Experimental Techniques

Substances can be;

 Pure: Containing only one substance (one element or one compound) (Ex: Water,
Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen)
or
 Impure: Containing more than one substance physically mixed together (Ex: Air)
Purity Testing:
 Composition: Pure substance must be a single substance not mixed with anything else
 Melting and Boiling Points: Pure substances must have fixed points, while mixtures have
a range of temperature
 Chromatography: Pure substances produce a single spot on chromatography paper,
while mixtures contain two or more spots.
Effect on impurities on the boiling point of a liquid:
 Boiling point increases if the substance is impure
 Freezing point decreases if the substance is impure
Importance of Pure Substances:
 Impurities in medicine: May cause undesirable side effects
 Impurities in metal: Weaken its structure
Mixtures: Made of at least two substances mixed together
 Solution: States are completely mixed (Ex: Salt in Water)
Solutions are made of:
o Solute: The solid which dissolves in a liquid. Some solids are soluble and some
are insoluble. The solubility of every substance is different
o Solvent: The liquid in which a solid dissolves. Water is the most common solvent
(solution in water is called an aqueous solution). Other solvent can be used for
solids that are insoluble in water
When a liquid cannot dissolve any more solute, its called a ‘Saturated Solution’. To
help more solute dissolve, you have to stir the solution, or heat the mixture.
 Suspension: The states are separate and can be seen (Ex: Sand in Water)
Separating and Purifying Substances:
1) Separating a solid from a liquid
a) insoluble solid in liquid mixture
o Filtration: A mixture is poured into the filter funnel lined with filter paper.
Liquid particles are small enough to go through the pores of the filter paper but
the solid particles are too large to go through. Collect the filtrate that passes
through the filter paper in a conical flask. The solid that remains in the filter
paper is called residue.
 o Decanting: just pouring the liquid away, to separate a dense insoluble solid from
liquid

b) Soluble solid in liquid mixture

o Evaporation to dryness: To separate a soluble solid from liquid
Limitations: Some substances decompose when heated strongly, Impurities may
be left behind after the water has been removed.
o Crystallisation: To separate soluble solid from liquid as crystals (Better Method)
Steps: The solution is heated to evaporate most of the solvent, Heating is
stopped when a hot saturated solution is formed. The hot solution is allowed to
cool till the solid appears as pure crystals. The cold solution is poured off the
obtain the crystals.
How to test for saturated solution? A clean glass rod can be used to test
whether a solution is saturated. It is dipped into the solution and removed.
There will be a small amount of solution on the rod. If small crystals form on the
rod as the solution cools, the solution is saturated.

o Simple Distillation: To separate a pure liquid from a solution; by boiling the liquid

and condensing the vapour. Solution is heated until it boils. Pure liquid turns
into Vapour and leaves the flask. Vapour is then cooled by a condenser, which
changes it back into a liquid. The liquid is collected in the conical flask, and is
called the distillate.
Safety Measures:
A thermometer is placed at the top of the flask containing the solution to
measure that the boiling point of the substance that is being distilled. If the
distillate is volatile, the receiver can be put in a large container filled with ice.
This helps keep the temperature of the distillate low so that it remains in the
liquid state.
Water entering and leaving the condenser:
Cold running water enters from the bottom of the condenser and leaves from
the top.