Object Navigator to manage
PL/SQL constructs, debug actions, and database objects.
Creating a Library
1. Select the Libraries object.
2. Click the Create button.
The new library subobject will appear with a default name.
Saving a Library
1. Select the Library to save.
2. Select Save As from the File menu.
The Save Library dialog box appears.
3. Enter a new name for the library (optional). Choose either the File System or the
Database radio button. Click the OK button to accept the options.
Expanding a Node
1. Select a valid node.
2. Click the Expand button or the Expand All button.
Searching for an Object

1. Type the name, full or partial, of the object you wish to find in the Find Field.
As soon as you begin typing, any match found starting from the top of the Object
Navigator is highlighted.
2. Click the Search Forward or Search Backward button to find additional matches
of the search criteria in the Object Navigator.

The Interpreter

The Interpreter
Using the Interpreter, you can define, display, debug, and run PL/SQL program units.
To display the Interpreter at any time, choose the PL/SQL Interpreter from the Tools
menu.
Interpreter Components
Program execution buttons Enables you to execute the Step Into, Step Over, Step
Out, Go, and Reset buttons.
Close button Closes the Interpreter.
Source pane Displays a read-only copy of the program unit
currently selected.
Interpreter pane Provides a command line interface to PL/SQL and
Procedure Builder.
Scroll bar Scrolls the window.
Split bar Changes the relative amount of space occupied by each
pane in the Interpreter.
Executing a PL/SQL Procedure

From the PL/SQL prompt in the Interpreter pane, enter the name of the procedure.
Terminate the command with a semicolon.
Syntax
procedure_name [(argument1[, argument2, ...])];

The Interpreter Pane
1 Execute SQL DDL 2 Create and execute an 3 Execute a SELECT

statements. anonymous procedure. statement.

The Interpreter continued
The Interpreter Pane

Using the Interpreter pane, you can interactively evaluate PL/SQL constructs and
SQL commands.
Executing SQL DDL Statements

From the PL/SQL prompt in the Interpreter pane, enter SQL data definition language
statements. To create the B_TEST table, enter the following statement:
PL/SQL> CREATE TABLE b_test (col1 NUMBER);
Incremental Compilation of PL/SQL

From the PL/SQL prompt in the Interpreter pane, enter PL/SQL statements. For
example, to insert three rows into the B_TEST table, enter the following statement:
PL/SQL> PROCEDURE testproc IS

+> BEGIN
+> FOR i IN 1 ..3
+> LOOP
+> INSERT INTO b_test VALUES (i);
+> END LOOP;
+> END;
Note: Details of the FOR loop will be covered in a later lesson.
Executing SQL Statements

From the PL/SQL prompt in the Interpreter pane, you can execute SQL statements.
For example, to select all columns of the B_TEST table, enter the following
statement:
PL/SQL> SELECT * FROM b_test;

1
2
1 Compile and Source 2 Name drop down list 3 Source Text pane
Text maintenance
buttons
4 Compilation Message
pane

Create, edit, and compile PL/SQL source code by using the Program Unit editor.
Methods to Display the Program Unit Editor

D Choose Program Unit Editor from the Tools menu.
D Double-click the icon of a program unit in the Object Navigator.
D Select Program Units in the Object Navigator and click the Create button.
Program Unit Editor Components
Compile button Compiles the program unit appearing in the Source
Text pane.
Apply button Saves any changes made to the program unit in the
editor since it was first opened or since the last apply
or revert operation.
Revert button Restores the state of the program unit to the last apply
or revert.
New button Invokes the New Program Unit dialog box.
Delete button Deletes the current program unit (with confirmation).
Name drop down list Displays the name and type of the current program
unit. You can use the drop down list to select another
program unit to edit.
Source Text pane Allows you to enter and edit PL/SQL program unit
source text.
Compilation Message Displays error messages generated as a result of
pane compilation.

Creating a Program Unit
1 Create the Program Unit. 2 Write the code.

The Program Unit Editor continued
Creating a Program Unit

1. Select the Program Units object or subobject.
2. Click the Create button.
The Program Unit dialog box appears.
3. Enter a name and select a subprogram type radio button. Click the OK button to
accept these entries.
The Program Unit name appears in the Object Navigator.
4. The Program Unit editor will be displayed. It contains the subprogram name,
BEGIN, and END statements.
The cursor is automatically positioned on the line beneath the BEGIN keyword.
Navigating Compilation Errors

1. Click the Compile button in the Program Unit editor.
Error messages generated during compilation are displayed in the Compilation
Message pane.
2. Click an error message.
The text cursor positions at the location of the error in the Source Text pane.
Exporting a Program Unit to a Text File

1. Open the Program unit so that it is displayed in the Program Unit editor.
2. Select Export from the Edit menu.
The Export to dialog box appears.
3. Enter a name and directory location for the exported program unit text file. Click
the OK button to accept these entries.
Program units that reside in the Program Units node are lost when you exit Procedure
Builder.

The Stored Program Unit
1 4
1 Owner drop down list 2 Source Text pane 3 Compilation Message

pane
4 Name drop down list

The Stored Program Unit Editor
Create, edit, and compile server-side program units by using the Stored Program Unit
editor. Visually and functionally, creating Stored Program Units in Procedure Builder
is very similar to creating client-side Program Units.
Connecting to the Oracle7 Server

When initially invoked, Procedure Builder is a standalone session. To connect to a
database, select Connect from the File menu, and enter the appropriate username,
password, and database connection string.
Methods to Display the Stored Program Unit Editor

D Choose Stored Program Unit Editor from the Tools menu.
D Double-click the icon of a stored program unit in the Object Navigator.
Stored Program Unit Editor Components
Owner drop down list Displays usernames whose stored program units
you can access.
Source Text pane Allows you to enter and edit PL/SQL stored
program unit source text.
Compilation Message pane Displays error messages generated as a result of
compilation.
Name drop down list Displays a list of the owner’s stored program
units.
Save button Compiles and saves the program unit to the
Oracle7 Server.

Debugging a Stored Program Unit

Sometimes developers may not want to (or not have the privilege to) debug or refine
a stored program unit in place on the server. In such cases, you may choose to drag a
copy of the program unit to the client side.

1. Locate the appropriate stored program unit in the Object Navigator.
2. Hold the mouse button down on the node of the program unit to be copied.
3. Drag the mouse up to the Program Units object and release the mouse button.
The selected stored program unit appears as a Program Units subobject.
4. Perform debug actions.
5. From the Object Navigator, select the debugged program unit subobject.
6. Drag the mouse down to the same Stored Program Units Database Objects node
and release the mouse button.
The selected program unit appears as a Stored Program Units subobject.

Listing Code in the Source Pane
1 Source pane 2 Navigator pane 3 Interpreter pane

Performing Debug Actions in the Interpreter
You can use the Object Navigator to examine and modify parameters in an
interrupted program. By invoking the Object Navigator within the Interpreter, you
can perform debugging actions entirely within the Interpreter window. Alternatively,
you can interact with the Object Navigator and Interpreter windows separately.
Invoking the Object Navigator Pane

1. Select PL/SQL Interpreter from the Tools menu to open the Interpreter if it is not
already open.
2. Select Navigator Pane from the View menu.
3. The Navigator pane is inserted between the Source and the Interpreter panes.
4. Drag the split bars to adjust the size of each pane.
Listing Source Text in the Source Pane

1. Click the Program Units node in the Navigator pane to expand the list.
The list of program units is displayed.
2. Click the object icon of the program unit to be listed.
The source code is listed in the Source pane of the Interpreter.

Setting a Breakpoint
1 Breakpoint 2 Debug action

If you encounter errors while compiling or running your application, you should test
the code and determine the cause of the error. To effectively determine the cause of
the error, you step through the code, line by line. Eventually, you identify the exact
line of code causing the error. One method to assist you is a breakpoint, which halts
execution at any given point and permits you to examine the status of the code on a
line-by-line basis.
1. Double-click the executable line of code on which to break.
A “B(n)” is placed in the line where the break is set.
2. The message “Breakpoint #n installed at line i of name” is shown in the
Interpreter pane.
Note: Breakpoints also can be set using debugger commands in the Interpreter pane.
Test breakpoints by typing the program unit name at the Interpreter PL/SQL
prompt.
Monitoring Debug Actions

Debug actions, like breakpoints, can be viewed in the Object Navigator under the
heading Debug Actions. Double-click the Debug Actions icon to view a description
of the breakpoint. Remove breakpoints by double-clicking the breakpoint line
number.

Debug Commands
1 Trigger 2 Subprograms

Setting a Breakpoint continued
Stepping Through Code

When a breakpoint is reached, you can use a set of commands to step through the
code. You can execute these commands by clicking the command buttons on the
Interpreter toolbar or by entering the command at the Interpreter prompt.
Commands to Step Through Code
Command Description
Step Into Advances execution into the next executable line of code.
Step Over Bypasses the next executable line of code and advances to the
subsequent line.
Step Out Resumes to end of current level of code, such as the subprogram.
Go Resumes execution until either the program unit ends or is interrupted
again due to a debug action.
Reset Aborts execution at the current debug levels.

Stepping Through Code
1 Command buttons 2 Breakpoint 3 Debug message

Setting a Breakpoint continued
Determining the Cause of Error

Once the breakpoint is found at runtime, you can begin stepping through the code. An
arrow (=>) indicates the line of code to execute.
1. Click the Step Into button.
A single line of code is executed. The arrow moves to the next line of code.
2. Repeat step 1 as necessary until the line causing the error is found.
The arrow continues to move forward until the erroneous line of code is found. At
that time, PL/SQL displays an error message.

Changing a Value
1
2
1 Click the Stack node 2 Click the variable value 3 Enter the new value
4 Click the Go button

Examining Local Variables
Using Procedure Builder, you can examine and modify local variables and
parameters in an interrupted program. The Stack node in the Navigator pane is where
you can view and change the values of local variables and parameters associated with
the current program unit located in the Call Stack. When debugging code, check for
the absence of values as well as incorrect values.
Examining Values and Testing the Possible Solution

1. Click the Stack node in the Object Navigator or Navigator pane to expand it.
2. Click the value of the variable to edit. For example, select variable 1.
The value “1” becomes an editable field.
3. Enter the new value and click anywhere in the Navigator pane to end the variable
editing, for example, enter “3”.
The following statement is displayed in the Interpreter pane.
(debug1)PL/SQL> debug.seti(’I’,3);
4. Click the Go button to resume execution through the end of the program unit.
Note: Variables and parameters can also be changed using commands at the
Interpreter PL/SQL prompt.

Summary

Summary
There are clear advantages to developing and debugging PL/SQL programs in
Procedure Builder:
Application Partitioning
D Manage program units using the Object Navigator.
D Move program units between client and server.
Editors
D Create and compile procedures by using the Program Unit editor.
D Create and compile database procedures by using the Store Program Unit editor.
Execution Environment
D Execute program units by using the PL/SQL Interpreter.
Debugging
D Suspend program execution by using breakpoints.
D Step through code to determine the location of the error.
D Examine local variables to determine the cause of the error.
D Modify variable values to test possible solutions at runtime.

Practice Overview

Practice Overview
This practice will familiarize you with the Procedure Builder environment and
windows.
Practice Contents
D Exploring Procedure Builder menus and windows
D Creating a program unit
D Executing a program unit

Practice 19
1. Load and execute a loop counter.
a. Launch Procedure Builder. Your instructor will give you the login
information.
b. From the menu, load the LABS\p19loop.pls file.
c. Execute the procedure from the Interpreter pane. Pass a numeric value into the
procedure as demonstrated below.
Reminder: The Cue Cards can help you get started.
PL/SQL> count_loops(4);
2. Create, compile, and execute a procedure.

a. Create a procedure named MY_MESSAGE as demonstrated below:
PROCEDURE my_message IS
BEGIN
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE (’Hello World’);
END;
b. Compile the procedure using the Program Unit Editor.

c. Execute the procedure from the Interpreter pane.
PL/SQL> my_message;

20
Modularizing Programming with

Subprograms
Objectives
Modularity allows you to break your code into manageable, well-defined logical
units. Each of these units in PL/SQL is called a program unit, or a subprogram.
PL/SQL has two types of subprograms called procedures and functions. This
lesson covers the structure of subprograms and how to invoke them.
D Determine the types of program units and where to use them.
D Explain the differences between and benefits of procedures and functions.
D Develop subprograms.
D Invoke subprograms from Procedure Builder.
Modularizing Programming with Subprograms 20Ć3

Overview
Program units are named PL/SQL blocks. They fall into three main categories:
D Procedures to perform actions
D Functions to compute a value
D Packages to bundle logically related procedures and functions
Stored or Application Subprogram?

These program units can be created in a variety of environments, including
server-side stored subprograms or as application subprograms.
Concept Stored Subprogram Application Subprogram

Location Is in the database. Is within the application.
Executed From any database tool or From only the application in
application. which it was created.
Availability By way of database security. Independently of, and in
addition to, stored subprograms.
Subprograms are composed of a number of sections:

D A header to name and type the block
D An optional declarative section to set up local identifiers
D An executable part to perform the actions
D An optional exception handling section to handle exceptions
PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3, “Subprograms.”

Creating a Subprogram
The following steps will assist you to create a subprogram.
1. Select your environment.
If using Procedure Builder, then select either the Program Units node or the
Database Objects node and Stored Procedures Units subobject node.
2. Write your syntax.
If using Procedure Builder, enter the syntax in the Program Unit Editor. If using
SQL*Plus, write your code in a text editor as a script file.
3. Compile your code.
The source code is complied into p-code. If using Procedure Builder, click the
Compile button. If using SQL*Plus, start your file at the SQL prompt.
4. Invoke the successfully compiled procedure or function.
Guidelines
D SQL*Plus is another development environment for writing and for initial testing
of a procedure, although you will need to test the procedure by invoking it from
an application.
D The SQL commands issued to create a stored subprogram are CREATE
PROCEDURE or CREATE FUNCTION.
D The SQL commands issued to remove a stored subprogram are DROP
PROCEDURE or DROP FUNCTION.
D Use CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE or CREATE OR REPLACE
FUNCTION so you do not have to issue a DROP statement.

Creating a Procedure
Create a PL/SQL procedure to store a series of actions for later execution. The
procedure can contain zero or more parameters, which are arguments that you list
when calling the procedure.
Syntax
PROCEDURE name
[(parameter,...)]
IS
pl/sql_block;
where: name is the procedure name, which adheres to the

standard Oracle naming rules.
parameter is the parameter syntax shown below.
pl/sql_block is the procedural body that defines the action
performed by the procedure.
The parameter syntax is as follows.
Syntax
parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] datatype

[{:= | DEFAULT} expr]
where: parameter_name is the name of the parameter.

datatype is the datatype of the parameter, without
constraints.
expr is the value to initialize the parameter.
Guidelines
D Start the PL/SQL block with the keyword IS.
D Enter any local declarations between IS and BEGIN.
When creating the procedure from Procedure Builder, the CREATE OR REPLACE
portion of the syntax is implied. Therefore, when creating the procedure from
SQL*Plus, begin the statement with CREATE OR REPLACE.

Creating a Procedure continued
Procedural Parameters
Transfer values to and from the calling environment through parameters. There are
two types that you use. When declaring a procedure, the formal parameter is used to
define the values used in the executable portion of the PL/SQL block. The actual
parameter, or argument, is referenced when invoking a subprogram.
Parameter Modes for Formal Parameters
Parameter Mode Description

IN Default argument.
Passes a value from the calling environment into the
subprogram.
Formal parameter acts as a constant—you cannot
overwrite the value.
Actual parameter can be an expression, a constant, a
literal, or an initialized variable.
OUT Must be specified.
Returns a value from the procedure to the calling
environment.
Formal parameter acts as an uninitialized variable.
Formal parameter cannot be assigned to another
variable or to itself.
Actual parameter must be a variable; it cannot be a
constant or expression.
IN OUT Must be specified.
Passes a value from the calling environment into the
procedure, and returns a possibly different value from
the procedure to the calling environment.
Formal parameter acts as an initialized variable.
Formal parameter can be used as a normal variable; it
can be assigned to a value.
Actual parameter must be a variable.

Creating a Procedure continued
Example
Update the salary of the specified employee to the specified amount through a
procedure.
PROCEDURE change_salary
(v_emp_id IN NUMBER, -- formal parameters
v_new_salary IN NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN -- begin PL/SQL block
UPDATE s_emp
SET salary = v_new_salary
WHERE id = v_emp_id;
COMMIT;
END change_salary;
This procedure, when invoked, will take the parameters for the employee number and
the new salary, and update the salary for that specified employee.
The content of the PL/SQL block will be covered in the lesson “Developing a Simple
PL/SQL Block.”
Eliminate Unnecessary IN Arguments

D Where possible, derive values in the procedure, or use column default values.
D Generate the primary key using a database sequence.
D Record the username from the USER function.
D Record the current date from the SYSDATE function.
D Take advantage of business rules to compute input values automatically using a
formula.

Comparing Functions and Procedures
A procedure can contain a list of parameters, but does not have to return a value. It is
invoked in place of a complete PL/SQL statement. A function differs from a
procedure in two ways:
D You invoke the function as part of an expression.
D A function must return a value.
SQL Functions
There are both user-defined functions, covered in this lesson, and SQL functions. You
are already familiar with SQL functions. You call the function with actual parameters
from within a SQL command, such as SELECT.
-- Example Number Functions

ROUND (1896,2)
TRUNC (1892,-2)
-- Example Group Functions

SUM (s_emp.salary)
AVG (s_ord.total)
-- Other System Functions

USER -- username
SYSDATE -- current date and time
s_dept_id.NEXTVAL -- database sequence value
A procedure containing one OUT argument can be rewritten as a function containing

a RETURN statement.

Creating a Function
Create a PL/SQL function to return a value to the calling environment. You must
declare the RETURN datatype in the header section of the function definition, and
define the value to be returned in the PL/SQL block. You can also declare a list of
parameters to be passed into the function.
Syntax
FUNCTION name
[(parameter,...)]
RETURN datatype
IS
pl/sql_block;
where: name is the function name, which adheres to the

standard Oracle naming rules.
parameter is the parameter syntax. See the syntax in the
“Procedure” section of this lesson.
datatype is the datatype of the value to be returned.
pl/sql_block is the procedural body that defines the action
performed by the procedure.
The RETURN Statement

Remember to include a RETURN statement in the PL/SQL block. The function must
set the value of the return parameter and be of the same datatype specified in the
RETURN clause of the function definition. Multiple RETURN statements are
allowed, but only one will be executed by any one call. Typically, the multiple
RETURN statements are within an IF statement.
When creating the function from Procedure Builder, the CREATE OR REPLACE
portion of the syntax is implied. Therefore, when creating the function from
SQL*Plus, begin the statement with CREATE OR REPLACE.

Creating a Function continued
Example
Return the tax based on the value parameter in a function.
FUNCTION tax
(v_value IN NUMBER)
RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
RETURN (v_value * .07);
END tax;
Avoid using the OUT and IN OUT modes with functions. Functions are designed to
return a single value.

Invoking Subprograms
You can call procedures and functions from any tool or language that supports
PL/SQL. From PL/SQL, you can call a procedure with a direct call, and call a
function as part of an expression.
Invoking Procedures from Procedure Builder

Enter the procedure name with any actual parameters, if applicable, at the Procedure
Builder Interpreter prompt. Procedure Builder then performs the action specified in
the procedure.
Example
Use the CHANGE_SALARY procedure to change the salary to 1000 for employee
number 17.
PL/SQL> change_salary (17, 1000);
Note: You may want to confirm the changes by issuing a SELECT statement.
Invoking Procedures from Another Procedure

The example on the facing page illustrates how you can invoke a procedure from
another procedure. In the example, procedure CHANGE_SALARY is being invoked
from procedure PROCESS_SAL. Similarly, you can invoke a function from a stored
procedure or a PL/SQL anonymous block.
To invoke procedures from SQL*Plus, use the EXECUTE command. Use SQL*Plus
bind variables to hold returned values. You can also use SQL*Plus substitution
variables through the ampersand (&) and variable name.

Invoking Subprograms continued
Invoking Standalone Functions

You can invoke a standalone function created in Procedure Builder. First, you must
create a variable called the “identifier” to hold the returned value.
Syntax
CREATE variable
where: variable is one of the following:

NUMBER var_name Specifies a variable, var_name, of the datatype
[PRECISION number] NUMBER. PRECISION determines the
[SCALE number] maximum number of objects. SCALE
determines where rounding should occur.
DATE var_name Specifies a variable, var_name, of the datatype
DATE.
CHAR var_name Specifies a variable, var_name, of the datatype
[LENGTH number] CHAR with an optional length setting in bytes.
After creating the variable, you execute the function. Finally, you view the variable
value.
Example
Display the tax based on a value. Use the TAX function created earlier.
PL/SQL> .CREATE NUMBER x PRECISION 4

PL/SQL> :x := tax(100);
PL/SQL> TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE (TO_CHAR(:x));
7

Procedure Builder Developer’s Guide, “Working with PL/SQL Constructs.”
Note: To invoke functions from SQL*Plus, use the EXECUTE command. Use
SQL*Plus global variables to hold returned values. You can also use
SQL*Plus substitution variables through the ampersand (&) and variable
name. To view the result, use the SQL*Plus PRINT command.

Invoking Functions in SQL Statements

You can also call functions in SQL expressions. Anywhere a built-in SQL function
can be placed, a PL/SQL user-defined function can be placed as well.
Advantages
D Permit calculations that are too complex, awkward, or unavailable with SQL.
D Increase efficiency of queries by performing functions in the server rather than in
an application.
Note: This feature is only available with PL/SQL 2.1 or higher and Oracle7 Server
release 7.1 or higher.
Guidelines
D Only stored functions can be called from SQL statements, procedures cannot.
D The function acts as a single-row function.
D The function cannot contain a DML statement—the function cannot modify
database tables.
D All formal parameters must be IN parameters; none can be an OUT or IN OUT
parameter.
D Datatypes used in the function must be Oracle7 Server internal datatypes, such as
CHAR and DATE, not PL/SQL datatypes, such as BOOLEAN or RECORD.
D The RETURN datatype must be an Oracle7 Server internal datatype.
D You must own or have EXECUTE privileges on the PL/SQL function in order to
call it.

Calling a Function
You can call functions from any of these SQL clauses.
D The select list of a SELECT command
D The condition of a WHERE and HAVING clause
D The CONNECT BY, START WITH, ORDER BY, and GROUP BY clauses
D The VALUES clause of the INSERT command
D The SET clause of the UPDATE command
Example
Use the TAX function to calculate the tax on the total sale for order number 100.
PL/SQL> SELECT total, tax(total)

+> FROM s_ord
+> WHERE id = 100;
TOTAL TAX(TOTAL)
------------- ----------
601100.00 42077

Summary
D Subprograms fall into three main categories:
D Procedures to perform actions
D Functions to compute a value
D Packages to bundle logically related procedures and functions
D A function differs from a procedure in two ways:
D You invoke the function as part of an expression.
D A function must return a value.
D Procedure and function components:
D Header—To name and type the block
D Declarative—To set up local identifiers (optional)
D Executable—To perform the actions
D Exception handling—To handle exceptions (optional)
D Invoke subprograms from the Procedure Builder Interpreter prompt.

Practice Overview
This practice guides you through creating a simple procedure and function and
invoking those functions from the Interpreter prompt.
Practice Contents
D Creating a simple procedure
D Debugging the procedure
D Executing the procedure
Note: You use the TEXT_IO built-in package in this procedure to print a result at
the Interpreter prompt.

Practice 20
1. A procedure can contain IN, OUT, and IN OUT parameters.
True / False
2. A procedure can be used in a SQL statement.
True / False
3. The IN OUT argument mode is the default mode.
True / False
4. Functions are executed as part of an expression.
True / False
5. Name the four parts of the subprogram syntax.
a.
b.
c.
d.
6. Create a procedure called MY_PROCEDURE to output the phrase “My
Procedure Works” to the screen.
a. Replace the skeleton text with text from LABS/p20proc.pls.
b. Compile the code. Make appropriate corrections so code successfully
compiles.
c. Execute the procedure at the Interpreter prompt.

21
Developing a Simple PL/SQL

Block
Objectives
In this lesson, you create a simple PL/SQL block after learning the various
elements that compose a block.
D Declare and use variables and constants in PL/SQL.
D Assign new values to variables within the executable section.
D Create and execute a named PL/SQL subprogram in Procedure Builder.
Developing a Simple PL/SQL Block 21Ć3

Overview
A PL/SQL block is comprised of up to three sections: declarative (optional),
executable (required), and exception handling (optional). Only BEGIN and END
keywords are required. Each subprogram contains an additional section, the header
(required).
You can store and change values within a PL/SQL block by declaring and referencing
variables and other identifiers.
Handling Variables
D Declare and initialize variables within the declaration section.
D Assign new values to variables within the executable section.
D Pass values into PL/SQL blocks through parameters.
D View the results from a PL/SQL block through output variables.
Note: The END keyword can be optionally followed by the name of the subprogram
for clarity.

Declaring PL/SQL Variables and Constants
You need to declare all identifiers within the declaration section before referencing
them within the PL/SQL block.
Syntax
identifier [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL]

[:= | DEFAULT expr];
where: identifier is the name of the identifier.

CONSTANT constrains the identifier so that its value cannot
change; constants must be initialized.
datatype is a scalar or composite datatype.
NOT NULL constrains the variable so that it must contain a
value; NOT NULL variables must be initialized.
expr is any PL/SQL expression that can be a literal,
another variable, or an expression involving
operators and functions.
Guidelines
D Name the identifier according to the same rules used for SQL objects.
D You can use naming conventions, for example v_name to represent a variable, and
c_name to represent a constant.
D You have the option of assigning an initial value to variables, unless they are
NOT NULL.
D Initialize the variable to an expression with the assignment operator (:=), or,
equivalently, with the DEFAULT reserved word; otherwise, variables are
initialized to NULL by default.
D Declare at most one identifier per line.
PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3, “Datatypes.”

Declaring Scalar Variables
PL/SQL supports three datatypes—scalar, composite, and reference—that you can
use for declaring variables, constants, and pointers.
Scalar Datatypes
A scalar datatype holds a single value and has no internal components. Scalar
datatypes can be classified into four categories: number, character, date and time, or
Boolean. Character and number datatypes have subtypes that associate a base type to
a constraint. For example, INTEGER and POSITIVE are subtypes of the NUMBER
base type.
Datatype Description
BINARY_INTEGER Base type for integers between –2147483647
and 2147483647.
NUMBER [(precision,scale)] Base type for fixed and floating point numbers.
CHAR [(maximum_length)] Base type for fixed length character data up to
32767 bytes. If you do not specify a
maximum_length, the default length is set to 1.
LONG Base type for variable length character data up
to 32760 bytes.
LONG RAW Base type for binary data up to 32760 bytes.
VARCHAR2(maximum_length) Base type for variable length character data up
to 32767 bytes.
DATE Base type for dates and times.
BOOLEAN Base type that stores one of three possible
values used for logical calculations: TRUE,
FALSE, or NULL.
Note: The above list is abridged. For the complete list, see the PL/SQL User’s Guide
and Reference, Release 2.3, “Datatypes.”

Declaring Scalar Variables continued
Examples
Declare a variable to store the gender code (M or F).
v_gender CHAR(1);
Declare a variable to count the iterations of a loop and initialize the variable to 0.
v_count BINARY_INTEGER := 0;
Declare a variable to accumulate the total salary for a department and initialize the
variable to 0.
v_total_sal NUMBER(9,2) := 0;
Declare a variable to store the ship date of an order, and initialize the variable to one
week from today.
v_order_date DATE := SYSDATE + 7;
Declare a constant for the tax rate, which never changes throughout the PL/SQL
block.
c_tax_rate CONSTANT NUMBER(3,2) := 8.25;
Declare a flag to indicate whether a piece of data is valid or invalid, and initialize the
variable to TRUE.
v_valid BOOLEAN NOT NULL := TRUE;

Declaring Scalar Variables continued
The %TYPE Attribute

When you declare PL/SQL variables to hold column values, you must ensure that the
variable is of the correct datatype and precision. If it is not, then a PL/SQL error will
occur during execution.
Rather than hard-coding the datatype and precision of a variable, you can declare a
variable according to another previously-declared variable or database column. You
do this using the %TYPE attribute. To use the attribute in place of the datatype
required in the variable declaration, prefix it with the database table and column
names. If referring to a previously-declared variable, prefix the variable name to the
attribute.
PL/SQL determines the datatype and size of the variable when the block is compiled,
so the variable is always compatible with the database column or identifier used to
populate the variable.
Advantages of Using the %TYPE Attribute

D The datatype of the underlying database column may be unknown.
D The datatype of the underlying database column may change at runtime.
Examples
Declare variables to store the first and last names for an employee.
...
v_last_name s_emp.last_name%TYPE;
v_first_name s_emp.first_name%TYPE;
...
Declare variables to store the balance for a checking account, as well as the minimum
balance, which starts out as 10.
...
v_balance NUMBER(7,2);
v_minimum_balance v_balance%TYPE := 10;
...
A NOT NULL column constraint does not apply to variables declared using %TYPE.
Therefore, if you declare a variable using the %TYPE attribute using a database
column defined as NOT NULL, you can assign the NULL value to the variable.

Declaring Composite Datatypes
A composite datatype contains internal components and is reusable. Two types of
composite datatypes are available in PL/SQL: TABLE and RECORD.
PL/SQL Table
D A PL/SQL TABLE datatype is not the same as a database table.
D A PL/SQL TABLE is similar to a one-dimensional array.
D A PL/SQL TABLE must contain two components:
D A primary key of datatype BINARY_INTEGER that indexes the PL/SQL
TABLE.
D A column of a scalar datatype, which stores the PL/SQL TABLE elements.
D A PL/SQL TABLE can increase dynamically because it is unconstrained.

Declaring Composite Datatypes continued
Declaring PL/SQL Tables

1. Declare a TABLE datatype.
2. Declare a variable of that datatype.
Syntax
TYPE type_name IS TABLE OF scalar_datatype [NOT NULL]

INDEX BY BINARY_INTEGER;
identifier type_name;
where: type_name is the name of the TABLE type.

scalar_datatype is the datatype of the PL/SQL TABLE elements.
You can use the %TYPE attribute.
identifier is the name of the identifier.
Example
Declare PL/SQL TABLE variables to store the first name and last name.
...
TYPE name_table_type IS TABLE OF VARCHAR2(25)
first_name_table name_table_type;
last_name_table name_table_type;
...
The NOT NULL constraint prevents nulls from being assigned to the PL/SQL
TABLE of that type. Do not initialize the PL/SQL TABLE.

PL/SQL RECORD
D A PL/SQL RECORD datatype is not the same as a row in a database table.
D A PL/SQL RECORD is similar in structure to a record in a 3GL.
D A PL/SQL RECORD must contain one or more components of any scalar,
RECORD, or PL/SQL TABLE datatype called fields. These uniquely named
fields can have different datatypes.
D The PL/SQL RECORD allows you to treat this collection of fields as one logical
unit.
D PL/SQL RECORDS are convenient for fetching a row of data from a table for
processing in a PL/SQL block.

Declaring PL/SQL Records

1. Declare a RECORD datatype.
2. Declare a variable of that datatype.
Syntax
TYPE type_name IS RECORD

(field_name1 field_type
[NOT NULL {:=|DEFAULT} expr],
(field_name2 field_type
[NOT NULL {:=|DEFAULT} expr], ...);
identifier type_name;
where: type_name is the name of the RECORD type.

field_name is the name of the field.
field_type is the datatype of the field. You can use the
%TYPE and %ROWTYPE attribute.
expr is any PL/SQL expression that can be a literal,
another variable, or an expression involving
operators and functions.
identifier is the name of the identifier.
Example
Declare variables to store first name, last name, and gender of a new employee.
...
TYPE emp_record_type IS RECORD
(last_name VARCHAR2(25),
first_name VARCHAR2(25),
gender CHAR(1));
employee_record emp_record_type;
...
The NOT NULL constraint prevents the assigning of nulls to those fields. Be sure to
initialize NOT NULL fields.

Declaring Records with the %ROWTYPE Attribute

Declare a record based upon a collection of columns in a database table or view by
using the %ROWTYPE attribute. The fields within the record take their names and
datatypes from the columns of the table or view.
Advantages of Using the %ROWTYPE Attribute

D The number and datatypes of the underlying database columns may be unknown.
D The number and datatypes of the underlying database columns may change at
runtime.
D Useful when retrieving a row with the SELECT statement.
Example
Declare a variable to store the same information about a department as it is stored in
the S_DEPT table.
...
dept_record s_dept%ROWTYPE;
...
This declaration creates a record with the same field names and field datatypes as a
row in a table. DEPT_RECORD is a record. The fields are: DEPT_RECORD.ID,
DEPT_RECORD.NAME, and DEPT_RECORD.REGION_ID.

PL/SQL Block Syntax Rules
Because PL/SQL is an extension of SQL, the general syntax rules that apply to SQL
are also applicable to the PL/SQL language.
Guidelines
D Identifiers can contain up to 30 characters, but they must start with an alphabetic
character.
D Reserved words cannot be used as identifiers unless they are enclosed within
double quotation marks (for example, “SELECT”).
D Do not choose the same name for the identifier as the name of columns in a table
used in the block. If PL/SQL identifiers are in the same SQL statements and have
the same name as a column, then Oracle assumes that it is the column that is
being referenced.
D Statements can be split across lines, but keywords must not be split.
D Lexical units (for example, identifiers or literals) can be separated by one or more
spaces or other delimiters that cannot be confused as being part of the lexical unit.
D Character and date literals must be enclosed within single quotation marks.
D Numeric literals can be represented by either a simple value (for example, –32.5)
or by scientific notation (for example, 2E5, meaning 2x10 to the power of 5 =
200000).
D Multiple line comments can be enclosed by /* and */ symbols. A single line
comment begins with --, and the end-of-line marks the comment’s end.
PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3, “Appendix E” for a list of reserved
words.

PL/SQL Block Syntax Rules continued
Nested Blocks
One of the advantages PL/SQL has over SQL is the ability to nest statements. You
can nest blocks wherever an executable statement is allowed, thus making the nested
block a statement. Therefore, you can break down the executable part of a block into
smaller blocks. The exception section can also contain nested blocks.
Variable Scope
The scope of an object is the region of the program that can refer to the object. You
can reference the declared variable within the executable section.
An identifier is visible in the block in which it is declared and all nested sub-blocks,
procedures, and functions. If the block does not find the identifier declared locally, it
looks up to the declarative section of the enclosing (or parent) blocks. The block
never looks down to enclosed (or child) blocks or sideways to sibling blocks.
Scope applies to all declared objects, including variables, cursors, user-defined
exceptions, and constants.

Assigning Values to Variables
To assign or reassign a value to a variable, you write a PL/SQL assignment statement.
You must explicitly name the variable to receive the new value to the left of the
assignment operator (:=).
Syntax
identifier := expr;
plsql_table_name(primary_key_value) := expr;
plsql_record_name.field_name := expr;
where: identifier is the name of the identifier.

plsql_table_name is the name of the PL/SQL TABLE.
primary_key_value is the binary integer value that is the index of
the PL/SQL TABLE and could also be a
variable.
plsql_record_name is the name of the PL/SQL RECORD.
field_name is the field from the PL/SQL RECORD.
expr can be a variable, constant, literal, or function
call, but not a database column.

Assigning Values to Variables continued
Examples
Set the maximum salary identifier V_MAX_SAL to the value of current salary
identifier V_SAL.
v_max_sal := v_sal;
Store the name “Maduro” in the index identifier of 3 in the PL/SQL TABLE of last
names.
last_name_table (3) := ’Maduro’;
Store basic information for a new employee in a PL/SQL RECORD.
emp_record.last_name := ’Maduro’;
emp_record.first_name := ’Elena’;
emp_record.gender := ’F’;
Set the salary to the salary from the S_EMP table. This example produces a compile
error.
v_sal := s_emp.salary;
Remember that string literals must be enclosed with single quotation marks, for
example, ’Hello, world’. If there is a single quotation mark in the string, write
a single quotation mark twice, for example, ’Account wasn’’t found’.

Class Exercise
Evaluate the PL/SQL block on the opposite page. Determine each of the following
values according to the rules of scoping.
1. The value of V_WEIGHT within the sub-block.
2. The value of V_NEW_LOCN within the sub-block.
3. The value of V_WEIGHT within the main block.
4. The value of V_MESSAGE within the main block.
5. The value of V_NEW_LOCN within the main block.

Operators
The logical, arithmetic, and concatenation operators used in PL/SQL are the same as
those in SQL. In addition, there is an exponential operator (**).
You can control the order in which operations are performed by using parentheses, as
in SQL.
Examples
Increment the index for a loop.
v_count := v_count + 1;
Set the value of a Boolean flag depending upon whether two numbers are equal.
v_equal := (v_n1 = v_n2);
Validate an employee number if it contains a value.
v_valid := (v_emp_id IS NOT NULL);

Functions
Most of the functions available in SQL are also valid in PL/SQL expressions:
D Single-row number functions
D Single-row character functions
D Datatype conversion functions
D Date functions
D Miscellaneous functions
Functions not available in procedural statements:
D GREATEST and LEAST
D Group functions: AVG, MIN, MAX, COUNT, SUM, STDDEV, and VARIANCE
Group functions apply to groups of rows in a table, and are therefore available only
within SQL statements in a PL/SQL block.
Examples
Build the mailing address for a company.
v_mailing_address := v_name||CHR(10)||v_address||
CHR(10)||v_country||CHR(10)||v_zip_code;
Convert the name to uppercase.
v_last_name := UPPER (v_last_name);
Compute the sum of all numbers stored in the NUMBER_TABLE PL/SQL table.
This example produces a compile error.
v_total := SUM(number_table);
CHR is the SQL function that converts an ASCII code to its corresponding character;
10 is the code for a line feed.

Datatype Conversion
Within an expression, you should make sure that datatypes are the same. If mixed
datatypes occur in the same expression, you should use the appropriate conversion
function from the list below to convert the data.
Syntax
TO_CHAR (value, fm)
TO_DATE (value, fm)
TO_NUMBER (value, fm)
where: value is a character string, number, or date.

fm is the format model used to convert value.
Examples
Store a value that is composed of the user name and today’s date. This code causes a
syntax error.
v_comment := USER||’: ’||SYSDATE;
To correct the error, convert SYSDATE to a character string with the TO_CHAR
conversion function.
v_comment := USER||’: ’||TO_CHAR(SYSDATE);
PL/SQL will attempt conversion if possible, but the success will depend upon the
operations being performed. It is good programming practice to explicitly perform
datatype conversions because they can favorably affect performance and remain valid
even with a change in software versions.

Referencing NonĆPL/SQL Variables

You can reference variables declared in the host or calling environment in PL/SQL
statements, unless the statement is within a procedure, function, or package. This
includes host language variables declared in precompiler programs, screen fields in a
Developer/2000 Forms application, and SQL*Plus bind variables.
To reference host variables, you must prefix the references with a colon (:) to
distinguish them from declared PL/SQL variables.
Example
Store the annual salary in a SQL*Plus global variable.
:g_annual_ salary := v_salary * 12;

Programming Guidelines
Adhere to programming guidelines for producing clear code and reducing
maintenance when developing a PL/SQL block.
Guidelines
D Document code with comments.
D Develop case conventions for the code.
D Develop naming conventions for identifiers and other objects.
D Indent code to enhance readability.
Commenting Code
Comment code to document each phase and to assist with debugging. Comment the
PL/SQL code with two dashes (--) if the comment is on a single line, or enclose the
comment between the symbols /* and */ if the comment spans several lines.
Example
Compute the yearly salary from the monthly salary.
...
v_sal NUMBER(9,2);
BEGIN
/* Compute the annual salary based on the monthly
salary input from the user */
v_sal := v_sal*12;
END;

Programming Guidelines continued
Code Conventions
A set of guidelines for writing code in uppercase or lowercase helps you to
distinguish keywords from named objects.
Category Case Convention Examples

SQL Commands Uppercase SELECT, INSERT
PL/SQL Keywords Uppercase DECLARE, BEGIN, IF
Datatypes Uppercase VARCHAR2, BOOLEAN
Identifiers and Parameters Lowercase v_sal, emp_cursor, g_sal
Database Tables and Columns Lowercase s_emp, order_date, id
Code Naming Conventions

Develop a set of prefixes and suffixes to distinguish identifiers from other identifiers,
from database objects, and from other named objects.
Identifier Naming Convention Example

Variable v_name v_sal
Constant c_name c_company_name
Cursor name_cursor emp_cursor
Exception e_name e_too_many
Table Type name_table_type amount_table_type
Table name_table order_total_table
Record Type name_record_type emp_record_type
Record name_record customer_record
SQL*Plus substitution p_name p_sal
parameter
SQL*Plus global variable g_name g_year_sal

Programming Guidelines continued
Indentation
For clarity, indent each level of code. This enhances readability.
...
BEGIN
IF x=0 THEN
y=1;
END IF;
...
END;

Summary
PL/SQL Blocks
D Declaration section: optional
D Executable section: required
D Exception handling section: optional
PL/SQL Identifiers
D Identifiers are defined in the declaration section.
D Definition can be a scalar datatype with no internal components, such as
NUMBER, VARCHAR2, DATE, and BOOLEAN.
D Definition can be a composite datatype with internal components, such as TABLE
and RECORD.
D Definition can be based on the structure of another variable or a database object
by using %TYPE and %ROWTYPE attributes.
D Identifiers created with NOT NULL or CONSTANT options require initialization.
D When referencing variables, keep in mind the scoping and conversion rules.
Conventions for Documenting, Writing, and Naming Code

D Document code with comments.
D Develop conventions for writing text in uppercase and lowercase.
D Develop conventions for naming identifiers.
D Indent code to enhance readability.

Practice Overview
This practice reinforces the basics of PL/SQL learned in this lesson, including
datatypes, legal definitions of identifiers, and validation of expressions. You put all
these elements together to create a simple PL/SQL block using Oracle Procedure
Builder.
Practice Contents
D Determining validity of declarations
D Reviewing scoping and nesting rules
D Developing a simple subprogram in Oracle Procedure Builder

Practice 21
1. Evaluate each of the following declarations. Determine which of them are not
legal and explain why.
DECLARE
v_id NUMBER (4);
a.
DECLARE
v_x, v_y, v_z VARCHAR2(10);
b.
DECLARE
v_birthdate DATE NOT NULL;
c.
DECLARE
v_in_stock BOOLEAN := 1;
d.
DECLARE
emp_record emp_record_type;
e.
DECLARE
TYPE name_table_type IS TABLE OF VARCHAR2(20)
dept_name_table name_table_type;
f.

Practice 21 continued
2. Suppose you embed a sub-block within a block, as depicted below. You declare
two variables, V_CUSTOMER and V_CREDIT_RATING, within the main block.
You also declare two variables,V_CUSTOMER and V_NAME in the sub-block.
Determine the values for each variable in each case listed below.
a. The value of V_CUSTOMER in the sub-block is
b. The value of V_NAME in the sub-block is
c. The value of V_CREDIT_RATING in the sub-block is
d. The value of V_CUSTOMER in the main block is
e. The value of V_NAME in the main block is
f. The value of V_CREDIT_RATING within the main block is
Scope Example
DECLARE
v_customer VARCHAR2(50) := ’Womansport’;
v_credit_rating VARCHAR2(10) := ’EXCELLENT’;
BEGIN
DECLARE SUBĆBLOCK
v_customer
NUMBER (7) := 201;
v_name VARCHAR2(25):= ’Unisports’;
BEGIN
v_customer v_name v_credit_rating
END;
v_customer v_name v_credit_rating
END;

3. Create and execute a procedure named MULTIPLIER that accepts two numbers
through variables. The first number should be divided by the second number and
have the second number added to the result. The result should be written to a
PL/SQL variable and printed to the screen.
If you have time, complete the following exercises.

4. Build a function named ANN_COMP that computes the total compensation for
one year. The annual salary and the annual bonus percentage will be passed to the
function, and the bonus will need to be converted from a whole number to a
decimal (for example, 15 to .15). If the salary is null, set it to zero before
computing the total compensation. Likewise, if the bonus is null, set it to zero
before computing the total compensation. Execute the function. Reminder: Use
the NVL function to handle null values.
5. Rewrite the MULTIPLIER procedure in Exercise 3 as a function named MULTI.
Execute the function.

22
Interacting with Oracle

Objectives
In this lesson, you access the database and control transactions through SQL
statements in PL/SQL.
D Use SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE commands in PL/SQL
subprograms.
D Determine the outcome of SQL statements by using implicit cursor attributes.
D Control transactions within PL/SQL.
Interacting with Oracle 22Ć3

Overview
When you need to extract information from or apply changes to the database, you
must use SQL. PL/SQL supports full data manipulation language and transaction
control commands within SQL. You can use SELECT statements to populate
variables with values queried from a row in a table. Your DML commands can
process multiple rows.
Comparing SQL and PL/SQL Statement Types

D A PL/SQL block is not a transaction unit. Commits, savepoints, and rollbacks are
independent of blocks, but you can issue these commands within a block.
D PL/SQL does not support data definition language (DDL), such as CREATE
TABLE, ALTER TABLE, or DROP TABLE.
D PL/SQL does not support data control language (DCL), such as GRANT or
REVOKE.
D DBMS_SQL package allows you to issue DDL and DCL statements.

Retrieving Data Using PL/SQL
Use the SELECT statement to retrieve data from the database. The SELECT
statement contains an additional mandatory clause: the INTO clause. In the INTO
clause, list the output variables for receiving the data. The SELECT statement must
return exactly one row or an error will occur.
Abridged Syntax
SELECT select_list
INTO variable_name | record_name
FROM table
WHERE condition;
where: select_list is a list of at least one column, and can include

SQL expressions, row functions, or group
functions.
variable_name is the scalar variable to hold the retrieved value.
record_name is the PL/SQL RECORD to hold the retrieved
values.
table specifies the database table name.
condition is composed of column names, expressions,
constants, and comparison operators, including
PL/SQL variables and constants.
Take advantage of the full range of Oracle7 Server syntax for the SELECT statement.
Guidelines
D Terminate each SQL statement with a semicolon (;).
D Assign values into PL/SQL tables in a loop by declaring an explicit cursor.
D The INTO clause is required for the SELECT statement when it is embedded
within PL/SQL.
D The WHERE clause is optional, and can be used to specify input variables,
constants, literals, or PL/SQL expressions.

Retrieving Data Using PL/SQL continued
Guidelines
D Specify the same number of output variables in the INTO clause as database
columns in the SELECT clause. Be sure that they correspond positionally and that
their datatypes are compatible.
D Ensure that the datatype of the identifiers match the datatype of the columns by
using the %TYPE attribute. The datatype and number of variables in the INTO
clause match those in the SELECT list.
D Terminate the PL/SQL block with the END statement. You can add the name of
the subprogram after the keyword END for clarity.
D Include at least one RETURN statement in a function.
D Use group functions, such as SUM, in a SQL statement since group functions
apply to groups of rows in a table.

A PL/SQL RECORD can be used to easily create fields that match a database table’s
columns. Each field has the same name and datatype as a column in the table. When
retrieving all columns from a table, use a PL/SQL RECORD to hold the retrieved
values.

Avoid ambiguity in the WHERE clause by adhering to a naming convention that

distinguishes database column names from PL/SQL variable names.
Example
Retrieve the order date and the ship date for the specified order. This example raises
an unhandled runtime exception.
PROCEDURE order_info
(id s_ord.id%TYPE)
IS
date_ordered s_ord.date_ordered%TYPE;
date_shipped s_ord.date_shipped%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT date_ordered, date_shipped
INTO date_ordered, date_shipped
FROM s_ord
WHERE id = id;
...
END order_info;
PL/SQL> order_info (100);
ERROR 0 at line 1, column 0
Unhandled exception ORA-01422: exact fetch returns
more than requested number of rows
ORA-06512: at line 7
PL/SQL checks whether an identifier is a column in the database; if not, it is assumed

to be a PL/SQL identifier.

SELECT Exceptions
SELECT statements within a PL/SQL block fall into the “Embedded SQL”ANSI
classification. Be sure that the SELECT statement retrieves exactly one row;
otherwise an exception is raised. An exception is an error that terminates a PL/SQL
block.
SELECT Exceptions
Condition Exception
The SELECT statement identifies more TOO_MANY_ROWS exception
than one row. (Oracle7 Server error number -1422).
The SELECT statement does not identify NO_DATA_FOUND exception (Oracle7
any rows. Server error number +1403).
Note: Handle the raised exceptions with exception-handling routines, which will be
covered in a later lesson. Alternatively, fetch multiple rows one-by-one in a
loop by declaring an explicit cursor.

SELECT Exceptions continued
TOO_MANY_ROWS Exception
When more than one record is identified with a SELECT statement, Oracle7 Server
raises an error number -1422, also referred to as TOO_MANY_ROWS, which is the
predefined exception name.
NO_DATA_FOUND Exception
When no rows are identified with a SELECT statement, the NO_DATA_FOUND
exception is raised, which is also Oracle7 Server error number +1403.
In the “Processing Queries by Using Explicit Cursors” and “Error Handling” lessons,
options for addressing these exceptions are addressed.

Manipulating Data Using PL/SQL
Manipulate data in the database by using the DML commands.
D INSERT statement adds new rows of data to the table.
D UPDATE statement modifies existing rows in the table.
D DELETE statement removes unwanted rows from the table.
Inserting Data
When adding rows to a table, you can eliminate unnecessary IN arguments.
D Use SQL function, such as USER and SYSDATE.
D Generate primary key values by using database sequences.
D Derive values in the PL/SQL block.
D Add column default values.

Manipulating Data Using PL/SQL continued
Updating and Deleting Data

There may be ambiguity in the SET clause of the UPDATE statement because
although the identifier on the left of the assignment operator is always a database
column, the identifier on the right can be either a database column or a PL/SQL
variable.
Remember that the WHERE clause is used to determine which rows are affected. If
no rows are modified, no error occurs, unlike the SELECT statement in PL/SQL.

SQL Cursor
Whenever you issue a SQL command, the Server opens an area of memory in which
the command is parsed and executed. This area is called a cursor.
When the executable part of a block issues a SQL command, PL/SQL creates an
implicit cursor, which has the SQL identifier. PL/SQL manages this cursor
automatically. An explicit cursor is explicitly declared and named by the programmer.
There are four attributes available in PL/SQL that can be applied to cursors.
Note: More about explicit cursors will be covered in Lesson 24.
SQL Cursor Attributes

You can use these attributes in PL/SQL statements as you would functions, but not in
SQL commands. They are useful to evaluate the result of a DML operation. PL/SQL
does not consider a data manipulation language statement that affects no rows to have
failed, unlike the SELECT statement, which returns an exception.
Attribute Description
SQL%ROWCOUNT Number of rows affected by the most recent SQL
statement (an integer value).
SQL%FOUND Boolean attribute that evaluates to TRUE if the most
recent SQL statement affects one or more rows.
SQL%NOTFOUND Boolean attribute that evaluates to TRUE if the most
recent SQL statement does not affect any rows.
SQL%ISOPEN Always evaluates to FALSE because PL/SQL closes
implicit cursors immediately after they are executed.

PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3, Chapter 4, “Implicit Cursor
Attributes” section.

SQL Cursor Attributes continued
Example
Write a procedure to delete rows that have the specified order number from the item
table. Print the number of rows deleted to the screen.
PROCEDURE del_rows
(v_ord_id NUMBER)
IS
v_rows_deleted NUMBER;
BEGIN
DELETE FROM s_item
WHERE ord_id = v_ord_id;
v_rows_deleted := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE (TO_CHAR(v_rows_deleted)
||’ rows deleted.’);
END del_rows;

Controlling Transactions
Control the logic of transactions with COMMIT and ROLLBACK SQL commands,
rendering some groups of database changes permanent, while discarding others. As
with Oracle7, DML transactions start at the first command to follow a COMMIT or
ROLLBACK, and end on the next successful COMMIT or ROLLBACK. These
actions may occur within a PL/SQL block or as a result of events in the host
environment (for example, ending a Procedure Builder session automatically commits
the pending transaction).
You can also include explicit locking commands (such as LOCK TABLE and
SELECT ... FOR UPDATE) in a block. They take effect until the end of the
transaction.
COMMIT Command
COMMIT ends the current transaction by making all pending changes to the database
permanent.
Syntax
COMMIT [WORK];
where: WORK is for compliance with ANSI standards.
ROLLBACK Command
ROLLBACK ends the current transaction by discarding all pending changes.
Syntax
ROLLBACK [WORK];
where: WORK is for compliance with ANSI standards.
Note: A transaction is defined as a sequence of SQL statements.

Controlling Transactions continued
SAVEPOINT Command
Alter the transactional logic with Oracle7 Server savepoints based upon runtime
conditions. SAVEPOINT marks an intermediate point in the transaction processing.
Syntax
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT discards pending changes made after the savepoint

was marked.
Syntax
ROLLBACK [WORK] TO [SAVEPOINT] savepoint_name;
where: savepoint_name is a PL/SQL identifier.

Summary
You can embed SQL within the PL/SQL block. You can use the following valid
commands:
Statement Description
SELECT Retrieves exactly one row into scalar variables or into a
record variable.
INSERT Adds a row.
UPDATE Modifies one or more existing rows.
DELETE Removes one or more existing rows.
COMMIT Makes all pending transactions permanent.
ROLLBACK Eliminates all pending transactions.
ROLLBACK TO Eliminates all pending transactions since the named
SAVEPOINT savepoint.
You can use SQL implicit cursor attributes to verify the outcome of these statements.

Practice Overview
In this practice, you create three procedures to input, update, and delete information
in a table, all using DML statements within a PL/SQL block.
Practice Contents
D Creating a procedure to insert data into a table
D Creating a procedure to update data in a table
D Creating a procedure to delete a record from a table
D Verifying your changes to the table using Oracle Procedure Builder built-ins and
implicit cursor attributes

Practice 22
If you are not already connected to the database, be sure to connect now.
1. Create a procedure to insert a new department into the S_DEPT table.
a. Use the S_DEPT_ID sequence generator for the department number.
b. Create a parameter for the department name.
c. Leave the region number null for now.
d. Execute the procedure.
e. Display the new department that you created.
2. Create a procedure to update the region number for an existing department.
a. Create a parameter for the department number.
b. Create a parameter for the region name.
c. Set the region number to the value that corresponds to the specified region
name.
d. Test the procedure. What happens if you enter a region name that does not
exist?
e. Display the department number, region number, and region name for the
updated department.
3. Create a procedure to delete the department created in Exercise 1.
a. Create a parameter for the department number.
b. Print to the screen the number of rows affected.
c. Test the procedure. What happens if you enter a department number that does
not exist?
What happens if you enter a department that has employees?
d. Confirm that the department has been deleted.

If you have time, complete the following exercise.

4. Create a procedure named NEW_EMP to insert a new employee into the S_EMP
table.
a. Create parameters for first name, last name, and job title.
b. Use the S_EMP_ID sequence generator for the employee number.
c. Compute the user ID by concatenating the first letter of the first name with the
first seven letters of the last name, and converting all letters to lowercase.
d. Set the start date to the current date.
e. To determine the manager number, the department number, and the salary,
first find the lowest-paid existing employee having the specified job title.
Then, set these three values according to that existing employee. (If several
people are tied for lowest-paid, choose any one of them.)
f. Leave the comments and the commission percent empty.
g. Verify the record has been added by viewing the employee’s number, userid,
and salary.

23
Controlling Flow in PL/SQL

Blocks
Objectives
You can control the flow of your PL/SQL block by using conditional statements
and loops.
D Conditionally control processing in a PL/SQL block.
D Iterate statements by using various types of loops.
Controlling Flow in PL/SQL Blocks 23Ć3

Overview
You can change the logical flow of statements within the PL/SQL block with a
number of control structures. This lesson addresses two types of PL/SQL control
structures:
D Conditional constructs with the IF statement
D Looping constructs
D Basic loop to provide repetitive actions without overall conditions
D FOR loops to provide for iterative control of actions based upon a count
D WHILE loops to provide iterative control of actions based on a true statement
D EXIT statement to terminate loops
PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3, Chapter 3 “Control Structures.”

The IF Statement
The structure of the PL/SQL IF statement is similar to the structure of IF statements
in other procedural languages. It allows PL/SQL to perform actions selectively based
upon conditions.
Syntax
IF condition THEN
statements;
[ELSIF condition THEN
statements;]
[ELSE
statements;]
END IF;
where: condition is a Boolean variable or expression (TRUE,

FALSE, or NULL).
Guidelines
D When writing code, remember the spelling of the keywords.
D ELSIF is one word.
D END IF is two words.
D If the controlling Boolean condition is TRUE, the associated sequence of
statements is executed; if the controlling Boolean condition is FALSE or NULL,
the associated sequence of statements is passed over.
D Any number of ELSIF clauses are permitted.
D There can be at most one ELSE clause.
D Indent the conditionally executed statements for clarity.

The IF Statement continued
Simple IF Statements
PL/SQL executes the conditional statements only if the condition is TRUE. If the
condition is FALSE or NULL, then PL/SQL ignores the conditional statements. In
either case, control resumes at the next statement in the program following END IF.
Example
Set the job title to Sales Representative and the region number to 35 if the last name
is Dumas.
. . .
IF v_last_name = ’Dumas’ THEN
v_job := ’Sales Representative’;
v_region_id := 35;
END IF;
. . .
IFĆTHENĆELSE Statements
If the condition is FALSE or NULL, you can use the ELSE clause to carry out other
actions. As with the simple IF statement, control resumes in the program from the
END IF.
Example
Set a flag for orders where there are fewer than five days between order date and ship
date.
. . .
IF v_date_shipped - v_date_ordered < 5 THEN
v_ship_flag := ’Acceptable’;
ELSE
v_ship_flag := ’Unacceptable’;
END IF;
. . .

The IF Statement continued
Nested IF Statements
Either set of actions of the result of the first IF statement can include further IF
statements before specific actions are performed. Each nested IF statement must be
terminated with a corresponding END IF.
IFĆTHENĆELSIF Statements
When possible, however, use the ELSIF clause instead of nesting IF statements. The
code is easier to read and understand. The logic is clearly identified. If the action in
the ELSE clause consists purely of another IF statement, it is more convenient to use
the ELSIF clause. This makes the code clearer by removing the need for nested END
IFs at the end of each further set of conditions and actions.
Example
For a given value entered, return a calculated value. If the entered value is over 100,
then the calculated value is two times the entered value. If the entered value is
between 50 and 100, then the calculated value is 50% of the starting value. If the
entered value is less than 50, then the calculated value is 10% of the starting value.
FUNCTION calc_val
(v_start IN NUMBER)
RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
IF v_start > 100 THEN
RETURN (2 * v_start);
ELSIF v_start >= 50 THEN
RETURN (.5 * v_start);
ELSE
RETURN (.1 * v_start);
END IF;
END calc_val;

Building Logical Conditions
Build a simple Boolean condition by combining number, character, or date
expressions with a comparison operator. In general, handle null values with the IS
NULL operator.
Null Within Expressions and Comparisons

D Any expression containing a null value evaluates to NULL, with the exception of
a concatenated expression, which treats the null value as the empty string.
D Any simple comparison containing a null value evaluates to NULL.
D An IS NULL comparison evaluates to TRUE or FALSE.
Boolean Conditions with Logical Operators

Build a complex Boolean condition by combining simple Boolean conditions with the
logical operators AND, OR, and NOT. In the accompanying logic tables, FALSE
takes precedence for an AND condition and TRUE takes precedence in an OR
condition.

Building Logical Conditions continued
The AND logic table can help you evaluate the possibilities for the Boolean condition
you see below.
. . .
v_flag := v_reorder_flag AND v_available_flag;
. . .

Loop Statements
PL/SQL provides a number of facilities to structure loops to repeat a statement or
sequence of statements multiple times.
Basic Loop
The simplest loop consists of the body of statements to be repeated enclosed between
the delimiters LOOP and END LOOP. Each time the flow of execution reaches the
END LOOP statement, control is returned to the corresponding LOOP statement
above it. This uncontrolled loop is an infinite loop that is to be avoided. To avoid an
infinite loop, add an EXIT statement.
The EXIT Statement

You can terminate a loop using the EXIT statement. Control passes to the next
statement after the END LOOP statement. You can issue EXIT either as an action
within an IF statement, or as a standalone statement within the loop. In the latter case,
you can attach a WHEN clause to allow conditional termination of the loop.
Syntax
LOOP
statement1;
statement2;
. . .
EXIT [WHEN condition];
END LOOP;

FALSE, or NULL).

Loop Statements continued
Example
Insert the first ten new line items for order number 101.
. . .
v_ord_id s_item.ord_id%TYPE := 101;
v_counter NUMBER (2) := 1;
BEGIN
. . .
LOOP
INSERT INTO s_item (ord_id, item_id)
VALUES (v_ord_id, v_counter);
v_counter := v_counter + 1;
EXIT WHEN v_counter > 10;
END LOOP;
. . .

FOR Loop
FOR loops have the same general structure as the loops you have already seen. In
addition, they have a control statement at the front of the LOOP keyword to
determine the number of iterations PL/SQL performs.
Syntax
FOR index IN [REVERSE] lower_bound..upper_bound LOOP

statement1;
statement2;
. . .
END LOOP;
where: index is an implicitly declared integer whose value

automatically increases or decreases by 1 on
each iteration of the loop until the upper bound
is reached.
REVERSE causes the index to decrement with each
iteration from the upper bound to the lower
bound.
lower_bound specifies the lower bound for the range of index
values.
upper_bound specifies the upper bound for the range of index
values.
Note: Do not declare the index; it is declared implicitly as an integer.

Example
Print the number of times the loop is executed and the last value for the index based
on the supplied lower bound and upper bound.
PROCEDURE iterate
(v_lower NUMBER,
v_upper NUMBER)
IS
v_counter NUMBER(10) := 0;
v_output NUMBER(10);
BEGIN
FOR i IN v_lower..v_upper LOOP
v_counter := v_counter + 1;
v_output := i;
END LOOP;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE(’Last value is ’||TO_CHAR(v_output)
||’. Total loops = ’||TO_CHAR(v_counter));
END iterate;
Guidelines
D Reference the index within the loop only; it is undefined outside the loop.
D Reference the existing value of an index within an expression.
D Do not reference the index as the target of an assignment.

Condition is
evaluated at the
beginning of
each iteration.

WHILE Loop
You can use the WHILE loop to repeat a sequence of statements until the controlling
condition is no longer TRUE. The condition is evaluated at the start of each iteration.
The loop terminates when the condition is FALSE. If the condition is FALSE at the
start of the loop, then no further iterations are performed.
Syntax
WHILE condition LOOP

statement1;
statement2;
. . .
END LOOP;

FALSE, or NULL).
If the variables involved in the conditions do not change during the body of the loop,
then the condition will remain TRUE, and the loop will not terminate.

Nested Loops and Labels

You can nest loops to multiple levels. You may nest FOR loops within WHILE loops,
and WHILE loops within FOR loops. Normally, the termination of a nested loop does
not terminate the enclosing loop (unless an exception was raised). However, you can
label loops and exit the outer loop with the EXIT statement.
Label names follow the same rules as other identifiers. A label is placed before a
statement, either on the same line or a separate line. Label loops by placing the label
before the word LOOP within label delimiters (<<label>>).
If the loop is labeled, the label name can optionally be included after the END LOOP
statement.
...
BEGIN
<<Outer–loop>>LOOP
v_counter :=v_counter+1;
EXIT WHEN v_counter>10;
<<Inner–loop>>LOOP
...
EXIT Outer_loop WHEN total_done = ’YES’;
–– Leave both loops
EXIT WHEN inner_done = ’YES’;
–– Leave inner loop only
...
END LOOP Inner_Loop;
...
END LOOP Outer_loop;
END;

Summary
Control PL/SQL logic with the conditional structure and loops.
Control Structure Description

IF-THEN-ELSE Executes a statement or sequence of statements
conditionally.
Basic loop Repeats a statement or sequence of statements
indefinitely.
EXIT statement Terminates a loop.
FOR loop Repeats a statement or sequence of statements a fixed
number of times.
WHILE loop Repeats a statement or sequence of statements until a
condition is no longer TRUE.

Practice Overview
In this practice, you create procedures that incorporate loops and conditional control
structures.
Practice Contents
D Performing conditional actions using the IF statement
D Performing iterative steps by using the loop structure
D Viewing the values variables during runtime by using Procedure Builder
debugging features

Practice 23
If you are not already connected to the database, be sure to do so now.
1. Create a procedure named SET_COMM to conditionally set the commission
percentage for a given employee based upon total sales.
a. Prepare this exercise by disabling the constraint on the COMMISSION_PCT
column in the S_EMP table. You modify the commission percentage to values
that are not in the constraint.
PL/SQL> ALTER TABLE s_emp

+> DROP CONSTRAINT s_emp_commission_pct_ck;
b. Create a parameter to accept the employee number from the user.

c. Find the sum of the totals for all orders placed by that employee.
d. If the sum is less than 100,000, set the commission percentage for the
employee to 10.
e. If the sum is between 100,000 and 1,000,000 inclusive, set the commission
percentage for the employee to 15.
f. If the sum exceeds 1,000,000, set the commission percentage for the
employee to 20.
g. If no orders appear in the S_ORD table for the given employee, set the
commission percentage to 0.
h. Commit the change.
i. Test the block and view the changes. Results should appear for some example
employees as follows:
Employee Number Total Sales Resulting Commission

--------------- ------------ ---------------------
1 0 0
11 1629066.37 20
12 100184.00 15
14 16358.00 10

2. Write a procedure named CUST_UPDATE that loops through the region numbers
(1 through 5) to update the credit rating of all customers. Do not issue a commit.
a. If the region number is even, then set the credit rating to Excellent (even if the
customer’s credit rating is already Excellent), otherwise set the credit rating to
Good.
b. Once the rows are updated, find out how many rows were updated. Print the
following statements to the screen based on the number of rows updated.
i. If less than three rows updated, statement should read “Fewer than 3
customer records updated for region number X”, where X represents the
region number.
ii. Otherwise, it should read “Y rows updated for region number X”, where Y
is the number of rows updated, and X is the region number.
c. Rollback the changes. Set a breakpoint on the conditional test for the number
of rows updated. Execute the procedure. Check the Stack node to verify the
values of the variables as you Step Into the statements in the loop.
Reminder: You can use the Quick Tour, “Debugging a Program Unit” section
for assistance.
3. Create a procedure named EMP_MESSAGE that selects the employee last name,
start date, and salary based on an employee number provided at execution. Print a
message to the screen based on any combination of one of the following criteria.
Test employee numbers 2, 5, 16, 17, and 18. Hint: A nested IF is required.
Criteria Message
Salary greater than 1200 Salary more than 1200
Last name contains “R” Name contains “R”
Start date is in March March start date
None of the above **None**

24
Processing Queries by Using

Explicit Cursors
Objectives
You may need to use a multiple row SELECT statement within PL/SQL to
process many rows. To accomplish this, you declare and control explicit cursors,
which are used in loops, including the cursor FOR loop.
D Explain the difference between implicit and explicit cursors.
D Declare and use explicit cursors to fetch rows from the database.
D Create an explicit cursor containing parameters.
D Write cursor FOR loops.
Processing Queries by Using Explicit Cursors 24Ć3

Overview
The Oracle7 Server uses work areas called “private SQL areas” to execute SQL
statements and store processing information. PL/SQL cursors let you name a private
SQL area and access its stored information. The cursor directs all phases of
processing.
Cursor Type Description

Implicit Declared by PL/SQL implicitly for all DML and PL/SQL
SELECT statements.
Explicit Declared and named by the programmer and manipulated
through specific statements within the block’s executable
actions.
Recall that the SELECT statement in PL/SQL must only return a single row. PL/SQL
actually attempts to fetch two rows from an implicit cursor: one to satisfy the query,
and a second to see if further rows were returned. One method to eliminate this extra
fetch is to use an explicit cursor.
Explicit Cursor Functions

D Can process beyond the first row returned by the query, row by row.
D Keep track of which row is currently being processed.
D Allow the programmer to manually control them in the PL/SQL block.

Controlling Explicit Cursors
Now that you have a conceptual understanding of cursors, review the steps to use
them. The syntax for each step follows on the next pages.
Controlling Explicit Cursors Using Four Commands

1. Declare the cursor.
Declare the cursor by naming it and defining the structure of the query to be
performed within it.
2. Open the cursor.
The OPEN statement executes the query and binds any variables that are
referenced. Rows identified by the query are called the active set and are now
available for fetching.
3. Fetch data from the cursor.
The FETCH statement loads the current row from the cursor into variables. Each
fetch causes the cursor to move its pointer to the next row in the active set.
Therefore, each fetch will access a different row returned by the query.
In the flow diagram on the left page, each fetch tests the cursor for any existing
rows. If rows are found, it loads the current row into variables, else it closes the
cursor.
4. Close the cursor.
The CLOSE statement releases the active set of rows. It is now possible to reopen
the cursor to establish a fresh active set.

Controlling Explicit Cursors continued
Declaring the Cursor

1
Use the CURSOR statement to declare an explicit cursor. You can define parameters
to allow substitution of values into the query when the cursor is opened. You can also
reference variables within the query, but you must declare them before the cursor
statement.
Syntax
DECLARE
CURSOR cursor_name IS
select_statement;
where: cursor_name is a PL/SQL identifier.

select_statement is a SELECT statement without an INTO
clause.
Note: Do not include the INTO clause within the cursor declaration because it
appears later within the FETCH statement.

Opening the Cursor

2
Open the cursor to execute the query and identify the active set after specifying
values for all input variables. The cursor will now point to the first row in the active
set.
Syntax
OPEN cursor_name;
where: cursor_name is the name of the previously-declared cursor.

Note: If the query returns no rows when the cursor is opened, PL/SQL does not raise
an exception. However, you can test the cursor’s status after a fetch.

Fetching Data from the Cursor

3
Use the FETCH statement to retrieve the current row values into output variables.
After the fetch, you can manipulate the variables by further statements.
Syntax
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable1, variable2, . . .;
where: cursor_name is the name of the previously declared cursor.

variable is an output variable to store the results.
Guidelines
D Include the same number of variables within the INTO clause of the FETCH
statement as output columns in the SELECT statement, and be sure that the
datatypes are compatible.
D Match each variable to correspond to the columns positionally.
D Alternatively, define a record for the cursor and reference the record in the
FETCH INTO clause.
D Test to see if the cursor contains rows. If a fetch acquires no values, that is, there
are now rows left to process in the active set and no error is recorded.

Closing the Cursor

4
Close the cursor after completing the processing of the SELECT statement. This step
allows the cursor to be reopened, if required. Therefore, you can establish an active
set several times.
Syntax
CLOSE cursor_name;
where: cursor_name is the name of the previously declared cursor.
Note: Do not attempt to fetch data from a cursor once it has been closed or the
INVALID_CURSOR exception will be raised.

Explicit Cursor Attributes
As with implicit cursors, there are four attributes for obtaining status information
about a cursor. When used, the attribute name is preceded by the cursor identifier.
Cursor Attribute Description

%ISOPEN Boolean attribute that evaluates to TRUE if the cursor is
open.
%NOTFOUND Boolean attribute that evaluates to TRUE if the most recent
fetch does not return a row.
%FOUND Boolean attribute that evaluates to TRUE until the most
recent fetch does not return a row; complement of
%NOTFOUND.
%ROWCOUNT Numeric attribute that evaluates to the total number of rows
returned so far.
Note: Do not reference cursor attributes directly within a SQL statement.
Controlling Multiple Fetches from Explicit Cursors

Typically, when you want to process several rows from an explicit cursor, you define
a loop to perform a fetch on each iteration. Eventually, all rows in the active set will
be processed, and an unsuccessful fetch sets the %NOTFOUND attribute to TRUE.
Use the explicit cursor attributes to test success of each fetch before any further
references are made to the cursor. If you omit an exit criteria, an infinite loop will
result.
PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3 “Using Cursor Attributes” section.

Explicit Cursor Attributes continued
You can only fetch rows when the cursor is open. Determine whether the cursor is
open using the %ISOPEN cursor attribute, if necessary.
Fetch rows in a loop. Determine when to exit the loop by using cursor attributes.
To retrieve an exact number of rows, fetch the rows in a numeric FOR loop, or fetch
the rows in a simple loop and determine when to exit the loop by using the
%ROWCOUNT cursor attribute.
Example
Retrieve the first five line items for an order one by one. Print the cumulative total for
each product to the screen.
PROCEDURE ord_process
(v_ord_id IN s_item.ord_id%TYPE)
IS
v_product_id s_item.product_id%TYPE;
v_item_total NUMBER (11,2);
v_order_total NUMBER (11,2) := 0;
CURSOR item_cursor IS
SELECT product_id, price * quantity
FROM s_item
WHERE ord_id = v_ord_id;
BEGIN
OPEN item_cursor;
LOOP
FETCH item_cursor INTO v_product_id, v_item_total;
EXIT WHEN item_cursor%ROWCOUNT > 5
OR item_cursor%NOTFOUND;
v_order_total := v_order_total + v_item_total;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE (’Product ID ’||
TO_CHAR(v_product_id)||
’ has a total of ’||
TO_CHAR(v_order_total,’$999,999,999.99’));
END LOOP;
CLOSE item_cursor;
END ord_process;
Note: If using %ROWCOUNT, add a test for no rows in the cursor by using the
%NOTFOUND attribute because the rowcount is not incremented if the fetch
does not retrieve any rows.

Cursors and Records
We have already seen that you can define records to use the structure of columns in a
table. You can also define a record based on the selected list of columns in an explicit
cursor. This is convenient for processing the rows of the active set since you can
simply fetch into the record. Therefore, the values of the row are loaded directly into
the corresponding fields of the record.
In the example, you can select the ROWID pseudo-column, and it will have a
corresponding field within the EMP_RECORD PL/SQL record.

Cursors with Parameters
Parameters allow values to be passed to a cursor when it is opened, and used within
the query when it executes. This means that you can open an explicit cursor several
times in a block, returning a different active set on each occasion.
Parameter datatypes are the same as those for scalar variables, but you do not give
them sizes. The parameter names are for references within the cursor’s query
expression.
Syntax
CURSOR cursor_name [(parameter_name datatype, ...)]

IS
select_statement;
where: cursor_name is a PL/SQL identifier for the previously

declared cursor.
parameter_name is the name of a parameter.
datatype is a scalar datatype of the parameter.
select_statement is a SELECT statement without the INTO
clause.
When the cursor is opened, you pass values to each of the parameters positionally.
You can pass values from PL/SQL or host variables as well as literals.

Cursor FOR Loops
A cursor FOR loop processes rows in an explicit cursor. It is a shortcut because the
cursor is opened, rows are fetched once for each iteration in the loop, and the cursor
is closed automatically when all rows have been processed. The loop itself is
terminated automatically at the end of the iteration where the last row was fetched.
Syntax
FOR record_name IN cursor_name LOOP

statement1;
statement2;
. . .
END LOOP;
where: record_name is the name of the implicitly-declared record.

cursor_name is a PL/SQL identifier for the
previously-declared cursor.
Guidelines
D Do not declare the record that controls the loop. Its scope is only in the loop.
D Test the cursor attributes during the loop, if required.
D Supply the parameters for a cursor, if required, in parentheses following the
cursor name in the FOR statement.
D Do not use a cursor FOR loop when the cursor operations have to be handled
manually.

Applying the WHERE CURRENT OF Clause
You may want to lock rows before you update or delete rows. Add the FOR UPDATE
clause within the cursor query, which locks the affected rows when the cursor is
opened. Since the Oracle7 Server releases locks at the end of the transaction, you
should not commit across fetches from an explicit cursor if FOR UPDATE is used.
Syntax
SELECT...FROM...FOR UPDATE [OF column_reference]

[NOWAIT]
where: column_reference is a column in the table against which the query

is performed.
NOWAIT returns an Oracle error if the rows are locked by
another session.
When querying multiple tables, you can use the FOR UPDATE clause to confine row
locking to particular tables. Rows in a table are locked only if the FOR UPDATE
clause refers to a column in that table.
WHERE CURRENT OF Clause

Additionally, you can write your DELETE or UPDATE statement to contain the
WHERE CURRENT OF cursor_name clause to refer to the latest row processed by
the FETCH statement. When you use this clause, the cursor you reference must exist
and must contain the FOR UPDATE clause in the cursor query, otherwise you will
obtain an error. This clause allows you to apply updates and deletes to the currently
addressed row without the need to explicitly reference the ROWID pseudo-column.

Summary
Cursor Types
D Implicit cursors are used for all DML statements and single row queries.
D Explicit cursors are used for queries of zero, one, or more rows.
Explicit Cursor Commands

D Declare the cursor.
D Open the cursor.
D Fetch data from the cursor.
D Close the cursor.
Cursor Attributes
Evaluate the status of the cursor by using cursor attributes.
Cursors with Parameters

Use parameters to open an explicit cursor several times in a block, returning a
different active set on each occasion.
Cursor FOR Loops

Use cursor FOR loops as a shortcut to open the cursor, fetch rows once for each loop
iteration, and automatically close the cursor after all rows are processed.

Practice Overview
This practice applies your knowledge of cursors to process a number of rows from a
table and populate another table with the results using a cursor FOR loop.
Practice Contents
D Declaring and using a cursor to query rows of a table
D Using a cursor FOR loop
D Applying cursor attributes to test the cursor status

Practice 24
1. Create a procedure named TOP_DOGS1 that determines the top employees with
respect to salaries.
a. Prepare for this exercise by creating a new table for storing employees and
their salaries.
PL/SQL> CREATE TABLE top_dogs

+> (name VARCHAR2(25),
+> salary NUMBER(11,2));
b. Add a parameter to accept the user input n for the top number of employees.
c. Write a cursor FOR loop to get the last names and salaries of the top n people,
with respect to salary, from the S_EMP table.
d. Store the names and salaries in the TOP_DOGS table.
e. Assume for the moment that no two employees have the same salary.
f. Test the exercise under a variety of special cases, such as n = 0, n is greater
than the number of employees in the S_EMP table.
g. Empty the TOP_DOGS table after each test.
2. Create a stored procedure named ADD_STARS to reward all employees by
appending an asterisk in the STARS column for every commission point.
a. Prepare for this exercise by creating a new column in the S_EMP table for
storing asterisks (*).
PL/SQL> ALTER TABLE s_emp

+> ADD stars VARCHAR2(100);
b. Determine the commission percentage for the employee, rounded to the

nearest whole number. Also, consider the case where the employee has no
commission percent.
c. Add an asterisk to a string of asterisks for every commission point. For
example, if the employee has a commission percentage of 10, then the STARS
column will contain ten asterisks.
d. Update the STARS column for each employee with the string of asterisks.


3. Copy the TOP_DOGS1 procedure from exercise 1, and name it TOP_DOGS2.
Modify the TOP_DOGS2 procedure to consider the case where several
employees in the exercise 1 have the same salary. For each name listed, all names
having the same salary should also be listed.
Execute the TOP_DOGS2 procedure. Enter 6, 7, or 8 for n, then Ngao, Dumas,
and Quick-To-See should all display. If you enter 9, 10, or 11 for n, then
Nagayama, Magee, and Maduro should all display.
Remember to empty the TOP_DOGS table after each test.

25
Error Handling
Objectives
When you execute PL/SQL code, you may encounter errors. Errors cause the
PL/SQL block to halt with an exception. You can trap the exception and
perform actions conditionally using exception handlers.
D Identify common exceptions.
D Describe the three basic types of exceptions.
D Write exception handling routines.
Error Handling 25Ć3

Overview
An exception is an identifier in PL/SQL, raised during the execution of a block that
terminates its main body of actions. A block will always terminate when PL/SQL
raises an exception, but you specify an exception handler to perform final actions.
Two Methods for Raising an Exception

D An Oracle error occurs and the associated exception is raised automatically. For
example, if the error ORA-01403 occurs when no rows are retrieved from the
database, then PL/SQL raises the exception NO_DATA_FOUND.
D You raise an exception explicitly by issuing the RAISE statement within the
block. The exception being raised may be either user-defined or predefined.
Trapping an Exception
If the exception is raised in the executable section of the block, processing branches
to the corresponding exception handler in the exception section of the block. If
PL/SQL successfully handles the exception, then the exception does not propagate to
the enclosing block or environment.
Propagating an Exception
The other method for handling an exception is to allow it to propagate to the calling
environment. If the exception is raised in the executable section of the block and
there is no corresponding exception handler, the PL/SQL block terminates with
failure.

Exception Types
You can program for exceptions to avoid disruption at runtime. There are three types
of exceptions.
Exception Description Directions for Handling

Predefined Oracle7 One of approximately 20 Do not declare, and allow the
Server error most errors that occur Oracle7 Server to raise them
often in PL/SQL code. implicitly.
Non-Predefined Any other standard Declare within the declarative
Oracle7 Server Oracle7 Server error. section, and allow the Oracle7
error Server to raise them implicitly.
User-defined error A condition that the Declare within the declarative
developer determines is section, and raise explicitly.
abnormal.

Trapping Exceptions
Trap any error by including a corresponding routine within the exception handling
section of the PL/SQL block.
Syntax
EXCEPTION
WHEN exception1 [OR exception2 . . .] THEN
statement1;
statement2;
. . .
[WHEN exception3 [OR exception4 . . . THEN
statement1;
statement2;
. . .]
[WHEN OTHERS THEN
statement1;
statement2;
. . .]
where: exception is the standard name of a predefined exception

or the name of a user-defined exception
declared within the declarative section.
WHEN OTHERS indicates the exception handling routine for any
exception is not listed explicitly.
Guidelines
D Place the WHEN OTHERS clause after all other exception handling clauses.
D You can have at most one WHEN OTHERS clause.
D Begin exception-handling section of the block with the keyword EXCEPTION.
D Define several exception handlers, each with their own set of actions, for the
block.
D When an exception occurs, PL/SQL will process only one handler before leaving
the block.
Oracle Course Catalog to attend Develop Applications with Database Procedures
course.

Trapping Predefined Oracle7 Server Exceptions
Trap a predefined Oracle7 Server error by referencing its standard name within the
corresponding exception-handling routine.
Sample Predefined Exceptions
Oracle Server
Exception Name Error Number Description
NO_DATA_FOUND ORA-01403 Single row SELECT returned no data.
TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-01422 Single row SELECT returned more
than one row.
INVALID_CURSOR ORA-01001 Illegal cursor operation occurred.
ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-01476 Attempted to divide by zero.
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX ORA-00001 Attempted to insert a duplicate value
into a column that has a unique index.
You can use the debugging capabilities in Procedure Builder to identify and trap
exceptions prior to moving procedures to the database.

PL/SQL User’s Guide and Reference, Release 2.3 “Predefined Exceptions” section.

Trapping Predefined Oracle7 Server Exceptions continued
Example
Eliminate all inventory items for a particular product. Be sure the product number is
valid.
PROCEDURE elim_inventory
(v_product_id IN s_product.id%TYPE) IS
v_id s_product.id%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT id
INTO v_id
FROM s_product
WHERE id = v_product_id;
DELETE FROM s_inventory
WHERE product_id = v_product_id;
COMMIT;
EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
ROLLBACK;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE(TO_CHAR(v_product_id)||
’ is invalid.’);
WHEN TOO_MANY_ROWS THEN
ROLLBACK;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE(’Data corruption in S_PRODUCT.’);
WHEN OTHERS THEN
ROLLBACK;
TEXT_IO.PUT_LINE(’Other error occurred.’);
END elim_inventory;
Only one exception is raised and handled at any time.

1
1 Name the exception. 2 Code the pragma 3 Handle the raised

EXCEPTION_INIT. exception.

Trapping NonĆPredefined Oracle7 Server Exceptions
Trap a non-predefined Oracle7 Server error by declaring it first, rather than by using
the WHEN OTHERS handler. The declared exception will be raised implicitly. Be
sure to reference the declared exception in the exception handling section.
Trapping a NonĆPredefined Oracle7 Server Exception

1. Declare the name for the exception within the declarative section.
Syntax
exception EXCEPTION;
where: exception is the name of the exception.
2. Associate the declared exception with the standard Oracle7 Server error number
using the pragma EXCEPTION_INIT statement.
Syntax
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT (exception, error_number);
where: exception is the previously-declared exception.

error_number is a standard Oracle7 Server error number.
3. Reference the declared exception within the corresponding exception handling

routine.
Oracle7 Server Messages, Release 7.3.

1 1
2 2
3 3
1 Name the exception. 2 Explicitly raise the 3 Handle the raised

exception by using the exception.
RAISE statement.

Trapping UserĆDefined Exceptions
Trap a user-defined exception by declaring it and raising it explicitly.
Trapping a UserĆDefined Exception

1. Declare the name for the user-defined exception within the declarative section.
Syntax
exception EXCEPTION;
where: exception is the name of the exception.
2. Raise the exception explicitly within the executable section using the RAISE
statement.
Syntax
RAISE exception;
where: exception is the previously declared exception.
3. Reference the declared exception within the corresponding exception handling

routine.

Error Trapping Functions
When an exception is trapped in the WHEN OTHERS section, you can use a set of
generic functions for identifying those errors.
WHEN OTHERS Exception Handler

The exception-handling section only traps those exceptions specified; any other
exceptions would not be trapped unless you use the WHEN OTHERS exception
handler. This will trap any exception not yet handled. For this reason, the WHEN
OTHERS is be the last exception handler defined.
The WHEN OTHERS handler traps all exceptions not already trapped. Some Oracle
tools have their own predefined exceptions that you can raise to cause events in the
application. WHEN OTHERS also traps these exceptions.
Functions for Error Trapping

When an exception occurs, you can identify the associated error code or error
message by using two functions. Based on the values of the code or message, you can
decide what subsequent action to take based upon the error.
Function Description
SQLCODE Returns the numeric value for the error code. You can assign it
to a NUMBER variable.
SQLERRM Returns character data containing the message associated with
the error number.
Example SQLCODE Values
SQLCODE Value Description

0 No exception encountered.
1 User-defined exception.
+100 NO_DATA_FOUND exception.
negative_number Another Oracle7 Server error number.
Truncate the value of SQLERRM to a known length before attempting to write it to a

variable.

Propagating Exceptions
Instead of trapping an exception within the PL/SQL block, propagate the exception to
allow the calling environment to handle it. Each calling environment will have its
own way of displaying and accessing errors.
Calling Environment Exception Handling
Calling Environment Exception Handling Capabilities

SQL*Plus Unhandled exception number and message are
displayed on the screen.
Procedure Builder Unhandled exception number and message are
displayed on the screen.
Developer/2000 Forms Unhandled exception number and message are
accessible in a trigger by means of the
ERROR_CODE and ERROR_TEXT packaged
functions.
Precompiler application Unhandled exception number is accessible through
the SQLCA data structure.
An enclosing PL/SQL block Unhandled exceptions can be trapped by the
exception handling routine of the enclosing block.
Propagating an Exception in a SubĆblock

When a sub-block handles an exception, it terminates normally, and control resumes
in the enclosing block immediately after the sub-block END statement.
However, if PL/SQL raises an exception and the current block does not have a
handler for that exception, the exception propagates in successive enclosing blocks
until it finds a handler. If none of these blocks handle the exception, this causes an
unhandled exception in the host environment.
When the exception propagates to an enclosing block, the remaining executable
actions in that block are bypassed.
One advantage of this behavior is that you can enclose statements that require their
own exclusive error handling in their own block, while leaving more general
exception handling to the enclosing block.

Summary
Program for exceptions that may arise during the execution of the PL/SQL block.
Exception Types
D Predefined Oracle7 Server error.
D Non-predefined Oracle7 Server error.
D User-defined error.
Handle Exceptions
D Trap the exception within the PL/SQL block in an exception handling routine.
D Allow the exception to propagate to the calling environment.
Propagate Exceptions
D Propagate an exception through a series of nested blocks.
D Terminate PL/SQL processing with success by handling the exception in an
enclosing block.
D Terminate the PL/SQL processing with failure by passing the unhandled
exception to the calling environment.

Practice Overview
In this practice, you create exception handlers for specific situations.
Practice Contents
D Handling named exceptions
D Creating and invoking user-defined exceptions

Practice 25
1. Modify the procedure to handle exceptions. The procedure tries to update region
numbers for existing departments.
a. Load the LABS\p25q1a.pls script file. Note: The procedure UPDATE_DEPT2
is loaded and compiled.
b. Execute the procedure by entering the following text.
PL/SQL> update_dept2 (50,’US’);
c. Write an exception handler for the error to pass a message to the user that the
specified region does not exist.
d. Execute the procedure by entering the following text.
PL/SQL> update_dept2 (31,’Asia’);
e. Write an exception handler for the error to pass a message to the user that the
specified region already has a department of that name.
f. Execute the procedure by entering the following text.
PL/SQL> update_dept2 (99,’Europe’);
g. Write an exception handler for the error to pass a message to the user that the
specified department number does not exist.
Reminder: Use the SQL attribute %NOTFOUND and raise an exception

manually.


2. Write a procedure named SALARY_RANGE that prints the names of the
employees that make plus or minus $100 of the salary value entered.
a. If there is no employee within that salary range, then print a message to the
user indicating that is the case. Use an exception for this case.
b. If there are more than 3 employees within that range, then the message should
indicate how many employees have that salary range.
Your results should look like the list below. Results have been formatted to fit
the page.
PL/SQL> SALARY_RANGE (1000);

Employees who make around $1000 are: Biri,
Schwartz, Smith
4 employee salaries are within $100 of $900
No records within the $2000 range.

26
Summary of PL/SQL
Summary
PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) is an extension to SQL. It is a language that
allows you to combine multiple SQL statements with procedural controls such as
identifiers, conditional, and iterative constructs in a PL/SQL block.
Benefits from PL/SQL
D Modularize program development by grouping similar concepts together and
nesting blocks
D Declare identifiers, for example, variables, constants, and cursors
D Program with procedural language structures, for example, IF statements and
loops
D Exception handling for Oracle7 Server errors and user-defined exceptions
D Port code between applications and the Oracle7 Server
D Integrate Oracle7 stored subprograms and application subprograms
D Improve performance by sending a block of code to the server
PL/SQL Block
A PL/SQL block contains code in up to four sections. The header section is where
you set the name and parameters for named blocks. The declarative section is
optional and contains all variables, constants, cursors, and user-defined exceptions
that will be referenced within the executable section. The executable section is
required and contains SQL statements to manipulate data in the database and PL/SQL
statements to manipulate data in the block. The exception-handling section is optional
and specifies the actions to perform when errors and abnormal conditions arise within
the executable section.
Anonymous Blocks
Anonymous blocks are unnamed blocks. They are declared at the point in an
application where they are to be executed and are passed to the PL/SQL engine for
execution at runtime. You can embed an anonymous block within a precompiler
program and within SQL*Plus or Server Manager. Triggers in Developer/2000
components consist of such blocks.
Summary of PL/SQL 26Ć3

Summary continued
Procedures
Procedures are named PL/SQL blocks that store a series of actions for later execution.
The procedure can contain zero or more parameters, which are arguments that you list
when calling the procedure. Procedures can either be application specific or stored in
the Oracle7 Server.
Functions
A function returns a value to the calling environment. You must declare the RETURN
datatype in the header section of the function definition, and define the value to be
returned in the PL/SQL block. You can also declare a list of parameters to be passed
into the function. Functions are called as part of an expression.
DML in PL/SQL
You can use DML statements in your PL/SQL blocks. Use the SELECT statement to
retrieve data from the database.
D The SELECT statement contains an additional mandatory clause: the INTO
clause. In the INTO clause, list the output variables for receiving the data. The
SELECT statement must return exactly one row or an error will occur.
D The INSERT statement adds new rows of data to the table.
D The UPDATE statement modifies existing rows in the table.
D The DELETE statement removes unwanted rows from the table.
D COMMIT ends the current transaction by making all pending changes to the
database permanent.
D ROLLBACK ends the current transaction by discarding all pending changes.

Summary continued
IF Conditional Statements
The PL/SQL IF statement is similar to the structure of IF statements in other
procedural languages. It allows PL/SQL to perform actions selectively based upon
conditions. If the controlling Boolean condition is TRUE, the associated sequence of
statements is executed; if the controlling Boolean condition is FALSE or NULL, the
associated sequence of statements is passed over.
Iterative Loop Statements

You can use one of three loop structures to repeat a sequence of statements.
D The basic loop consists of the body of statements to be repeated enclosed between
the delimiters LOOP and END LOOP. This uncontrolled loop is an infinite loop
that is to be avoided. To avoid an infinite loop, add an EXIT statement.
D FOR loops have a control statement at the front of the LOOP keyword to
determine the number of iterations PL/SQL performs.
D The WHILE loop repeats a sequence of statements until the controlling condition
is no longer TRUE. The condition is evaluated at the start of each iteration.
Cursors
PL/SQL cursors let you name a private SQL area and access its stored information.
The cursor directs all phases of processing. Explicit cursors are declared and named
by the programmer and manipulated through specific statements within the block’s
executable actions. Control explicit cursors in a loop with four steps: declare, open,
fetch, and close. Cursor FOR loops are a shortcut to open the cursor, fetch rows once
for each loop iteration, and automatically close the cursor after all rows are
processed.
Exception Handling
An exception is an identifier in PL/SQL, raised during the execution of a block that
terminates its main body of actions. A block will always terminate when PL/SQL
raises an exception, but you specify an exception handler to perform final actions.
Exceptions can be raised either by the Oracle7 Server or by the user. You can either
trap an exception in the exception-handling section of the block, or allow it to
propagate to the calling environment.
Procedure Builder
Oracle Procedure Builder is a tool you can use to create, execute, and debug PL/SQL
programs used in your application tools, such as a form or report, or on the Oracle7
Server through its graphical interface.

Practice Overview
This practice has you build a PL/SQL-based application to insert, update, and delete
records in a video store database and generate a report. The database contains only
the essential tables.
Practice Contents
D Creating procedures and functions
D Inserting, updating, and deleting data
D Incorporating IF statements and loops
D Handling exceptions
Note: If you are new to the class, you can execute the buildvid.sql script in
SQL*Plus to create and populate the tables. If you want to drop the work you
did in the course summary from the SQL section, you can execute the
dropvid.sql script in SQL*Plus to drop their tables. Then, you can execute the
buildvid.sql script in SQL*Plus to create and populate the tables.

Practice 26
Entity Relationship Diagram

The facing page contains an entity relationship diagram depicting the tables and
columns for a small movie rental application.
1. Complete the database design by writing subprograms to perform the following
actions.
a. Create a function named NEW_MEMBER to return the membership number
for that new member. Be sure to use a sequence generator to create the unique
member numbers. Check the data dictionary for the sequence name.
b. Create a function named NEW_RENTAL to record a new rental based on a
member’s last name. Return a message with the expected due date. If two or
more people have the same last name, store the first name, last name, phone,
and membership number for all matching last names in the RESULTS table.
c. Create a procedure named MEM_TITLES to retrieve all the titles rented by a
member. Store the results in the RESULTS table.
d. If a title is rented, create a reservation for that movie. Name your procedure
RESERVE_MOVIE.
e. When a video is returned, change the rental status for that returned copy.
When the video is successfully checked in, store a message in the RESULTS
table. Check the to see if there are reservations for the film title, and store a
message in the RESULTS table. Name your procedure RETURN_RENTAL.
f. If a video is returned damaged, change its status to DAMAGED. If that copy
was the only copy owned by the store, store a message to buy another copy in
the RESULTS table. If only one copy remains for rental, store a warning that
only one copy is left for rental in the RESULTS table. Name your procedure
DAMAGED_COPY.
g. Create a procedure named TOP_RENTAL to determine the top rental. Allow
for more than one top rental. Store the names and a message of the top rentals
in the RESULTS table.


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Introduction to Oracle: SQL

and PL/SQL Using Procedure

Neena Kochhar This documentation contains proprietary information of Oracle Corporation; it is

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć3

Benefits from PL/SQL

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć5

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć7

Section Description Inclusion

Note: In PL/SQL, an error or warning is called an exception.

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć9

PL/SQL Program Constructs

Note: A function is similar to a procedure, except that a function must return a

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć11

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć13

PL/SQL Engine at the Oracle7 Server

PL/SQL in Oracle Tools

Application subprograms pass blocks to that application’s local PL/SQL

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć15

Integrated PL/SQL Development Environment

Unified ClientĆServer PL/SQL Development

Overview of PL/SQL 18Ć17

Basics of Procedure Builder

19Ć2 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć3

Procedure Builder Features

For more information, see

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć5

19Ć6 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Integrated PL/SQL Development Environment

Unified ClientĆServer PL/SQL Development

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć7

Procedure Builder Components

19Ć8 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

The Object Navigator

The Program Unit Editor

The Stored Program Unit Editor

The Database Trigger Editor

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć9

19Ć10 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Using the Quick Tour

Procedure Builder Basics

Developing a Program Unit

Debugging a Program Unit

Procedure Builder Features

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć11

19Ć12 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Using Cue Cards

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć13

1 Navigator drop down list 2 Subobject indicator 3 Type icon

4 Object name 5 Find field

19Ć14 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Object Navigator Components

Navigator Component Description

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć15

1 Open/save 2 Cut/copy/paste 3 Create/delete

19Ć16 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

The Object Navigator Vertical Button Bar

Elements of the Vertical Button Bar

Basics of Procedure Builder 19Ć17

19Ć18 Introduction to Oracle: SQL and PL/SQL Using Procedure Builder

Object Navigator Objects

Object Node Description