Unit 4

Module I

Akali Movement and Babbar Akalis

I.Akali Movement

The Akali movement that emerged in the 1920s was a significant phase in the history of the Sikh community
in Punjab, India. It was primarily driven by religious and political motivations, with the aim of restoring
and protecting the rights of the Sikhs, specifically concerning their religious sites (Gurdwaras) and
practices. The movement's objectives during this period can be understood through the following key
points:

Aims and Objectives:

Gurdwara Reform: One of the central objectives of the Akali movement in the 1920s was to reform the
management and administration of Sikh Gurdwaras, which were under the control of hereditary Mahants
(clergy) who were often corrupt and misused the funds and resources of the Gurdwaras. The movement
aimed to remove the control of these Mahants and establish a democratic system of governance, ensuring
that the management of Gurdwaras was in the hands of Sikh religious leaders (Panthic) elected by the
community.
Preservation of Sikh Identity: The Akali movement in the 1920s strongly emphasized the preservation of
Sikh religious and cultural identity. The movement sought to protect and promote the distinct Sikh symbols
and practices, such as the wearing of the turban (Dastar), maintaining unshorn hair (kesh), and the carrying
of the Sikh ceremonial sword (kirpan). It aimed to raise awareness about Sikhism and address instances of
discrimination or disrespect towards Sikh articles of faith.
Equality and Social Justice: The Akali movement also had a broader social justice agenda. It aimed to
eradicate social inequalities prevalent within Sikh society and fought against practices such as caste
discrimination. The movement emphasized the principles of equality, inclusivity, and the upliftment of
marginalized sections within the Sikh community.
Sikh Political Representation: Another important objective of the Akali movement in the 1920s was to
ensure adequate political representation for the Sikh community. The movement sought to secure Sikh
interests and protect their rights within the political framework of British India. It demanded Sikh
representation in legislative bodies and worked towards strengthening Sikh political leadership and
activism.
Solidarity with Other Movements: The Akali movement in the 1920s also forged alliances with other
national movements in India, particularly the Indian National Congress, to collectively work towards the
goal of independence from British rule. The Akalis supported the broader cause of freedom struggle while
also seeking recognition for Sikh-specific issues and concerns.
Peaceful Protest and Civil Disobedience: The Akali movement in the 1920s adopted nonviolent methods
of protest and civil disobedience to achieve its aims and objectives. This included peaceful marches,
demonstrations, and noncooperation campaigns against the unjust management of Gurdwaras. The
movement believed in the power of moral persuasion and sought to highlight the injustices faced by the
Sikh community through nonviolent means.

II.Babbar Akalis
The Babbar Akalis, were a revolutionary group that emerged during the Indian independence movement in
the early 20th century. The Babbar Akalis were primarily active in Punjab and aimed to overthrow British
colonial rule in India. The Babbar Akalis made their first appearance during the Sikh Educational
Conference held at Hoshiarpur on March 19th through the 21st, 1921. Later on, they organized their own
meetings which were attended by renowned personalities like Master Mota Singh, Kishan Singh, Amar
Singh, Tota Singh Peshawari, Gurbachan Singh and Buttan Singh and some of the returned emigrants from
Canada. The working committee of the Babbar Akalis was elected in 1922 with Sardar Kishan Singh as
Jathedar, Dalip Singh Gosal, as Secretary and Baba Santa Singh as Treasurer. To reinforce the propaganda
machinery and to promote the cause of the movement, the working committee decided to publish a
newspaper called Babbar Akali Doaba Akhbar, with Sardar Karam Singh Daulatpur appointed as Editor.
Their main objective was to "eliminate" certain officials and non-officials condemned as enemies of the
Khalsa Panth.

Aims and Objectives:

Armed Resistance against British Rule: The primary objective of the Babbar Akalis was to wage armed
resistance against British colonial rule in India. They believed in the use of force to achieve independence
and aimed to create an armed revolution to overthrow the British government. The Babbar Akalis carried
out various acts of sabotage, bombings, and targeted assassinations of British officials and collaborators.
Formation of a Socialist Society: The Babbar Akalis were deeply influenced by socialist and communist
ideologies. They aimed to establish a socialist society based on equality, justice, and the redistribution of
wealth. The group sought to address social and economic inequalities prevalent in Indian society and
advocated for the rights of the working class and peasants.
End of Religious and Caste Discrimination: The Babbar Akalis aimed to eradicate religious and caste-
based discrimination prevalent in Indian society. They believed in the principles of equality and fought
against social divisions based on religion, caste, or creed. The group aimed to build a society where all
individuals would be treated equally, regardless of their religious or caste background.
Support for Peasants and Workers: The Babbar Akalis had a strong focus on the rights and welfare of
peasants and workers. They aimed to alleviate the economic hardships faced by the agricultural and
industrial laborers and fought against exploitative landowners and employers. The group sought to
empower the working class and peasants by advocating for fair wages, improved working conditions, and
land reforms.
Nationalism and Independence: The Babbar Akalis were driven by a deep sense of nationalism and a
desire for India's independence. They aimed to unite the diverse communities and regions of India under
the common goal of freedom from British rule. The group actively participated in the Indian nationalist
movement and collaborated with other revolutionary organizations and leaders.
Promotion of Education and Awareness: The Babbar Akalis believed in the importance of education and
awareness as means of empowering the masses. They aimed to spread nationalist and socialist ideologies
among the people and actively worked to educate and mobilize the masses against British imperialism. The
group established schools and centers to provide education and promote awareness of political and social
issues.
International Solidarity: The Babbar Akalis sought international support for India's freedom struggle.
They established connections with revolutionary groups and leaders across the world, particularly in
countries like the United States, Canada, and Germany. The group aimed to build alliances and garner
support for the cause of Indian independence on the global stage.

III.Kirti Kisan Sabha

KIRTI KISAN SABHA, a sabha, i.e. society or party, of the kirtis (workers) and kisans (peasants), fostered
and, to some extent, funded by the Ghadr Party, was established on 12 April 1928 with a view to organizing
small agriculturists and industrial workers and other lowpaid urban labour, for revolutionary activity. The
Sabha owed its origin to the Kirti movement started by Bhai Santokh Singh, a Ghadr leader who had spent
two years in Moscow “studying Soviet methods of village propaganda. Initially, he laid out secret plans to
prepare the masses for action. He then started propaganda through the press.To this end, he launched a
monthly magazine in Punjabi, the Kirti, the first issue of which was published from Amritsar in February
1926. The journal became the mouthpiece of the Kirti Kisan Sabha. Bhai Santokh Singh was helped in his
work, which was first carried on secretly, by Bhag Singh Canadian, who was cofounder with Santokh Singh
of the Kirti, Karam Singh Chima, Baba Vasakha Singh and Kartar Singh of Latala. They were joined by
Santa Singh of Gandivind, also trained in Soviet methods of rural agitation, and Dasaundha Singh and
GaJjan Singh who had taken an active part in Soviet propaganda in China and had been deported to India
in March 1928.A little later came Harjap Singh, according to government papers a “notorious” Ghadr
emissary, under whose direction the Sabha suddenly changed its tactics and emerged into the open with a
definite constitution and programme. It was in furtherance of this new policy that an openly inflammatory
Gurmukhi weekly Mazdur Kisan was also started. The first Kirti Kisan conference, presided over by
Professor Chhabil Das of the National School of Politics, was held on 2830 September 1928 at Lyallpur.
Among the 12 resolutions adopted was one declaring complete independence for the country as the goal
and rejecting the recommendations of the Nehru Committee which had limited it to dominion status.The
Sabha held another conference (13 October 1928) in Meerut which provided the authorities a pretext to
launch the Mcerut Communist conspiracy case and arrest many of the workers.The 1929 annual session of
the Sabha was held at Lahore during the Christmas week. Throughout this period the Kirti continued to
disseminate Communist thought and preach the creed of revolt against British imperialism. Every `issue of
the paper was proscribed and prosecution launched against its dummy editors and the press at which it was
printed. The Kirti Kisan conference held on 4 March 1931 at Anandpur Sahib on the occasion of the Hola
Mohalla festival called upon workers and peasants to set up units of the Sabha in the villages.The Irwin
Gandhl Pact (1931), which failed to secure release of the youth involved in cases of violence, and the
hanging (23 March) of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were subjected lo severe censure at the annual
session of the Sabha convened at Karachi on 29 March, sharing the panddl with the Naujavan Bharat Sabha.
The Kirti Kisan Sabha was declared unlawful under the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908, vide
notification No. 12467SB, dated 10 September 1934. The Sabha ceased to exist thereafter but the movement
assumed other names and continued with the task it had taken upon itself.

Module II

Politics of the Unionist Party (1923-47), Politics of the Akali Dal (1925-1947),
Politics of the Partition (1940-1947)

I.Politics of the Unionist Party (1923-47)

Unionist Party was formed in 1923 British Punjab by Sir Chhotu Ram of Rohtak district with the help of
Sir Fazl-i-Husain. The party's main agenda was to protect the agrarian society's interests and curtail the
growing communal sentiments in the region. Chhotu Ram believed that Swarjyawould be easier to attain
by entering the assemblies and councils and occupying more official power. He advocated for proper
representation of the peasants in the assemblies, boards, and local bodies and emphasized on Hindu-Muslim
unity. His Unionist Party thus stood for self-respect, secularism, and patriotism. When the party won the
1937 Provincial elections, it fulfilled its promises to the agrarian society. It passed on legislation like the
Debtor Protection Act, The Restoration of Mortgage Lands Act, The Registration of Money-Lending Act,
The Punjab Agricultural Produce Marketing Bill, etc. Under its rule, communal harmony was restored, and
the exploitation of farmers by the moneylenders and the British government finally ended. The Unionist
Party opposed the British government's plan for the division of India. It fought for the rights of the masses
and promoted unity amongst its citizens. The Unionist Party played a significant role in the political
landscape of Punjab, India, during the years 1932-1947. The party emerged as a dominant political force in
Punjab and held power in the provincial government for a major part of this period. The politics of the
Unionist Party during this time can be understood through the following key points:

Formation and Leadership: The Unionist Party was formed in 1923 as a coalition of various interest
groups, including landlords, rural elites, and business classes. Sir Sikander Hayat Khan, a prominent
political figure, became the party's leader and played a crucial role in shaping its policies and direction.
Under his leadership, the Unionist Party aimed to present itself as a representative of diverse communities
and interests in Punjab.
Communal Politics: One of the notable aspects of the Unionist Party's politics was its emphasis on
communal politics. The party actively sought to build a broad-based coalition by appealing to different
religious and communal groups in Punjab, including Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs. It aimed to maintain
communal harmony and avoid religious tensions within the province.
Land Reforms: The Unionist Party pursued a cautious approach towards land reforms. It aimed to balance
the interests of landlords and peasants and implemented limited land reforms to address issues such as
tenancy and revenue collection. However, the party largely favored the interests of the landed elites, which
led to discontent among sections of the rural population.
Coalition Government and Provincial Autonomy: The Unionist Party formed coalition governments in
Punjab during this period, often in collaboration with other political parties. It aimed to achieve provincial
autonomy and worked towards increasing the provincial government's powers vis-a-vis the central
government. The party supported the idea of a federal structure for India and advocated for a greater say
for the provinces in decision-making.
Role during the Quit India Movement: During the Quit India Movement of 1942, the Unionist Party took
a cautious approach and did not actively support the mass protests against British rule. It preferred to
maintain stability and avoid direct confrontation with the colonial authorities. This led to criticism from
other political groups and reduced the party's popularity among those supporting the freedom struggle.
Demand for a Separate Sikh State: In the later years of its rule, the Unionist Party faced pressure from
the Sikh community, particularly the Akali Dal, demanding a separate Sikh state. The party tried to address
these demands through the Sikh Gurdwara Act of 1925, which aimed to grant Sikhs control over their
religious institutions. However, the party's stance on the issue evolved over time, and it faced criticism for
not fully addressing Sikh aspirations.
Decline and Partition: As India moved towards independence and the partition of the country became
imminent, the Unionist Party faced internal divisions and challenges. The party's ability to maintain its
coalition and communal harmony eroded, leading to its decline. After the partition in 1947, the party lost
its influence, and its leadership either joined other political groups or retired from active politics.

II.Politics of the Akali Dal (1925-1947)

The Akali Dal, or Shiromani Akali Dal, is a prominent political party in Punjab, India, with a strong
influence among the Sikh community. The period from 1925 to 1947 was crucial in shaping the politics of
the Akali Dal. During this time, the party emerged as a significant force in Punjab's political landscape,
advocating for Sikh rights, religious freedom, and political autonomy. The politics of the Akali Dal from
1925 to 1947 can be understood through the following key points:

Formation and Sikh Religious Reforms: The Akali Dal was formed in 1920 as a political organization
dedicated to the advancement and protection of Sikh interests. Under the leadership of Master Tara Singh,
the party actively worked towards implementing religious and social reforms within the Sikh community.
They campaigned for the control of Sikh historical Gurdwaras (Sikh temples) and sought to challenge the
corrupt management of these institutions.
Sikh Identity and Rights: The Akali Dal played a crucial role in asserting Sikh identity and safeguarding
Sikh rights during this period. The party demanded recognition for Sikhs as a distinct religious community
and worked to secure constitutional safeguards for their religious practices and institutions. They advocated
for the inclusion of Sikh interests in legislative and policy matters.
Demand for a Sikh Homeland: The Akali Dal supported the demand for a separate Sikh state, known as
"Sikhistan" or "Punjab Suba," within the broader framework of India. They argued that such a state would
ensure political autonomy and protect the rights and interests of the Sikh community. The demand for a
separate Sikh homeland gained momentum in the later years, particularly after the partition of India in 1947.
Opposition to Communal Politics: The Akali Dal consistently opposed communal politics and sought to
foster communal harmony and unity among different religious communities in Punjab. They condemned
religious discrimination and worked towards building bridges with other political and religious groups. The
party emphasized the idea of a secular state that respects the rights and identities of all communities.
Role during the Freedom Struggle: The Akali Dal actively participated in the Indian freedom struggle
against British colonial rule. They joined forces with other nationalist organizations, such as the Indian
National Congress, and participated in various agitations and civil disobedience movements. The Akali
Dal's members faced repression and arrests for their involvement in protests and demanding independence.
The Punjabi Suba Movement: In the post-independence period, the Akali Dal spearheaded the Punjabi
Suba movement, demanding the creation of a separate Punjabi-speaking state. The movement aimed to
reorganize Punjab on linguistic lines to ensure political and administrative autonomy for the Punjabi-
speaking population. The Akali Dal's efforts in this movement eventually led to the formation of a Punjabi-
speaking state in 1966, with the creation of Punjab and Haryana as separate states.

III.Politics of the Partition (1940-1947)

The politics surrounding the partition of India from 1940 to 1947 was a tumultuous and transformative
period in the country's history. The demand for a separate Muslim state led to intense political debates,
communal tensions, and ultimately the division of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan. The politics of
the partition can be understood through the following key points:

The Two-Nation Theory: The idea of the Two-Nation Theory, which declared that Hindus and Muslims
were separate nations and could not coexist within a single unified India, gained prominence during this
period. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, actively advocated for the creation of a separate
Muslim state, which eventually materialized as Pakistan. The Indian National Congress, on the other hand,
stood for a united, secular India.
Communal Tensions and Violence: As the demand for Pakistan intensified, communal tensions between
Hindus and Muslims escalated. The political climate became increasingly polarized, and violent incidents
erupted in different parts of the country. The Direct Action Day in 1946 witnessed widespread communal
riots, leading to the loss of thousands of lives and heightened mistrust between communities.
The British Role: The British colonial government played a significant role in the politics of the partition.
In response to the escalating communal tensions, the British proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan in 1946,
which aimed to create a federal structure for a united India with considerable autonomy for Muslim-
majority regions. However, the plan was not accepted by all parties, leading to further political deadlock.
Partition Plans: As the prospect of a united India became increasingly unattainable, discussions focused
on the terms and conditions of the partition. The Indian Independence Act 1947 was passed, leading to the
formal division of British India into two separate nations: India and Pakistan. The boundaries were drawn
based on religious demographics, resulting in mass migrations and displacements, accompanied by
widespread violence and loss of life.
Independence and Transfer of Power: On August 15, 1947, India and Pakistan gained independence from
British rule. Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of India, and Liaquat Ali Khan assumed the role
of Pakistan's first Prime Minister. The transfer of power marked the beginning of a new era for both nations,
but it was overshadowed by the immense challenges of partition and the rehabilitation of displaced
populations.
Legacy and Aftermath: The partition of India had profound and lasting effects on the political, social, and
cultural fabric of the subcontinent. The violence and displacement during the partition resulted in the largest
mass migration in history, with millions of people uprooted from their homes. The scars of partition,
including communal tensions and territorial disputes, continue to shape the politics of India and Pakistan
to this day.
Akali Movement

The 1920s Akali movement, which began as a strictly religious movement to

reform Gurdwaras, or Sikh holy temples, quickly took on a political dimension
and became an integral component of India's liberation struggle. Apart from
being anti-imperialist, the Akali movement, also known as the Gurdwara
Reform Movement or Gurdwara agitations, describes the Sikhs' long-running
struggle in the early twentieth century for the freedom of their Gurudwara, or
holy temple. Nonviolent agitation marches, divans or religious meetings, and
protests for Sikhs to express their freedom to control their place of worship
drew fervent support, especially from rural people. Finally, the government had
to give in to public pressure and allow Sikhs to administer their shrines,
resulting in the Gurdwara Act of 1925 which created the Shiromani Gurdwara
Parbandhak Committee (SGPC), to act as custodian of all significant Sikh
sites of worship.

Akali Movement - Background

● The Akali Movement was founded by Sikh reformers in order to purify

their religious sites by removing the evil social practices that had
gradually crept into them.
● The Sikh Gurus established the Gurdwaras or Dharamsala as centers
of religious activity and social and moral instruction, as well as to
provide food and shelter to the poor and needy.
● The Sikh teaching of universal equality was practiced here. Everyone,
regardless of caste, color, or gender, was welcome to visit these
locations and partake in the free meal served in the Langar (Community
Kitchen).
● In keeping with the Sikh tradition of piety, those in charge of the
Gurdwaras did not regard the offerings as their personal income but
instead used them to run free community kitchens and other social
welfare projects.
● During the Sikh persecution that followed the death of the tenth Sikh
Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, control of the Sikh Gurdwaras passed to the
Udasis or those who professed Sikhism but did not strictly adhere to its
outward symbols and thus escaped persecution.
● The Udasis in charge of various Gurdwaras at the time provided a
valuable service to the Sikh religion by keeping the Gurdwaras open.
● The majority of them were not attached to any specific shrine or its
wealth and property but instead moved from place to place.
 ● Some, however, established regular institutions and admitted followers,
becoming known as Mahants.
● In the early stages, these Mahants enjoyed the trust and reverence of
their congregations. They also followed Guru Nanak's advice not to
covet the offerings.
● However, most Mahants abandoned this tradition of purity and simplicity
as a result of the increase in their income from revenue-free jagirs
bestowed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh and other Sikh chiefs on most of
the historic shrines.
● Mahants engaged in a variety of evil practices, such as stealing
offerings and other valuables. The sacredness of these locations was
destroyed.

Akali Movement - Objectives

1. The Akali movement's goal was to reduce, if not completely eliminate,

the clergy's control over Gurudwaras.
2. The Sikh Gurdwara Bill, introduced in 1925, placed all historical Sikh
shrines in India under the control of the Shiromani Gurdwara
Parbandhak Committee.
3. The Akali movement was also involved in the Indian Independence
movement and supported Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation
movement.
4. Akali Movement was formed in order to liberate the historic Gurdwaras
of the Sikhs from the control of these Mahants, who were backed by
British rule.
5. To free historic Gurdwaras like Tarn Taran, Nanakana Sahib, and
Guru-Ka-Bagh, Sikhs had to make supreme sacrifices and endure
unspeakable atrocities.
6. Furthermore, Sikhs had to fight against the government for religious
freedom and the management of Gurdwaras in Gurdwara Rakab Ganj,
Darbar Sahib, Amritsar, and Gurdwara Jaito.

Factors Responsible for Akali Movement

Misuse of Shrine Funds

1. The rise of powerful Sikh chiefs in the late eighteenth century, and
Ranjit Singh's establishment of a kingdom in 1799 A.D., brought about a
significant change in Sikh religion.
 2. The property and privileges attached to religious sites resulted in the
introduction of complex rites and rituals, as well as the emergence of
wealthy and powerful Mahants.
3. Maharaja Ranjit Singh and other Sikh Chiefs endowed almost all of the
well-known Gurdwaras with large tax-free jagirs.
4. The sudden increase in income resulted in a change in the way of life of
the Mahants of some important Gurdwaras.
5. They began to convert the Gurdwara's trust property into their personal
possessions. This was in complete defiance of Sikh Gurus' and Sikh
scriptures' injunctions.
6. Gradually, the Mahants and their followers began to live in luxury and
indulge in various social evils.
7. Sikhism followers tried to put a stop to the evil practices of these
Mahants through social protest and organized a movement to free Sikh
shrines from the control of the hereditary Mahants.
8. Because of the Akali Juthas, who led this reform movement, this
movement is popularly known as the Akali movement.

Gurudwara Problem

1. The corrupt mahants had control over the Gurudwaras. They treated
temple donations like personal property and lived a lavish lifestyle.
2. Following the British annexation of Punjab, some control was exercised
by government-appointed managers who worked in collaboration with
the mahants.
3. The British government backed these mahants and told them to keep
Sikhs away from the national movement.
4. Sikh reformers, on the other hand, wanted to get rid of these mahants.
Their actions, like banning ghadarites and honoring General Dyer, had
shocked the community.
5. Initially, the reformers were successful because agitators formed groups
to force mahants and managers to hand over control to local devotees.
The government backed the reformers because it did not want to
antagonize them.
6. The real test, however, was the gurudwara at Nankana. The mahants
had organized an armed band of mercenaries and were responsible for
the deaths of peaceful Akali followers.
7. The government noticed that the Akali movement was becoming more
and more integrated with the national movement.
 8. To appease the moderates, it passed legislation giving akalis control of
gurudwaras, but it used force to repress the extremist akalis.

Gurudwara Bill, 1925

1. Maharaja Ripudaman Singh of Nabha was deposed as a result of his

support for the Akalis. The Akali leadership decided to take up
Ripudaman Singh's cause and demand his restoration to the throne.
2. Because Akalis had emerged as a powerful nationalist expression in the
province, Congress decided to back them up. Jawahar Lal Nehru visited
Nabha to assess the situation, but he was arrested and imprisoned.
3. During their agitation, they encountered the most vehement opposition
from the administration of Nabha and the Maharaja of Patiala. In
February 1924, there was fighting over Shahidi Jatha in Jaito.
4. Britishers were concerned that this would affect Sikh soldiers in the
British army, and Congress ideology was spreading among Punjab
peasants
5. All of these factors prompted Britishers to resolve the Akali issue once
and for all by enacting the Gurudwara Bill, 1925, which granted the
following rights:
6. The Sikh community was given the legal right to manage Gurudwaras,
effectively ending the hereditary control of Mahants over Gurudwaras.
7. It established democratic control over the Gurudwara administration.
8. According to the Act, any Sikh, regardless of caste, can be elected to
any position, including President of the SGPC.
9. Sikh women were granted the right to vote on the same basis as men,
and they were permitted to perform all religious and social duties in Sikh
shrines.

Conclusion

During this movement, the Sikhs faced the cruelty and death inflicted on them
by the British Government and the Mahants, who were supported by the
British, with great calm and courage. In July 1925, the Gurdwara Reform Act
was passed, putting all Gurdwaras in Punjab under Panthic control. This
power was to be wielded by elected Panthic bodies, namely the Shiromani
Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee and local Gurdwara Committees. Thus,
corrupt elements and practices were removed from holy places, and their
income could be used to spread the Sikh faith and benefit the community.
Babbar Akali

The Babbar Akali movement was a splinter group of "militant" Sikhs who split
from the mainstream Akali movement in 1921 due to the latter's insistence on
nonviolence over gurdwara reforms. In September 1920, the militant unit
Shahadat Dal (Association of Martyrs) was formed, which later evolved into
the Babbar Akali movement. By 1922, they had formed a military organization
and were killing informers, government officials, and ex-officials. They also
circulated an illegal newspaper that detailed British exploitation of India. The
British declared it an illegal association in April 1923. They used religious
imagery and discussed the loss of Sikh sovereignty during the First and
Second Anglo-Sikh Wars to gain popular support.

Who were the Babbar Akalis?

● The Babbar Akalis were Gursikhs who opposed the British

government's imperialist policies.
● Babbar Akalis opposed the Congress leadership and the Gandhi
formula of nonviolence and noncooperation.
● They were upset because of the Nankana Sahib tragedy, which resulted
in the slaughter of hundreds of innocent Sikhs.
● They rejected the peaceful reformation struggle in the Sikh shrines and
decided to lead their movement independently, without the company or
cooperation of the dominant Akali leadership.

Babbar Akali Movement - Background

● The Babbar Akali Movement originated from Bist Jalandhar Doab.

● On March 19, 1921, a Sikh Educational Conference was held in
Hoshiarpur. The idea for launching the Babbar Akali Movement
emerged from the deliberations of this conference.
● On March 25, 1921, the main leaders convened in a separate meeting
to exact vengeance for the Nankana Sahib Tragedy.
● The Babbar Akalis had already resolved to avenge the Nankana Sahib
Tragedy.
● The Nankana Sahib Morcha was crushed by two British officers, Deputy
Commissioner King and Police Captain Baring, Bedi Kartar Singh,
Mahant Basant Das Manak, Mahant Deva Das, and Sardar Sunder
Singh Majithia.
 ● Both British officers were later transferred from Nankana Sahib to
Lahore.
● Ganda Singh and Bela Singh went to Lahore to assassinate the British
officers, but Sadhu (an Akali Newspaper employee) informed the
government of this plan.
● Sadhu Singh's treachery resulted in the arrests of Ganda Singh and
Bela Singh.
● The First Akali Conspiracy Case Trial No.1 began in 1922 as a result of
this. During the trial, Ganda Singh admitted to his plan.
● Following the investigation, the police filed a challan against Tota Singh
Pisohri, Tara Singh, Bhai Chanchal Singh, Amar Singh, Narian Singh,
Bela Singh, and Granthi Prem Singh of Gurdwara Chumhla Sahib
Lahore.
● In this case, Master Mota Singh, Bhai Kishan Singh, Bijla Singh, Amar
Singh, Gurbachan Singh of Ambala, District Hoshiarpur, and Watan
Singh of Kahri sahri, District Hoshiarpur were declared fugitives.

Babbar Akali Movement - Features

● During the early 1920s, the Babbar Akali Movement was a radical
outgrowth of the Akali movement for the reform of Sikh places of
worship.
● The incidents at Tarn Taran (January 1921) and Nankana Sahib
(February 1921) in which many Sikhs were killed gave rise to a group
that rejected nonviolence and adopted violence as a creed.
● The members of this secret society were known as the Babbar Akalis,
with Babbar meaning "Lion."
● The British officers and their Indian informers were their targets. They
were deeply committed to their Sikh faith and were filled with patriotic
zeal.
● From March 19 to 21, 1921, Hoshiarpur hosted the Sikh Educational
Conference.
● Some radicals, led by Master Mota Singh and Kishan singh Gargajj, a
retired havildar major of the Indian army, met in secret and devised a
plan to exact vengeance on those responsible for the Nankana Sahib
killings.
● Kishan Singh formed a secret organization called Chakarvarti Jatha in
November 1921 and began inciting the peasantry and soldiers against
the foreign rulers.
 ● The two Chakravarti Jathas decided to merge at the end of August 1922
and rename their organization Babbar Akali Jatha.
● Kishan Singh was elected as jathedar or president, and Dalip Singh
Daulatpur, Karam Singh Jhingran, and Ude Singh Ramgarh Jhuggian
were elected as members.
● The Jatha's outer circle was made up of sympathizers who provided
food and shelter to the active members.
● From mid-1922 to the end of 1923, the movement was very active.
Several government officials and supporters were targeted and
murdered.
● Under the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1908, the Babbar Akali
Jatha was declared an unlawful association in April 1923. The arrests
and deaths of its members in police encounters depleted the Jatha's
ranks.
● Varyam Singh Dhugga was killed by police in Lyallpur district in June
1924, effectively ending the movement.
● On 15 August 1923, the trial of the arrested Babbar Akalis had already
begun inside Lahore Central Jail.
● Ninety-one Babbar Akalis were charged, two died in custody during the
trial, 34 were acquitted, six were sentenced to death, including Jathedar
Kishan Singh Gargajj, and the remaining 49 were sentenced to varying
terms of imprisonment.
● On February 27, 1926, the Babbars were hanged. Kishan Singh
Gargajj, Babu Santa Singh, Dalip Singh Dhamian, Karam Singh Manko,
Nand Singh Ghurial, and Dharam Singh Hayatpur were among those
involved.
● The Babbar Akali Jatha ceased to exist, but it left an indelible mark on
the history of the Sikhs and the Indian nationalist movement.

Babbar Akali Movement - Impact

● The British were alarmed by Babbar Akali's growing power. Jalandhar,

Hoshiarpur, and Kuprthala became strongholds of the Babbar Akalis.
● In order to deal with the Babbar Akalis, the police had to enlist the
assistance of the army.
● Because of the Babbar Akalis, the government did not earn a single
penny from the sale of Jamun and Mango trees between 1921 and
1923.
 ● The British announced a reward for the capture of Babbar Akalis, and
raids and arrests began in the villages. As a result, the Babbar Akali
Conspiracy case Trial No-2 began on June 4, 1924.
● Babbar Akali Movement - Criticism
●
● The main cause was the British Government's and the Babbars'
unequal match of strength and resources.
● They were forced to suffer due to a lack of funds, weapons, and
ammunition.
● They attempted to keep the contract with the army and procure arms,
as well as purchase arms with the robbed money. However, it was
insufficient for them to complete their mission.
● Another reason was that the Babbars were no better than the Gadrities
at keeping their organization hidden. The British C.I.D. had little trouble
infiltrating Babbar's inner circle.
● Another reason for Babbars' failure was the role of Jholichuks, who
gave the government their full cooperation in its fight against the
Babbars. After their arrest, some Babbars became police informants.
● Furthermore, other anti-imperialist parties such as the S.G.P.C. and
Indian National Congress, while anti-imperialist in their own ways,
disapproved of the Babbars' revolutionary methods.
● The Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) strongly
opposed the movement's activities and urged people not to support the
Babbars.

Babbar Akali Women

Patriotic women such as Mata Dharam Kaur, Bibi Sant Kaur, Bibi Aas kaur,
Bibi Pritam Kaur, Mata Sant Kaur, and Bibi Karam Kaur took part and made
great sacrifices for freedom.

Conclusion

Though the Akali leadership disavowed both the Babbars and their methods,
even going so far as to pass formal resolutions against them, the Babbars'
contribution to the Akali Movement cannot be overlooked. They increased the
Akali leadership's bargaining power by terrorizing the bureaucratic machinery
and its supporters in Punjab, compelling the government to negotiate with
them. The Babbars also contributed to the weakening of the Akali Movement's
opposition from vested interests in the villages by announcing their plan to
eliminate all those responsible for the Nankana tragedy and actually
assassinating some of the loyalists who had helped the authorities in the
province.

Gadar party

The Ghadar Party was a political revolutionary organization founded in the

United States of America by migrated Indians. The formation of the Ghadar
Party was primarily the work of Sikhs. Sohan Singh, Kartar Singh, Abdul
Mohamed Barakatullah, and Rashbehari Bose were among the prominent
leaders who laid the groundwork for the establishment of an Indian political
organization in the United States and Canada. The Ghadar Movement was a
pivotal event in the history of the Indian freedom struggle. In this article, we
will discuss the Ghadar Party (1913) which will be helpful for UPSC exam
preparation.

Who were Ghadar Revolutionaries?

● Who were Ghadar Revolutionaries?

●
● The Ghadar Revolutionaries were mainly Punjabi immigrants settled in
the West Coast of North America since 1904, particularly USA and
Canada.
● Many of them were landless, debt ridden peasants mainly from
Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur.
● Many of them were also ex-soldiers who had also served in the British
Indian Army and had acquired the confidence for emigration.
● As they were pushed out of their homeland by the economic crisis and
lured by the promise of better life, they had set out to these foreign
lands.
● By 1908, effective restrictions on Indian immigration into Canada had
been put in place. Another disabling legislation was the Alien Land Law
which prohibited Indians from owning land in the US.
● Such discriminatory policies of host countries moved the Indian
emigrants into a flurry of political activity.
● Hence, they decided to organize themselves with the aim of securing
India’s freedom from British Rule.

Ghadar Party - Background

 ● At the turn of the twentieth century, the burgeoning Indian
Independence Struggle sparked a surge in nationalist sentiments not
only in the Indian subcontinent but also among students and emigrants
from the same region all over the world.
● Revolutionary intellectuals such as Lala Har Dayal and Taraknath Das
attempted to organize these students while instilling nationalist ideas in
them.
● Earlier activists had established a 'Swadesh Sevak Home' in Vancouver
and a 'United India House' in Seattle to carry out revolutionary activities.
Finally, in 1913, the Ghadr was founded.
● The Ghadar Party, originally known as the Pacific Coast Hindustan
Association, was founded on July 15, 1913 in the United States by Lala
Har Dayal, Sant Baba Wasakha Singh Dadehar, Baba Jawala Singh,
Santokh Singh, and Sohan Singh Bhakna.
● The Ghadar party drew a sizable following among Indian expatriates in
the United States, Canada, East Africa, and Asia.

Ghadar Party - Features

● The Ghadar Party was an Indian revolutionary organization founded

primarily by Indians. The party was multi-ethnic, but mostly Punjabi, with
Sikh, Hindu, and Muslim members, but mostly Sikh leaders.
● In the first decade of the twentieth century, revolutionary and terrorist
activities began to occur with some regularity in Bengal.
● However, until the planned Ghadar uprising of 1915, a small group of
terrorists were active in Madras and the Poona region.
● Bengal rose to prominence as the most important center of
revolutionary activity.
● The revolutionary appeal was strongest in Bengal among the bhadralok,
the province's western educated elite.
● The Ghadar party, with headquarters in San Francisco and roots in the
Punjab immigrant community of rural California, was also committed to
achieving India's independence through revolution.
● Unlike in Bengal, the impetus for terrorism and revolutionary violence in
Punjab came not from a disgruntled and underemployed educated elite,
but from punjabi peasants who had emigrated to the United States and
Canada.

Ghadar Party - Activities

 ● The Ghadr programme aimed to organise assassinations of officials,
publish revolutionary and anti-imperialist literature, work with Indian
troops stationed abroad, obtain arms, and spark a simultaneous revolt
in all British colonies.
● When the First World War broke out in 1914, some members of the
Ghadar Party arrived in Punjab to foment an armed revolution for India's
independence.
● They were also successful in smuggling weapons and inciting mutiny
among Indian soldiers in the British Army.
● The ensuing uprising, now known as the Ghadar Mutiny, was brutally
suppressed by the British, who executed 42 mutineers following the
Lahore Conspiracy Case trial.
● Nonetheless, the Ghadar Party fought against colonialism from 1914 to
1917, with the support of Imperial Germany and the Ottoman Empire,
both of which were Central Powers opposed to the British.
● The party was organized around the weekly newspaper The Ghadar,
which featured the masthead caption: Angrezi Raj Ka Dushman (an
enemy of British rule). "Wanted brave soldiers to stir up rebellion in
India," the Ghadar declared.
● Following the Komagata Maru Incident in 1914, which was a direct
challenge to Canadian anti-Indian immigration laws, thousands of
Indians living in the United States sold their businesses and homes in
order to drive the British out of India, bolstering the ranks of the Ghadar
Party.

Ghadar Party - Causes of Failure

● A large number of Ghadar leaders were arrested even before they set
foot on Indian soil, and they were imprisoned after they disembarked.
● Some of those who escaped arrest, including Kartar Singh Saraba,
Pandit Kanshi Ram, and G. Pingale, gathered in Punjab to carry out the
revolution. Micheal O' Dwyer was the Lieutenant-General of Punjab at
the time.
● Different strategies were used by Ghadar leaders in Punjab. The British
branded them as dacoits, and the native Punjabi population did not
welcome them either. A section of Punjabi Sikhs labelled the Ghadar
leaders as apostates.
● Sikhs were the most loyal men in the British Army at the time, and they
had reaped enough benefits from these jobs.
 ● The Ghadar leaders were appalled by their countrymen's devotion to
the British. Winning over native Punjabis became critical to the
revolution's success.
● One of the many strategies they used to carry out operations within
India was to recruit Indian soldiers from the British Army.
● They accomplished this by secretly crossing cantonments and
conversing with well-trained soldiers in the lines. Kartar Singh Saraba,
19, was the most involved in this operation.
● The bombings caused widespread unrest, prompting the British-Indian
government, led by Micheal O'Dwyer, to launch an aggressive
crackdown on them.
● O'Dwyer ordered the incarceration of all Ghadar members, whether
legally or illegally.

Evaluation of Ghadar Party

● The Ghadr movement's achievement was in the realm of ideology. It

preached militant nationalism while remaining completely secular.
● However, it failed to achieve much politically and militarily because it
lacked organized and sustained leadership, underestimated the extent
of preparation required at every level—organizational, ideological,
financial, and tactical strategic—and perhaps Lala Hardayal was
unsuited for the job of an organizer.
Conclusion

Although the Ghadarites expected their successful efforts to recruit Indians in

the United States to generate the same level of enthusiasm in India, they
discovered that India was not as ready for revolution as they had hoped. The
Indian National Congress, priests of several important Sikh gurdwaras, and
many other nationalist leaders in India strongly condemned the Party. While
Ghadarites in North America were successful in mobilizing thousands along
the Pacific Coast by emphasizing the interconnectedness of colonialism, racial
subjugation, and economic exploitation, they were unable to persuade their
Indian counterparts to join them.

The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)

The Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), formerly known as

the Hindustan Republican Army and the Hindustan Republican Association
(HRA), was a revolutionary organization in India founded by Ram Prasad
Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Sachindra Nath Bakshi, Sachindranath Sanyal, and
Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee. In the Kakori conspiracy case of 1924, the HRA's
written constitution and published a manifesto, titled “The Revolutionary'',
were used as evidence.

Hindustan Republican Association - Background

● By abruptly suspending the Non-Cooperation Movement, Mahatma

Gandhi sparked a wave of discontent among revolutionaries.
● As a result of these decisions, many young men who were pumped up
to fight the government became disillusioned.
● The theory of nonviolence did not sit well with these young men. They
believed that by using force and violence, the British could be driven out
of the country.
● At the same time, there were uprisings in other parts of the world, and
there were a number of bloody revolutions and coups all over the world.
● As a result, the old Yugantar and Anushilan Samiti were reawakened,
and a new breed of terroristic revolutionaries emerged from the
disgruntled and dissatisfied Non-cooperators.
● Some of these young men met in the village in East Bengal. Pratul
Ganguly, Narendra Mohan Sen, and Sachindra Nath Sanyal were some
of them.
● They established a branch of the Anushilan Samiti here. The name
Hindustan Republican Association was chosen after the Irish
Republican Army.

Hindustan Republican Association - Formation

● Ram Prasad Bismil drafted the Hindustan Republican Association

(HRA) constitution in Allahabad in 1923, under Lala Har Dayal.
● Other prominent members of the party included Sachindra Nath Sanyal
and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee.
● In addition to Allahabad, the HRA established centers in Agra, Kanpur,
Varanasi, Lucknow, Shahjahanpur, and Saharanpur. It also had
bomb-making plants in Calcutta and Deogarh.
● Sanyal wrote the party's manifesto, titled 'Revolutionary.' It contained
incendiary material urging the country's youth to join the party and take
part in the freedom struggle. It opposed Gandhi's methods and criticized
them.
 ● After overthrowing British rule, the manifesto stated that it aimed to
establish a "Federal Republic of the United States of India."
● It also called for universal suffrage. The material advocated for a
socialist society in India. The pamphlets were distributed in a number of
northern Indian cities.
● Many young people joined the party in 1924–25, including Bhagat
Singh, Sukhdev, and Chandrasekhar Azad.

Hindustan Republican Association - Members

The members of the Hindustan Republican Association included:

● Ram Prasad Bismil
● Ashfaqulla Khan
● Sachindra Nath Bakshi
● Sachindranath Sanyal
● Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee
● Chandra Shekhar Azar
● Bhagat Singh

Hindustan Republican Association - Activities

● The Kakori conspiracy was the most well-known incident. This occurred
on August 9, 1925. Members of the party looted a train carrying
government money near Lucknow. In the process, an unwitting
passenger was killed.
● Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and Thakur Roshan Singh
were among those involved in the episode.
● For their involvement, all four were eventually hanged by the
government in 1927. Chandrasekhar Azad was also involved, but he
managed to avoid arrest.
● The party's name was changed to Hindustan Republican Socialist
Association (HSRA) in 1928, primarily due to Bhagat Singh's insistence.
● The Central Assembly bombing case was the HSRA's next major
activity. On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt bombed the
Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi.
● Their sole goal was to "make the deaf hear," not to harm anyone.
Nobody was hurt in the bombing, and both revolutionaries were
arrested as a result of it.
● They chanted slogans like 'Inquilab Zindabad' and 'Down with
Imperialism' as they were apprehended.
 ● In 1929, the HSRA also bombed a train carrying Lord Irwin, the
then-Viceroy of India. He was not hurt.
● After 1931, the majority of the party's leaders had been killed or
imprisoned. Because there was no leadership, the party disintegrated.

Hindustan Republican Association - Objectives

● The Hindustan Republican Association's goal was to establish a

"Federated Republic of the United States of India'' through an organized
armed revolution.
● To awaken the people of India to the futility of Gandhian nonviolent
methods and to demonstrate the necessity and desirability of Direct
Action and Revolution in order to achieve complete independence.
● To replace British imperialism in India with an ideologically inspired
federated republic of the United States of India based on the Russian
Revolution and Socialist thought.
● The HRA's tactics included killing officials, organizing political dacoities
to raise funds, terrorism among British and British loyalists, and strikes
against the raj.
● Despite being a revolutionary terrorist organization (the term terrorist
was not as derogatory back then as it is today), the HRA's perspective
was socialistic, and it sought to establish the United States of India by
deposing the British.
● The concept drew the attention of young champions, including Bhagat
Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sukhdev, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan
Singh, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and many others.

Conclusion

The HSRA chose to work under collective leadership and set socialism as its
official goal. The revolutionaries' goal was complete independence, and they
had a vision of how the state should look once that goal was achieved. They
envisioned a mass struggle of the people and attempted to mobilize students,
workers, and peasants to that end.

Politics of Partition

Causes of Partition of India 1937

The Partition of India was a result of a number of events that took place in a
sequential manner. The British "Divide and Rule policy" was mostly
responsible for it, and on the basis of this policy, many events took place.
Partition of Bengal in 1905, Separate electoral to Muslims in 1909, Lucknow
Pact in 1916, the introduction of the two-nation theory in 1924, Provincial
elections in 1937, August Offer 1940, Quit India Resolution, the election of
1946, Cabinet Mission, and finally, Mountbatten Plan were the following
events which led to Partition of India.

Causes for the Partition of India

The reasons for the Partition of India on the religious line were communalism
and two-nation theory and the various events during World War II but the most
basic cause was the socio-economic factors.

British Divide-and-Rule policy

The British used this policy to weaken the nationalist movement in India.
Following are some of the examples, under this strategy:

● Its sponsorship in the establishment of the Muslim League.

● Introduction of separate electorate in 1909, 1919, and Communal award
in 1932.
● Its granting of implicit veto to the League during World War II.
● Its idea and criteria of grouping in the Cabinet Mission Plan, etc.

Growth of Communalism in India

India saw the rise of communalism at the end of the 19th century, and it grew
due to many factors. Unfortunately, it culminated in the partition of India on
religious lines.

Reasons:

● Socio-economic backwardness of Muslims.

● The revivalist nature of Socio-cultural reform movements.
● Germination of the ideas such that, Hindus and Muslims had different
self-interests.
● British Policy of “Divide and Rule”, throughout its tenure.
● Role of personalities like Iqbal, Jinnah, and some Hindu nationalists.
 ● Focus of League and Jinnah after the defeat of the 1937 elections and
Pakistan Resolution, 1940.
● Landsliding victory of the Muslim League in the elections of 1946.
Key Events:

● Partition of Bengal (1905): It began as an administrative measure, but it

quickly evolved into a huge political benefit for the government since it
intended to divide Bengal into Hindu and Muslim-majority provinces.
● Formation of the Muslim League (1906): The formation of the All India
Muslim League consisted of upper-class Muslim elites like Aga Khan,
Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk.
● Separate Electorates (1909): TheMorley-Minto reforms introduced
separate electorates in the legislative bodies, marking a significant
event in the history of communalism.
● Lucknow Pact (1916): Congress agreed to separate electorates as a
temporary measure to secure the support of the Muslim League in the
national movement.
● Formation of Hindu Mahasabha (1915) and Rashtriya Swayamsevak
Sangh (1925): These Hindu-nationalist organisations appeared as a
pressure groupin the number of deliberations between INC and the
Muslim League.
● Simon Commission and Nehru Report: The Nehru Report tried to
accommodate Jinnah's demands, but it failed in the All-Party
Conference of 1928. Jinnah came out with his Fourteen Points.
● Communal riots in 1946: The riots of 1946, due to the appeal of Jinnah,
were the immediate reason for the acceptance of partition.

Role of Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Jinnah played an important role in the partition of India, though he was initially
an ambassador of secularism and opposed communal politics.

Jinnah’s role:
Although some scholars (particularly, Ayesha Jalal of Pakistan and her
supporters) say that the demand of Jinnah for a separate state was merely a
bargaining chip with the Congress. As per this belief, he wanted a separate
state for Muslims, but not a separate nation.
But, it seems hard to swallow this idea because of many reasons.
Muslim landlords (in Sindh and other areas of Pakistan) and elites who were
against the Congress’ emphasis on socialist democracy, were in favour of a
separate nation.
Jinnah vetoed each and every talk between the British officials and Indians.
He and the league wanted to be the sole representatives of Muslims in India,
to which Congress or any secular party could not have conceded.
Further, his call for the Direct Action Day was brutal and severed the belief
that he was a liberal Muslim.
● Towards Mass Communalism: The defeat in the 1937 election result
was a lesson to Jinnah and the League. After 1937, the priority of
Jinnah was now to maximise the league's membership, communalise
the masses further and elevate the demands of Pakistan.
● Two Nation theory: He was a strict supporter of the Two Nation Theory,
that two communities could not co-exist together. This idea in India was
germinated by the Aligarh school of thought, seconded by Iqbal and a
few Hindu Nationalists in the 1930s, and ultimately utilised by Jinnah.
Citing the socio-economic conditions of the Muslims and instilling the
fear of the so-called Hindu domination after the independence, Jinnah
excelled in his communal propaganda. And this is evident in the victory
of the Muslim League on the Muslim seats in the 1946 elections.
Socio-economic factors

Various socio-economic factors in the 19th and 20th centuries contributed to

the demand for a separate Muslim homeland and ultimately the Partition of
India.

● Muslim economic backwardness: Muslims had lower literacy and

inadequate representation in industry/commerce, leading to economic
backwardness. Pakistan was seen as a way to boost Muslim economic
status, exclusively.
● Fear of Hindu economic dominance: Muslims worried their economic
interests would not be safeguarded in Hindu-majority India. Wanted
Pakistan for greater control over resources and opportunities.
● Desire of landed elites for dominance: Landed Muslim elites in
Punjab/Bengal saw Pakistan as an opportunity for greater economic
dominance. Partition motivated by ambition for power.
● Urdu-Hindi divide: Debates over national language exacerbated
differences. Proposals for Hindi alienated many Muslims who favoured
Urdu. This linguistic divide worsened communal tensions.
Events Leading to the Partition of India

The partition of India was the outcome of complex processes and various
factors, including the role of the British during the 1940s, especially during the
Second World War.

British Stance in the 1940s

The effects of the Second World War, especially due to Japan’s victories in
Southeast Asia, were the main reason for the change in British stance.

● They now needed Indian support for the War, but at the same time, did
not hesitate to support Jinnah's demand of Pakistan.
● Linlithgow and other Viceroys implicitly gave the veto power to the
Muslim League in every round of talks for the constitutional reforms as
well as the transfer of power.
● The acceptance of the demand of Pakistan was first used to counter the
demand for complete independence by Congress, and later to make
these two erstwhile colonies weak and vulnerable as much as possible.

Lahore Resolution

In 1940, at Lahore, Jinnah argued in favour of the two-nation theory. A. K.

Fazl-ul-Huq moved the resolution in the general session, known as the
‘Lahore Resolution.’ It was a formal statement that sought the creation of a
separate Muslim state.

● The term “Pak-Stan” was coined by Choudhry Rahmat Ali in the 1930s
while he was studying at Cambridge University.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Against the backdrop of the failure of the August Offer and the need to secure
Indian support during World War II, a Mission consisting of three British
cabinet members - Pethick Lawrence, Stafford Cripps, and A.V. Alexander
was dispatched to India.

Proposals:
● Granting of Dominion Status to India which would be free to decide its
relations with the Commonwealth and the United Nations.
 ● Post the Second World War, a constituent assembly, consisting of only
Indians, would be set up to draft a new constitution. The members
would be partly elected (provinces) and partly nominated (princely
states).
● A province not willing to join the Dominion could have a separate union
with its own constitution.
● The Constituent Assembly as well as the British government would
safeguard the rights of minorities.
● Until the constitution would be drafted, the British monopoly on India’s
defence and the Governor-General’s powers would be unfettered.

Failure:
● Congress rejected the offer of Dominion status and independence of
provinces (which would have resulted in the balkanisation of India).
● The Leaguerejected it as it did not offer a clear concession for Pakistan.

Cabinet Mission (1946) and the aftermath

In 1946, the Cabinet Mission arrived in India and held talks with the leaders of
all prominent political parties and then proposed its plan of establishing a
Federal Government in India.

● It rejected the demand of Pakistan and instead, proposed an Indian

Union consisting of British provinces as well as Princely States. While
rejecting Pakistan, it introduced the concept of grouping, where
provinces and princely states were free to form groups under the Union,
with significant autonomy.
● Initially refused,the Congress formed the government in September
1946 at the Centre, but the League refused to be a part of it.
● Jinnah on August 16, 1946, called for the 'Direct Action Day' regarding
the demand of Pakistan
● The call led to widespread communal riots across the country, resulting
in around 5,000 deaths on the first day in Calcutta alone. Riots erupted
in other areas like Noakhali and Bihar.

Mountbatten Plan and the Freedom with Partition of India

Lord Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy of India. He proposed the

Mountbatten Plan (Dickie Bird Plan) on June 3 1947. Despite Gandhi's strong
opposition, all parties consented to the partition, leading to the passing of the
Indian Independence Act of 1947 in the British Parliament.

Freedom with Partition:

● It created two independent states - the Indian Union and Pakistan.

● It abolished the post of viceroy and secretary of state of India.
● It provided governor-general for each dominion - Mountbatten as the
firstGovernor-General of independent India, and Jinnah as that of
Pakistan.
● Princely states were free to join any of the dominions or even remain
independent.
● The Constituent Assembly's draft constitution would not apply to
Muslim-majority areas (as these would become Pakistan), which would
decide their separate constituent assembly.
● The legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab voted in favour of
partition, leading to the decision to divide these two provinces along
religious lines.
● Sind's legislative assembly ultimately chose to join Pakistan.
● The North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) was scheduled to
conduct a referendum to go with either of the dominions. Despite Khan
Abdul Gaffar Khan's rejection and boycott, it opted to join Pakistan.
● Boundary Commission: Headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, it was established
to demarcate the international boundaries between the two countries
and to partition Bengal and Punjab into two separate nations.

Consequences of the Partition of India

The partition created the independent nations of Muslim-majority Pakistan and

Hindu-majority secular India, separating the provinces of Bengal and Punjab
along religious lines. It triggered riots, mass casualties, and a colossal wave of
migration.

● Mass Migration: About 15 million people relocated to what they believed

to be a safer territory. Muslims headed towards Pakistan, while Hindus
and Sikhs headed towards India.
● Mass Killings and atrocities on both sides: Approximately 1-2 million
people were killed, many were killed by members of other communities
 and sometimes their own families, as well as by the contagious
diseases that swept through refugee camps.
● Violence against women: Women were kidnapped, raped, publicly
humiliated, and many were forced to die by suicide in an attempt to
protect their chastity.
● Impact in terms of economic resources: India was deprived of jute and
cotton and Pakistan of fuel.
● Problem of Refugees: Both states subsequently faced huge problems
accommodating and rehabilitating post-Partition refugees, whose
numbers swelled when Pakistan illegally tried to occupy Jammu and
Kashmir in 1947-48.
● Hostility and Suspicion: The legacy of violence caused by partition has
created an atmosphere of hostility and suspicion between the two
countries that impacts the relationship even to this day.
● Repercussions on Minorities:The partition had severe repercussions on
religious minorities, particularly Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims living in
regions with a religious demographic opposite to their own.Minorities
faced persecution, violence, and forced conversions, leading to mass
displacement and loss of life.
● Long-term Political Impact:The politics of partition deeply influenced the
political trajectories of India and Pakistan, shaping their governance
structures, foreign policies, and national identities.India adopted a
secular democratic model, while Pakistan pursued an Islamic identity,
leading to divergent paths of development and governance.

The partition of India has proved to be a watershed moment in India, a country

which has been built upon the cultural ethos, mutual coexistence and religious
tolerance throughout history. The immediate effect of the partition was the
widespread communal violence and mass migration but the most profound
effect was on the secular character of India as a nation, which can be felt even
today.