Fundamentals of Pure Mathematics 2023-24

Analysis workshop in week 8

Limits of functions

Let I be an open interval and a ∈ I. Let f : I ∖ {a} → R be a function and

L ∈ R. There are two equivalent ways to define lim f (x) = L.
x→a

1. For every sequence (xn )n∈N in I ∖ {a} with xn → a,

f (xn ) → L.

2. For every positive ε there exists a positive δ , such that, for all x in
I ∖ {a} with |x − a| < δ , we have | f (x) − L| < ε.

There are many variants of the above that cover the cases where a or L is
infinite, one-sided limits and domains more general that intervals (see Ross
and Notes).

1. (Ross, Exercise 20.11) Find the following limits. In (a) and (b), a is any real
number. In (c), a is a positive real number.
√ √
x 2 − a2 x3 − a3 x− a
a) lim , b) lim , c) lim .
x→a x − a x→a x − a x→a x − a

2. Using only ε’s and δ ’s (without using any Rules of Limits) prove that if
f , g : R ∖ {1} → R are functions such that lim f (x) = 2 and lim g(x) = 3,
x→1 x→1
then lim (4 f (x) + g(x)2 ) = 17.
x→1

3. (Ross, Exercise 20.16) Let f1 , f2 : (a, b) → R be two given functions such

that the limits L1 = lim f1 (x) and L2 = lim f2 (x) exist.
x→a+ x→a+

(a) Show that if f1 (x) ≤ f2 (x) for all x in (a, b), then L1 ≤ L2 .
(b) Suppose that, in fact, f1 (x) < f2 (x) for all x in (a, b). Can you conclude
L1 < L2 ?

1
4. Let f : [0, 1) → R be increasing and bounded. Show that lim f (x) exists in
x→1
R and determine its value in terms of f . Are both conditions (increasing
and bounded) necessary?

Definition (ε-M): Let f be a real valued function defined on an interval of

the form (a, +∞) and let L be a real number. We say that f converges to L
as x → +∞, and we write lim f (x) = L or f (x) −−−−→ L, if and only if for
x→+∞ x→+∞
every positive ε there exists a positive M such that, for all x in (a, +∞) with
x > M we have | f (x) − L| < ε.

5. (May 2023) Prove, using the ε - M definition, that

3x2 + 1
lim = 3.
x→+∞ x2 − 1