Fundamentals of Pure Mathematics 2023-24

Analysis workshop in week 6.

Continuity

Let f be a real valued function of one real variable and let x0 be a point in
the domain of f .
Definition (Ross 17.1): We say that f is continuous at x0 iff for every se-
quence (xn )n∈N of elements of the domain of f that converges to x0 we have
f (xn ) → f (x0 ).
We say ‘ f is continuous’ iff f is continuous at all points x0 in its domain.
Theorem (Ross 17.2): The following are equivalent:

1. f is continuous at x0 ,

2. for every positive ε there is a positive δ such that for all x in the
domain of f with |x − x0 | < δ we have f (x) − f (x0 ) < ε. (This
says: we can make f (x) as close as we like to f (x0 ) provided we take
x sufficiently close to x0 .)

1. Using epsilons and deltas, without using any Limit Rules, prove that the
function f : R → R defined by the formula f (x) = 5x + 7 is continuous at
the point x0 = 1.

2. Using epsilons and deltas, without using any Limit Rules, prove that the
function f : R → R defined by the formula f (x) = x3 is continuous at the
point x0 = 2.

3. (Ross, Exercise 17.12)

(a) Let f be a continuous real-valued function with domain (a, b). Show
that if f (r) = 0 for each rational number r in (a, b), then f (x) = 0 for
all real x in (a, b).
(b) Let f and g be continuous real-valued functions on (a, b) such that
f (r) = g(r) for each rational number r in (a, b). Prove f (x) = g(x) for
all real x in (a, b).
2
√→ R be continuous and such that f (x) = x for all rational x.
(c) Let f : R
Find f ( 2).

Intermediate Value Theorem (Ross 18.2) If f is a continuous real-

valued function on an interval I, then f has the intermediate value
property on I: Whenever a, b ∈ I, a < b and y lies between f (a) and
f (b) (i.e., f (a) < y < f (b) or f (b) < y < f (a)), there exists at least
one x in (a, b) such that f (x) = y.

4. Let f : R → R be a continuous function such that, for all real x, f (x) is an

integer. Prove that f is constant.

1
5. (Ross, Exercise 18.9) Prove that every cubic polynomial with real coeffi-
cients has at least one real root. (Exercise 18.9 appears in Ross before Lim-
its are discussed in Section 20, so you should try to solve it without using
Limits.)

6. Let 0 ≤ L < 1, C ≥ 0, and let (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn , . . . ) be a sequence of real num-

bers such that, for all positive integers n,

|xn−1 − xn | ≤ CLn . (1)

Prove that the sequence converges. (Hint: what can you say about the tele-
∞
scopic series ∑ (xn−1 − xn )?)
n=1

7. (Lipschitz functions) A real valued function f of one real variable is said

to be a Lipschitz function iff there exists a non-negative real number L such
that, for all x1 , x2 in the domain of f ,

| f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| ≤ L|x1 − x2 |. (2)

Any such L is known as a Lipschitz constant of f .

(a) Prove that every Lipschitz function is continuous.

(b) Give an example of a continuous function that isn’t a Lipschitz func-
tion.

8. (Contractions) A real valued function f of one real variable is said to be a

contraction iff there exists a real number L with 0 ≤ L < 1 such that, for all
x1 , x2 in its domain

| f (x1 ) − f (x2 )| ≤ L|x1 − x2 |. (3)

In other words, a contraction is a Lipschitz function that has a Lipschitz

constant L with L < 1.
Let f : R → R be a contraction. Define a sequence (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn , . . . ) as
follows: let x0 be any real number and set

xn = f (xn−1 ), n = 1, 2, . . . (4)

(so, the sequence is x0 , f (x0 ), f ( f (x0 )), . . . ).

(a) Prove that the sequence converges.

(b) Let x∗ be its limit. Prove that x∗ is a fixed point of f , i.e., f (x∗ ) = x∗ .
(c) Prove that f has no other fixed points. (So, every contraction has a
unique fixed point. This is the Banach Fixed Point Theorem.)
(d) Prove that the limit of the sequence is always the same, irrespective of
the choice of the starting point x0 .