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AEROSPACE AIR5883™ REV. A

INFORMATION REPORT Issued 2006-05

Reaffirmed 2012-05
Revised 2018-10

Superseding AIR5883

(R) Landing Gear Shock Strut Bearing Selection

RATIONALE

This SAE Aerospace Information Report is intended to provide criteria normally used for landing gear shock strut bearing
selection and is being revised as part of the Five-Year Review policy.

1. SCOPE

1.1 This document defines the criteria used for the selection of landing gear shock strut upper and lower bearings
(see Figure 1).

UP
Upper Bearing

Outer
Cylinder

Lower
Bearing

Drag Load
Inner
Cylinder

Typical Cantilevered Type Shock Strut

Figure 1 - Typical landing gear shock strut diagram

1.2 Common problems associated with shock strut bearings are presented herein.

2. REFERENCES

2.1 Applicable Documents

The following publications form a part of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications
shall apply. The applicable issue of other publications shall be the issue in effect on the date of the publication of this
document. In the event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the text of this document
takes precedence. Nothing in this document; however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unless a specific
exemption has been obtained.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely
voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.”
SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and
suggestions.
Copyright © 2018 SAE International
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE.
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Tel: +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA) on this Technical Report, please visit
Fax: 724-776-0790 http://standards.sae.org/AIR5883A
Email: CustomerService@sae.org
SAE WEB ADDRESS: http://www.sae.org
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2.1.1 SAE Publications

Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA
and Canada) or +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org.

AMS4533 Copper-Beryllium Alloy, Bars and Rods, 98Cu - 1.9Be, Solution and Precipitation Heat Treated (TF00,
formerly AT)

AMS4534 Copper-Beryllium Alloy, Bars and Rods 98Cu - 1.9Be Solution Heat Treated, Cold Worked, and
Precipitation Heat Treated (TH04, Formerly HT)

AMS4535 Copper-Beryllium Alloy, Mechanical Tubing 98Cu - 1.9Be Solution and Precipitation Heat Treated (TF00,
formerly AT)

AMS4590 Extrusions, Nickel-Aluminum Bronze, Martensitic 78.5Cu - 10.5Al - 5.1Ni - 4.8Fe Quenched and Tempered
(TQ50)

AMS4596 Copper Nickel Tin Alloy, Bars and Rods, 77Cu - 15Ni - 8Sn, Solution Annealed and Spinodal Hardened
(TX 00)

AMS4597 Copper-Nickel-Tin Alloy, Bars and Rods, 77Cu - 15Ni - 8Sn, Solution Annealed, Cold Finished and Spinodal
Hardened (TX TS)

AMS4640 Aluminum Bronze, Bars, Rods, Shapes, Tubes, and Forgings, 81.5Cu - 10.0Al - 4.8Ni - 3.0Fe, Drawn and
Stress Relieved (HR50) or Temper Annealed (TQ50)

AMS4880 Aluminum Bronze Alloy, Centrifugal and Continuous-Cast Castings, 81.5Cu - 10.3Al - 5.0Ni - 2.8Fe,
Quench Hardened and Temper Annealed (TQ50)

AMS4881 Nickel-Aluminum-Bronze, Martensitic, Sand, Centrifugal and Continuous Castings, 78Cu - 11Al - 5.1Ni -
4.8Fe, Quench Hardened and Temper Annealed

AIR1594 Plain Bearing Selection for Landing Gear Applications

AIR5913 Landing Gear Component Heat Damage

ARP1311 Landing Gear Structures and Mechanisms

ARP4912 Design Recommendations for Spare Seals in Landing Gear Shock Struts

ARP5935 Use of HVOF Thermal Spray Coatings for Hard Chrome Replacement in Landing Gear Applications

AS81820 Bearings, Plain, Self-Aligning, Self-Lubricating, Low Speed Oscillation

AS81934 Bearings, Sleeve, Plain and Flanged, Self-Lubricating

2.1.2 U.S. Government Publications

Copies of these documents are available online at http://quicksearch.dla.mil.

MIL-L-8552 Landing Gear, Aircraft Shock Absorber (Air-Oil Type)

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2.2 Definitions

2.2.1 LADDER CRACKING

Lateral cracks found on the chrome surface of the shock strut inner cylinder (piston). Refer to AIR5913 for details.

2.2.2 SLIP-STICK

A stiction effect caused by friction. This phenomenon is also known as ratcheting.

2.2.3 LINER DE-LAMINATION (LINED BEARINGS)

The removal of the liner material from the metallic backing.

2.2.4 ALLOWABLE LINER WEAR (LINED BEARINGS)

A lined bearing is considered no longer serviceable when a portion of the wear coating has been worn to a degree that
could affect the shock strut operation. Wear definition of the liner material is usually related to the maximum allowable
clearance between the bearing and the cylinder or the bearing and the inner cylinder (piston).

2.2.5 BEARING OVERLAP

As defined in MIL-L-8552C, the bearing overlap is the distance between the lower edge of the lower bearing to the upper
edge of the upper bearing. A distance of at least 2.75 times inner cylinder (piston) outside diameter (OD) for cantilevered
gears and 1.25 times inner cylinder (piston) OD for articulated gear configuration is commonly used. Maintaining this overlap
has been shown to ensure smooth operation and reduce the chances of developing stiction of the bearings.

3. BEARING MATERIALS SELECTION

The following criteria are commonly considered for selecting a bearing material:

3.1 Wear

Depending on the type of the aircraft and its intended utilization, suitable materials will be selected. Wear is also a function
of the mating surface material and finish.

3.2 Friction

Although the material with the lowest friction is desired, consideration should be given to other aspects such as shimmy,
which can be reduced with a higher friction material. However, it is important to note that friction is not a primary means of
controlling shimmy since it is a function of many other factors.

Other friction characteristics to be considered when selecting the type of bearing are summarized as follows:

3.2.1 The liner behavior with the contact material of the landing gear shock strut as well as the type of plating/coating
used. Contact materials can be steel, chrome-plated steel, High Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF), WC-Co/WC-Co-Cr-
coated steel/titanium, aluminum, hard anodized aluminum, plasma-coated aluminum, and titanium.

3.2.2 Some bearing materials exhibit an increasing friction under light loads, then reverse that behavior as the load is
continuously increased.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) lubricated bearing materials normally require a slight break-in period to start the lubrication
process. Therefore, these types of bearings can have a different coefficient of friction in their newly installed condition
compared to their broken-in condition, but do not affect overall shock strut performance.
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3.2.3 Heat caused by friction can be detrimental to elastomer seal performance.

3.3 Heat Dispersion

The heat dispersion characteristics of the selected bearing material must be evaluated. Generally, materials with good
dispersion properties are recommended. However, composite and non-metallic materials are inherently non-conductive. In
this case, the cooling is provided through the contact materials/running face and by the fluid environment in the landing gear
shock strut (wet bearing applications only).

3.4 Cost

Depending on the type of aircraft and its intended utilization, the material selection should consider the lowest life cycle
cost.

3.5 Weight

Bearings with a liner usually are lighter than an all-metal bearing but wear can be an issue. Careful selection of the liner
and contact material for the application is required such that component integrity is not affected by wear.

3.6 Bearing Capacity

A higher bearing capacity will result in a shorter bearing, hence resulting in a lower weight. A bearing operating with high
unit stresses (pressure loading) will result in shorter life.

3.7 Bearing Materials

Bearing materials can be categorized into three categories: metal, lined, and non-metallic resins.

3.7.1 Metal

The most common material used for metal bearings is Al Ni bronze (AMS4640, AMS4590 AMS4880, AMS4881). Some
applications historically made use of copper beryllium (AMS4533, AMS4534, AMS4835), however, copper beryllium is not
often used in new designs for environmental reasons). Newer materials such as Cu-Ni-Sn (AMS4596, AMS4597) offer high
strength and good wear characteristics and are an adequate replacement for copper beryllium without environmental
restrictions; however, structural analysis is accomplished prior to use for replacement applications.

3.7.2 Lined

Since liners are non-conductive materials, consideration should be given for gear electrical bonding requirements. Several
types of liner are available for use:

3.7.2.1 PTFE Impregnated Cloth Type

This bearing type is a resin/PTFE with a fabric reinforcement, bonded to a metal shell of sleeve. This lining type has been
problematic when the fabric becomes un-bonded or wears through to the metal shell and affects the shock strut
performance.

3.7.2.2 Phenolic Cotton Fabric Bearing

This type is used on some shock struts for weight savings. However, it is customary to pay design consideration to the
environment for this type of bearing as some early designs have showed swelling, resulting in binding or slip stick behavior.
The bearing manufacturers are often consulted to validate compatibility of the bearing material to the operating environment.

3.7.2.3 Sprayed or Molded

This bearing type is a composite matrix that includes a structural resin system, self-lubricating fillers such as PTFE
and possibly other fillers, applied to a metallic or composite substrate without need of a fabric base. Sprayed or molded
liners are generally able to be machined after liner application to close tolerances.
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3.7.2.4 PTFE Coating on a Metal Shell

This bearing type is a resin/PTFE wear coating applied to a metal shell or sleeve in such a manner that it can be machined
if necessary and does not require or make use of a fabric base.

3.7.2.5 Porous Bronze Matrix Impregnated with PTFE on a Backing Shell

This bearing type is a combination of a porous bronze matrix impregnated with a PTFE/lead bearing material on a steel or
bronze backing shell. These bearings are typically thin walled bearings that are installed into a grooved bearing carrier.
Carrier material is usually aluminum or titanium for the purpose of weight savings. This type of shock strut bearing material
has proven to prevent friction binding or slip-stick (stiction) and friction burns (refer to AIR5913) in many commercial and
military applications.

3.7.3 Non-Metallic Resins

Several bearing-grade homogenous non-metallic resins can be molded and fit into existing gland standards. Such designs
may reduce the potential threat of wearing through a bearing liner but have not historically been used for landing gear shock
strut bearings.

3.7.3.1 Fabric Reinforced Resin Bearings/Composite Bearings

This bearing type is a combination of organic resins and manmade fibers. Added solid lubricants, such as graphite or PTFE,
improve the coefficient of friction in dry or oil lubricated applications. The organic resin shows little or no swell in fluids. With
a low specific weight, these bearings can be applied as a weight saving solution. The use of thermo-sets avoids risk of
creep. These types of bearings have shown reliable performance in oil immersed upper bearing locations and have entered
into service in lower bearing locations as well.

3.8 Contaminants

Selected bearing liner systems are usually qualified to either AS81934 or AS81820. However, additional testing to verify
the bearing performance under extended contamination levels is recommended since these specifications are not
appropriate for landing gear shock strut bearings. The type of contamination and its level will vary depending on the
application. Therefore, it is important to understand the environment under which the shock strut will operate in order to
define the contamination testing. Bearing materials may change the surface of the counter face (e.g., by polishing) or cause
localized surface defects. Foreign particle contamination may further contribute to damage of the counter face. The
hardness and stiffness of the bearing material in relation to the hardness of the counter face is an indicator allowing a
prediction of what may occur in service. The shape, size and hardness of any contamination present will also affect the
performance of the bearing system.

3.9 Fluid Compatibility

Fluids may have a positive or negative effect on friction and wear, load capability, dimensional stability (e.g., swell).
Requirements should be set in the context of fluid temperature and duration of exposure (e.g., permanently submerged or
only incidentally).

4. COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED WITH SHOCK STRUTS BEARINGS

4.1 Ladder Cracking (refer to AIR5913)

This phenomenon is found on some landing gear shock struts, and it is considered to be caused by heat damage occurring
between the lower bearing and the Inner cylinder (piston) due to high speed and extremely high localized contact stresses,
resulting in streaks or radial travel marks on the chrome plated inner cylinder (piston) usually associated with localized burn
marks on the base metal.

While the severity of the problem varies between different types of shock absorbers and can be exacerbated by high rake
angles, the use of PTFE based self-lubricating lower bearings has been shown to resolve the issue in service.
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4.2 Localized Burns

This is potentially caused by partial contact of the upper bearing carrier onto the inner diameter of the outer cylinder (base
metal in the case of lined bearing).

Another potential cause would be a PV (product of pressure times velocity) exceeding the thresholds of the bearing
material(s) that will result in local heat damage and/or ladder cracking. Due to inner cylinder (piston) deflections, peaking of
the bearing pressure can occur which in turn increases the product PV. Refer to AIR5913 for more information.

4.3 Slip-Stick (Stiction)

This phenomenon reveals itself during low speed taxi or during towing by producing a bumpy and noisy ride. Braking stability
is also affected since one shock strut could be at a significantly different stroke position than the other one. Bearings with
stiction problems might cause the aircraft to suddenly drop during loading or during fueling. This phenomenon is mostly
present with cantilevered and semi articulated gear configuration where the bearings are subject to radial loads induced by
the ground loads.

It is believed that this phenomenon is caused by:

• Difference between the static and dynamic friction coefficients of the strut bearings. The larger the difference, the more
stiction prone the gear becomes.

• Inner cylinder (piston) ovalization, for which the inner cylinder (piston) would tend to socket in the bearing, has been
identified as another potential source for the stiction phenomenon. Therefore, inner cylinder (piston) radial stiffness (or
the diameter over thickness (D/t) ratio) must also be considered to avoid stiction.

• Periods of standstill during which the lubrication condition deteriorates.

• Cases where stiction problems have been observed on large landing gears at high rake angles that used greased
bronze lower bearings have been resolved by changing to self-lubricating PTFE based lower bearings.

4.4 Uneven Wear

4.4.1 Uneven wear may be caused by excessive laydown/sideload coupled with an inadequate material choice to
withstand said laydown/sideload.

4.5 Premature Wear

This is caused by a wrong material selection or by a higher than expected contact pressure.

4.6 Liner Chipping/Tearing or De-Bonding (Sprayed and Molded Liners)

This can result in shock strut contamination and substrate corrosion. Anodizing of the base aluminum metal of shock strut
bearings should be done prior to bonding/molding

4.7 Liner Detachment or De-Bonding (Lined Bearings)

This can result in shock strut contamination and substrate corrosion. Anodizing of the base aluminum metal of shock strut
bearings should be done prior to bonding/molding.

5. DESIGN CRITERIA

5.1 Bearing Area

A high-contact pressure can produce premature wear, whereas a low-contact pressure may result in a stiction problem.
This latter phenomenon is found when the bearing exhibits higher friction properties under low bearing loads. This can occur
in semi-articulated shock strut configurations and in certain cantilever gears with a high rake angle.
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An industry-acceptable bearing limit pressure is 6000 psi (41 MPa) per MIL-L-8552 as measured on the bearing projected
area (bearing diameter * bearing length) for the maximum radial limit load condition; however, combined PV can be
misleading, and therefore both pressure and velocity are considered as separate entities and relate each to the bearing
material selected.

5.2 Friction

Normally the shock strut lower bearing is the more demanding type of application due to the higher possibility of ovalization
and bending deflections of the landing gear shock strut inner cylinder (piston). If the ovalization and bending are expected
to be a factor, then a low friction liner with increased ductility would be selected. Although it is desirable in most cases to
use the lowest friction bearing, a slightly higher friction may be required in some cases such as in shimmy prone landing
gears.

Coefficient of friction verses bearing pressure is also dependent on counter face material, external lubrication, and other
factors, therefore it is customary to consult bearing suppliers for optimization of bearing design.

5.3 Temperature

Bearings discussed in the document can operate between temperatures of -65 to +325 °F (-54 to +163 °C).

5.4 Clearances

Clearance is a function of the landing gear shock strut size and configuration. Generally, the clearance is larger as the
landing gear size increases. For large diameter landing gears and shock strut bearings that use aluminum backing material,
the thermal expansion of the aluminum will necessitate larger clearance. Careful attention is normally given to the tolerance
between the bearing and outer cylinder especially for large shock strut applications.

5.5 Methods of Retention: Split/One Piece

A one-piece bearing is usually recommended for better contact stresses. However, in some cases it may be necessary,
especially for upper bearings, to use a split bearing design configuration. This particular design is useful to simplify the
retention method of the upper bearing.

5.6 Wet or Dry

Potential advantages and disadvantages of wet bearings are as follows:

• Advantages: anticipated lower friction, reduced wear, reduced exposure to high temperatures.

• Disadvantages: Active seals are located closer to the bottom to the shock strut and therefore subjected to higher
deflections and clearance gaps, which could contribute to reduced seal performance.

If a liner is used in hydraulic fluid, it is important to select a self-lubricating liner that is resistant to fluid absorption. A liner
that is prone to swelling in fluids will become tighter around the shock strut and will increase the force required to actuate
the bearing.

The effect of pressure distribution on the internal and external areas of the lower bearing and the resultant deflections should
be considered as this may affect the internal clearances as mentioned in 5.4.
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5.7 Seal Locations

Figure 2 - Typical bearing seal locations

Per ARP4912, the static seal is located upstream of the spare seal (see Figure 2 (Dry Spare Seal)) to minimize the seal
swell. This has the additional effect of reducing any deflections that could result from the hoop stresses on the bearing
outside diameter, which could cause additional friction forces. Locating the spare seal upstream of the static seal (see
Figure 2 (Wet Spare Seal)) may cause additional friction forces due the hoop stresses applied on the bearing outer diameter.

5.8 Surface Finish

The mating shock strut inner cylinder (piston) is important since this surface slides against the bearing system. The shock
strut inner cylinder (piston) makes up one half of the bearing system, so its importance cannot be overstated. For landing
gear shock strut bearing systems, best performance will be achieved by using a chrome-plated or HVOF WC-Co/WC-Co-Cr-
coated inner cylinder (piston). The piston slider for the dynamic bearing should follow the surface finish recommendations
required for the dynamic seals where the bearing is used on the same working diameter/surface as a dynamic seal
(depending upon seal design and specification of the piston counter surface). For a chrome-plated inner cylinder (piston),
a surface finish of 4 to 16 µin (0.1 to 0.4 µm) Ra is typical with 8 to 12 µin (0.2 to 0.3 µm) for best results. For an HVOF
WC-Co/WC-Co-Cr-coated inner cylinder (piston), a super-finish of 4 µin (0.1 µm) Ra is required (refer to ARP5935). HVOF
surfaces are usually harder due to the carbides, and if this surface is not prepared properly it can act as a cutting tool that
will accelerate the wear rate of a self-lubricating liner system.

The outer cylinder internal surface finish is normally 16 to 32 µin (0.4 to 0.8 µm) Ra after shot peen.

The type of coating and surface finish should be coordinated with the bearing manufacturer.

5.9 Bearing Break-In Period

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) lubricated bearing materials normally require a slight break-in period to start the lubrication
process. Therefore, these types of bearings can have a different coefficient of friction in their newly installed condition
compared to their broken-in condition, but do not affect overall shock strut performance. Also, there is material transfer from
bearing to mating surface. This is most prevalent on PTFE/lead contact liner bearings. This transferred material should not
be removed, as this will result in higher friction and expedite liner wear as replacement material will again transfer.

The duration of the break-in period is variable depending on the loads, temperature and counter face (higher loads have
shown to stimulate the break-in period).
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6. REPLACEMENT OF PREVIOUSLY QUALIFIED BEARINGS IN EXISTING LANDING GEAR SHOCK STRUTS

If it is necessary to substitute an existing bearing with a new one due to quality or availability issues, it is important to
remember that bearings are qualified with the shock strut during the qualification/certification process. When replacing a
bearing in a landing gear shock strut with proven friction performance characteristics, it is customary to consider variables
such as bearing thickness, elastic modulus, thermal expansion, interface friction, etc., and to conduct some level of the
original qualification testing to confirm the behavior of the new bearing compared to the original bearing under the same
loading conditions. Different friction and material property characteristics may have an effect on the shock strut in terms of
structural loads, wear life and dynamic performance.

7. NOTES

7.1 Revision Indicator

A change bar (l) located in the left margin is for the convenience of the user in locating areas where technical revisions, not
editorial changes, have been made to the previous issue of this document. An (R) symbol to the left of the document title
indicates a complete revision of the document, including technical revisions. Change bars and (R) are not used in original
publications, nor in documents that contain editorial changes only.

PREPARED BY SAE SUBCOMMITTEE A-5B, GEARS, STRUTS & COUPLINGS OF

COMMITTEE A-5, AEROSPACE LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS