ENSTU 300: Critical Thinking and Communication in Environmental Studies Environmental Studies

Air Pollution’s Disproportionate Effect on Low-Income

Communities in Los Angeles
ENSTU, California State University, Monterey Bay
Diana Ferrel
Email: dferrel@csumb.edu

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Image credit: Ralph Vetterle from Pixabay

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Introduction

Air pollution is a mix of hazardous substances from both natural and human-made

sources in the atmosphere that pose a risk to the health of humans and other living things

(NIEHS, 2020). Though air pollutants can exist in their individual forms, they can also undergo

chemical reactions and form different pollutants while still in the atmosphere. This case study

focuses on the toxicity of air pollution in the Los Angeles area, particularly examining its impact

on different socioeconomic groups. Air pollution has been proven to have disproportionate

effects on low-income communities due to a combination of the lack of emission regulations and

enforcement; the disproportionate placement of polluting sources near low-income

neighborhoods; and the excessively large political power industrial emitters hold. Major

pollutant emitters, such as power plants, factories, truck routes, and highways, affect

communities of lower socioeconomic status the most, resulting in both physical and mental

health consequences linked to various health problems like respiratory diseases, heart disease,

and adverse birth outcomes due to the overexposure of air pollution (Currit, E., 2022).

While researching the issues of air pollution's disproportionate effects on disadvantaged

communities, this case study also analyzes the effectiveness of the implementation of key policy

abilities to reduce air pollution; such as the Clean Air Act, the Inflation Reduction Act, and the

Cap-and-Trade program. Additionally, this paper examines the perspective and impacts of key

stakeholders, such as motor transportation emitters, the California Air Resources Board (CARB),

and residents of communities such as Long Beach, who bear the burden of air pollution’s adverse

effects. In addressing the link between policies, stakeholders, and socioeconomic backgrounds,
this study aims to highlight the challenges of addressing air pollution in urban areas such as Los

Angeles.

History

Califonia first recognized smog as a serious issue in the summer of 1943 in Los Angeles,

where people experienced burning eyes, lungs, and nausea from smog so thick that there were

only three blocks of visibility. This new phenomenon was blamed on a nearby butadiene plant,

which some thought to be a “gas attack,” but even after the plant shut down, smog did not appear

to subside. Due to the continuance of smog, for the first time in the nation, the Los Angeles

County Air Pollution Control District was formed in 1947. The LA County Air Pollution Control

District was in charge of regulating smoke-emitting power plants and oil refineries, although

smog continued. This all changed in the early 1950s when a reaction known as photochemical

smog was discovered, creating a brown haze above cities. Photochemical smog resulted from the

reaction between sunlight with automobile exhaust and industrial air pollution, leading to the

formation of the Bureau of Air Sanitation within the California Department of Public Health.

The purpose of this bureau was to establish air quality standards and set control over motor

vehicle emissions of air pollutants, which led to the nation's earliest establishment of tailpipe

emissions standards in 1966. Fast forward a year to the establishment of the California Air

Resources Board, followed by the federal Clean Air Act, which expanded on the 1967 Air

Quality Act. These acts authorized the state to set its own separate and stricter-than-federal

vehicle emissions regulations. These regulations allowed the California Air Resources Board

(CARB) to adopt the nation's first Nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions standards for motor vehicles.

NOx is a group of highly reactive gasses, including nitrogen dioxide, nitrous acid, and nitric
acid. The new regulations paved the way for the development of the catalytic converter, which

completely revolutionized the capacity to reduce smog-forming emissions from cars in 1970. All

this progress by CARB during the 1980s and 1990s led to the elimination of lead in gasoline and

the adoption of cleaner-burning gasoline, setting standards for cleaner diesel fuel for trucks and

buses, as well as reducing smog-forming emissions from many common household products.

During the 2000s, CARB took responsibility for monitoring and reducing greenhouse gas

emissions that caused climate change. This monitoring led to the signing of the Global Warming

Solutions Act of 2006 by Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, establishing a never-before-seen

comprehensive program of regulatory and market mechanisms to achieve real, accessible, and

cost-efficient reductions in greenhouse gasses (CARB 2024).

Scientific Understanding

Despite the best efforts to manage air quality standards, ozone levels, which combine

with other gasses and particle pollutants to create smog, are frequently twice as high as the

federal health standard. Air pollution is not only a health issue but also a justice issue. Studies

focusing on more rural areas have shown that oil and gas wells and their associated hazards are

disproportionately placed across communities that are already burdened by multiple

socio-environmental hazards (Deziel, 2023). High levels of air pollution have proven to be an

issue for human health because they cause damage to cells in the lungs' airways, cause

inflammation and swelling, and reduce the respiratory system's ability to fight infections and

remove foreign particles. In addition, air pollution threatens the health of 14 million residents in

the South Coast Basin already suffering from respiratory problems like asthma, emphysema, and

chronic bronchitis. Health effect studies have found that 98% of residents living in the Los
Angeles region, along with the 3 others in the four-county basin, are exposed to unhealthy air, in

addition to the 1,600 premature deaths as a result of air pollution exposure (SCAQMD, n.d.).

Poor air quality can be directly linked to minority groups, as they are shown to be

exposed more often as a result of living in more polluted environments in which housing is more

affordable; in addition, African-American and Hispanic groups are commonly linked to the worst

air because they tend to work outdoor jobs. According to the South Coast Air Quality

Management District, being exposed to areas exceeding state and federal standards for

suspended particles for 42 days or more out of the year showed a higher risk of respiratory

diseases. Exposure to such areas resulted in a 33% increase risk of bronchitis, a 74% increase

risk of asthma, and a 37% increase risk of developing a form of cancer for women living in areas

with higher particles (SCAQMD, n.d.). These health pattern concerns affect low-income

neighborhoods most, due to a higher dependence on financial incentives for industries with

cheaper land, low-cost labor, and easier access to transportation. Because low-income

communities have such a disproportionate placement of major pollutant emitters like power

plants, factories, or truck routes, studies found that the most disadvantaged communities were the

ones exposed to both the most toxic particles as well as the highest particle contaminations (Shen

et al., 2022).

Being that air pollution contributes to 1 in 6 deaths, shortens life expectancy, and

decreases the quality of life, especially for those from low-income communities, it's important to

break down the contributing sources of smog. The four main types of air pollution sources are

mobile, stationary, area, and natural sources. Mobile sources would be motor vehicles and

planes, which account for more than 50% of all air pollution in the United States. Stationary
sources would be power plants and factories, accounting for the emission of over 240 and 109

million metric tons from 2009 to 2019. Area sources are considered agricultural areas and

wood-burning fireplaces whose nitrogen-rich fertilizer fumes and animal waste emissions of

particulate matter were found to outweigh all other human sources of particulate matter in most

of the United States (Currit, E., 2022). While natural sources such as wind-blown dust, wildfires,

and volcanoes don't usually create ongoing air pollution problems.

Figure 1.

Figure 1. The chart represents the global causes of death per year. Air
pollution is the biggest cause of death globally with an outstanding total of 12.1 million
premature deaths per year. (Currit, 2022)
Policy

Although California prides itself on having some of the most progressive air quality

regulations in the nation, the state continues to face several challenges pertaining to air pollution.

California's aggressive air pollution control programs aim to assertively address the serious air

pollution issue in the state. While the implemented programs have led to continuous

improvement in the state's air quality, policymakers still require ongoing efforts to further

improve air quality and protect public health due to their lack of proper establishment of policies.

For this paper the following policies will be analyzed: the California Clean Air Act, the Inflation

Reduction Act, and the Cap-and-Trade Program.

Table 1: Policy Evaluation

Criteria Clean Air Act Inflation Reduction Cap-and-Trade

Act

Human Wellbeing ++++ ++++ +++

Regulation aimed to The Act aims to fight Reduces emissions by

protect public health inflation through limiting the amount
and the environment. managing of pollution
Aims to improve the government companies can emit.
Nation’s air quality. spending.

Cost +++ +++ ++++

Although the initial Encourage businesses Companies emitting

cost of implementing & individuals to less than than allowed
this policy is costly, invest in clean limit can sell their
the long-term health technologies by extra pollution
& environmental lowering energy permits to other
benefits surpass the costs. companies.
cost.
 Administrative +++ ++++ ++++
Feasibility
The regulation aims Increases cleaner Incentivizing all
to regulate all sources production & reduces companies to reduce
of emissions. carbon emissions. their pollution
amount.

Key: Least effective (+) Moderately effective (++) Effective (+++) Most effective (++++)

Clean Air Act (CAA) (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.)

The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution control.

The 1963 Act established a federal program in the U.S. Public Health Service and authorized

research towards techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution. The later enactment of

the 1970 Clean Air Act, resulted in major shifts in the federal government’s role towards air

pollution control. The 1970 legislation warranted the development of comprehensive federal and

state regulations aiming to limit emissions from both industrial stationary sources and mobile

sources. The Clean Air Act of 1970 also increased enforcement authority through establishments

like the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants, and through authorizing

control requirements of motor vehicle emissions. Major amendments were required leading to

the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990, which increased the authority and responsibility of the

federal government. The 1990 Amendments also authorized regulatory programs for the control

of acid deposition (acid rain) and the issuance of stationary source operating permits. These

revisions included provisions regarding stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement

authority, and expanded research programs (EPA, 2018). The ultimate goal of the Clean Air Act

is to improve the nation's air quality and to protect public health, and the environment. Despite
ever-increasing population and increased amounts of vehicle miles traveled, the Clean Air Act

achieved healthier air for Americans, by reducing pollution such as lead from transportation

sources, and attained new passenger vehicles to be 98-99% cleaner for most tailpipe pollutants

compared to the 1960s (EPA, 2024). However, the Clean Air Act’s important steps toward

improving U.S. air quality are limited due to its failure to address pollutants on a smaller scale,

resulting in disproportionate impacts on low-income communities and their health (Parker,

2023).

Inflation Reduction Act (136 Stat. 1818)

The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) was signed into effect on August 16, 2022, by

President Biden. The IRA is currently the largest investment in clean energy and climate action

ever. The transformative law of the IRA is intended to aid the United States, meet its climate

goals, and strengthen energy security, through investing in America to create well-paying jobs,

reduce energy and healthcare costs, as well as ensure a fairer tax code (WH.GOV, 2023). In

regards to air pollution, the IRA aims to deliver clean air by implementing systems that consist,

but are not limited to: air pollution and multipollutant monitoring, diesel emission reductions,

Clean Air Act grants, and air quality sensors. Air pollution and multipollutant monitoring aim to

measure toxic and emerging pollutants, while diesel emission reductions decrease harmful

emissions and address health impacts in communities with disproportionate amounts of diesel

pollution. The act’s objective is to minimize pollution in neighborhoods in which people live,

work, play, and go to school; specifically working towards expediting environmental justice

efforts in communities overburdened by pollution for extensive periods, and addressing major

climate challenges while creating jobs and delivering energy security (U.S. EPA 2024). The
Inflation Reduction Act is the most recent and significant legislation in U.S. history to address

the climate crisis and strengthen American energy security. Although the legislation was only

recently established and there hasn't been sufficient time to evaluate its effectiveness; the IRA

encourages pollution reduction through environmental justice block grants, investing in cleaner

buses and trucks, and a Clean Energy and Sustainability Accelerator prioritizing

emission-reducing projects for disadvantaged communities (President Biden, 2022).

Cap-and-Trade Program

The Cap-and-Trade Program was implemented under the authority of the California Air

Resource Board (CARB), in 2006 through A.B 32. Cap-and-trade is one of the state's key

policies aiming to reduce statewide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Through this program,

CARB is assigned with setting a declining aggregate cap on the amount of GHGs allowed to be

emitted in the state yearly. Entities covered under the program are responsible for about 75% of

the state's GHG emissions and include oil refineries, electric generators and importers, and

manufacturing facilities. The Cap-and-Trade Program has three requirements the covered entities

can choose to comply with: Reduce their GHG emissions, obtain allowances (permits to cover

emissions), and/or purchase “offsets” to cover their emission. CARB issues a set number of

yearly allowances equivalent to the annual cap that entities can purchase and sell in an open

market- accounting for the “trade” component of the program. Instead of establishing individual

GHG emission caps for each covered entity or facility; the total number of allowances given

away and sold statewide in a given year is equal to the aggregate statewide cap on GHG

emissions which CARB sets yearly. Although California’s cap-and-trade program reduces

emissions more cost-effectively compared to other state-funded programs; specifically

comparing the cap-and-trade $30 per ton of CO2 equivalent reduction, in contrast to an estimated
cost of $193 per ton from a large state program that subsidized zero-emission vehicle

replacements. Although there has been a 14% decline in California’s overall GHG emissions, the

change isn't solely because of the impacts of the program, but rather the complex interactions

between the cap-and-trade program and other state climate change efforts, as well as other

technological and economic factors affecting emission reductions (LOA, 2023). Despite not

having sufficient studies to produce reliable estimates of emission reductions reached by the

cap-and-trade program, it is effective in limiting the amount of pollution companies can emit. If

these companies emit less than the allowed limit, they can sell their extra pollution permits to

other companies; thus incentivizing companies to reduce their pollution amount.

Policy Conclusion

Overall, most of the current air pollution policies look great on paper, with the common

goals of reducing air pollution and improving the environment’s health. However, the

effectiveness of these legislations is heavily limited by a lack of efficient regulations being

implemented and enforced. The existing bills' negligence results in increased health risk, and

decreases quality of life, especially for those from low-income communities. The

disproportionate effects of air pollution in low-income communities highlight the critical need

for time-efficient, environmental-justice-centered legislation that prioritizes the health of

underserved communities and minimizes pollutant emissions.

Stakeholder Analysis

Los Angeles is known for being a cultural melting pot, full of diverse communities with

members from different parts of the world, and living different lifestyles. Communities full of

such diverse backgrounds warrant a mixture of various perspectives, due to mixed life
experiences, and people having different socioeconomic backgrounds. As California holds some

of the nation's strictest air pollution policies on paper, challenges such as addressing air quality

issues in regions such as Los Angeles with excessive amounts of pollution remain. For this case

study, stakeholders are identified but only the three most impactful are analyzed (refer to Table

2.). Starting with the industrial emitters such as mobile transportation; the single largest emitter

of GHG pollution in California. Second is the California Air Resource Board also known as

“CARB,” responsible for regulating and setting air pollution sources and standards. Third, the

fenceline communities face disproportionate burdens of air pollution due to factors such as

proximity to industrial areas and highways, such as Long Beach residents.

Table 2: Stakeholders Perspectives

STAKEHOLDER REPRESENTATIVE / INFLUENC DESCRIPTION

GROUP EXAMPLE E /
IMPACTS /

Industrial Emitters Mobile Transportation High - Single largest source of

greenhouse gas pollution in
California.

Government Agency California Air Resources High - Regulating air pollution

Board (CARB) sources, setting air quality
standards, & monitoring
compliance with regulations.

Long Beach Residents High - Face disproportionate burden

Fenceline Communities of air pollution, due to factors
like proximity to industrial
areas and highways.
- Face higher risks of respiratory
diseases and other health
issues.

Healthcare Providers Centinela Hospital High - Experience increased demand

Medical Center for services related to
respiratory illnesses.

Community Organizations Coalition For Clean Air Medium - Work with advocates,
organizations, companies, &
 legislators to find solutions to
air quality issues.

Mobile Transportation

Carbon Monoxide is a gas that comes from fossil fuels being burned. Motor vehicles are

the single largest source of carbon monoxide emissions. Cars and trucks contribute to more than

50% of all emissions nationwide; however, in high-traffic density cities like Los Angeles, the

contributions can be even greater (Los Angeles County Department of Public Health, n.d).

According to CARB, the transportation sector is the largest contributor to GHG emissions,

accounting for over 40% of the state’s total emissions in 2006. Thus giving the transportation

sector a major role in achieving significant statewide emission reductions. Light-duty vehicles

such as cars and trucks account for about two-thirds of the state’s Instate transportation energy

use and emissions, and approximately half of the overall transportation energy use and

emissions. Implementing durable and tough policies can help address the challenges linked with

reducing GHG emissions from transportation (Yang et al., 2009). In incorporating proper pricing

on transportation alternatives, having more creative uses of new and emerging transportation

technologies, as well as providing many more opportunities for simpler private sector transport

services, would appear as a more cost-effective approach to handling congestion in Los Angeles

than existing regional transportation policies (Wachs, 1993). The policy that is closely linked to

mobile transportation, is the Clean Air Act as it aims to authorize control requirements of motor

vehicle emissions and improve the Nation’s air quality.

California Air Resources Board (CARB)

 The California Air Resources Board or “CARB” is an example of a government agency

set to protect the public from the harmful effects of air pollution and develop programs and

actions to fight against climate change. CARB’s authority ranges from requirements for clean

cars and fuels to adopting effective solutions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; which

California takes pride in leading a range of efficient approaches that set the standard for effective

air and climate programs for the nation, and the rest of the world. The CARB centers California’s

unique air quality challenges by setting the state's own stricter emissions standards for various

statewide pollution sources such as vehicles, fuels, and consumer products. The California Air

Resources Board plays a crucial role in reducing air pollution, through its engagement with the

public by holding monthly public meetings that review progress and are open to new approaches

for cleaning California’s air. CARB also helps the most impacted communities, especially

neighborhoods stuck between freeways, ports, and rail yards, through a series of programs in

effect, to address pollution in these impacted areas (CA GOV., n.d). The policy most closely

linked to the California Air Resources Board is the Cap-and-Trade program, and the Clean Air

Act as the CARB was responsible for designing and implementing both programs.

Long Beach Residence

Long Beach Residences are a great example of fence-line communities, due to their

proximity to highly polluting facilities. Although climate change impacts all of Long Beach,

some of the city’s communities find themselves more directly challenged due to disproportionate

environmental health burdens. In the city of Long Beach, low-income communities and

communities of color have a higher chance of living in areas with poor air quality and little green

space. Low-income communities of color are still currently concentrated in the portions of the

city with the poorest air quality and environmental health indicators because low-income
communities of color used to be historically excluded from neighborhoods with less

environmental pollution and greater public investment (Long Beach Gov, n.d). The Long Beach

Residents are directly affected by mobile transportation as the residents rely on transportation to

move around, additionally, they are disproportionately affected due to their proximity to highly

polluting sources. The policies that can be closely linked to the Long Beach Residents are the

Inflation Reduction Act, which aims to invest in clean technologies and accelerate environmental

justice efforts in communities overburdened by pollution, and the Clean Air Act which aims to

improve the nation’s air quality, protect public health, and the environment.

Stakeholder Perspective Conclusion

Overall, Los Angeles communities are filled with lots of diversity and varying

backgrounds, which fuel the different perspectives people have when addressing air pollution.

Although The CARB is responsible for setting air quality standards and regulations, compliance

with the set standards can pose challenges for mobile transportation due to the costly changes

needed to meet emission regulations, which results in inadequate enforcement and increases

Long Beach Residents' prolonged exposure to harmful pollutants.

Conclusion

Los Angeles’ low-income communities run a higher risk of both physical and mental

health consequences due to the disproportionate placement of high emitters near their

communities. Additionally, the lack of emission regulations and enforcement is also a huge

challenge for the current policies aiming to mitigate air pollution. Examining the Los Angeles

area's air pollution highlights the disproportionate impacts on low-income communities, and

emphasizes the urgent need for effective policies and strict enforcement mechanisms. Although

California has taken significant steps towards addressing air pollution, through incentives such as
the Clean Air Act, the Inflation Reduction Act, and the Cap-and-Trade Program, there remain

critical challenges in converting these policies into tangible improvements for air quality,

especially for disadvantaged communities. California prides itself in demonstrating commitment

towards environmental protection, yet lacks efficiently addressing local sources of pollution and

ensuring equitable distribution of clean air benefits. Stakeholders such as Mobile Transportation,

the California Air Resources Board (CARB), and Long Beach Residents play critical roles in

shaping the outcome of air quality. However, inequalities in power and resources among these

stakeholders emphasize the need for the implementation of stricter enforcement and regulations,

the investment in cleaner transportation options, and an increase in access to affordable clean

energy sources. Ultimately, California’s environmental and air pollution policies' effectiveness

depends on their ability to prioritize environmental justice, protect public health, and address the

challenges faced by communities disproportionately impacted by pollution.

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