Human Anatomy And Physiology

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 Anatomy and Physiology
Laboratory Safety Guidelines*
1.  pon entering the laboratory, locate exits, fire extinguisher, fire blanket, chemical shower,
U
eyewash station, first aid kit, containers for broken glass, and materials for cleaning up spills.
2.  o not eat, drink, smoke, handle contact lenses, store food, or apply cosmetics or lip balm in
D
the laboratory. Restrain long hair, loose clothing, and dangling jewelry.
3. S tudents who are pregnant, are taking immunosuppressive drugs, or have any other medical
conditions (e.g., diabetes, immunological defect) that might necessitate special precautions in
the laboratory must inform the instructor immediately.
4.  earing contact lenses in the laboratory is inadvisable because they do not provide eye
W
protection and may trap material on the surface of the eye. Soft contact lenses may absorb
volatile chemicals. If possible, wear regular eyeglasses instead.
5. Use safety glasses in all experiments involving liquids, aerosols, vapors, and gases.
6. econtaminate work surfaces at the beginning and end of every lab period, using a
D
commercially prepared disinfectant or 10% bleach solution. After labs involving dissection of
preserved material, use hot soapy water or disinfectant.
7.  eep all liquids away from the edge of the lab bench to avoid spills. Clean up spills of viable
K
materials using disinfectant or 10% bleach solution.
8. Properly label glassware and slides.
9. Use mechanical pipetting devices; mouth pipetting is prohibited.
10. W
 ear disposable gloves when handling blood and other body fluids, mucous membranes, and
nonintact skin, and when touching items or surfaces soiled with blood or other body fluids.
Change gloves between procedures. Wash hands immediately after removing gloves. (Note: Cover
open cuts or scrapes with a sterile bandage before donning gloves.)
11. P lace glassware and plasticware contaminated by blood and other body fluids in a disposable
autoclave bag for decontamination by autoclaving, or place them directly into a 10% bleach
solution before reuse or disposal. Place disposable materials such as gloves, mouthpieces,
swabs, and toothpicks that have come into contact with body fluids into a disposable autoclave
bag, and decontaminate before disposal.
12. T o help prevent contamination by needlestick injuries, use only disposable needles and lancets. Do
not bend the needles and lancets. Needles and lancets should be placed promptly in a labeled,
puncture-resistant, leakproof container and decontaminated, preferably by autoclaving.
13. Do not leave heat sources unattended.
14. Report all spills or accidents, no matter how minor, to the instructor.
15. Never work alone in the laboratory.
16. Remove protective clothing before leaving the laboratory.

*Adapted from:
Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), Fifth Edition. 2007. U.S. Government Printing ­Office. Washington,
D.C. www.cdc.gov/od/OHS/biosfty/bmbl5/bmbl5toc.htm
Centers for Disease Control. 1996. “Universal Precautions for Prevention of Transmission of HIV and Other Bloodborne Infec-
tions.” ­Washington, D.C. www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/bp_universal_precautions.html
Johnson, Ted, and Christine Case. 2010. Laboratory Experiments in Microbiology, Ninth Edition. San Francisco: P­ earson Benja-
min ­Cummings.
School Chemistry Laboratory Safety Guide. 2006. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Bethesda, MD. www.cpsc.gov/
CPSCPUB/PUBS/NIOSH2007107.pdf
This page intentionally left blank
Your time is valuable. Make the most
of your time inside and outside the lab.

To help you manage your time inside and outside the A&P lab classroom, this
best-selling manual works hand-in-hand with Mastering A&P, the leading online
homework and learning program for A&P. This edition features dozens of new,
full-color figures and photos, revamped Clinical Application questions, an
expanded set of pre-lab videos, dissection videos, and more.
M09_MARI6358_13_SE_C09.indd Page 115 11/6/17 3:17 PM f-0035 /203/PH03335/9780134806358_MARIEB/MARIEB_HUMAN_ANATOMY_AND_PHYSIOLOGY_LAB_MANUAL1 ...

9
E X E R C I S E
The Axial Skeleton NEW! Mastering
A&P study tools
are highlighted on the
first page of each lab
Learning Outcomes Go to Mastering A&P™ > Study exercise, along with a
Area to improve your performance
▶▶ Name the three parts of the axial skeleton. in A&P Lab. photo preview of a
▶▶ Identify the bones of the axial skeleton, either by examining disarticulated
bones or by pointing them out on an articulated skeleton or skull, and
related pre-lab video,
name the important bone markings on each. image from Practice
▶▶ Name and describe the different types of vertebrae.

▶▶ Discuss the importance of intervertebral discs and spinal curvatures.

Anatomy Lab 3.1 (PAL),
▶▶ Identify three abnormal spinal curvatures. or animation.
▶▶ List the components of the thoracic cage.

▶▶ Identify the bones of the fetal skull by examining an articulated skull or

image. > Lab Tools > Bone & Dissection
▶▶ Define fontanelle, and discuss the function and fate of fontanelles. Videos
▶▶ Discuss important differences between the fetal and adult skulls. Instructors may assign new NEW! Mastering
Building Vocabulary coaching
activities, Pre-Lab Quiz questions, Art A&P assignments,
Instructors may assign these and other Pre-Lab
Pre-Lab Quiz Quiz questions using Mastering A&P™
Labeling activities, related bone videos
and coaching activities, Practice including NEW
1. The axial skeleton can be divided into the skull, the vertebral column,
Anatomy Lab Practical questions (PAL),
and more using the Mastering A&P™ Building Vocabulary
and the:
a. thoracic cage c. hip bones
Item Library.
Coaching Activities,
b. femur
2. Eight bones make up the
d. humerus
, which encloses and protects Materials are signaled at
the brain. ▶▶ Intact skull and Beauchene skull appropriate points
a. cranium b. face c. skull ▶▶ X-ray images of individuals with scoliosis,

3. The vertebrae articulate with the corresponding ribs. lordosis, and kyphosis (if available) throughout the manual
a. cervical c. spinal ▶▶ Articulated skeleton, articulated vertebral

b. lumbar d. thoracic column, removable intervertebral discs to help you connect the
4. The , commonly referred to as the breastbone, is a flat
bone formed by the fusion of three bones: the manubrium, the body,
▶▶ Isolated cervical, thoracic, and lumbar
vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx exercises to relevant
and the xiphoid process. ▶▶ Isolated fetal skull
assignments that can
a. coccyx b. sacrum c. sternum
5. A fontanelle: be auto-graded in
a. is found only in the fetal skull
b. is a fibrous membrane Mastering A&P.
c. allows for compression of the skull during birth
d. all of the above

T he axial skeleton (the green portion of Figure 8.1 on p. 104) can be divided into
three parts: the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. This division
of the skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body and protects the brain,
spinal cord, heart, and lungs.

115

See p. 115

i
 Be Prepared: Learning in A&P Lab
is an Active Process.

Before going Page

9_MARI6358_13_SE_C09.indd into141
the lab, 3:21
11/6/17 readPM the
f-0035background information for the exercise, connect
/203/PH03335/9780134806358_MARIEB/MARIEB_HUMAN_ANATOMY_AND_PH

your reading to the figures and photos, complete the pre-lab quiz, and preview the
questions in the tear-out Exercise Review Sheet. After lab, review your lab notes
to remember important concepts. To improve your performance on lab practical
M13_MARI6358_13_SE_C13.indd Page 224 11/7/17 3:44 PM f-0035 /203/PH03335/9780134806358_MARIEB/MARIEB_HUMAN_ANATOMY_AND_PHYSIOLOGY_LAB_MANUAL

exams, log into Mastering A&P, where you can watch related videos, practice with
Review Sheet 9 1
customized flashcards, and more.224 Review Sheet 13

The Fetal Skull Muscles of the Head and Neck

3. Using choices from the key at the right, correctly identify muscles provided with leader lines on the illustration.
NEW! Dozens of full-color Key:
22. Are the same skull bones seen in the adult also found in the fetal skull? ____________________________________________
figures and photos have a. buccinator
been added to the Exercise b. depressor anguli oris
23. How
Review does
Sheets, the size of the fetal face compare to its cranium? ______________________________________________________
replacing c. depressor labii inferioris
black-and-white line drawings. d. frontal belly of the epicranius
Selected_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
labeling questions
e. levator labii inferioris
are available as new Art-
LabelingHowassignments
does this compare
f. masseter
into the adult skull? _____________________________________________________________________
Mastering A&P. g. mentalis

h. occipital belly of the epicranius

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
i. orbicularis oculi

j. orbicularis oris
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
k. risorius

l. sternocleidomastoid
24. What are the outwardSee
conical projections on some of the fetal cranial bones? ________________________________________
p. 224
m. zygomaticus minor and major
4. Using the key provided in question 3, identify the muscles described next.
25. What is a fontanelle? _______________________________________________________________________________________
________ 1. used in smiling ________ 6. used to form the vertical frown crease on
the forehead
________ 2. used to suck in your cheeks
What is its fate? ___________________________________________________________________________________________
________ 7. your kissing muscle
Compare to Previous Edition
________ 3. used in blinking and squinting
________ 8. prime mover of jaw closure
What is the function of the fontanelles in the
________ fetal
4. used skull?
to pout _________________________________________________________
(pulls the
mouth downward)
corners of the
________ 9. tenses skin of the neck during shaving

________ 5. raises your eyebrows for a questioning

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
expression

26. + Craniosynostosis is a condition in which one or more of the fontanelles is replaced by bone prematurely. Discuss the ra
fications of this early closure.
NEW! Clinical Application Questions have been
added to the Exercise Review Sheets to help you connect
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
lab concepts with real-world clinical scenarios.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

27. + As we age, we often become shorter. Explain why this might occur. ___________________________________________

See p._________________________________________________________________________________________________________
141

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
NEW! Building Vocabulary Coaching Activities are a fun way to learn word
roots +A&P
28.and Theterminology while
xiphoid process building
is often and
missing practicing
from important
the sternum in bone language
collections.skills.
Hypothesize why it might be missing. _______

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Get 24/7 videos, coaching, and practice
with Mastering A&P.

EXPANDED! 8 new Pre-Lab Video

Coaching Activities in Mastering A&P
(for a total of 18) focus on key
concepts in the lab activity and walk
you through important procedures.
New pre-lab video topics include
Preparing and Observing a Wet
Mount, Examining a Long Bone,
Initiating Pupillary Reflexes, Palpating
Superficial Pulse Points, Auscultating
Heart Sounds, and more.

NEW! Cat and Fetal Pig

Dissection Video Coaching
Activities help you prepare for
dissection by previewing key
anatomical structures. Each video
includes one to two comparisons
to human structures.

NEW! Customizable Practice

Anatomy Lab (PAL) Flashcards
allow you to create a personalized,
mobile-friendly deck of flashcards and
quizzes using images from PAL 3.1. You
can generate flashcards using only the
structures that your instructor has
emphasized in lecture or lab.

IMPROVED! The Pearson eText mobile

app allows you to access the complete
lab manual online or offline, along
with all of the videos described above.

iii
Additional Support for
Students & Instructors

Mastering A&P offers thousands of tutorials, activities, and questions that can be
assigned for homework and practice. Highlights of popular assignment options
include the following:

PhysioEx™ 9.1 is an easy-to-use lab simulation program
that consists of 12 exercises containing 63 physiology lab
activities that can be used to supplement or substitute for
wet labs.
IMPROVED! Practice Anatomy Lab 3.1 is
now accessible on all mobile devices to give students
24/7 access to the most widely used lab specimens,
including human cadaver, anatomical models,
histology slides, cat, and fetal pig.
Dynamic Study Modules are manageable,
mobile-friendly sets of questions with
extensive feedback for students to test, learn,
and retest until they master basic concepts.
• NEW! Instructors can select or deselect
specific questions to customize
assignments.
• EXPANDED! The Lab Manual Mastering
A&P course now offers over 3,000
Dynamic Study Module questions, shared
with the Marieb/Hoehn texbook Human
Anatomy & Physiology 11th Edition.

The Mastering A&P Instructor Resources Area includes the following downloadable tools:
• Customizable PowerPoint® lecture outlines include customizable images and provide a springboard
for lab prep.
• All of the figures, photos, and tables from the manual are available in JPEG and PowerPoint® formats,
in labeled and unlabeled versions, and with customizable labels and leader lines.
• Test bank provides thousands of customizable questions across Bloom’s taxonomy levels and includes all
lab practical and quiz questions from Practice Anatomy Lab 3.1. Each question is tagged to chapter
learning outcomes that can also be tracked within Mastering A&P assessments. Available in Microsoft®
Word and TestGen® formats.
• Animations and videos bring A&P concepts to life and include pre-lab videos, bone videos, and
dissection videos.
• A comprehensive Instructor’s Guide, co-authored by Elaine Marieb and Lori Smith, includes prep instructions
for each exercise, along with answer keys for all of the Exercise Review Sheets.

A Photographic Atlas for Instructor Resource DVD with

Anatomy & Physiology PowerPoint Lecture Outlines
By Nora Hebert, Ruth E. ISBN 9780134777092
Heisler, et al.
Instructor’s Guide for Human
ISBN 9780321869258
Anatomy & Physiology Lab
Manual 13/e
ISBN 9780134778839
F E TA L P I G V E R S I O N
THIRTEENTH EDITION

Human Anatomy
& Physiology
Laboratory
Manual
Elaine N. Marieb, R.N., Ph.D.
Holyoke Community College

Lori A. Smith, Ph.D.

American River College

PhysioEx™ Version 9.1

authored by
Peter Z. Zao
North Idaho College

Timothy Stabler, Ph.D.

Indiana University Northwest

Lori A. Smith, Ph.D.

American River College

Andrew Lokuta, Ph.D.

University of Wisconsin–Madison

Edwin Griff, Ph.D.

University of Cincinnati
Editor-in-Chief: Serina Beauparlant Compositor: iEnergizer Aptara®, Ltd.
Senior Courseware Portfolio Manager: Lauren Harp Art Coordinator: David Novak
Managing Producer: Nancy Tabor Interior & Cover Designer: Hespenheide Design
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Proofreader: Betsy Dietrich Senior Anatomy & Physiology Specialist: Derek Perrigo

Cover Photo Credit: technotr/Getty Images

Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on page C-1, which constitutes an extension of this
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1 17

ISBN 10: 0-13-480636-0 (Student edition)

www.pearson.com ISBN 13: 978-0-13-480636-5 (Student edition)
ISBN 10: 0-13-478764-1 (Instructor’s Review Copy)
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-478764-0 (Instructor’s Review Copy)
About the Authors
Elaine N. Marieb
After receiving her Ph.D. in zoology from the University of
­Massachusetts at Amherst, Elaine N. Marieb joined the faculty
of the Biological Science Division of Holyoke Community Col-
lege. While teaching at Holyoke Community College, where
many of her students were pursuing nursing degrees, she devel-
oped a desire to better understand the relationship between the
scientific study of the human body and the clinical aspects of the
nursing practice. To that end, while continuing to teach full time,
Dr. Marieb pursued her nursing education, which culminated in
a Master of Science degree with a clinical specialization in geron-
tology from the University of Massachusetts. It is this experience
that has informed the development of the unique perspective
and accessibility for which her publications are known.
Dr. Marieb has given generously to provide opportunities for students to fur-
ther their education. She funds the E. N. Marieb Science Research Awards at
Mount Holyoke College, which promotes research by undergraduate science
majors, and has underwritten renovation of the biology labs in Clapp Laboratory
at that college. Dr. Marieb also contributes to the University of Massachusetts at
Amherst, where she provided funding for reconstruction and instrumentation of a
cutting-edge cytology research laboratory. Recognizing the severe national short-
age of nursing faculty, she underwrites the Nursing Scholars of the Future Grant
Program at the university.
In 2012 and 2017, Dr. Marieb gave generous philanthropic support to Florida
Gulf Coast University as a long-term investment in education, research, and train-
ing for healthcare and human services professionals in the local community. In
honor of her contributions, the university is now home to the Elaine Nicpon
Marieb College of Health and Human Services.

Lori A. Smith
Lori A. Smith received her Ph.D. in biochemistry from the
­University of California at Davis. Before discovering her pas-
sion for teaching, she worked as a research scientist and project
leader in the medical diagnostics industry. In 1999, she joined
the faculty at American River College in the Biology Depart-
ment, where she teaches anatomy and physiology and microbi-
ology to students preparing for nursing or other allied health
careers. Since 2005, she has coauthored Pearson’s PhysioEx™:
Laboratory Simulations in Physiology and has continued to
­coauthor several Pearson lab manuals. Dr. Smith has been
named Instructor of the Year by the American River College
Associated Student Body, and she is a member of the Human
Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS) and California
Academy of Sciences. When not teaching or writing, she enjoys
spending time with her family: hiking, cycling, and kayaking.

vii
Preface to the Instructor
The philosophy behind the revision of this manual mirrors that
of all earlier editions. It reflects a still developing sensibility for
the way teachers teach and students learn, informed by years
of teaching the subject and by collecting suggestions from
other instructors as well as from students enrolled in multifac-
eted healthcare programs. Human Anatomy & Physiology
Laboratory Manual was originally developed to facilitate and
enrich the laboratory experience for both teachers and stu-
dents. This edition retains those same goals.
This manual, intended for students in introductory human
anatomy and physiology courses, presents a wide range of lab-
oratory experiences for students concentrating in nursing,
physical therapy, pharmacology, respiratory therapy, and exer-
cise science, as well as biology and premedical programs. The
manual’s coverage is intentionally broad, allowing it to serve
both one- and two-semester courses, and it is available in ver-
sions that contain detailed guidelines for dissecting a cat or
fetal pig laboratory specimen.
Basic Approach and Features
The generous variety of experiments in this manual provides
flexibility that enables instructors to gear their laboratory
approach to specific academic programs or to their own teach-
ing preferences. The manual remains independent of any text-
book, so it contains the background discussions and
terminology necessary to perform all experiments. Such a self-
contained learning aid eliminates the need for students to
bring a textbook into the laboratory.
Each of the 46 exercises leads students toward a coherent
understanding of the structure and function of the human body.
The manual begins with anatomical terminology and an orienta-
tion to the body, which together provide the necessary tools for
studying the various body systems. The exercises that follow
reflect the dual focus of the manual—both anatomical and phys-
iological aspects receive considerable attention. As the various
organ systems of the body are introduced, the initial exercises
focus on organization, from the cellular to the organ system level.
As indicated by the table of contents, the anatomical exercises
are usually followed by physiological experiments that familiar-
ize students with various aspects of body functioning and pro-
mote the critical understanding that function follows structure.
The numerous physiological experiments for each organ system
range from simple experiments that can be performed without
specialized tools to more complex experiments using laboratory
equipment, computers, and instrumentation techniques.
Features
The dissection scissors icon appears at the beginning of
activities that entail the dissection of isolated animal
organs. In addition to the figures, isolated animal
organs, such as the sheep heart and pig kidney, are employed to
study anatomy because of their exceptional similarity to
human organs.
Homeostasis is continually emphasized as a require-
ment for optimal health. Pathological conditions
viii
are viewed as a loss of homeostasis; these discussions can be
recognized by the homeostatic imbalance logo within the
descriptive material of each exercise. This holistic approach
encourages an integrated understanding of the human body.
The homeostatic imbalance icon directs the student’s atten-
tion to conditions representing a loss of homeostasis.
A safety icon notifies students that specific safety pre-
! cautions must be observed when using certain equip-
ment or conducting particular lab procedures. For example,
when working with ether, students are to use a hood; and when
handling body fluids such as blood, urine, or saliva, students are
to wear gloves. All exercises involving body fluids (blood,
urine, saliva) incorporate current Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) guidelines for handling human body
fluids. Because it is important that nursing students in particu-
lar learn how to safely handle bloodstained articles, the manual
has retained the option to use human blood in the laboratory.
However, the decision to allow testing of human (student)
blood or to use animal blood in the laboratory is left to the
discretion of the instructor in accordance with institutional
guidelines. The CDC guidelines for handling body fluids are
reinforced by the laboratory safety procedures described on
the inside front cover of this text, in Exercise 29: Blood, and in
the Instructor’s Guide. You can photocopy the inside front
cover and post it in the lab to help students become well versed
in laboratory safety.
Group Challenge activities are designed to enhance col-
laborative group learning and to challenge students to
think critically, identify relationships between anatomi-
cal structures and physiological functions, and achieve a deeper
understanding of anatomy and physiology concepts.
The BIOPAC® icon in a relevant exercise mate-
BIOPAC
®
rials list signals the use of the BIOPAC® Student
Lab System and alerts you to the equipment needed. BIOPAC®
is used in Exercises 14, 18, 20, 21, 31, 33, 34, and 37. The instruc-
tions in the lab manual are for use with the BIOPAC® MP36/35
and MP45 data acquisition unit. Note that some exercises are
not compatible with the MP45 data acquisition unit. For those
exercises, the MP45 will not be listed in the Materials section.
In this edition, the lab manual instructions are for use with
BSL software 4.0.1 and above for Windows 10/8.x/7 or Mac
OS X10.9–10.12. Refer to the Materials section in each exer-
cise for the applicable software version. The Instructor
Resources area of Mastering A&P provides the following addi-
tional support for alternative data acquisitions systems, includ-
ing exercises that can be distributed to students:
• BIOPAC® Instructions for the MP36 (or MP35/30) data
acquisition unit using BSL software versions earlier
than 4.0.1 (for Windows and Mac) for Exercises 14, 18,
20, 21, 31, and 34
• Powerlab® Instructions for Exercises 14, 21, 31, 33, 34,
and 37
• iWorx® Instructions for Exercises 14, 18, 21, 31, 33, 34,
and 37
• Intelitool® Instructions for Exercises 14i, 21i, 31i, and 37i

• Exercise Review Sheets follow each laboratory exercise and
provide space for recording and interpreting experimental
results and require students to label diagrams and answer
matching and short-answer questions. Selected questions
can be assigned and automatically graded in Mastering A&P.
• PhysioEx™ 9.1 Exercises, located in the back of the lab
manual and accessible through a subscription to Master-
ing A&P, are easy-to-use computer simulations that sup-
plement or take the place of traditional wet labs safely
and cost-effectively. These 12 exercises contain a total of
63 physiology laboratory activities that allow learners to
change variables and test out various hypotheses for the
experiments. PhysioEx™ allows students to repeat labs as
often as they like, perform experiments without harming
live animals, and conduct experiments that are difficult to
perform because of time, cost, or safety concerns.
Updated Content in This Edition
of the Lab Manual
Throughout the manual, the narrative text has been stream-
lined and updated to make the language more understandable
and to better meet the needs of today’s students. Additional
highlights include the following:
• Dozens of new full-color figures and photos replace black-
and-white line drawings in the Exercise Review Sheets.
Selected labeling questions in the manual can be assigned
in Mastering A&P.
• New Clinical Application questions have been added to
the Exercise Review Sheets and challenge students to
apply lab concepts and critical-thinking skills to real-world
clinical scenarios.
• Updated BIOPAC® procedures are included in the man-
ual for eight lab exercises for the BIOPAC® 4.0 software
upgrade. Procedures for Intelitool®, PowerLab®, and
iWorx® remain available in the Instructor Resources area
of Mastering A&P.
• New Mastering A&P visual previews appear on the first
page of each lab exercise, highlighting a recommended
pre-lab video, a related image from Practice Anatomy Lab
3.1 (PAL 3.1), or a helpful animation.
• New Mastering A&P assignment recommendations are
signaled at appropriate points throughout the manual to
help instructors assign related auto-graded activities and
assessments.
• Extensive updates and improvements have been made to
each of the 46 laboratory exercises in the manual to
increase clarity and reduce ambiguity for students. Art
within the exercises, the narrative, as well as the questions
and figures within the Review Sheets have been updated.
For a complete list of content updates, please refer to the
Instructor’s Guide for Human Anatomy & Physiology
Laboratory Manual 13/e (ISBN 9780134778839 or in the
Instructor Resources area of Mastering A&P).
Highlights of Updated Content
in Mastering A&P
Mastering A&P, the leading online homework, tutorial, and
assessment system is designed to engage students and improve
results by helping them stay on track in the course and quickly
Preface to the Instructor ix
master challenging anatomy and physiology concepts. Master-
ing A&P assignments support interactive features in the lab
manual, including pre-lab video coaching activities; bone, mus-
cle, and dissection videos; Dynamic Study Modules; Get Ready
for A&P; plus a variety of Art Labeling questions, Clinical
Application questions, and more. Highlights for this edition
include the following:
• 8 new Pre-Lab Video Coaching Activities in Mastering
A&P (for a total of 18) focus on key concepts in the lab
activity and walk students through important procedures.
New pre-lab video titles include Preparing and Observing
a Wet Mount, Examining a Long Bone, Initiating Pupillary
Reflexes, Palpating Superficial Pulse Points, Auscultating
Heart Sounds, and more.
• New Cat and Fetal Pig Dissection Video Coaching
­Activities help students prepare for dissection by preview-
ing key anatomical structures. Each video includes one to
two comparisons to human structures.
• IMPROVED! Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™ 3.1) is
now fully accessible on all mobile devices, including smart-
phones, tablets, and laptops. PAL is an indispensable vir-
tual anatomy study and practice tool that gives students
24/7 access to the most widely used lab specimens, includ-
ing human cadaver; anatomical models from leading man-
ufacturers such as 3B Scientific, SOMSO, Denoyer-
Geppert, Frey Scientific/Nystrom, Altay Scientific, and
Ward’s; histology; cat; and fetal pig. PAL 3.1 is easy to use
and includes built-in audio pronunciations, rotatable
bones, and simulated fill-in-the-blank lab practical exams.
• New Customizable Practice Anatomy Lab (PAL) Flash-
cards enable students to create a personalized, mobile-
friendly deck of flashcards and quizzes using images from
PAL 3.1. Students can generate flashcards using only the
structures that their instructor emphasizes in lecture
or lab.
• New Building Vocabulary Coaching Activities are a fun
way for students to learn word roots and A&P terminol-
ogy while building and practicing important language
skills.
• Expanded Dynamic Study Modules help students study
effectively on their own by continuously assessing their
activity and performance in real time. Students complete a
set of questions and indicate their level of confidence in
their answer. Questions repeat until the student can
answer them all correctly and confidently. These are avail-
able as graded assignments prior to class and are accessi-
ble on smartphones, tablets, and computers.
• The Lab Manual Mastering A&P course now offers
over 3000 Dynamic Study Module questions, shared
with Marieb/Hoehn Human Anatomy & Physiology,
11th Edition.
• Instructors can now remove questions from
Dynamic Study Modules to better fit their course.
• Expanded Drag-and-Drop Art Labeling Questions allow
students to assess their knowledge of terms and structures
in the lab manual. Selected Exercise Review Sheet label-
ing activities in the manual are now assignable.
Please refer to the preceding pages for additional infor-
mation about Mastering A&P and other resources for instruc-
tors and students.
Acknowledgments
Continued thanks to our colleagues and friends at Pearson uncommon grace and skill, including Janet Vail, production
who collaborated with us on this edition, especially Editor-in- coordinator; David Novak, art and photo coordinator; Kristin
Chief Serina Beauparlant, Acquisitions Editor Lauren Harp, Piljay, photo researcher; Gary Hespenheide, interior and cover
Editorial Assistant Dapinder Dosanjh, and Rich Content designer; and Sally Peyrefitte, copyeditor.
Media Producers Kimberly Twardochleb and Lauren Chen. We Last but not least, we wish to extend our sincere thanks to
also thank the Pearson Sales and Marketing team for their the many A&P students who have circulated through our lab
work in supporting instructors and students, especially Senior classrooms and have used this lab manual over the years—you
A&P Specialist Derek Perrigo and Director of Product Mar- continue to inspire us every day! As always, we welcome your
keting Allison Rona. feedback and suggestions for future editions.
Special thanks go out to Amanda Kaufmann for her lead-
ership and expertise in producing the 18 pre-lab videos that
support this edition, and to Mike Mullins of BIOPAC®, who
helped us update the instructions for consistency with the
upgraded software.
We’re also grateful to Michele Mangelli and her superb
production team, who continue to cross every hurdle with Elaine N. Marieb & Lori A. Smith

THIRTEENTH EDITION
REVIEWERS
We wish to thank the following reviewers,
who provided thoughtful feedback and
helped us make informed decisions for
this edition of both the lab manual and
Mastering A&P resources:
Matthew Abbott, Des Moines Area
Community College
Lynne Anderson, Meridian Community
College
Penny Antley, University of Louisiana,
Lafayette
Marianne Baricevic, Raritan Valley
Community College
Christopher W. Brooks, Central
Piedmont Community College
Jocelyn Cash, Central Piedmont
Community College
Christopher D’Arcy, Cayuga Community
College
Mary E. Dawson, Kingsborough
Community College
Karen Eastman, Chattanooga State
Community College
Jamal Fakhoury, College of Central
Florida
Lisa Flick, Monroe Community College
Michele Finn, Monroe Community
College
Juanita Forrester, Chattahoochee
Technical College
Larry Frolich, Miami Dade College
Michelle Gaston, Northern Virginia
Community College, Alexandria
Tejendra Gill, University of Houston
Abigail M. Goosie, Walters State
Community College
Karen Gordon, Rowan Cabarrus
Community College
Jennifer Hatchel, College of Coastal
Georgia
Clare Hays, Metropolitan State University
Nathanael Heyman, California Baptist
University
Samuel Hirt, Auburn University
Alexander Ibe, Weatherford College
Shahdi Jalilvand, Tarrant County
College–Southeast
Marian Leal, Sacred Heart University
Geoffrey Lee, Milwaukee Area Technical
College
Tara Leszczewiz, College of Dupage
Mary Katherine Lockwood, University
of New Hampshire
Francisco J. Martinez, Hunter College of
CUNY
Bruce Maring, Daytona State College
Geri Mayer, Florida Atlantic University
Tiffany B. McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown
Community & Technical College
Melinda A. Miller, Pearl River
Community College
Todd Miller, Hunter College of CUNY
Susan Mitchell, Onondaga Community
College
Erin Morrey, Georgia Perimeter College
Jill O’Malley, Erie Community College
Suzanne Oppenheimer, College of
Western Idaho
Lori Paul, University of Missouri - St.
Louis
Stacy Pugh-Towe, Crowder College
Suzanne Pundt, The University of Texas
at Tyler
Jackie Reynolds, Richland College
Anthony Rizzo, Polk State College
Jo Rogers, University of Cincinnati
James Royston, Pearl River Community
College
Connie E. Rye, East Mississippi
Community College
Mark Schmidt, Clark State Community
College
Jennifer Showalter, Waubonsee
Community College
Teresa Stegall-Faulk, Middle Tennessee
State University
Melissa Ann Storm, University of South
Carolina–Upstate
Bonnie J. Tarricone, Ivy Tech Community
College
Raymond Thompson, University of
South Carolina
Anna Tiffany Tindall-McKee, East
Mississippi Community College
Allen Tratt, Cayuga Community College
Khursheed Wankadiya, Central
Piedmont Community College
Diane L. Wood, Southeast Missouri State
University

x
 A Pre-Lab video is available in
Contents Mastering A&P™ for selected activities.

THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION

5 The Cell: Transport Mechanisms
1 The Language of Anatomy 1 and Cell Permeability 51
1 Locating Body Regions 3 1 Observing Diffusion of Dye Through
Agar Gel 53
2 Practicing Using Correct Anatomical
Terminology 4 2 Observing Diffusion of Dye Through Water 54
3 Observing Sectioned Specimens 6 3 Investigating Diffusion and Osmosis Through
Nonliving Membranes 54
4 Identifying Organs in the Abdominopelvic
Cavity 9 4 Observing Osmometer Results 56
5 Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions 10 5 Investigating Diffusion and Osmosis Through
Living Membranes 56
Review Sheet 11
6 Observing the Process of Filtration 59
2 Organ Systems Overview 15 7 Observing Phagocytosis 60
Review Sheet 61
1 Observing External Structures 17
2 Examining the Oral Cavity 17
3 Opening the Ventral Body Cavity 17 HISTOLOGY: BASIC TISSUES
4 Examining the Ventral Body Cavity 18 OF THE BODY
5 Examining the Human Torso Model 22
Review Sheet 23
6 Classification of Tissues 65
1 Examining Epithelial Tissue Under the
Microscope 67
THE MICROSCOPE AND ITS USES 2 Examining Connective Tissue Under the
Microscope 73
3 The Microscope 25 3 Examining Nervous Tissue Under the
Microscope 79
1 Identifying the Parts of a Microscope 26
2 Viewing Objects Through the Microscope 27 4 Examining Muscle Tissue Under the
Microscope 80
3 Estimating the Diameter of the Microscope
Review Sheet 83
Field 30
4 Perceiving Depth 31
5 Preparing and Observing a Wet Mount 31 THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Review Sheet 33
7 The Integumentary System 89
THE CELL 1 Locating Structures on a Skin Model 90
2 Identifying Nail Structures 93
4 The Cell: Anatomy and Division 37 3 Comparing Hairy and Relatively Hair-Free
Skin Microscopically 94
1 Identifying Parts of a Cell 38
4 Differentiating Sebaceous and Sweat Glands
2 Identifying Components of a Plasma Microscopically 96
Membrane 39
5 Plotting the Distribution of Sweat Glands 96
3 Locating Organelles 40
6 Taking and Identifying Inked Fingerprints 97
4 Examining the Cell Model 40
Review Sheet 99
5 Observing Various Cell Structures 41
6 Identifying the Mitotic Stages 43
7 “Chenille Stick” Mitosis 43
Review Sheet 47

xi
xii Contents

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

8 Overview of the Skeleton: Classification
and Structure of Bones and
Cartilages 103
1 Examining a Long Bone 107
2 Examining the Effects of Heat and Hydrochloric
Acid on Bones 108
3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Compact
Bone 109
4 Examining the Osteogenic Epiphyseal Plate 110
Review Sheet 111
9 The Axial Skeleton 115
1 Identifying the Bones of the Skull 116
Group Challenge Odd Bone Out 125
2 Palpating Skull Markings 126
3 Examining Spinal Curvatures 127
4 Examining Vertebral Structure 131
5 Examining the Relationship Between Ribs and
Vertebrae 133
6 Examining a Fetal Skull 134
Review Sheet 135
12 Microscopic Anatomy and Organization
of Skeletal Muscle 183
1 Examining Skeletal Muscle Cell Anatomy 186
2 Observing the Histological Structure of a
Skeletal Muscle 186
3 Studying the Structure of a Neuromuscular
Junction 188
Review Sheet 189
13 Gross Anatomy of the Muscular
System 193
1 Identifying Head and Neck Muscles 195
2 Identifying Muscles of the Trunk 195
3 Identifying Muscles of the Upper Limb 209
4 Identifying Muscles of the Lower Limb 214
5 Review of Human Musculature 218
6 Making a Muscle Painting 220
Review Sheet 223
14 Skeletal Muscle Physiology: Frogs
and Human Subjects 231

10 The Appendicular Skeleton 143 1 Observing Muscle Fiber Contraction 232

2 Inducing Contraction in the Frog Gastrocnemius
1 Examining and Identifying Bones of the Muscle 234
Appendicular Skeleton 143 3 Demonstrating Muscle Fatigue in Humans 239
2 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pectoral BIOPAC 4 Electromyography in a Human Subject Using
®

Girdle and the Upper Limb 146 BIOPAC® 240

3 Observing Pelvic Articulations 149
4 Comparing Male and Female Pelves 151
5 Palpating the Surface Anatomy of the Pelvic
Girdle and Lower Limb 155
6 Constructing a Skeleton 156
Review Sheet 157
11 Articulations and Body
Movements 165
1 Identifying Fibrous Joints 166
2 Identifying Cartilaginous Joints 166
3 Examining Synovial Joint Structure 168
4 Demonstrating the Importance of Friction-
Reducing Structures 168
5 Demonstrating Movements of Synovial
Joints 170
6 Demonstrating Actions at the Hip Joint 173
7 Demonstrating Actions at the Knee Joint 173
8 Demonstrating Actions at the Shoulder
Joint 175
9 Examining the Action at the TMJ 176
Review Sheet 179
Review Sheet 247
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
15 Histology of Nervous Tissue 251
1 Identifying Parts of a Neuron 254
2 Studying the Microscopic Structure of Selected
Neurons 256
3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of a
Nerve 258
Review Sheet 259
16 Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses:
Frog Subjects 263
1 Stimulating the Nerve 266
Instructors may download two additional
lab activities: Inhibiting the Nerve and
Visualizing the Compound Action Potential
with an Oscilloscope. Instructors, please go to
Mastering A&P™ > Instructor Resources >
Additional Resources > Additional Exercises

Review Sheet 267

 Contents xiii

5 Demonstrating Adaptation of Temperature

17 Gross Anatomy of the Brain and Cranial Receptors 347
Nerves 269 6 Demonstrating the Phenomenon of Referred
Pain 348
1 Identifying External Brain Structures 271 Review Sheet 349
2 Identifying Internal Brain Structures 273
3 Identifying and Testing the Cranial Nerves 278 23 Special Senses: Anatomy of the Visual
Group Challenge Odd (Cranial) Nerve Out 286 System 351
Review Sheet 287
1 Identifying Accessory Eye Structures 353
18 Electroencephalography 293 2 Identifying Internal Structures of the Eye 353
3 Studying the Microscopic Anatomy of the
1 Observing Brain Wave Patterns Using an Retina 354
Oscilloscope or Physiograph 294 4 Predicting the Effects of Visual Pathway
BIOPAC 2 Electroencephalography Using BIOPAC® 295 Lesions 358
®

Review Sheet 299 Review Sheet 359

19 The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
1 Identifying Structures of the Spinal Cord 302
2 Identifying Spinal Cord Tracts 305
3 Identifying the Major Nerve Plexuses and
Peripheral Nerves 312
Review Sheet 313
20 The Autonomic Nervous System 317
1 Locating the Sympathetic Trunk 318
2 Comparing Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Effects 320
BIOPAC 3 Exploring the Galvanic Skin Response
®
301 24 Special Senses: Visual Tests and
Experiments 363
1 Demonstrating the Blind Spot 364
2 Determining Near Point of Vision 365
3 Testing Visual Acuity 366
4 Testing for Astigmatism 366
5 Testing for Color Blindness 367
6 Testing for Depth Perception 367
7 Demonstrating Reflex Activity of Intrinsic and
Extrinsic Eye Muscles 368
8 Conducting an Ophthalmoscopic
Examination 369

(Electrodermal Activity) Within a Polygraph Using Review Sheet 371

BIOPAC® 320
Review Sheet 327 25 Special Senses: Hearing and
Equilibrium 373
21 Human Reflex Physiology 329
1 Identifying Structures of the Ear 374
1 Initiating Stretch Reflexes 331 2 Examining the Ear with an Otoscope
2 Initiating the Crossed-Extensor Reflex 333 (Optional) 376
3 Initiating the Plantar Reflex 333 3 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the
Cochlea 377
4 Initiating the Corneal Reflex 334
4 Conducting Laboratory Tests of Hearing 378
5 Initiating the Gag Reflex 334
5 Audiometry Testing 380
6 Initiating Pupillary Reflexes 334
6 Examining the Microscopic Structure of the Crista
7 Initiating the Ciliospinal Reflex 335
Ampullaris 381
8 Initiating the Salivary Reflex 335
7 Conducting Laboratory Tests on Equilibrium 382
9 Testing Reaction Time for Intrinsic and Learned
Review Sheet 385
Reflexes 336
BIOPAC 10 Measuring Reaction Time Using BIOPAC 337
26
®
®

Special Senses: Olfaction and Taste 389

Review Sheet 339
1 Microscopic Examination of the Olfactory
22 General Sensation 343 Epithelium 391
2 Microscopic Examination of Taste Buds 392
1 Studying the Structure of Selected Sensory
3 Stimulating Taste Buds 392
Receptors 345
4 Examining the Combined Effects of Smell,
2 Determining the Two-Point Threshold 346
Texture, and Temperature on Taste 392
3 Testing Tactile Localization 347
5 Assessing the Importance of Taste and Olfaction
4 Demonstrating Adaptation of Touch in Odor Identification 394
Receptors 347
6 Demonstrating Olfactory Adaptation 394
Review Sheet 395
xiv Contents

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

32 Anatomy of Blood Vessels 461
27 Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine 1 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Arteries
Glands 397 and Veins 463
2 Locating Arteries on an Anatomical Chart or
1 Identifying the Endocrine Organs 398
Model 470
2 Examining the Microscopic Structure of Endocrine
3 Identifying the Systemic Veins 474
Glands 402
4 Identifying Vessels of the Pulmonary
Group Challenge Odd Hormone Out 404
Circulation 475
Review Sheet 405
Group Challenge Fix the Blood Trace 476
5 Tracing the Pathway of Fetal Blood Flow 476
28 Endocrine Wet Labs and Human
6 Tracing the Hepatic Portal Circulation 478
Metabolism 409
Review Sheet 479
1 Determining the Effect of Pituitary Hormones on
the Ovary 410 33 Human Cardiovascular Physiology:
2 Observing the Effects of Hyperinsulinism 411 Blood Pressure and Pulse
Group Challenge Thyroid Hormone Case Determinations 485
Studies 412
Review Sheet 413 1 Auscultating Heart Sounds 488
2 Palpating Superficial Pulse Points 489
BIOPAC 3 Measuring Pulse Using BIOPAC® 490
®

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 4 Taking an Apical Pulse 492

29 Blood 415 5 Using a Sphygmomanometer to Measure Arterial

1 Determining the Physical Characteristics
of Plasma 418
2 Examining the Formed Elements of Blood
Microscopically 418
3 Conducting a Differential WBC Count 421
4 Determining the Hematocrit 422
5 Determining Hemoglobin Concentration 424
6 Determining Coagulation Time 425
7 Typing for ABO and Rh Blood Groups 426
8 Observing Demonstration Slides 428
9 Measuring Plasma Cholesterol
Blood Pressure Indirectly 492
6 Estimating Venous Pressure 493
7 Observing the Effect of Various Factors on Blood
Pressure and Heart Rate 494
8 Examining the Effect of Local Chemical and
Physical Factors on Skin Color 496
Review Sheet 499
34 Frog Cardiovascular Physiology 505
1 Investigating the Automaticity and Rhythmicity
of Heart Muscle 506
BIOPAC 2 Recording Baseline Frog Heart Activity 508
®

Concentration 428 3 Investigating the Refractory Period of Cardiac

Review Sheet 429 Muscle Using the Physiograph 511
BIOPAC 4 Assessing Physical and Chemical Modifiers of
®

30 Anatomy of the Heart 435 Heart Rate 511

5 Investigating the Effect of Various Factors on the
1 Using the Heart Model to Study Heart Microcirculation 513
Anatomy 438
Review Sheet 515
2 Tracing the Path of Blood Through the
Heart 439
3 Using the Heart Model to Study Cardiac 35 The Lymphatic System and Immune
Circulation 440 Response 519
4 Examining Cardiac Muscle Tissue Anatomy 441 1 Identifying the Organs of the Lymphatic
Review Sheet 445 System 521
2 Studying the Microscopic Anatomy of a Lymph
31 Conduction System of the Heart and Node, the Spleen, and a Tonsil 522
Electrocardiography 449 Group Challenge Compare and Contrast Lymphoid
Organs and Tissues 524
1A Recording ECGs Using a Standard ECG 3 Using the Ouchterlony Technique to Identify
Apparatus 453 Antigens 525
BIOPAC 1B Electrocardiography Using BIOPAC® 454
®

Review Sheet 527

Review Sheet 459
 Contents xv

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 4 Reporting Results and Conclusions 595

Group Challenge Odd Enzyme Out 595
36 Anatomy of the Respiratory 5 Observing Movements and Sounds of the
System 531 Digestive System 596
6 Viewing Segmental and Peristaltic
1 Identifying Respiratory System Organs 537 Movements 597
2 Demonstrating Lung Inflation in a Sheep Review Sheet 599
Pluck 537
3 Examining Prepared Slides of Trachea and Lung
Tissue 537 THE URINARY SYSTEM
Review Sheet 539
40 Anatomy of the Urinary System 603
37 Respiratory System Physiology 543 1 Identifying Urinary System Organs 605
1 Operating the Model Lung 544 2 Studying Nephron Structure 608
2 Auscultating Respiratory Sounds 546 3 Studying Bladder Structure 611
3 Measuring Respiratory Volumes Using Group Challenge Urinary System Sequencing 612
Spirometers 547 Review Sheet 613
4 Measuring the FVC and FEV1 553
BIOPAC 5 Measuring Respiratory Volumes Using
®

BIOPAC® 553
41 Urinalysis 617

6 Visualizing Respiratory Variations 557 1 Analyzing Urine Samples 619

7 Demonstrating the Reaction Between Carbon 2 Analyzing Urine Sediment Microscopically
Dioxide (in Exhaled Air) and Water 559 (Optional) 622
8 Observing the Operation of Standard Review Sheet 623
Buffers 560
9 Exploring the Operation of the Carbonic Acid–
Bicarbonate Buffer System 560 THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM,
Review Sheet 561 DEVELOPMENT, AND HEREDITY
42 Anatomy of the Reproductive
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM System 625

38 Anatomy of the Digestive System 567 1 Identifying Male Reproductive Organs 626
2 Penis 629
1 Identifying Alimentary Canal Organs 569 3 Seminal Gland 630
2 Studying the Histologic Structure of the Stomach 4 Epididymis 630
and the Esophagus-Stomach Junction 573
5 Identifying Female Reproductive Organs 630
3 Observing the Histologic Structure of the Small
Intestine 576 6 Wall of the Uterus 633
4 Examining the Histologic Structure of the Large 7 Uterine Tube 633
Intestine 578 Review Sheet 635
5 Identifying Types of Teeth 579
6 Studying Microscopic Tooth Anatomy 580 43 Physiology of Reproduction:
7 Examining Salivary Gland Tissue 580 Gametogenesis and the Female
8 Examining the Histology of the Liver 581 Cycles 641
Review Sheet 583
1 Identifying Meiotic Phases and Structures 643
2
39 Digestive System Processes: Chemical
3
Examining Events of Spermatogenesis 644
Examining Meiotic Events Microscopically 645
and Physical 589
4 Examining Oogenesis in the Ovary 646
1 Assessing Starch Digestion by Salivary 5 Comparing and Contrasting Oogenesis and
Amylase 590 Spermatogenesis 646
2 Assessing Protein Digestion by Trypsin 593 6 Observing Histological Changes in the
3 Demonstrating the Emulsification Action of Bile Endometrium During the Menstrual Cycle 648
and Assessing Fat Digestion by Lipase 594 Review Sheet 651
xvi Contents

44 Survey of Embryonic Development 655 PIG DISSECTION EXERCISES

1 Microscopic Study of Sea Urchin
Development 656
1 Dissection and Identification of Fetal Pig
Muscles 695
2 Examining the Stages of Human
Development 656 2 Dissection of the Spinal Cord and Spinal
3 Identifying Fetal Structures 659 Nerves of the Fetal Pig 711
4 Studying Placental Structure 660
Review Sheet 661
3 Identification of Selected Endocrine Organs
of the Fetal Pig 715

45 Principles of Heredity 665 4 Dissection of Blood Vessels and Main

Lymphatic Ducts of the Fetal Pig 719
1 Working Out Crosses Involving Dominant and
Recessive Genes 667 5 Dissection of the Respiratory System of
2 Working Out Crosses Involving Incomplete the Fetal Pig 729
Dominance 667
3 Working Out Crosses Involving Sex-Linked 6 Dissection of the Digestive System of
Inheritance 668 the Fetal Pig 733
4 Exploring Probability 669
5 Using Blood Type to Explore Phenotypes and
7 Dissection of the Urinary System of
the Fetal Pig 739
Genotypes 670
6 Using Agarose Gel Electrophoresis to Identify 8 Dissection of the Reproductive System of
Normal Hemoglobin, Sickle Cell Anemia, and the Fetal Pig 743
Sickle Cell Trait 670
Review Sheet 673
PHYSIOEX TM 9.1 COMPUTER SIMULATIONS

SURFACE ANATOMY
1 Cell Transport Mechanisms and
Permeability PEx-3

46 Surface Anatomy Roundup 677

2 Skeletal Muscle Physiology PEx-17
1 Palpating Landmarks of the Head 678
2 Palpating Landmarks of the Neck 680 3 Neurophysiology of Nerve Impulses PEx-35
3 Palpating Landmarks of the Trunk 682
4 Palpating Landmarks of the Abdomen 684 4 Endocrine System Physiology PEx-59
5
6
Palpating Landmarks of the Upper Limb 686
Palpating Landmarks of the Lower Limb 689
5 Cardiovascular Dynamics PEx-75

Review Sheet 693

6 Cardiovascular Physiology PEx-93

7 Respiratory System Mechanics PEx-105

8 Chemical and Physical Processes of

Digestion PEx-119

9 Renal System Physiology PEx-131

10 Acid-Base Balance PEx-149

11 Blood Analysis PEx-161

12 Serological Testing PEx-177

Credits C-1
Index I-1
 1
E X E R C I S E
The Language
of Anatomy

Learning Outcomes Go to Mastering A&P™ > Study

Area to improve your performance
▶▶ Describe the anatomical position, and explain its importance. in A&P Lab.
▶▶ Use proper anatomical terminology to describe body regions, orientation
and direction, and body planes.
▶▶ Name the body cavities, and indicate the important organs in each.

▶▶ Name and describe the serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.

▶▶ Identify the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions on a torso model or

image.

Instructors may assign these and other Pre-Lab

Pre-Lab Quiz Quiz questions using Mastering A&P™
Instructors may assign new
Building Vocabulary coaching
1. Circle True or False. In anatomical position, the body is lying down.
activities, Pre-Lab Quiz questions, Art
2. Circle the correct underlined term. With regard to surface anatomy, Labeling activities, and more using the
abdominal / axial refers to the structures along the center line of the Mastering A&P™ Item Library.
body.
3. The term superficial refers to a structure that is:
a. attached near the trunk of the body Materials
b. toward or at the body surface ▶▶ Human torso model (dissectible)
c. toward the head ▶▶ Human skeleton
d. toward the midline ▶▶ Demonstration: sectioned and labeled
4. The ________ plane runs longitudinally and divides the body into kidneys (three separate kidneys uncut
right and left sides. or cut so that [a] entire, [b] transverse
a. frontal c. transverse sectional, and [c] longitudinal sectional
b. sagittal d. ventral views are visible)
5. Circle the correct underlined terms. The dorsal body cavity can be ▶▶ Gelatin-spaghetti molds

divided into the cranial / thoracic cavity, which contains the brain, and ▶▶ Scalpel

the sural / vertebral cavity, which contains the spinal cord.

A
student new to any science is often overwhelmed at first by the terminol-
ogy used in that subject. The study of anatomy is no exception. But with-
out specialized terminology, confusion is inevitable. For example, what
do over, on top of, above, and behind mean in reference to the human body?
Anatomists have an accepted set of reference terms that are universally under-
stood. These allow body structures to be located and identified precisely with a
minimum of words.
This exercise presents some of the most important anatomical terminology used
to describe the body and introduces you to basic concepts of gross anatomy, the
study of body structures visible to the naked eye.

1
 2 Exercise 1

Anatomical Position
When anatomists or doctors refer to specific areas of the human important to remember that “left” and “right” refer to the sides
body, the picture they keep in mind is a universally accepted of the individual, not the observer.
standard position called the anatomical position. In the ana-
• Assume the anatomical position. The hands are held unnatu-
tomical position, the human body is erect, with the feet only
slightly apart, head and toes pointed forward, and arms hanging rally forward rather than hanging with palms toward the thighs.
at the sides with palms facing forward (Figure 1.1a). It is also Check the box when you have completed this task.
1
Cephalic (head) Cephalic
Frontal Otic
Orbital Occipital
Nasal
Buccal
Upper limb
Oral Cervical (neck)
Acromial
Mental
Brachial
Cervical Antecubital
Thoracic Olecranal Back (dorsal)
Sternal Antebrachial Scapular
Axillary Carpal
Mammary Vertebral
Abdominal
Umbilical Lumbar

Pelvic Manus (hand) Sacral

Inguinal Palmar
Pollex Gluteal
Digital
Perineal
(between anus
Lower limb and external
Coxal genitalia)
Pubic
(genital) Femoral
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural
Sural
Fibular or peroneal

Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Abdomen Tarsal
Back (Dorsum) Calcaneal
Digital
Plantar
Hallux

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

Figure 1.1 Anatomical position and regional terms. Heels are raised to illustrate
Instructors may assign this figure as an Art
the plantar surface of the foot, which is actually on the inferior surface of the body.
Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™

Regional Anatomy
The body is divided into two main regions, the axial and
appendicular regions. The axial region includes the head,
neck, and trunk; it runs along the vertical axis of the body.
The appendicular region includes the limbs, which are also
called the ­appendages or extremities. The body is also divided
up into smaller regions within those two main divisions.
Table 1.1 summarizes the body regions that are illustrated
in Figure 1.1.
 The Language of Anatomy 3

Table 1.1 Regions of the Human Body (Figure 1.1)

Region Description Region Description

Abdominal Located below the ribs and Nasal Nose
above the hips
Acromial Point of the shoulder Occipital Back of the head
Antebrachial Forearm Olecranal Back of the elbow
Antecubital Anterior surface of the elbow Oral Mouth
Axillary Armpit Orbital Bony eye socket 1
Brachial Arm (upper portion of the Otic Ear
upper limb)
Buccal Cheek Palmar Palm of the hand
Calcaneal Heel of the foot Patellar Kneecap
Carpal Wrist Pedal Foot
Cephalic Head Pelvic Pelvis
Cervical Neck Perineal Between the anus and the
external genitalia
Coxal Hip Plantar Sole of the foot
Crural Leg Pollex Thumb
Digital Fingers or toes Popliteal Back of the knee
Femoral Thigh Pubic Genital
Fibular Side of the leg Sacral Posterior region between the
(peroneal) hip bones
Frontal Forehead Scapular Shoulder blade
Gluteal Buttocks Sternal Breastbone
Hallux Great toe Sural Calf
Inguinal Groin Tarsal Ankle
Lumbar Lower back Thoracic Chest
Mammary Breast Umbilical Naval
Manus Hand Vertebral Spine
Mental Chin

Activity 1
Locating Body Regions
Locate the anterior and posterior body regions on yourself,
your lab partner, and a human torso model.

Directional Terms
Study the terms below, referring to Figure 1.2 for a visual aid.
Notice that certain terms have different meanings, depending
on whether they refer to a four-legged animal (quadruped) or
to a human (biped).
Superior/inferior (above/below): These terms refer to place-
ment of a structure along the long axis of the body. The nose,
for example, is superior to the mouth, and the abdomen is
inferior to the chest.
Anterior/posterior (front/back): In humans, the most anterior
structures are those that are most forward—the face, chest, and
abdomen. Posterior structures are those toward the backside of
the body. For instance, the spine is posterior to the heart.
Medial/lateral (toward the midline/away from the midline or
median plane): The sternum (breastbone) is medial to the ribs;
the ear is lateral to the nose.
The terms of position just described assume the person is
in the anatomical position. The next four term pairs are more
absolute. They apply in any body position, and they consistently
have the same meaning in all vertebrate animals.
 4 Exercise 1

Cephalad (cranial)/caudal (toward the head/toward the tail): In
humans, these terms are used interchangeably with superior
and inferior, but in four-legged animals they are synonymous
with anterior and posterior, respectively.
Ventral/dorsal (belly side/backside): These terms are used
chiefly in discussing the comparative anatomy of animals,
assuming the animal is standing. In humans, the terms ventral
and dorsal are used interchangeably with the terms anterior
and posterior, but in four-legged animals, ventral and dorsal are
1 synonymous with inferior and superior, respectively.
Proximal/distal (nearer the trunk or attached end/farther from
the trunk or point of attachment): These terms are used primar-
ily to locate various areas of the body limbs. For example, the
fingers are distal to the elbow; the knee is proximal to the toes.
However, these terms may also be used to indicate regions
(closer to or farther from the head) of internal tubular organs.
Superficial (external)/deep (internal) (toward or at the body
surface/away from the body surface): For example, the skin is
superficial to the skeletal muscles, and the lungs are deep to
the rib cage.

Superior (cephalad)

Posterior Anterior
(dorsal) (ventral)

Proximal Superior (dorsal)

Posterior Anterior
(caudal) (cephalad)

Distal

(a) Inferior (caudal) (b) Inferior (ventral)

Figure 1.2 Directional terms. (a) With reference to a human. (b) With reference
Instructors may assign this figure as an Art
to a four-legged animal.
Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™

Activity 2
Practicing Using Correct Anatomical Terminology
Use a human torso model, a human skeleton, or your own body 3. The femoral region is ________________ to the tarsal
to practice using the regional and directional terminology. region. (proximal or distal)

1. The popliteal region is ________________. (anterior or 4. The bones are ________________ to the skin. (superficial or
­posterior) deep)

2. The acromial region is ________________ to the otic region.

(medial or lateral)
 The Language of Anatomy 5

Body Planes and Sections

The body is three-dimensional, and in order to observe its or line called a plane. A section is named for the plane
internal structures, it is often necessary to make a section, along which it is cut. Anatomists commonly refer to three
or cut. When the section is made through the body wall or planes (Figure 1.3), or sections, that lie at right angles to one
through an organ, it is made along an imaginary surface another.

(a) Median (midsagittal) plane (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane

Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen

Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord

Figure 1.3 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance

Instructors may assign this figure as an Art
imaging (MRI) scans. Note the transverse section is an inferior view. Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™
 6 Exercise 1

Sagittal plane: A sagittal plane runs longitudinally and divides

the body into right and left parts. If it divides the body into
equal parts, right down the midline of the body, it is called a
median, or midsagittal, plane.
Frontal plane: Sometimes called a coronal plane, the frontal
plane is a longitudinal plane that divides the body (or an organ)
into anterior and posterior parts.
Transverse plane: A transverse plane runs horizontally, divid-
ing the body into superior and inferior parts. When organs are
1 ­sectioned along the transverse plane, the sections are com-
monly called cross sections. (a) Transverse (cross)
section
On microscope slides, the abbreviation for a longitudinal
section (sagittal or frontal) is l.s. Cross sections are abbreviated
x.s. or c.s.
A median or frontal plane section of any nonspherical
object, be it a banana or a body organ, provides quite a different
view from a cross section (Figure 1.4).

Activity 3
Observing Sectioned Specimens
1. Go to the demonstration area and observe the transversely
and longitudinally cut organ specimens (kidneys).
2. After completing instruction 1, obtain a gelatin-spaghetti (b) Median
mold and a scalpel, and take them to your laboratory bench. section
(Essentially, this is just cooked spaghetti added to warm gelatin,
which is then allowed to gel.)
3. Cut through the gelatin-spaghetti mold along any plane,
and examine the cut surfaces. You should see spaghetti strands (c) Frontal sections
that have been cut transversely (x.s.) and some cut longitudi-
nally (a median section).
Figure 1.4 Objects can look odd when viewed in section.
4. Draw the appearance of each of these spaghetti sections This banana has been sectioned in three different planes (a–c),
below, and verify the accuracy of your section identifications and only in one of these planes (b) is it easily recognized as
with your instructor. a banana. If one cannot recognize a sectioned organ, it is
possible to reconstruct its shape from a series of successive
cuts, as from the three serial sections in (c).

Transverse section Median section

 The Language of Anatomy 7

Body Cavities
The axial region of the body has two large cavities that pro-
vide different degrees of protection to the organs within them
(Figure 1.5).
Dorsal Body Cavity
The dorsal body cavity can be subdivided into the cranial ­cavity,
which lies within the rigid skull and encases the brain, and the
vertebral (or spinal) cavity, which runs through the bony verte-
bral column to enclose the delicate spinal cord.
Ventral Body Cavity
Like the dorsal cavity, the ventral body cavity is subdivided.
The superior thoracic cavity is separated from the rest of the
ventral cavity by the dome-shaped diaphragm. The heart and
lungs, located in the thoracic cavity, are protected by the bony
rib cage. The cavity inferior to the diaphragm is referred to
as the abdominopelvic cavity. Although there is no further­
physical separation of the ventral cavity, some describe the
abdominopelvic cavity as two areas: a superior abdominal
­cavity, the area that houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and
other organs, and an inferior pelvic cavity, the region that is
partially enclosed by the bony pelvis and contains the repro-
ductive organs, bladder, and rectum.
1
Serous Membranes of the Ventral Body Cavity
The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of
the organs it contains are covered with a very thin, double-
layered membrane called the serosa, or serous membrane.
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is referred
to as the parietal serosa, and it is continuous with a similar
membrane, the visceral serosa, covering the external surface
of the organs within the cavity. These membranes produce a
thin lubricating fluid that allows the visceral organs to slide
over one another or to rub against the body wall with minimal

Cranial
Cranial cavity cavity
(contains brain)

Vertebral
cavity

Pleural
Dorsal Thoracic cavity
body cavity
cavity Mediastinum
(contains
heart and
lungs) Pericardial
cavity

Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal Diaphragm Ventral body
cord) cavity
(thoracic and
Abdominal cavity abdominopelvic
(contains digestive Abdomino- cavities)
organs) pelvic
cavity

Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
Dorsal body cavity bladder, reproductive
Ventral body cavity organs, and rectum)

(a) Lateral view (b) Anterior view

Figure 1.5 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
Instructors may assign this figure as an Art Labeling
Activity using Mastering A&P™
 8 Exercise 1

Lung Ribs Heart

Parietal pleura
Parietal
pericardium
Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity
with serous fluid with serous fluid

Visceral pleura Visceral

1
pericardium
Diaphragm

(a) Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura (b) Serosae associated with the heart: pericardium

Anterior Visceral
peritoneum

Liver Peritoneal Outer balloon wall

cavity (with (comparable to parietal serosa)
serous fluid)
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Stomach
Parietal Inner balloon wall
peritoneum Kidney (comparable to visceral serosa)
(retroperitoneal)

Wall of
Posterior
body trunk
(c) Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera: peritoneum (d) Model of the serous membranes and serous cavity

Figure 1.6 Serous membranes of the ventral body cavities.

friction. Serous membranes also compartmentalize the vari-
ous organs to prevent infection in one organ from spreading
to others.
The specific names of the serous membranes depend on
the structures they surround. The serosa lining the abdominal
c­avity and covering its organs is the peritoneum, the serosa
enclosing the lungs is the pleura, and the serosa around the
heart is the pericardium (Figure 1.6). A fist pushed into a limp
balloon demonstrates the relationship between the visceral and
parietal serosae (Figure 1.6d).
 The Language of Anatomy 9

Activity 4
Identifying Organs in the
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Examine the human torso model to respond to the following
questions.

Name two organs found in the left upper quadrant.

1
Right upper Left upper ________________ and ________________
quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ) Name two organs found in the right lower quadrant.

________________ and ________________

Right lower Left lower
quadrant quadrant What organ (Figure 1.7) is divided into identical halves by
(RLQ) (LLQ)
the median plane? ________________

Figure 1.7 Abdominopelvic quadrants. Superficial organs

are shown in each quadrant.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Because the abdominopelvic cavity is quite large and contains
many organs, it is helpful to divide it up into smaller areas for
discussion or study.
Most physicians and nurses use a scheme that divides the
abdominal surface and the abdominopelvic cavity into four
approximately equal regions called quadrants. These quadrants
are named according to their relative position—that is, right
upper quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant, and
left lower quadrant (Figure 1.7). Note that the terms left and
right refer to the left and right side of the body in the figure, not
the left and right side of the art on the page.
A different scheme commonly used by anatomists divides
the abdominal surface and abdominopelvic cavity into nine
separate regions by four planes (Figure 1.8). As you read

Liver Diaphragm
Right Left
Epigastric Spleen
hypochondriac hypochondriac
region Gallbladder Stomach
region region

Ascending colon of Transverse colon

Right Left of large intestine
Umbilical large intestine
lateral (lumbar) lateral (lumbar)
region region region Small intestine Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum Initial part of
Right inguinal Pubic Left inguinal
(iliac) (hypogastric) (iliac) sigmoid colon
Appendix
region region region
Urinary bladder

(a) (b)

Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic regions. Nine regions delineated by four planes. (a) The
Instructors may assign this figure
superior horizontal plane is just inferior to the ribs; the inferior horizontal plane is at the
as an Art Labeling Activity using
superior aspect of the hip bones. The vertical planes are just medial to the nipples.
Mastering A&P™
(b) Superficial organs are shown in each region.
 10 Exercise 1

through the descriptions of these nine regions, locate them in
Figure 1.8, and note the organs contained in each region.
Umbilical region: The centermost region, which includes the
umbilicus (navel)
Epigastric region: Immediately superior to the umbilical region;
overlies most of the stomach
Pubic (hypogastric) region: Immediately inferior to the umbili-
cal region; encompasses the pubic area
1 Inguinal, or iliac, regions: Lateral to the hypogastric region and
overlying the superior parts of the hip bones
Lateral (lumbar) regions: Between the ribs and the flaring por-
tions of the hip bones; lateral to the umbilical region
Hypochondriac regions: Flanking the epigastric region laterally
and overlying the lower ribs
Activity 5
Locating Abdominopelvic Surface Regions
Locate the regions of the abdominopelvic surface on a human
torso model.
Other Body Cavities
Besides the large, closed body cavities, there are several types
of smaller body cavities (Figure 1.9). Many of these are in the
head, and most open to the body exterior.
Oral cavity: The oral cavity, commonly called the mouth,
contains the tongue and teeth. It is continuous with the rest
of the digestive tube, which opens to the exterior at the anus.
Nasal cavity: Located within and posterior to the nose, the nasal
cavity is part of the passages of the respiratory system.
Orbital cavities: The orbital cavities (orbits) in the skull house
the eyes and present them in an anterior position.
Middle ear cavities: Each middle ear cavity lies just medial to
an eardrum and is carved into the bony skull. These cavities
contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing
receptors in the inner ears.
Synovial cavities: Synovial cavities are joint cavities—they are
enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround the freely mov-
able joints of the body, such as those between the vertebrae
and the knee and hip joints. Like the serous membranes of
the ventral body cavity, membranes lining the synovial cavities
secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the enclosed
structures move across one another.

Middle ear
cavity

Orbital
cavity Synovial cavity
(orbit) in a joint
between neck
vertebrae
Nasal Fibrous
cavity layer
around
Oral cavity joint
(mouth)

Tongue

Figure 1.9 Other body cavities. The oral, nasal, orbital, and middle ear cavities are located
in the head and open to the body exterior. Synovial cavities are found in joints between
bones, such as the vertebrae of the spine, and at the knee, shoulder, and hip.
 Instructors may assign a portion

1
of the Review Sheet questions
using Mastering A&P™
REVIEW SHEET
E X E R C I S E
The Language of Anatomy
Name _______________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date______________________________________

Regional Terms
1. Describe completely the standard human anatomical position. _______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Use the regional terms to correctly label the body regions indicated on the figures below.

Thorax

Abdomen

Back (Dorsum)

(a) Anterior/Ventral (b) Posterior/Dorsal

11
12 Review Sheet 1

Directional Terms, Planes, and Sections

3. Define plane. ________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Several incomplete statements appear below. Correctly complete each statement by choosing the appropriate anatomical term
from the choices. Use each term only once.

anterior inferior posterior superior

distal lateral proximal transverse

frontal medial sagittal

1. The thoracic cavity is _______________ to the abdominopelvic cavity.

2. The trachea (windpipe) is _______________ to the vertebral column.

3. The wrist is _______________ to the hand.

4. If an incision cuts the heart into left and right parts, a _______________ plane of section was used.

5. The nose is _______________ to the cheekbones.

6. The thumb is _______________ to the ring finger.

7. The vertebral cavity is _______________ to the cranial cavity.

8. The knee is _______________ to the thigh.

9. The plane that separates the head from the neck is the _______________ plane.

10. The popliteal region is _______________ to the patellar region.

11. The plane that separates the anterior body surface from the posterior body surface is the _______________ plane.

5. Correctly identify each of the body planes by writing the appropriate term on the answer line below the drawing.

(a) (b) (c)

Body Cavities
6. Name the muscle that subdivides the ventral body cavity. ___________________________________________________________

7. Which body cavity provides the least protection to its internal structures? ______________________________________________

8. For the body cavities listed, name one organ located in each cavity.

1. cranial cavity ____________________________________________________________________________________________.

2. vertebral cavity __________________________________________________________________________________________.

 Review Sheet 1 13

3. thoracic cavity ___________________________________________________________________________________________.

4. abdominal cavity _________________________________________________________________________________________.

5. pelvic cavity _____________________________________________________________________________________________.

6. mediastinum ____________________________________________________________________________________________.

9. Name the abdominopelvic region where each of the listed organs is located.

1. spleen __________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. urinary bladder ___________________________________________________________________________________________

3. stomach (largest portion) __________________________________________________________________________________

4. cecum __________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Explain how serous membranes protect organs from infection. _______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

11. Which serous membrane(s) is/are found in the thoracic cavity? _______________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

12. Which serous membrane(s) is/are found in the abdominopelvic cavity? _________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

13. Using the key choices, identify the small body cavities described below.

Key: a. middle ear cavity e. oral cavity e. synovial cavity

b. nasal cavity d. orbital cavity

_____________ 1. holds the eyes in an anterior-facing position _____________ 4. contains the tongue

_____________ 2. houses three tiny bones involved in hearing _____________ 5. surrounds a joint

_____________ 3. contained within the nose

14. + Name the body region that blood is usually drawn from. ________________________________________________________

15. + A patient has been diagnosed with appendicitis. Use anatomical terminology to describe the location of the person’s pain.

Assume that the pain is referred to the surface of the body above the organ. __________________________________________

16. + Which body cavity would be opened to perform a hysterectomy? ________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

17. + Which smaller body cavity would be opened to perform a total knee joint replacement? _____________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

18. + An abdominal hernia results when weakened muscles allow the protrusion of abdominal structures. In the case of
an umbilical hernia, parts of a serous membrane and the small intestine form the bulge. Which serous membrane is involved?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
This page intentionally left blank
 2
E X E R C I S E
Organ Systems
Overview

Learning Outcomes Go to Mastering A&P™ > Study

Area to improve your performance
▶▶ Name the human organ systems, and indicate the major functions of each. in A&P Lab.
▶▶ List several major organs of each system, and identify them in a dissected
rat, human cadaver or cadaver image, or a dissectible human torso model.
▶▶ Name the correct organ system for each organ when presented with a list
of organs.

Instructors may assign these and other Pre-Lab

Pre-Lab Quiz Quiz questions using Mastering A&P™

1. Name the structural and functional unit of all living things. _________
2. The small intestine is an example of a(n) _________, because it is > Lab Tools > Practice Anatomy Lab
composed of two or more tissue types that perform a particular > Anatomical Models
function for the body.
Instructors may assign new
a. epithelial tissue
Building Vocabulary coaching
b. muscular tissue activities, Pre-Lab Quiz questions,
c. organ Art Labeling activities, Practice
d. organ system Anatomy Lab Practical questions (PAL),
3. The ______________ system is responsible for maintaining and more using the Mastering A&P™
homeostasis of the body via rapid transmission of electrical signals. Item Library.
4. The kidneys are part of the ______________ system.
5. The thin muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities is
the ______________. Materials
▶▶ Freshly killed or preserved rat
(predissected by instructor as a

T
demonstration or for student dissection
he basic unit of life is the cell. Cells fall into four different categories accord- [one rat for every two to four students])
ing to their structures and functions. These categories correspond to the four or predissected human cadaver
primary tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous, and connective. A tissue is ▶▶ Dissection trays
a group of cells that are similar in structure and function. An organ is a structure ▶▶ Twine or large dissecting pins
composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific function for the body.
▶▶ Scissors
An organ system is a group of organs that act together to perform a particular
▶▶ Probes
body function. For example, the organs of the digestive system work together to
break down foods and absorb the end products into the bloodstream in order to ▶▶ Forceps

provide nutrients and fuel for all the body’s cells. In all, there are 11 organ systems, ▶▶ Disposable gloves
described in Table 2.1 on p. 16. ▶▶ Human torso model (dissectible)
Read through this summary of the body’s organ systems (Table 2.1) before
beginning your rat dissection or examination of the predissected human cadaver. If a
human cadaver is not available, Figures 2.3 to 2.6 will serve as a partial replacement.

15
 16 Exercise 2
Table 2.1 Overview of Organ Systems of the Body
Organ system Major component organs
Integumentary Skin, hair, and nails;
cutaneous sense organs and glands
Skeletal Bones, cartilages, tendons,
2 ligaments, and joints
Muscular Muscles attached to the skeleton
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
sensory receptors
Endocrine Pituitary, thymus, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal
glands; ovaries, testes, and pancreas
Cardiovascular Heart and blood vessels
Lymphatic Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, and thymus
Respiratory Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and lungs
Digestive Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines, and
accessory structures including teeth,
salivary glands, liver, and pancreas
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and
urethra
Reproductive Male: testes, prostate gland, scrotum,
penis, and duct system, which carries
sperm to the body exterior
Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus,
mammary glands, and vagina
DISSECTION AND IDENTIFICATION
The Organ Systems of the Rat
Many of the external and internal structures of the rat are
quite similar in structure and function to those of the human.
So, a study of the gross anatomy of the rat should help you
understand our anatomy. The following instructions include
directions for dissecting and observing a rat. In addition,
the descriptions of the organs (Activity 4, Examining the
Ventral Body Cavity, which begins on p. 18) also apply
Function
●● Protects deeper organs from mechanical, chemical, and bacterial injury, and
from drying out
●● Excretes salts and urea
●● Aids in regulation of body temperature
●● Produces vitamin D
●● Body support and protection of internal organs
●● Provides levers for muscular action
●● Cavities provide a site for blood cell formation
●● Bones store minerals
●● Primary function is to contract or shorten; in doing so, skeletal muscles
allow locomotion (running, walking, etc.), grasping and manipulation of the
environment, and facial expression
●● Generates heat
●● Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external environment and to
respond to such information by activating appropriate muscles or glands
●● Helps maintain homeostasis of the body via rapid transmission of electrical
signals
●● Helps maintain body homeostasis, promotes growth and development;
produces chemical messengers called hormones that travel in the blood to
exert their effect(s) on various target organs of the body
●● Primarily a transport system that carries blood containing oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions, hormones, and other substances to and from
the tissue cells where exchanges are made; blood is propelled through the
blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart
●● Antibodies and other protein molecules in the blood protect the body
●● Picks up fluid leaked from the blood vessels and returns it to the blood
●● Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
●● Houses lymphocytes that act via the immune response to protect the body
from foreign substances
●● Keeps the blood continuously supplied with oxygen while removing carbon
dioxide
●● Contributes to the acid-base balance of the blood
●● Breaks down ingested foods to smaller particles, which can be absorbed into
the blood for delivery to the body cells
●● Undigested residue removed from the body as feces
●● Rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes including urea, uric acid, and
ammonia, which result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
●● Maintains water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of blood
●● Provides gametes called sperm for perpetuation of the species
●● Provides gametes called eggs; the uterus houses the developing fetus until
birth; mammary glands provide nutrition for the infant
to ­superficial observations of a previously dissected human
cadaver. The general instructions for observing external struc-
tures also apply to human cadaver observations. The photo-
graphs in Figures 2.3 to 2.6 will provide visual aids.
Note that four organ systems (integumentary, skeletal,
muscular, and nervous) will not be studied at this time, because
they require microscopic study or more detailed dissection.
 Organ Systems Overview 17

Activity 1
Observing External Structures
1. If your instructor has provided a predissected rat, go to the
demonstration area to make your observations. Alternatively, if
you and/or members of your group will be dissecting the speci-
men, obtain a preserved or freshly killed rat, a dissecting tray,
dissecting pins or twine, scissors, probe, forceps, and dispos-
able gloves, and bring them to your laboratory bench.
If a predissected human cadaver is available, obtain a
probe, forceps, and disposable gloves before going to the
demonstration area.
2. Don the gloves before beginning your observations.
! This precaution is particularly important when handling
freshly killed animals, which may harbor pathogens.
3. Observe the major divisions of the body—head, trunk, and
extremities. If you are examining a rat, compare these divisions
to those of humans.
Activity 2
Examining the Oral Cavity
Examine the structures of the oral cavity. Identify the teeth and
tongue. Observe the extent of the hard palate (the portion
underlain by bone) and the soft palate (immediately posterior
to the hard palate, with no bony support). Notice that the pos-
terior end of the oral cavity leads into the throat, or pharynx, a
passageway used by both the digestive and respiratory systems. 2
Activity 3
Opening the Ventral Body Cavity
1. Pin the animal to the wax of the dissecting tray by placing its
dorsal side down and securing its extremities to the wax with
large dissecting pins as shown in Figure 2.1a.
Text continues on next page ➔

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1 Rat dissection: Securing

for dissection and the initial incision.
(a) Securing the rat to the dissection
tray with dissecting pins. (b) Using
scissors to make the incision on the
median line of the abdominal region.
(c) Completed incision from the pelvic
region to the lower jaw. (d) Reflection
(folding back) of the skin to expose the
underlying muscles. (c) (d)
 18 Exercise 2

2. Lift the abdominal skin with a forceps, and cut through it

with the scissors (Figure 2.1b). Close the scissor blades, and
insert them flat under the cut skin. Moving in a cephalad
direction, open and close the blades to loosen the skin from
the underlying connective tissue and muscle. Now, cut the skin
along the body midline, from the pubic region to the lower jaw
(Figure 2.1c). Finally, make a lateral cut about halfway down
the ventral surface of each limb. Complete the job of freeing
the skin with the scissor tips, and pin the flaps to the tray
2 (Figure 2.1d). The underlying tissue that is now exposed is the
skeletal musculature of the body wall and limbs. Notice that
the muscles are packaged in sheets of pearly white connec-
tive tissue (fascia), which protect the muscles and bind them
together.
3. Carefully cut through the muscles of the abdominal wall
in the pubic region, avoiding the underlying organs. Now,
hold and lift the muscle layer with a forceps and cut through
the muscle layer from the pubic region to the bottom of the
rib cage. Make two lateral cuts at the base of the rib cage
(Figure 2.2). A thin membrane attached to the inferior bound-
ary of the rib cage should be obvious; this is the diaphragm,
which separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Cut the
diaphragm where it attaches to the ventral ribs to loosen the
rib cage. Cut through the rib cage on either side. You can
now lift the ribs to view the contents of the thoracic cavity.
Cut across the flap, at the level of the neck, and remove the Figure 2.2 Rat dissection. Making lateral cuts at the base
rib cage. of the rib cage.

Activity 4
Examining the Ventral Body Cavity
1. Starting with the most superficial structures and work- To expose the esophagus, push the trachea to one side.
ing deeper, examine the structures of the thoracic cavity.
Esophagus: A food chute; the part of the digestive system
Refer to Figure 2.3 as you work. Choose the appropriate
that transports food from the pharynx (throat) to the stomach.
view depending on whether you are examining a rat (a) or a
human cadaver (b). Diaphragm: A thin muscle attached to the inferior boundary
of the rib cage.
Thymus: An irregular mass of glandular tissue overlying the
heart (not illustrated in the human cadaver photograph). Follow the esophagus through the diaphragm to its junction
with the stomach.
With the probe, push the thymus to the side to view the heart.
Stomach: A curved organ important in food digestion and
Heart: Medial oval structure enclosed within the pericardium
temporary food storage.
(serous membrane).
2. Examine the superficial structures of the abdominopelvic
Lungs: Lateral to the heart on either side.
­cavity. Lift the greater omentum, an extension of the perito-
Now observe the throat region to identify the trachea. neum (serous membrane) that covers the abdominal viscera.
Continuing from the stomach, trace the rest of the digestive tract
Trachea: Tubelike “windpipe” running medially down the
(Figure 2.4, p. 20).
throat; part of the respiratory system.
Small intestine: Connected to the stomach and ending just
Follow the trachea into the thoracic cavity; notice where it
before the saclike cecum.
divides into two branches. These are the bronchi.
Large intestine: A large muscular tube connected to the small
Bronchi: Two passageways that plunge laterally into the tissue
intestine and ending at the anus.
of the two lungs. Text continues on page 20. ➔
 Organ Systems Overview 19

Trachea

Thymus

Heart

Lung

Diaphragm
Liver

(a)

Trachea

Superior
vena cava

Pericardium (cut
and reflected)

Lungs

Heart

Diaphragm

(b)

Figure 2.3 Superficial organs of the thoracic cavity. (a) Dissected rat.
Instructors may assign this figure as an Art
(b) Human cadaver.
Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™
 20 Exercise 2

Falciform ligament

Liver

Stomach

2 Spleen

Greater omentum
Small intestine

Large intestine

Urinary bladder

Cecum

(a) (b)

Figure 2.4 Abdominal organs. (a) Dissected rat, superficial view.

Instructors may assign this figure as an Art
(b) Human cadaver, superficial view.
Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™

Cecum: The initial portion of the large intestine.
Follow the course of the large intestine to the rectum, which is
partially covered by the urinary bladder (Figure 2.5).
Rectum: Terminal part of the large intestine; continuous with
the anal canal.
Anus: The opening of the digestive tract (through the anal
canal) to the exterior.
Now lift the small intestine with the forceps to view the m
­ esentery.
Mesentery: An apronlike serous membrane; suspends many
of the digestive organs in the abdominal cavity. Notice that it
is heavily invested with blood vessels and, more likely than not,
riddled with large fat deposits.
Locate the remaining abdominal structures.
Pancreas: A diffuse gland; rests dorsal to and in the mesentery
between the first portion of the small intestine and the stom-
ach. You will need to lift the stomach to view the pancreas.
Spleen: A dark red organ curving around the left lateral side
of the stomach; an organ of the lymphatic system, it is often
called the red blood cell “graveyard.”
Liver: Large and brownish red; the most superior organ in the
abdominal cavity, directly beneath the diaphragm.
3. To locate the deeper structures of the abdominopelvic
cavity, move the stomach and the intestines to one side
with the probe.
Examine the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity to locate
the two kidneys (Figure 2.5).
Kidneys: Bean-shaped organs; retroperitoneal (behind the
­peritoneum).
Adrenal glands: Large endocrine glands that sit on top of
each kidney; considered part of the endocrine system.
Carefully strip away part of the peritoneum with forceps
and attempt to follow the course of one of the ureters to
the bladder.
Ureter: Tube running from the indented region of a kidney to
the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder: The sac that serves as a reservoir for urine.
4. In the midline of the body cavity lying between the kidneys
are the two principal abdominal blood vessels:
Inferior vena cava: The large vein that returns blood to the
heart from the lower body regions.
Descending aorta: Deep to the inferior vena cava; the largest
artery of the body; carries blood away from the heart.
5. You will perform only a brief examination of reproductive
organs. If you are working with a rat, first determine if the
animal is a male or female. Observe the ventral body surface
beneath the tail. If a saclike scrotum and an opening for the
anus are visible, the animal is a male. If three body openings—
urethral, vaginal, and anal—are present, it is a female.
 Organ Systems Overview 21

Inferior vena cava

Adrenal gland

Kidney

Descending aorta 2
Ureters
Seminal gland
Urinary bladder
Prostate
Bulbo-urethral
gland
Ductus deferens
Penis
Testis
Rectum
(a) Scrotum
Anus
(b)

Adrenal gland

Kidney
Descending aorta
Ureter

Ovary

Uterine horns
Uterus
Urinary bladder
Vagina

Figure 2.5 Deep structures of the Urethral opening

abdominopelvic cavity. (a) Human cadaver. Vaginal orifice
(b) Dissected male rat. (Some reproductive
Anus
structures also shown.) (c) Dissected female rat.
(Some reproductive structures also shown.) (c)

Male Rat Female Rat

Make a shallow incision into the scrotum. Loosen and lift
out one oval testis. Exert a gentle pull on the testis to iden-
tify the slender ductus deferens, or vas deferens, which
carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the abdominal
cavity and joins with the urethra. The urethra runs through
the penis and carries both urine and sperm out of the body.
Identify the penis, extending from the bladder to the ventral
body wall. Figure 2.5b indicates other glands of the male
rat’s reproductive system, but they need not be identified
at this time.
Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the Y-shaped uterus lying
against the dorsal body wall and superior to the bladder
(Figure 2.5c). Follow one of the uterine horns superiorly to
identify an ovary, a small oval structure at the end of the uter-
ine horn. (The rat uterus is quite different from the uterus of a
human female, which is a single-chambered organ about the
size and shape of a pear.) The inferior undivided part of the rat
uterus is continuous with the vagina, which leads to the body
exterior. Identify the vaginal orifice (external vaginal opening).
Text continues on next page ➔
 22 Exercise 2

Large intestine
Ureter

Seminal gland

Ductus deferens

Bladder
2
Pubis

Prostate

Penis

Testis
(a) (b)

Figure 2.6 Human reproductive organs. (a) Male

external genitalia. (b) Sagittal section of the male pelvis. Large intestine
(c) Sagittal section of the female pelvis. End of
uterine tube

Male Cadaver
Ovary
Make a shallow incision into the scrotum (Figure 2.6a).
Loosen and lift out the oval testis. Exert a gentle pull on the
testis to identify the slender ductus (vas) deferens, which Uterus
carries sperm from the testis superiorly into the abdominopel-
vic cavity and joins with the urethra (Figure 2.6b). The urethra Bladder
runs through the penis and carries both urine and sperm out Pubis
of the body. Identify the penis, extending from the bladder to Vagina
the ventral body wall.
External
Female Cadaver opening
of vagina
Inspect the pelvic cavity to identify the pear-shaped uterus
lying against the dorsal body wall and superior to the blad-
der. Follow one of the uterine tubes superiorly to identify an (c)
ovary, a small oval structure at the end of the uterine tube
(Figure 2.6c). The inferior part of the uterus is continuous
with the vagina, which leads to the body exterior. Identify the
vaginal orifice (external vaginal opening).
6. When you have finished your observations, rewrap or store
the dissection animal or cadaver according to your instructor’s
directions. Wash the dissecting tools and equipment with labo-
ratory detergent. Dispose of the gloves as instructed.

Activity 5
Examining the Human Torso Model
Examine a human torso model to identify the organs listed. • Large intestine • Spleen
Check off the boxes as you locate the organs. Some model
• Liver • Stomach
organs will have to be removed to see the deeper organs.
• Lungs • Thyroid gland
• Adrenal gland • Esophagus
• Mesentery • Trachea
• Aortic arch • Heart
• Pancreas • Ureters
• Brain • Inferior vena cava
• Small intestine • Urinary bladder
• Diaphragm • Kidneys
 Instructors may assign a portion

2
of the Review Sheet questions
using Mastering A&P™
REVIEW SHEET
E X E R C I S E
Organ Systems Overview
Name _______________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date_____________________________________

1. Label each of the organs at the end of the supplied leader lines.

2. Name the organ system to which each of the following sets of organs or body structures belongs.

1. thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels 5. epidermis, dermis, cutaneous sense organs

2. bones, cartilages, tendons 6. testis, prostate

3. pancreas, pituitary gland 7. liver, large intestine, rectum

4. trachea, bronchi, lungs 8. kidneys, ureter, urethra

23
24 Review Sheet 2

3. Name the cells that are produced by the testes and ovaries. _________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. List the four primary tissue types. _______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain why an artery is an organ. _______________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Name the two main organ systems that communicate within the body to maintain homeostasis. Briefly explain their different

­control mechanisms. __________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Explain the role that the skeletal system plays in facilitating cardiovascular system function. ________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. + Untreated diabetes mellitus can lead to a condition in which the blood is more acidic than normal. Name two organ systems

that play the largest role in compensating for acid-base imbalances. __________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. + The mother of a child scheduled to receive a thymectomy (removal of the thymus gland) asks you whether there will
be any side effects from the removal of the gland. Which two organ systems would you mention in your explanation?

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. + Individuals with asplenia are missing their spleen or have a spleen that doesn’t function well. It is recommended that these
patients talk to their doctor about vaccines that are indicated for their health condition. Explain how this recommendation

­correlates to their chronic health condition. _______________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
 3
E X E R C I S E
The Microscope

Learning Outcomes Go to Mastering A&P™ > Study

Area to improve your performance
▶▶ Identify the parts of the microscope, and list the function of each. in A&P Lab.
▶▶ Describe and demonstrate the proper techniques for care of the microscope.

▶▶ Demonstrate proper focusing technique.

▶▶ Define total magnification, resolution, parfocal, field, depth of field, and

working distance.
▶▶ Measure the field diameter for one objective lens, calculate it for all the
other objective lenses, and estimate the size of objects in each field.
▶▶ Discuss the general relationships between magnification, working distance,
and field diameter.

> Lab Tools > Pre-Lab Videos >

Instructors may assign these and other Pre-Lab Compound Microscope
Pre-Lab Quiz Quiz questions using Mastering A&P™
Instructors may assign new
Building Vocabulary coaching
1. The microscope slide rests on the _____________ while being viewed.
activities, Pre-Lab Quiz questions, Art
a. base c. iris Labeling activities, Pre-Lab Video
b. condenser d. stage Coaching Activities for The Compound
2. Your lab microscope is parfocal. What does this mean? Microscope, and more using the
a. The specimen is clearly in focus at this depth. Mastering A&P™ Item Library.
b. The slide should be almost in focus when changing to higher
magnifications.
c. You can easily discriminate two close objects as separate. Materials*
3. If the ocular lens magnifies a specimen 103, and the objective lens ▶▶ Compound microscope
used magnifies the specimen 353, what is the total magnification ▶▶ Millimeter ruler

being used to observe the specimen? _____________ ▶▶ Prepared slides of the letter e or

4. How do you clean the lenses of your microscope? newsprint

a. with a paper towel ▶▶ Immersion oil

b. with soap and water ▶▶ Lens paper

c. with special lens paper and cleaner ▶▶ Prepared slide of grid ruled in millimeters
5. Circle True or False. You should always begin observation of ▶▶ Prepared slide of three crossed colored
specimens with the oil immersion lens. threads
▶▶ Clean microscope slide and coverslip

▶▶ Toothpicks (flat-tipped)

W
ith the invention of the microscope, biologists gained a valuable tool to ▶▶ Physiological saline in a dropper bottle

observe and study structures, such as cells, that are too small to be seen ▶▶ Iodine or dilute methylene blue stain in a
by the unaided eye. This exercise will familiarize you with the workhorse dropper bottle
of microscopes—the compound microscope—and provide you with the necessary ▶▶ Filter paper or paper towels
instructions for its proper use. ▶▶ Beaker containing fresh 10% household

*Note to the Instructor: The slides and coverslips used for viewing cheek cells are to be soaked for 2 hours bleach solution for wet mount disposal
(or longer) in 10% bleach solution and then drained. The slides and disposable autoclave bag containing ▶▶ Disposable autoclave bag
coverslips, lens paper, and used toothpicks are to be autoclaved for 15 min at 121°C and 15 pounds pressure
▶▶ Prepared slide of cheek epithelial
to ensure sterility. After autoclaving, the disposable autoclave bag may be discarded in any disposal facility,
and the slides and glassware washed with laboratory detergent and prepared for use. These instructions apply cells
as well to any bloodstained glassware or disposable items used in other experimental procedures.

25
 26 Exercise 3

Care and Structure of the Compound Microscope

The compound microscope is a precision instrument and should
always be handled with care. At all times you must observe the
following rules for its transport, cleaning, use, and storage:
• When transporting the microscope, hold it in an upright
position, with one hand on its arm and the other supporting
its base. Do not swing the instrument during its transport or
3 jar the instrument when setting it down.
• Use only special grit-free lens paper to clean the lenses. Use
a circular motion to wipe the lenses, and clean all lenses
before and after use.
• Always begin the focusing process with the scanning
­objective lens in position, changing to the higher-power
lenses as necessary.
• Use the coarse adjustment knob only with the scanning
objective lens.
• Always use a coverslip with wet mount preparations.
• Before putting the microscope in the storage cabinet,
remove the slide from the stage, rotate the scanning objec-
tive lens into position, wrap the cord as directed, and
replace the dust cover or return the microscope to the
appropriate storage area.
• Never remove any parts from the microscope; inform your
instructor of any mechanical problems that arise.

Activity 1
Identifying the Parts of a Microscope
1. Using the proper transport technique, obtain a microscope
and bring it to the laboratory bench.
• Record the number of your microscope in the Summary Ocular lenses
chart (p. 28).
Compare your microscope with Figure 3.1, and identify the
microscope parts described in Table 3.1 on p. 29.

Rotating
nosepiece
Arm

Mechanical Stage
stage
Objective
Condenser lenses
knob Condenser
(regulates
height of Iris diaphragm
condenser) lever

Coarse
adjustment Mechanical
knob stage controls

Fine Substage light

adjustment
knob

Base
Light control

Instructors may assign this figure as an Art

Figure 3.1 Compound microscope and its parts. Labeling Activity using Mastering A&P™
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
of being set in order by any care of ours; (iv.) and so defective that
no account can be given which would set it right: ‘which of you by
taking thought can add one cubit to his stature?’

16 I communed with I reasoned over the

mine own heart, saying, matter with my own
Lo, I am come to great heart to this effect. I who
estate, and have gotten have, it appears,
more wisdom than all become greater and
they that have been more advanced in
before me in Jerusalem: wisdom than any who
yea, my heart ¹had great were before me in
experience of wisdom Jerusalem, and
and knowledge. experienced over the
widest extent of wisdom
¹ Hebrew
and knowledge,
had seen
much.

(16.) Reasoned I myself together with my heart to say (as

reasoned stands first, this is the subject of the whole, and the words
‘to say,’ ‫לאמר‬, are the usual formula of introduction of the thing said;
they are equivalent to our ‘to this effect.’ This then is Koheleth’s
reasoning, the result of which is to be given), I behold (stating it as
an admitted and patent fact) I have been made great, and I have
been added to in wisdom above all which were before me in
Jerusalem, and my heart has seen the much (with the article
expressed; equivalent therefore to very much, or as much as
possible of) wisdom and knowledge.

17 And I gave my and have set my heart

heart to know wisdom,
and to know madness
and folly: I perceived
that this also is vexation
of spirit.
earnestly to know
wisdom, and to know
false successes from
real acts of prudence,
know but this: it is simply
vexing one’s spirit;

(17.) And I have given my heart in order to know wisdom

(that is, he made wisdom his special study and object) and the
knowledge of (‘know’ being repeated rises into special prominence,
and hence the meaning is to know wisdom, or to be wise enough to
recognise) false expectations and prudences. (This passage is
one of great difficulty, but the exact sense will become apparent on
investigating the meaning of the two words ‫ הוללות‬and ‫ ;שכלות‬now
‫ הוללות‬occurs chapter i. 17, ii. 12, vii. 25, ix. 3, and pointed with
Shurek at x. 13, and is peculiar to Ecclesiastes. It is a technical
word, and is correctly translated ‘folly,’ but it is that kind of folly which
displays itself in false joy. The future poel from which this noun is
derived occurs Job xii. 17, chapter vii. 7, Isaiah xliv. 25; and the
participle at chapter ii. 2, Psalm cii. 89. Thus we see the connexion
between this sense and the more ordinary one of ‘praise;’ it is the
‘bepraised’ used in a bad sense. The word ‫ שכלות‬occurs here only,
but it is rendered by the LXX. ἐπιστήμη, and by the Syriac
, compare also Genesis xli. 33, with the meaning
‘prudence,’ and with this agrees the later Hebrew. Now these
meanings make consistent sense. Koheleth wished to know wisdom
and the knowledge of folly and prudence; in other words, to have a
wisdom which could tell the one from the other. Thus the LXX.
render ‫ הל״‬by παραβολὰς, which A² has altered into περιφορὰν; this
apparently very strange rendering is thus intelligible enough,
especially to those who had the Hebrew before them. To alter the
text to ‫סכלות‬, as some have proposed, is not even to cut the Gordian
knot, for with the true meaning of this word, ‘clever-folly,’ ‘false-
wisdom,’ no better sense will be made, although it is quite possible
that ‫ שכ״‬may have been chosen for the equivoke it gives, not even
differing in sound, if the pointing can be trusted, from ‫סכ״‬. The truth is
that so much of our elaborate wisdom and best plans are but
elaborate mistakes, that to attempt to judge the one from the other is
a hopeless task. Hence then the following) I know (this is the fourth
time this word occurs in the clause, thus it is brought out with the
very strongest prominence, and gives the meaning ‘what I do know
is’) that even this (‫שגם‬, compare places chapter ii. 15, viii. 14, has a
peculiar meaning, expressive of surprise that this should be so)
really is vexing of spirit (‫רעיון‬, not ‫רעות‬, as above; because in this
case the vexation is subjective,――the idea conveyed by the whole
passage being ‘what I do know as the result of my wisdom and
knowledge being just even this, that it is only a vexing of the spirit’).
It may be observed that ‫ רעיון‬occurs in the Chaldee of Daniel――see
Daniel ii. 29, 30; iv. 19 (16); v. 6, etc., always in the sense of a
‘painful reflection,’ but in later Chaldee and Syriac as ‘a reflection’ of
any kind. As the sense in which Koheleth uses the word is the
nearest to the root-meaning, is it not an evidence, so far, of earlier
composition of his book?

18 For in much because, in increasing

wisdom is much grief: wisdom, there is an
and he that increaseth increase also of
disappointment, and
knowledge increaseth what adds to one’s
sorrow. knowledge adds to one’s
sorrow.

(18.) For (introducing a reason for this conclusion as follows) in

much wisdom is much grief (grief in the sense of ‘vexation,’
caused by disappointment――see chapter ii. 23, vii. 3, 9, xi. 10, 1
Samuel i. 6. The LXX. translate by γνῶσις, ‘knowledge’! Is it possible
that they intended to refer to Genesis ii. ♦17, using γνῶσις in a bad
sense?) and he that increases knowledge increases sorrow
(chapter ii. 23; Exodus iii. 7, of the Israelitish sorrows at the hands of
their task-masters). ‘In a world like this much science is much
sorrow, for it is the knowledge of penury, the statistics of starvation,
the assurance that our case is desperate.’――[Hamilton.]

♦ “xvii.” replaced with “17”

Even the wisdom of Solomon having failed to find any solution of

the problem of human anxiety, he next tries mirth, but with no better
success. This experiment takes only two verses to record, for it was
but soon over.
 CHAPTER II.

ISAID in mine heart,

Go to now, I will
prove thee with mirth,
therefore enjoy pleasure:
and, behold, this also is
vanity.
S AID then I in my
heart, Come now, I
will try thee with mirth,
and so get a sight of a
real-good; but see now,
this is altogether an
evanescent thing. Of
laughter, I said Delirium:

II. (1.) I said, even I (the personal pronoun is not redundant, it

indicates that Koheleth is recording his own experience), in my
heart (this formula usually introduces in this book a thought more
specious than true), Come now, I will try thee with mirth and see
into good (i.e. still addressing his heart, ‘to see a real good;’ ‫ טוב‬is
used in this book as a technical word, like bonum in the summum
bonum); and behold (stating a manifest fact) also this (emphatic,
signifying this same mirth) is a vanity (an evanescent thing; joy or
mirth then is too short-lived to be considered a real good).

2 I said of laughter, It and of mirth, What will

is mad: and of mirth, that do?
What doeth it?

(2.) To laughter I said, Madness (that which is made mad, see

note to chapter i. 17), and to pleasure (or mirth), What doth that
do? (as this expects the answer No, it is very nearly equivalent to ‘It
does nothing.’) (The Syriac reads here , ‘What is the
usefulness,’ ‘gratification,’ or ‘delight’? It seems then as if the
translators of this version recognised a play upon the words ‫מה הולל‬,
‘what a folly,’ and ‫מהולל‬, ‘befooled,’――this being one of those
equivokes in which Koheleth delights. The LXX. render verbatim, as
is their custom, τὶ τοῦτο ποῖεις; ‘why doest thou this?’ but possibly
with the same intention.)

Koheleth next tries material enjoyment. The meaning of the

following passage has been much disputed; we shall follow the
rendering suggested by the LXX., which gives clear and intelligible
sense.

3 I sought in mine I tried with my heart

heart ¹to give myself
unto wine, yet
acquainting mine heart
with wisdom; and to lay
hold on folly, till I might
see what was that good
for the sons of men,
which they should do
under the heaven ²all the
days of their life.
to allure as wine does
one’s flesh (that heart,
however, being
conducted with wisdom),
and so get a hold over
false wisdom, so that I
might see thereby where
lies the real good to the
children of men, when
they are working in this
 world, as the tale of their
¹ Hebrew to
draw my
daily lives. [Accordingly]
flesh with
wine.

² Hebrew the
number of
the days of
their life.

(3.) I investigated with my heart (or in my heart; but the former

makes better sense. His heart was the medium through which the
investigation was made. He wanted to see if material enjoyment
would satisfy his heart, i.e. the emotional part of his nature) in order
to a drawing with wine (the LXX. render ὡς οἶνον, ‘as wine,’ but they
probably did not read otherwise than our present text, for this as
represents the ‫ את‬which follows) as to my flesh (the meaning of the
Hebrew is that he drew or enticed with wine with respect to his flesh,
and that hence his object in using the wine was to entice the flesh.
The rendering of the LXX. is ad sensum, preserving also a rendering
of each word), and my heart led (i.e. as a man leads an animal,
Psalm lxxx. 1, Isaiah xi. 6. As ‘heart’ is repeated, we have the
meaning ‘that same heart’) with wisdom (because unless he
enjoyed wisely he would not enjoy at all) and (repeated in the same
clause, equal therefore to ‘and so’) to lay hold of false wisdom
(‫סכלּות‬, occurs chapters ii. 3, 12, 13, vii. 25, x. 1, 13, and is peculiar to
this book. The LXX. render εὐφροσύνην ‘pleasure,’ which, however A²
alters to ἀφροσύνη, ‘folly,’ the reason of which will appear presently.
The meaning of the root ‫ סכל‬is to ‘play,’ or ‘act the fool,’ and in this
respect differs from ‫כסל‬, which has the idea of ‘stupidity,’ and in the
hiphil form, ‘made stupid,’ or ‘befooled.’ In all the ten places in which
the root ‫ סכל‬occurs in other parts of Scripture, we find the meaning of
elaborateness and subtilty as well as folly; compare 1 Samuel
xiii. 13, Saul’s burnt-offering in the absence of Samuel; 2 Samuel
xxiv. 10; 1 Chronicles xxi. 8, David’s numbering the people; 2
Chronicles xvi. 9, Asa’s reliance on Syria; 2 Samuel xv. 31,
Ahithophel’s counsel; similarly Isaiah xliv. 25, where knowledge is
said to be misused; so also ‫ָס ָכל‬, occurs Jeremiah iv. 22, v. 21, has
evidently the same shade of meaning. It is hard to find a single word
which will render it; ‘foolish wisdom’ or ‘clever follies’ are the best
combinations that occur. It will be seen also, in referring to the
lexicon, that the LXX., who translate by εὐφροσύνη, apparently use
the word occasionally in a sinister aspect, see Proverbs xxx. 32, Sira
xiii. 8. The Syriac here reads (see i. 17), ‘prudence,’
‘intelligence,’ contrary to its interpretation in other places. On the
whole, however, it is not difficult to see why the LXX. rendered as
they did. That this pleasure was of a bad kind, or deceptive, the
sequel shows, but it may be doubted whether their rendering
preserved the meaning of ‫סכ״‬, even if, which is not impossible, they
themselves understood it). Until I should see where (in the sense of
whereabouts, see 1 Samuel ix. 8) is this good to the sons of
Adam, which (full relative, referring back to the whole idea,
equivalent therefore to ‘what good it is which’) they do under the
sun the number of the days of their lives (this phrase occurs
chapter ii. 3, v. 18 (17), vi. 12, as ‘the tale,’ or ‘account of the days,’
of their lives; an additional limitation to the words ‘under the sun’). In
making this experiment he began to work and toil more than ever.

4 I made me great I increased my

works; I builded me works.
houses; I planted me
vineyards: (1.) I built for myself
houses.
 (2.) I planted for
myself vineyards.

(4.) I increased my work, I built for myself (this emphatic

‘myself’ occurs eight times in the passage, and is therefore its key-
word) houses, I planted for myself vineyards.

5 I made me gardens (3.) I made for myself

and orchards, and I gardens and parks, and
planted trees in them of planted in them fruit-
all kind of fruits: trees of every kind.

(5.) I made for myself gardens and parks, and planted in

them trees of every kind of fruit. It should have been mentioned
that ‫ פרדס‬is also considered to afford an indication of late
composition. It is said to be a Persian word; it occurs, however,
Nehemiah ii. 8; Canticles iv. 10. The word admits of Semitic
derivation, from ‫פרד‬, ‘to divide,’ ‘cut off in portions,’ ‘lay out.’ If it be
really an exotic, no date of introduction is more probable than that of
Solomon. It is also to be noted that in the context it follows the word
‘gardens,’ which is quite natural if it were intended to denote a
foreign luxury recently introduced.

6 I made me pools of (4.) I made for myself

water, to water therewith reservoirs with which to
the wood that bringeth irrigate meadows and
forth trees: growing copses.

(6.) I made for myself pools of water to irrigate from them

the meadows shooting forth trees. (This, which contains ‘for
myself’ four times, the first half of the seven, consists of an
enumeration of immoveable objects, or what the law calls real
property, the others which follow are moveables or personal.)

7 I got me servants (5.) I purchased

and maidens, and had
¹servants born in my
house; also I had great
possessions of great
and small cattle above
all that were in
Jerusalem before me:
¹ Hebrew
sons of my
house.
slaves and maidens, and
had for myself home-
born servants, besides
herds of great and small
cattle, more numerous
than any of my
predecessors in
Jerusalem.

(7.) I obtained slaves and maidens, and sons of my house

(home-born slaves, that is) were belonging to myself, besides
possessions of herd and flock; many such were belonging to
myself; more than all who were before me in Jerusalem.
 8 I gathered me also
silver and gold, and the
peculiar treasure of
kings and of the
provinces: I gat me men-
singers and women-
singers, and the delights
of the sons of men, as
¹musical instruments,
and that of all sorts.
¹ Hebrew
musical
instruments
and
instruments.
(6.) I procured for
myself silver and gold
and precious objects of
every kingdom and
province.
(7.) I obtained for
myself men-singers and
women-singers, every
delight that man can
enjoy, to the very
ecstasy of ravishment.

(8.) I gathered for myself, moreover, silver and gold, and the
peculiar treasure of kings and the provinces. I made for myself
(i.e. procured) men-singers and women-singers, the delights of
the sons of men, outpouring and outpourers. (The different
meanings given to these two last words, ‫שדה ושדות‬, which occur here
only, are various, scarcely a commentary or version agreeing. The
LXX. translate a ‘butler’ and ‘female cup-bearers,’ the Vulgate
‘pitchers and vases,’ Ginsburg ‘a concubine and concubines’; but the
most probable etymology seems to give the idea of ‘overflowing’ to
the word in some sense or other. It is possible then to take the words
generally, and interpret them as referring to the overflow, not only of
the generous wines, but of all the delights of which wine is a type, as
in the words ‘The feast of reason and the flow of soul,’ or like
Milton’s――

‘Did ever mortal mixture of earth’s mould

Breathe such divine enchanting ravishment?’

The arrangement of these different objects of pleasure is somewhat

artificial, as will be seen on examining the grouping.)

9 So I was great, and So I was great and

increased more than all
that were before me in
Jerusalem: also my
wisdom remained with
me.
increased more than all
that were ever before
me in Jerusalem, yet
notwithstanding my
wisdom remained fast
with myself,

(9.) And I was great (rightly the Authorized Version, ‘so,’

referring back to verse 4) and increased more than all (all now
becomes the key-word, which occurs seven times) which was
(singular, giving the sense than ‘any was’) before me in Jerusalem;
also (‫אף‬, affirms strongly, see Job iv. 19, ‘but beside,’ for without this
provision of a wise enjoyment the experiment was necessarily a
failure:) my wisdom remained (i.e. stood; it is usual to say that ‫עמדה‬
is feminine to agree with ‫ ;חכמה‬perhaps it would be equally correct to
say that it was an instance of two abstract ideas in apposition, giving
the sense ‘was still a thing standing’) with myself (emphatic, and the
eighth repetition of this word).

10 And whatsoever and all my eyes desired I

mine eyes desired I kept
not from them, I withheld
not my heart from any
joy; for my heart rejoiced
in all my labour: and this
was my portion of all my
labour.
kept not from them, nor
did I deny my heart even
one of all its joys: for this
heart of mine did rejoice
in my toils, and this was
what I procured for all
my toil.

(10.) And all which asked mine eyes I did not restrain (or
keep back; see Genesis xxvii. 36, Numbers xi. 17, for the meaning,
the only other instances where it occurs in Kal.) from them
(emphatic), I did not deny my heart from all rejoicing, for my
heart rejoiced from all my toil (i.e. there was a certain kind of
pleasure derived from doing all this), and this was my portion (‘lot’
or ‘inheritance’ from all my toil; equal to our ‘this was all I obtained
for my pains’).

11 Then I looked on So I turned to look on all

all the works that my my work my hand had
hands had wrought, and wrought, and all my toil
on the labour that I had which I had moiled and
laboured to do: and,
behold, all was vanity
and vexation of spirit,
and there was no profit
under the sun.
done, and lo! that all
was――evanescent,
and vexation of spirit,
and nothing of profit in
this hot work-day world.

(11.) I turned myself (‫ פנה‬differs from ‫ ;סבב‬the former is ‘to turn

round in order to look,’ the latter is to ‘go round in order to do.’ The
distinction is not without importance) in all my works which worked
my hands, and in my toil which I had toiled to work (notice the
occurrence of these words――work, work, toil, toil), and behold (a
manifest and indisputable conclusion) the whole was vanity and
vexation of spirit, and there was nothing of profit (i.e. over and
above the slight amount of present pleasure which he obtained)
under the sun. (It is especially worthy of remark that while Koheleth
found some small pleasure in work, he found none from it. Take, oh
men, to your curse kindly, but a curse it is!)

12 ¶ And I turned Then I turned myself

myself to behold
wisdom, and madness,
and folly: for what can
the man do that cometh
after the king? ¹even that
which hath been already
done.
again to perceive
wisdom in regard to [its
power of detecting] false
hopes and false
prudence, for how is any
man to enter upon the
results of that plan which
he may have made
beforehand?
 ¹ Or, in
those
things
which have
been
already
done.

(12.) And I turned (this coming immediately after a similar

expression, verse 11, rises into emphasis; it equals our ‘again I
turned’), I myself (emphatic, it was, as above, a personal
experience), to see wisdom and self-deceptions and also false
successes (the meaning of this passage most probably is, that
Koheleth desired to see wisdom in conjunction with those two kinds
of folly which he denotes respectively by ‫הוללות‬, false expectations or
hopes, see chapter i. 17, and ‫סכלות‬, false wisdom, that kind of folly
which is so either through ignorance or sin, but has to all appearance
the semblance of wisdom, see chapter ii. 3. If he could succeed in
accomplishing this, he might by his wisdom avoid the mistakes into
which men fall). For (this must introduce a reason) what? (Genesis
xx. 10, ‫ָמ ה‬, Genesis iv. 10, ‫ֶמ ה‬, both forms being similar in use) is the
man (with the article; generic therefore, and equivalent to ‘what is
the man?’) who enters (but as this is the contracted relative, it is
equivalent to ‘that he should enter’) after (but the word is strictly
speaking a noun plural in regimen, and means ‘that which comes
after,’ ‘the sequel of’) the king (this the LXX. render by βουλῆς, the
reasons of which we will discuss presently). With respect to which
(for the ‫ את‬is emphatic, hence some of the recensions of the LXX.
read σὺν τὰ ὅσα) the present (the present state of things, ‫ כבר‬in its
usual meaning, which it has everywhere in Ecclesiastes, see chapter
i. 10) they make it ‫עשבהו‬, third person plural with the affix, which the
LXX. refer back to ‫המלך‬. The meaning of this passage has been
much disputed, and our difficulties are not diminished by the very
strange rendering of the LXX., which is usually dismissed by
commentators as erroneous; an explanation, however, of this
rendering will probably clear up the difficulty. We must first notice the
corrupt state of the present text of the LXX. The Alexandrine reads
ὅτι τίς ἄνθρωπος ἐπελεύσεται ὀπίσω τῆς βουλῆς τὰ ὅσα ἐποίησαν αὐτήν;
E. X. read πάντα ὅσα; F. X. σὺν τὰ ὅσα; B. X. ἐποίησεν; and X. αὐτή;
Aquila reads ὃς ἐπιλεύσεται ὀπίσω τοῦ βασιλέως; Symmachus, τί δὲ ὁ
ἄνθρωπος ἵνα παρακολουθήση βουλῇ; Theodotion, ὃς ἐλεύσεται ὀπίσω
τοῦ βασιλέως; but, as Field remarks (Hexapla, p. 384), it is doubtful
whether the Syriac text reads , ‘king,’ or , ‘counsel.’ In
the same way, Theodotion reads σὺν τὰ ὅσα ἐποίησαν αὐτήν.

We must observe that all these versions, without exception, omit

to notice ‫כבר‬, which everywhere else is noted by ἤδη, being content
with τὰ ὅσα or σὺν τὰ ὅσα. The explanation of these difficulties seems
to be that ‫ המלך‬was probably intended to be equivocal. It is, to say
the least, not impossible that it had, even in Solomon’s time, the
meaning of ‘counsel,’ which attaches to it as a usual signification in
Aramaic; if so, ‫ המלך‬means the counsel, and of course has the idea
of rule as well. Castell gives as the meaning of , ‘Intellectum,
Consilium dedit,’ vel ‘inivit,’ ‘Consultavit,’ ‘Promisit,’ ‘Pollicitus est;’
thus we must understand it to mean, ‘plans formed and intended to
be carried out.’ The question then which Koheleth asks is this, ‘Who
is the man who will enter upon――as we say, carry out――his plans
with respect to that which in the present moment he makes them or
devises them;’ in other words, can he carry out what he now devises,
and can any man do this out of the number of human creatures who
make these plans? This is the reason of the distributive plural which
the best recensions of the LXX. preserve. The equivoke involved in
the meaning ‘king’ is obvious. Koheleth himself is, of course, the
king: could any one do better than he? It must be allowed that this
meaning makes excellent sense with the context, and violates no
Hebrew grammar. If, however, I have failed in giving a real
interpretation of this most difficult passage, I may be excused a
conjecture which is as plausible as many that have been advanced
on this point. The corruptions of the old versions may be explained
by the fact that the equivoke was lost so soon as readers ceased to
have the Hebrew text before them, and hence the attempt to better
their text. This most obscure passage may perhaps receive some
light from a further discussion of the word ‫ כבר‬and other forms
derived from the same root. The feminine or abstract occurs Genesis
xxxv. 16, xlviii. 7, and 2 Kings v. 19, joined with ‫ארץ‬, rendered in the
Authorized Version a ‘little’ way. The verb occurs in hiphil, Job
xxxv. 16, xxxvi. 31, translated ‘multiplied,’ ‘in abundance;’ and in the
hiphil form, with the characteristic jud̄ inserted――Job viii. 2, xv. 10,
etc.; Isaiah x. 13, xvii. 12, etc.――in the sense of ‘full of years,’
‘overflowing,’ and the like. A diligent comparison of these meanings
shows that ‘fulness,’ in the sense of ‘completeness,’ must be the
root-meaning; and hence, when applied to time, the LXX. render ἤδη,
‘already.’ With this meaning agree also the Arabic and Syriac, see
Fuerst, Lexicon, s. voc. The meaning then of the word is, the
‘complete present.’ With regard to the use of the root ‫ מלך‬in the
sense of counsel, it occurs once in Hebrew, viz. Nehemiah v. 7, and
once in biblical Chaldee, Daniel iv. 27 (24). This meaning is
common, as remarked in the note, in Aramaic. The fair inference
from this is, that the root-meaning of the Hebrew word is ‘to counsel,’
just as the root-meaning of the word Apostle is ‘one sent.’ These
senses are just what the context requires. Koheleth turns round to
see wisdom in comparison with, or contradistinction to, false hopes
and false prudence, and asks how the man, that is, humanity, can
tell the one from the other. His words are ‘what is,’ not ‘who is the
man,’ etc., equivalent to――‘in what way can humanity enter upon
the results of the counsel,’ ‘or the king,’――the equivoke being, we
believe, intentional, and the contracted relative giving a conditional
turn to the sentence――‘with respect to that which at present he
performs it.’ It would have been better if the word with had been
printed in the notes with a small letter, as the division hardly amounts
to a period, though the connexion is not close. The suffix of the verb
refers back through the relative pronoun to counsel, and might be
well rendered into English thus――‘In respect of which he at present
takes that counsel.’ The LXX., contrary to their custom, omit ἤδη,
because it is perhaps sufficiently included in ἐπελεύσεται, or because
τὰ ὅσα ἤδη ἐποίησαν αὐτήν would not have been intelligible. It is
evident this all squares with the context. Koheleth, as Solomon,
discovered that with all his wisdom he could not practically discern
the difference between this true wisdom and that false prudence
which led him to accumulate only to be disappointed in his
successor.

13 Then I saw ¹that Now, I have myself

wisdom excelleth folly, perceived that there
as far as light excelleth must be a profit to
darkness. wisdom over false
prudence as great as the
¹ Hebrew
profit of light over
that there darkness.
is an
excellency
in wisdom
more than
in folly, etc.

(13.) And I have seen, I have (with the emphatic I again, as a

personal experience) that there is (i.e. that there really is), a profit
to wisdom above folly (these same elaborate mistakes which look
so like wisdom) as the profit of the light above the darkness.
(Here profit is repeated, hence the meaning is ‘as great as the profit
of light above darkness.’) The wise, his eyes are in his head, but
the fool (i.e. the ‘deceived fool’――notice the hiphil
form――equivalent to the befooled, but not necessarily by
others――by himself also) in darkness walks (hence a wise man
ought to be as much better off than a fool as a sighted man is better
than one blind, but experience does not confirm this conclusion);
and I know also, I (emphatic), that the hap (i.e. the result or what
occurs) is one happening (present here as opposed to participial
noun) to all of them (i.e. both wise and fools alike――equivalent in
our idiom, ‘precisely the same result occurs to all’).

14 The wise man’s The wise has eyes in his

eyes are in his head; but
the fool walketh in
darkness: and I myself
perceived also that one
event happeneth to them
all.
15 Then said I in my
heart, As it happeneth to
the fool, so it ¹happeneth
even to me; and why
was I then more wise?
Then I said in my heart,
that this also is vanity.
¹ Hebrew
happeneth
to me,
even to
me.
head, the befooled is
wandering in the dark;
yet I know, as the result
of my own experience,
that the event to which
both attain is just alike,
so I reasoned with
myself thus: Exactly the
same event as happens
to one befooled has
happened to me, and
therefore why should I
make myself wise? Then
besides! Why, I said in
my heart, even this is an
instance of
evanescence,