• The Information Age, also called Computer Age, Digital Age, or New

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Media Age, is a pre-historic period in the 21st Century. It is
characterized by the rapid shift from the traditional industry brought
INFORMATION AGE about by the Industrial Revolution through industrialization to the
information technology-based economy. The recurrence of the
Introduction to Information Age Information Age linked to the Digital or Information Revolution
•Technology in the twentieth century simplified life for people, (Bueno, 2019).
shaping society positively and negatively.
• People worldwide are adapting to and learning from new HISTORY OF INFORMATION AGE
technologies.
•Modern technology emphasizes efficiency and communication. •The start of the information revolution (information age) began when
early humans invented language, writing, and printing to improve their
Technology exchange of information across distances and time periods.
Technology is relevant to ease access to many of the resources people
need in:  3000BC
 2900BC
•Education  900BC
Technology enhances educational  1000BC
access by providing instant access to a vast array of resources,  753BC
enabling personalized learning experiences and overcoming traditional  500BC
limitations.  105AD

• Medicine FIRST INFORMATION REVOLUTION

Technology is vital in medicine because it enhances diagnostic
accuracy, facilitates treatment delivery, enables remote healthcare Telegraph
access, improves patient outcomes, and drives medical research and * Invented by Samuel Morse (1791-1872)
innovation. Also, advancing the quality and efficiency of healthcare * Developed in the 1830s and the 1850s
services. * It works by transmitting electrical signals over the wire between the
stations.
• Communication * Telegraph played an essential role during the American Civil War.
Technology allows an instant connectivity across platforms and devices, * It facilitated accessible liaison and communication between
breaking barriers of distance and time, and making an information countries.
exchange globally, thus easing access to communication resources.
Telephone
• Transportation * Invented by Johann Philip Reis
Technology is relevant in transportation as it introduces innovations * Developed in the 1876-1877
like electric vehicles, autonomous driving systems, real-time *It is an instrument designed for simultaneous transmission and
navigation apps, and smart traffic management systems. These reception of the human voice.
advancements * It has become the most widely used telecommunications device in
improve efficiency, safety, sustainability, and overall user experience the world.
in transportation.
Radio (Wireless telegraph)
technology can be limited by: * Invented by Gugliemo Marconi.
• Distance * Developed in the 1895.
Distance * He used electromagnetic waves to relay Morse code.
Time * According to Bellis (2019), in 1915, the speech was the first
Location broadcast from New York City to San Francisco and across the Atlantic
Ocean, via Radio.
Distance
SECOND INFORMATION REVOLUTION
Technology can be limited by distance because of factors such as signal
degradation or latency over long distances, which can affect
communication or data transmission. Television
• Television is one of the 20th Century's most influential technologies.
Time It has become one of essential ways in which people perceive the
Time limitations may arise due to processing delays or scheduling broader world around them, as well as one of the best ways in which
conflicts, impacting the timeliness of tasks or services. people can escape the planet.

Location
Technology can be constrained by location if certain areas lack
infrastructure or access to necessary resources, limiting the
effectiveness or availability of technology-based solutions in those
areas.
Introduction to Information Age
• A German scientist created static moving pictures in the 1880s using
a filtered light that was viewed through a rotating disk, setting the
groundwork for modern television.
Computers
* Designed by Professor John Vincent Atanasoff and graduate
student Clifford Berry, between 1939 and 1942.
* It was developed due to military needs
* The first fully functioning electronic digital computer, which was
named Colossus. During World War II, computers used to decode nazi
war codes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosphy, 2006)
Transistors
* Invented by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain.
* Transistors addressed the problem of overheating in electronics.
Also led to more common technological advances, with notable
progress seen in computer technology.
Integrated Circuits
• The invention of integrated circuits has contributed to the
development of third-generation computers.
Satellite
• A satellite is an object that orbits or circles around a more significant
object in space. Satellites have revolutionized our perception of the
world.
• Types of satellite: Natural and Artificial
THIRD INFORMATION REVOLUTION
1. Semiconductors
* Semiconductors are essential technology which significantly
enhanced the ability to store, process, and advertising information.
* The memory capacity increased substantially in 2017 from 10,000
bits of information in 1987 to 160 trillion bits because of the
semiconductors.
2. Microprocessors
• A microprocessor is an integrated circuit
(IC), integrating critical functions in the central processing unit (CPU) of
a computer.
* It is a programmable silicon chip with multipurpose, clock-driven,
register-based, accepts binary data as input.
* Provides output after processing as per the instructions stored in
the memory (Ligo, 2018).
3. Fourth Computers Generation
• The fourth generation computer emerged from 1971 to 1980 that
used VLSI circuits. The VLSI circuits are electronic circuits where
hundreds to millions of transistors are integrated on a single silicon
microchip.
Here are the examples of the fourth generation
- Star 1000
- Cray-X-MP (Super Computer)
- PDP 10
- Apple Macintosh
4. Fifth Generation Computers
• The fifth generation computers are the most advanced and current
computer generation around 1981 and are still being developed today.
This computer employs ULSI, the most advanced stage of
semiconductor integration with extremely high ranging from transistor
densities ten million to billions of transistors on a single chip.
Here are the examples of fifth generation
- Laptop
- Desktop
- Chromebook
- Robotics
5. Fiber Optics (Optical Fibers)
• Fiber optics consist of incredibly thin glass or plastic strands. One
cable of fiber optic can have as few as two strands or as many as
several hundred. Every strand is less than a tenth as thick as a human
hair and can hold something like 25,000 phone calls, making it easy for
a whole fiber-optic cable to carry seven million calls (Woodford, 2018).
6. Cellular Technology
• A cellular telephone is telecommunication device that uses radio
waves over a networked area (cells). It is served at a fixed location via
cell site or base station, enabling calls to be transmitted wirelessly
across a wide range, to a fixed landline or via the Internet.
7. Satellite technologies
• This facilitated the establishment of a global connectivity network.
Which enabled worldwide broadcast of events, shows, and
international teleconferencing.
8. Internet
• The Internet seems to have a significant impact on almost every
facet of our lives, building whole new worlds of cultures and allowing
us to access knowledge and ideas on a scale we've never dreamed of
before (Kwach, 2018).
According to Techopedia (2019), Email, web- enabled audio/video
conferencing services, online movies, and gaming, data transfer / file-
sharing, often through File Transfer Protocol (FTP), instant messaging,
Internet forums, social networking, online shopping, financial services,
and digital transmission are some of the following services that make
the Internet the most cost-effective means of communication in the
world. The main goal for today is to develop a fully integrated, high-
speed, and high capacity network.
9. Digital Transmission
• Digital transmission is a method developed
to enhance communication processes. It involves transmitting
information as digital signals through a physical communication
medium.
POSITIVE IMPACTS
1. ) It enabled more excellent connectivity of people around the
world.
The Information Age has revolutionized how people connect with
each other globally. Through the internet and various communication
technologies, individuals can now interact and collaborate regardless
of geographical barriers.
2. ) It made many aspects of day to day more convenient.
The advent of the Information Age has streamlined numerous aspects
of daily life, making tasks more convenient and accessible.
3. ) It created online communities.;
The Internet promotes the creation of online communities, facilitating
connections and interactions among people with shared interests or
goals.
4. ) It made information more accessible.
The Internet has made information more accessible than ever before,
empowering people to easily find and acquire knowledge on a wide
range of topics.
5. ) It provided economic growth.
Technology plays a pivotal role in stimulating economic expansion by
nurturing innovation, establishing novel sectors, and sparking job
creation through communication. The digital economy, propelled by
technology firms and emerging businesses, substantially fortifies GDP
and employment rates across numerous nations.
NEGATIVE IMPACTS
1.) Much information is false and misleading.;
Too much information kills information. While the internet provides
access to a vast amount of information, too much of it can be
overwhelming and misleading if not properly curated and critically
evaluated.
2.) It allowed the conduct of crimes and illegal activities.;
Advance technology allows individuals to mask their identities through
anonymous or pseudonymous accounts, making it easier for them to
engage in criminal activities such as cyberbullying, harassment, or
fraud without fear of being identified.
3.) It created a "Digital Divide
•This gap exists between urban and rural areas, educated and
uneducated, socioeconomic groups, and globally.
•A study by the Pew Research Center noted that 24% of adults with
household incomes below $30,000 a year don't own a smartphone and
40% of those with lower incomes don't have home broadband services
or a computer.
4. ) It affected human productivity and flourishing
• When misused or poorly managed, technology can become a
distraction.
• According to Adam Gazzaley, the author of "The Distracted Mind:
Ancient multitasking with multiple media while trying to focus on work,
a project, or even an in-person interaction can make everything take
25 percent longer. Additionally, it might take up to 30 minutes to fully
return to the task at hand, significantly reducing productivity.
5. ) It affected the health of people due to overuse;
Extended periods of time spent using screens and being inactive due
to technology can result in various health problems. This includes
becoming overweight, experiencing strain and discomfort in the eyes,
and having difficulties sleeping.
----------
Introduction
There are so many modern technologies today. These technologies
influence human lives and the society as a whole.
One aspect that technologies has greatly affected is information
Communicating or exchanging
information is important to humans due to a wide array of reasons.
However, it can be limited by:
* Distance
*  Time
*  Location
INFORMATION AGE
Introduction
The attempt of humans to address the three limitations of
communication or exchange of information led to new technologies.
These technologies affected the social, political and economic role of
information leading to the so-called Information Revolutions.
The start of the information revolution was made possible by the
invention of language, writing and printing.
History of the Information Age
The invention of language, writing and printing greatly improved how
human exchange information and communicate.
From these, early and primitive forms of information and
communication technology were developed.
The following were ways of exchanging information in the past: drum
rolls, fire signals, hand signals, use of pigeons, use of flags and
papyrus. Many of them are still in use today. However, they remain to
have limitations.
FIRST INFORMATION REVOLUTION
Information Revolutions aimed to address the limitations of
communication. The first Information Revolution began in the mid-
nineteenth century with the invention of the telegraph, telephone and
radio. It lasted until the 1950s.
American inventor Samuel Morse was credited for developing the first
operational model of the telegraph. His prototype was patented in
1940, but was first used in 1945.
The use of the telegraph became widespread in America and then in
Europe. It increase the connection between people separated by gret
distances.
The telegraph played an important role during the American Civil War.
It was used by the US Government to communicate military
information, command, and intelligence reports to its troops.
Telegraphs were also used by diplomatic offices in Europe to
communicate with other countries. This enabled easier
communication and linkage among countries.
After the invention of the telegraph, the telephone was invented. The
first telephonic device was developed by Johann Philip Reis.
However, Alexander Graham Bell was credited for the invention of the
telephone in 1876. Unlike telegraphs, telephones can send sound
waves.
After its invention, the telephone became very popular in the US and
eventually, in Europe. Networks of telephone communication were
established. It impacted businesses, military, foreign affairs and many
other human activities.
The radio is another important technology of the First Information
Revolution. It was Guglielmo Marconi who invention and patented the
first radio. However, his radio can only send Morse codes. It was
Reginald Fessenden who discovered how to send voice and music
through the radio.
Radio networks and stations were eventually established in the US and
in Europe. Radios were used by the military during the World Wars.
After the wars, the radio played a key part in the development of the
broadcasting (news) and the music industries.
SECOND INFORMATION REVOLUTION
The Second Information Revolution began in the 1950s until the 1980s.
The Second Information Revolution further improved communication
due to the invention of the television, early generations computers
and satellite. The revolution made the world “smaller”.
The television was actually developed in the 1920s based on the work
of 3 inventors. Farnsworth invented the process of image scanning.
Zworykin invented the iconoscope tube and the kinescope television
tube.
Dumont invented the receiver picture tube.
However, the television's immense improvement and wide use
happened after World War II. Until now, televisions are ubiquitous and
have significant global impact.
The development of the early computers were due to the needs of the
military. John Vincent Atanasoff was credited for developing the first
electronic digital computer in 1939. Alan Turing developed the first
working digital computer, the ‘Collossus'. It was used during World
War II to decode Nazi war codes.
In 1946, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly developed ENIAC or
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator. The problem with
ENIAC and other first-generation computers was that they used
vacuum tubes which generated a lot of heat causing overheating or
burning out.
The problem on overheating led to the development of transistors by
William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen.
The use of transistors are the basis for the second-generation
computers. The second-generation computers were smaller, faster,
and more reliable.
The invention of integrated circuits led to the development of the
third-generation computers. The development of the early computers
is significant as it demonstrated the synergy from the collaboration
among the government, the military and the industry in doing
innovation.
Early computers made it easier to manipulate, transmit, process, and
store data. It helped in linking people, industries and governments
together. Early computers were replaced by modern, more advanced
models. To-date, the impact of computers to society continues to be
remarkable.
In order to transmit telephone and television signals in a global scale,
satellites were developed. Satellites enabled global communication.
Sputnik 1 was the first artificial satellite. It was developed by then
Soviet Union and was launched in 1957. This marked the beginning of
the so-called Space Age. In the US, the military launched its first
satellite, the SCORE or Signal Communications by Orbiting Relay
Equipment, in 1958.
The development of satellites were initially done by the military for
military purposes. Eventually satellites were developed by civilians for
non-military use. Syncom Ill was the first civilian telecommunications
satellite. It was launched into orbit in 1964. It was developed by NASA
and was used to broadcast the 1964 Summer Olympics.
Intelsat I or the 'Early Bird' was the first commercial communications
satellite. It was launched in 1965 and was developed by Hughes
Aircraft Company (now Boeing Satellite System)
Later on, satellite technologies were further improved and developed.
This enabled global communications, and the rise of television
networks, and telecommunications companies. Satellites allowed
governments and companies to send information with privacy,
reliability and timeliness.
THIRD INFORMATION REVOLUTION
Third Information Revolution The technologies of the first two
Information Revolutions paved the way for more technologies and
innovations which led to the Third Information Revolution.
The main technologies of the Third Information Revolution are:
* advanced semiconductors
* advanced computers
* fiber optics
* cellular technology
* satellite technology
* advanced networking
* improved human-computer interaction
* digital transmission and digital compression
Semiconductors are the most significant technology that significantly
increased the ability of storing, processing, and transmitting
information.
Because of semiconductors, memory storage increased dramatically
from 10,000 bits of information in 1978 to 160 trillion bits of
information in 2017.
Microprocessors were also rapidly developed. In the 1980s, a
microprocessor contained around 10,000 transistors. In 2018,
microprocessors with 6.9 billion transistors were developed.
The fourth generation computers were made possible by the
development of computer chips that have hundreds of thousands of
components.
The fifth generation computers used multiple processing units
allowing the simultaneous processing of data. Supercomputers were
part of the fifth generation. Advanced computers allowed easier and
faster transmission of voices, photos, digital data and other forms of
information. Processing and storage of data were made better and
more efficient.
Cable television, telephone and telegraph use copper wires or coaxial
cables. The problem with copper wires is that they are prone to
attenuation and leakage. Also, copper wires and coaxial cables have
limitations on the data that they can handle.
The invention of fiber optics addressed these problems. Fiber optics
are extremely thin glass fibers that can carry information from one
source to another.
It is faster in terms of transmission of information. Copper wires can
transmit hundreds of thousands of bits of information while fiber
optics can transmit billions of bits of information.
Transmitters and receivers are usually large, heavy and difficult to
carry or move. The development of cellular technology solved the
problem. Cellular technologies led to the development of cellular
phones which made communication easier among individuals.
Cellular phones can also store and process data. Its widespread use
started in the 1970s. Today, cellular phones are not only being used
for communication but also for other purposes such as photography,
music, videos, navigation, and eLearning among others.
Satellite technologies helped build the global communication
infrastructure. They are being used for telephone, television, radio and
even weather and climate equipment.
Satellites enabled the global broadcast of events, shows,
international teleconferencing, international phone calls and other
forms of global connectivity.
Networking or advanced networks enhanced the connectivity and
communication worldwide. The largest form of advanced network is
the INTERNET. The use of the Internet is so widespread, more than
half of the world's population is using it. There are at least 1.6 billion
websites worldwide.
The Internet made possible the development of social media, online
libraries, electronic mail, video calls, e-learning and e-commerce.
Today, the goal is to develop a fully integrated, high-speed, high-
capacity network.
Initially, one key challenge in the use of computers is the lack of "good
human-computer interaction". Previous models of computers were
not user-friendly; they were complex to operate. Today, with
advancement in technologies and industrial design, major progress
were made in terms of human-computer interaction.
The increase in the data processing capacity of computers led to the
simplification of user interphase. Today, computers are easy to use
and also have become more affordable. This allowed the
democratization of access to computer and even to other gadgets that
use similar technologies.
In order to further improve communication, digital transmission was
developed. It used digital signals instead of analog signals. Digital
signals are more efficient and effective. The use of digital signals
allowed the development of digital compression or the lowering of the
size of data or information.
Digital compression allowed more data storage, which resulted to
easier and faster data transmission.
Digital technologies are so ubiquitous nowadays. They are widely used
and relevant in almost all aspects of human life.
The Third Information revolution resulted to the following:
* increase in the speed of information transmission
* greater capacity to transmit information
* more flexibility in the flow of information
* greater access to information by the people, institutions and
business.
* heightened demand for more new technologies or improvements
in the current ones.
Impact of the Information Age
The Information Age has the following positive impacts:
1. It enabled greater connectivity of people around the world.
Citizens in Japan or in Spain would know what is happening in
Argentina or Australia. Overseas Filipino Workers in the Middle East
can talk to their families in the Philippines because of online video calls.
2. It made many aspects of day to day life more convenient.
In getting government documents, online portals can now be used.
Shopping can now be done online. Job applications can be done online.
Online education is now also possible.
3. It created online communities.
Information technologies made possible the creation of online
communities. People with common interests such as hobbies,
expertise, and advocacies can now communicate, share ideas, and
"meet" online.
4. It made information more accessible.
Almost all information can be accessed through the Internet.
Never in human history has so much information become so accessible
at so much speed. However, it is important to validate the source of
information and to critically analyze the information.
The Information Age also has the the following downside
1.Many information are false and misleading.
Sharing and access to information in the Internet is difficult to regulate.
This leads to proliferation of false information like 'fake news'. This can
result to many serious negative social, political and economic
implications
2. It allowed the conduct of crimes and illegal activities
Information technologies were also used for crimes and illegal
activities. Online sharing of dirty and pornographic materials, illegal
trading, phishing, hacking and identity theft in social media, and cyber
bullying became possible.
3. It created a 'Digital Divide'
The Global Digital Divide
Divide refers to the non-physical boundary between those who have
access and are literate on information technologies versus those who
are not. Those who have access can take advantage of the benefits of
the information age, while those who don't have access are further
deprived of opportunities.
4. It affected human's productivity and flourishing
Many human skills are being replaced by information technology,
hence workers face the constant threat of losing jobs.
On one hand, many individuals are also addicted to online media,
online games, and other online activities that take away from having
human interaction
Conclusion/Summary
• Information Age is characterized by the rise of information and
communications technology. These technologies aimed to address the
limits imposed by distance, time and location in exchanging
information.
• Definitely, the Information Age has significant impact to human
society. There are many benefits brought about by technologies
developed during this period, but there are also downsides that we
need to be aware of and need to address.
 BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTY SOCIETY
What is Biodiversity?
 Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth. It ranges
from the smallest microorganisms, the mycoplasmas, up to the
largest animals, the blue whales. Biodiversity is the short term
for biological diversity.
 There are three levels of biodiversity. The first one is the genetic
diversity. It refers to the variations in the different genes present
in individual organisms. For instance, among humans, there are
differences in terms of the genetic sequences.
 Species diversity refers to the variations within and among
populations in a species, as well as the differences between and
among species.
 Ecosystem diversity refers to all ecosystems, ecological processes
and biological communities. Examples of two different
ecosystems are coral reefs and temperate forests.
Some Terms Related to Biodiversity
Species refers to a group of organisms, which have common
genetic, ecological and evolutionary characteristics, that can
interbreed and produce viable stancri, these different For instance,
types of butterflies have similarities in coloration and pattern.
However, these butterflies belong to different species of butterfly
because they cannot interbreed.
Endemic species refer to species that are native or restricted in a
particular area. For instance, the Philippine Eagle, the Philippine
tarsier and Rafflesia speciosa are endemic species of the Philippines.
Biodiversity Hotspots are regions or areas in the world with rich
biodiversity but are currently facing threats of depletion and loss.
Examples of biodiversity hotspots are the whole of Madagascar and
the Philippine Archipelago.
Ecosystem refers to the interaction of biological communities
with one another and with the physical environment. The direct and
indirect contributions or benefits that could be derived from the
ecosystem are called ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services can be categorize into four main types:
* Provisioning services
* Regulating services
* Supporting services
* Cultural services
Provisioning services include food, wood, clean water, and clean air.
Regulating services include air purification, water filtration, carbon
sequestration, and climate regulation.
Supporting services include soil formation, habitat, and storage of
gene pools.
Cultural services include aesthetics, recreational use, and indigenous
use.
Patterns of Biodiversity
According to the Global Biodiversity Outlook 1 (2001), there are
around 14 million species in the world with nearly 2 million species
discovered and described.
-Golden Toad
-Asian Palm Civet
Philippines has at least 52, 000 species discovered and described. It is
one of the mega-diverse countries.
Philippines has high endemism with at least 49% of its terrestrial
wildlife being endemic to the country. However, it is also one of the
world's biodiversity hotspots with more than 900 threatened species.
Importance of Biodiversity
Provisioning services:
* Food source - fruits of trees
* Herbal medicines - leaves, roots or flowers of plants
* Forest products - trunk of trees or vines
Regulating and Supporting services:
* Mangroves forests - regulate the impact of waves
* Corals Reefs- provide habitat for fishes in the seas
Cultural services:
* Orchids - used for decoration
* Whale sharks - for ecotourism
* Citrus thorns - used in tattooing process
To benefit from the ecosystem services requires the maintenance of a
rich biodiversity.
For instance, bees and wasps are pollinators of many crops. Pollination
is important for the production of fruits and eventually, seeds. If
pollinators such as bees and wasps are gone, the production of food
for human consumption will be greatly reduced.
Society depends on the ecosystem for its services. The ecosystem is
nothing without biodiversity.
Biodiversity Loss
 Biodiversity loss refers to the depletion or reduction of biological
diversity due to extinction of species.
 Biodiversity loss will result to the death of ecosystems worldwide,
resulting to ending and changing of ecosystem services. Most of
these losses happen in biodiversity hotspots. It is predicted that
half of the world species will be extinct by 2050.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature or IUCN
categorize species based on their conservation status.
 Data Deficient - species that lack adequate information on their
abundance, diversity or distribution, hence, there is no
assessment of risk for extinction.
Examples of species that are under the 'Data Deficient' category are
Vicente's poison frog of Panama and the cherry plum.
 Least Concern - species that have been evaluated and were not
considered to be threatened.
Examples of species that are under the 'Least Concern' category are
the sea snails, Conus barbieri, and Conus textile and giant reed
(Arundo donax). They are native to the Philippines.
 Near Threatened -species that are evaluated but do not qualify
as vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered.
Examples of these species that the bull shark and smooth cauliflower
coral.
 Vulnerable - species that are likely to be endangered in the near
future. They were able to meet the five criteria set by IUCN.
Examples of these are the molave tree, Philippine eagle-owl and
dugong. The molave tree and dugong are both native to the
Philippines while the Philippine eagle-owl is endemic in the country.
 Endangered - species that are likely to become extinct. They
meet the five criteria set by IUCN for the category.
Examples of Endangered species are the Calamian deer, Visayas
hornbill, and the rare orchid, short haired paphiopedilum. All of them
are endemic to the Philippines.
 Critically Endangered - species that face high risk of extinction.
They meet the five criteria set by IUCN.
Examples of these are the Philippine eagle, the Philippine crocodile,
and the tamaraw. All of them are endemic to the Philippines.
 Extinct in the Wild - species that are only present in captivity, in
cultivation or in naturalized populations.
Examples of these are the Alagoas Curassow in Brazil, Hawaiian Crow,
and Pere David Deer of China.
 Extinct -species that are already gone; the last individuals have
died.
Examples of these are the golden toad of Costa Rica, the Japanese sea
lion, and the great auk.
Causes of Biodiversity Loss
1. Habitat alteration and destruction
 The destruction of habitats like coral reefs and forests lead to
biodiversity loss. For instance, one of the causes of the decline in
Philippine Eagle population in various parts of the country is
deforestation. Philippine eagles are highly territorial, hence, they
require the wide area of the forest.
 Another example is the case of sea cows or dugongs. Dugongs
live in sea grass beds. However, sea grass beds are facing threat
of destruction and alteration due to coastal development and
industrial activities
2. Pollution
 Many species are dying because of pollution from industrial and
household sources. Oil spills cause losses in biodiversity. Air
pollution affects birds, winged insects and other species.
 Lichens are organisms usually found in trees and rocks. They are
vulnerable to air pollution, causing abnormality or death. Whales
and other marine organisms are also dying because of plastic
pollution of the seas.
3. Over-exploitation
 The unsustainable consumption or exploitation of biodiversity
lead to the endangerment of many species. For example, illegal
and too much logging caused the decline of hardwood species
such as the Philippine dipterocarps. In Taal Lake, the overfishing
of the local sardines called Tawilis let ot its decline and
endangerment.
4. Global Warming and Climate Change
 Global warming and climate change affected many species. For
example, polar bears are starving because of global warming.
Their habitats are also melting away.
5. Illegal Poaching and Wildlife Trade
 Many species are being poached illegally and sold to illegal
wildlife traders. For instance, elephant tusks and rhinoceros
horns are being collected illegally causing the decline of the two
species' populations.
6. Diseases
 Many species are dying because of diseases brought by changing
climate, and other adverse conditions brought about by human
activities.
 One example is the case of amphibians. Worldwide, many
amphibians are under threat because of a fungal disease. The
golden toad went extinct because of the disease. Other frogs
such as the Toad Mountain Harlequin frog are currently
endangered because of it.
7. Introduction of Invasive species
 When non-native species which are well-accustomed in another
ecosystem are introduced through natural and artificial means in
another ecosystem, they are called exotic species.
 When exotic species became harmful and dangerous to the new
ecosystem, they become invasive species. Examples of invasive
species in the Philippines are the coral-eating starfish, and the
golden apple snail.
Another suggested potential invasive species are genetically modified
organisms (GMOs).
Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and
Politics
What are genetically modified organisms (GMOs)? GMOs are
organisms whose genetic make-up were artificially modified through
genetic engineering.
In the process, some genes will be added to the organism, rendering a
change or an addition of new traits.
Process of Making Genetically Modified Organisms
1. The process of making a genetically modified organism starts with
the identification of a trait of interest.
2. The gene responsible for that trait of interest is isolated.
3. The gene is inserted to the genome of the organism being
modified.
4. The MO is allowed to grow.
Before a CMOs can be produced and consumed by the public, it must
undergo a lot of processes.
There will be an assessment of its biosafety, economic feasibility, and
social acceptance, among others.
Uses of Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically Modified Organisms have important uses. They are
used in agricultural, industrial, health and environmental purposes.
There is a wide array of applications and uses for genetically modified
organisms.
Example:
Golden Rice
 Golden Rice is genetically modified, biofortified rice.
Biofortification is the process of adding nutrients or minerals to a
food source.
 In the case of golden rice, genes were added in order for it to
produce beta-carotene. Beta-carotenes are the precursors of
Vitamin A. Therefore, golden rice can be used to address
Vitamin-A micronutrient deficiency and malnutrition.
Genetically Modified Pig
 Xenotransplantation is the process of using animal organs,
tissues and cells for human needs. It aims to address the lack of
organs for organ transplant needs. Scientists are currently using
pigs as a source. However, organs grown in pigs are currently
rejected by the human body. Through genetic engineering, pigs
are being modified to address this.
Glofish
 GloFish is a genetically modified zebrafish. It was modified to
become bioluminescent or be able to produce light. It was
initially intended to detect pollutants in the water through the
amount of light it produces. However, it is widely used now as
pets.
Risks and Downsides of Genetically Modified Organisms
There are however some risks and potential complications
identified with the use of CMOs.
1. Ecosystem risks
It is suggested that genetically modified organisms can become
invasive species if uncontrolled and unregulated. Many CMOs can
grow fast and have an advantageous trait which means that they can
compete with the natural organisms.
For example, Bt corn is being studied for its potential impact
against insect pollinators such as bees.
2. Genetic Contamination or Interbreeding
CMOs may interbreed with wild types which can cause the loss of
the trait in the succeeding generations, rendering the CMO inefficient
later on.
On the other hand, wild types may inherit the trait causing
change in its ecology and characteristics. This can disrupt the
ecosystem where it belong.
3. Adverse effects on Health
GMOs may cause adverse effects on human health. It may cause
toxicity to humans, allergic reactions, and other unintended effects.
CMOs for human consumption are being assessed for potential
health effects.
4. Social Acceptance
GMOs may be rendered useless if there is lack of acceptance by
their target consumers. Many are wary about GMOs' potential impacts
and effects.
For example, if corn farmers are skeptical and will not use
genetically modified corn seeds, then the seeds will be useless.
5. Economic Issues and Access
GMOs might not be accessible to many. Huge investments are
needed to develop GMOs. For businesses that develop them, there
should be a return on investment and profit. This makes GMO
products expensive.
6. Animal Welfare
Many GMOs are animals. Hence, animal welfare issues are raised
in the production of GMOs. Examples are the case of genetically
modified pigs for xenotransplantation and the toxicity testing on mice
and other laboratory animals.
7. Pest and Antibiotic Resistance
The use of pest-killing GMOs may lead to pests developing
resistance against the GMO itself. This would render the GMOs useless.
Also, in the production of GMOs, some use antibiotic-resistant
bacteria. This can possibly contribute to the growing problem of
antibiotic resistance.
Policies and Politics on GMOs
Let us define some terms related to this sub-topic.
Biosafety refers to the condition by which potential harm, damage or
threats caused by the intentional or unintentional introduction of a
biotechnology is under manageable or acceptable level.
Risk Assessment refers to the process of evaluating or identifying
potential hazards or damages to human or animal health and the
environment and developing mitigation measures for them.
To regulate the production and use of GMOs in order to ensure
biosafety, an international protocol was adapted. It is known as the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
Diversity.
The Cartagena Protocol is "an international agreement which aims to
ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified
organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have
adverse effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to
human health. In the Philippines, a system of biosafety regulations
was already in place way back in 1990. It was the first in the world. It
was promulgated in Executive Order No. 430.
The National Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines is the agency
in-charge of implementing regulations related to the evaluation or
assessment of biotechnology researches, regulation of
commercialization of GMOs, labelling of GMO products, among others.

The Nano World
What is Nanotechnology?
 Nanotechnology refers to the development of products or
manipulation of matter at the nanoscale. Nanoparticles are the
building blocks of nanotechnology. They are particles that are 1 to
100 nanometers in size. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter.
Nanoscience is the science of nanoparticles.
How Small is 'Nano'?
 Nanoparticles or materials at the nanoscales are larger than atoms
and molecules but are smaller than the size of bacteria and viruses.
 They are so small that even typical, common light microscopes
cannot magnify them. To see nanoparticles, electron microscopes
and atomic force microscopes must be used.
Nanoscales
What is special about operating at nanoscales is that solids, liquids
and gases can show their unique physical, chemical and biological
properties at this level. When a material is manipulated or
manufactured at a nanoscale, its properties change and the new
properties can he used for a particular annlication.
In the nanoscales, quantum effects rule which means properties
such as fluorescence, melting point, boiling point, chemical reactivity
and biotoxicity differ from the usual.
Example: Gold nanoparticles are different from the common gold
metal in terms of physical and chemical properties. For instance, they
are colored red or purple, not yellowish. Its reaction to light and
electron stability is also different. Through nanotechnology, these
particles can be manipulated for other potential applications.
In the nanoscales, many biological activities happen. Naturally-
occurring biological nanoparticles are diverse in terms of function,
structure and potential use.
Example: Exosomes are nanovesicles secreted by vessels primarily for
transport. They contain loads of proteins and other biomolecules.
Through nanotechnology, exosomes become potential biomarkers of
cancer and other disease.
In the nanoscales, the surface area per mass increases. This allows
for an increased surface area for reactions. This makes nanoparticles
good catalyst.
Example: Fe3O4 or ferric magnetic nanoparticles have large surface
area allowing the binding of other molecules. These binding can be
used for potential industrial and biotechnological applications.
Uses and Applications of Nanotechnologies
 Because of their unique properties and structures, nanoparticles
have a wide array of uses and applications.
 They can be used in medicine, energy, environment, agriculture,
food security, communication and other fields.
Example:
Nanosensors
- Nanosensors are nanotechnologies that can be used to detect a
particular material or occurrence. One application of nanosensors is on
food safety.
- Nanosensors are being developed to detect the presence of
pathogens in the food. The signal of detection might be in the form of
fluorescence.
Bionanocomposites
- Bionanocomposites are nanoparticles that resulted from the
combination of biopolymers with inorganic molecules. These
nanoparticles show flexibility and strength.
One application of bionanocomposites is in the production of
biodegradable plastics. Since they are naturally-occurring,
bionanocomposites are biodegradable.
Carbon nanotubes
- Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon that have unusual
properties. They have many potential applications. One potential
application is on the development of supercapacitors.
Supercapacitors have the ability to store electrical energy like
batteries. Their development is important in the successful use to by
go tonio soldog shoe websie of renewable energy sources like the solar
power.
Nanocapsules
- Nanocapsules are nanotechnologies made up of non-toxic polymers
that can store biological or synthetic molecules.
One good application of nanocapsules is in agriculture. They can be
used to deliver soil nutrients and pesticides efficiently.
Magnetic Nanoparticles
Magnetic nanoparticles are nanotechnologies that can be manipulated
using magnetic fields. They are made by combining a magnetic
material like iron with a chemical material that has functionality. One
good application of magnetic nanoparticles is in medicine. They can be
used to detect cancer cells and tumors in the body.
Concerns and Issues About Nanotechnology
1. Its impact to human health is not clear.
 Exposure to nanoparticles may pose potential health impacts.
Exposure to nanoparticles can be through direct contact,
inhalation, ingestion or insertion to the body.
 Many nanoparticles were found to cause pulmonary toxicity
when inhaled. There is still a lot to understand and assess on the
long term health impacts of nanoparticles.
2. It may impact the environment
 Like other technologies, nanotechnology may have an impact to
the environment. The rise in the demand for nanotechnology
requires raw materials from the environment.
 Likewise, the effects of nanoparticles to the environment and
other organisms is not yet well understood.
3. It has moral issues.
 Nanotechnology is receiving opposition from some groups. It is
being accused of altering or modifying life forms, hence,
destroying the sanctity of life.
 Nanotechnology may also lead to the development of biological
and chemical weapons, genome editing, development of
synthetic organisms and others that are deemed controversial.

4. There is an issue in terms of equality and equity.

 Like other technologies, access to nanotechnology is an issue.
There is unequal opportunity to access and use of these
promising technologies. Usually, only those who can afford or
have the means can use the technology.

However, those who weren't able to access and use them may
suffer from the risks or negative

5. There is an issue in legality, privacy and security.

 Nanotechnology is being viewed as a possible security and
privacy threat in the future. There is a school of thought that
government surveillance and violation of one's privacy may be
enhanced through nanotechnologies. There is also a legal
question on the right to own, monitor and control nanoparticles.

6. It can negatively affect human behavior.

 Like other technologies, humans may rely too much on

nanotechnology. Some fear that nanotechnology may reduce
human productivity and may lead to the development of many
products that may be addictive to humans like computer games
and social media.

Conclusion/Summary
 Nanotechnology refers to the development of products or
manipulation of matter at the nanoscale. Nanoparticles are the
building blocks of nanotechnology.
 Nanotechnology has many practical uses and application in
different fields like medicine and agriculture.
 However, there are still some concerns and issues about
nanotechnology that need to be addressed.

Gene Therapy
• It is an experimental technique developed for correcting defective
genes responsible for disease development.
• Gene therapy is the introduction, removal, or alteration of genetic
material in order to prevent or treat a disease.
• It is a new era in medicine.
• The first approved gene therapy experiment occurred on September
14, 1990 in US, when Ashanti DeSilva was treated for ADA-SCID.
How does Gene Therapy work?
There are various approaches in performing gene therapy, including:
a. Replacing a disease-causing mutated gene with a healthy copy of
the gene
b. Inactivating or "silencing" a mutated gene or a gene that is not
functioning properly
c. Introducing a new gene into the body to help counteract or fight
the disease
d. Correcting the sequence of a mutated gene
A. Replacing A Mutated Gene
In order to replace a problematic or mutated gene:
 A functional and healthy gene will be inserted to a viral vector.
 The viral vector will carry and place the healthy gene on the site of
mutation.
 The mutated non-functional gene will be "spliced" or cut and
removed.
 The healthy gene will be attached and becomes a part of the final
DNA strand.
B. Gene Silencing or Gene Knockdown
 it aims to repress or turn off the function of a mutated gene which
prevents the cells from producing disease-causing proteins.
 Genes Knockdown are often completely removed or erased from
the genome in order to stop their expression (Hood, 2004; Mocellin
& Provenzano, 2004).
Gene silencing reduces the expression of a disease-causing gene
(Hood, 2004; Mocellin & Provenzano, 2004). It can be done by:
a. Inserting a repressor a.k.a silencer gene that reduces or prevents
the expression of the mutated gene.
b. Editing the gene to make it impossible for it to produce the
protein it codes for.
C.Introducing a New Gene (GENE ADDITION)
In gene addition, new and functional genes are introduced or added
into the genome to help fight or prevent a disease (Pharmaphorum,
2019)
• The introduction of a new gene can also be used to kill specific
diseased cells. This is useful for diseases like cancer.
There are two ways to do in order to add new and
functional genes:
1. by inserting a gene called the suicide gene into the diseased cells
that will cause the cells to die
2. by inserting a gene that will cause the cells to produce a protein
that will mark them as a target for the body's natural immune system
response.
D. Correcting the sequence of a mutated gene (GENE EDITING)
• In gene editing, instead of replacing the whole gene, the specific
error is located and edited.
Types of Gene Therapy
There are two distinct types of gene therapy, depending on the nature
of the target cells:
1. Somatic Gene Therapy
2. Germline Gene Therapy
Somatic Gene Therapy
 Somatic gene therapy is effective in treating diseases like muscular
dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, cancer, and some infectious diseases.
 Therapeutic genes transferred into the somatic cells.
 The effects of this method are short-lived and will not be inherited
later generations.
• It can be done ex vivo (outside the body) or in vivo (inside the body) .
1. Ex Vivo Gene Therapy - direct delivery of genes into the cells of a
particular tissue in the body.
2. In Vivo Gene Therapy - transfer of genes to cultured
Germline Gene Therapy
• Therapeutic genes transferred into the germ cells.
• It is heritable and passed on to later generations.
• It is currently not allowed to be done on humans because
of ethical and safety concerns and issues regarding possible
permanent changes in human genes.
Challenges Associated with Gene Therapy
A. Gene Delivery and Activation
 Therapeutic gene needs to be delivered not just to a single cell but
to groups of cells or tissues and it requires an accurate and specific
gene delivery.
 There is tendency to "turn off" certain genes when there are
already too many active genes.
 Delivered genes may also be overactivated, causing their
overexpression.
 The overproduction of enzymes or proteins due to this
overactivation
B. The Body’s Immune Response
 Gene therapy uses viral vectors to transport genes, they need to be
able to avoid the body's immune system to prevent it from
attacking them.
 The treatment effects are often short-lived, so patients will need to
undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.
 If the patient’ immunity is low, there is a risk for the disease to
progress or get worse.
C. Impact to Non- Target Genes and Cells
• There is also a small risk of attaching or inserting modified genes
into the wrong part of the genome or the wrong cell, which can lead
to a series of reactions that can cause cell death.
• This may also negatively affect the function of surrounding healthy
cells
• Viral vectors also tend to disrupt vital genes, possibly leading to
another disease or predisposition to other diseases like cancer.
• Other cells may also be targeted aside from the target cells.
D. Limited Access and Commercial Availability
 Many genetic diseases are not common. For rare diseases, gene
therapy should be individualized and customized to every patient to
ensure effectiveness. This makes developing and administering
gene therapy very expensive.
 Even for more common genetic disorders and related diseases like
cancer, gene therapy is still more costly than other treatment
options. Because of this, many people cannot afford and do not
have access to gene therapy.
E. Multi-gene Disorders
 Multiple genes with different functions control genetic disorders
like high blood pressure, heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and
Alzheimer's disease. So, to treat these diseases, many genes may
have to be corrected, deleted, or replaced. Doing so may lead to
complicated reactions in the body or possibly even more dangerous
diseases.
Ethical Questions in Gene Therapy
1. How can we distinguish "good" from "bad" gene therapy?
2. Who gets to decide which traits and genes constitute a disability
or disorder?
3. Because of the expensive costs of gene therapy, will it only be
available for rich people?
4. Is there a possibility that a widespread use of gene therapy can
make society less accepting of people who are different?
5. Aside from medical applications, should we be allowed to use
gene therapy for enhancements of basic human traits such as
athletic ability, height, intelligence, and hair or eye color?
———————
Gene Therapy
What i s Gene Therapy?
Many diseases are caused by genetic deformities or irregularities.
In order to treat these diseases, gene therapy was developed.
Gene therapy is a medical process that uses genes to prevent a
disease.
In other words, it is the introduction, removal or change in the
genetic material of an individual to prevent or treat a disease.
How does Gene Therapy work?
There are three main approaches to do gene therapy:
a. Replacement of a mutated gene that causes the disease
b. Gene silencing or deactivating of a mutated gene
c. Killing of specific cells
a. Replacement of a mutated gene For the replacement of a mutated
gene:
 a new functional and healthy gene will be inserted
 viral vectors are used to carry a healthy gene to the site of
mutation
 the mutated or non-functional gene will be cut away
 the healthy gene will be inserted
b. Gene silencing or deactivating of a mutated gene
In gene silencing, the mutated gene will be turned off to prevent
it from producing proteins which may cause a disease.
Gene silencing can be done in three ways:
1. Editing the gene making it impossible to produce protein
2. Changing the structure of the DNA of the mutated gene to
prevent protein synthesis
3. RNA Interference or the use of RNA sequences to cause the
prevention of protein production
c. Killing of specific cells
Killing o f specific cells is usually d o n e in cancer cells. It can be
done in two ways:
1. A DNA containing a suicide gene will be inserted to the diseased
cell causing its death
2. A DNA will be inserted to the target cell to produce a protein
that will mark the cell for attack by the body's natural immune
system
Two Types of Gene Therapy
Somatic gene therapy:
The target cells are the somatic cells or the cells that do not
produce sperm or egg. The effect of the gene therapy will not be
passed on to the next generations.
Germline gene therapy:
The target cells are those that produce eggs or sperm. The effects
of gene therapy will be passed on to the next generations.
Challenges In Gene Therapy
a. Gene Delivery and Activation In some diseases, a gene needs to
be delivered to a group of cells or in tissues. This requires proper
and accurate gene delivery.
Upon arrival at the target cells, it must be "turned on" and must
remain "on". However, cells have the tendency to "turn off" too
much active genes.
b. Immune Response - The body's immune system innately attacks
any intruders such as viruses and bacteria. The problem with
gene therapy is that many vectors which are used to transport
genes are viral in nature. These vectors should avoid the body's
immune system. However, it is difficult to do.
c. Impact to Non-target Cells and other Genes
Proper and accurate gene delivery is needed for a successful
gene therapy. However, what if the gene is inserted ni the wrong
part of the genome?
This is a concern that should be addressed. Putting the gene into
the wrong location may cause a cascade of events in the cell
leading to death.
d. Access and Commercial Viability
 Many genetic disorders are rare. As much as possible, gene
therapy is individualized per patient to be more effective. Hence,
developing and administering gene therapy is costly.

For common genetic disorders and related

diseases like cancer, gene therapy is still very expensive. Because
of this, gene therapy is still not commercially viable.

• Gene therapy is the introduction, removal or change in the genetic

material of an individual to prevent or treat a disease.

• It has many potential health benefits. However there are still some
issues, concerns and challenges that need to be addressed to make it
more effective, acceptable and impactful.