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Springer Texts in Social Sciences
John H. Langdon
Human
Evolution
Bones, Cultures, and Genes
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John H. Langdon
Human Evolution
Bones, Cultures, and Genes
John H. Langdon
Human Biology Program
University of Indianapolis
Indianapolis, IN, USA
ISSN 2730-6135 ISSN 2730-6143 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-031-14156-0 ISBN 978-3-031-14157-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14157-7
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To all my ancestors, remembered, forgotten, or undiscovered.
Preface
I find the study of paleoanthropology both fascinating and humbling. The

fascination begins in the imagination. What would it have been like to be alive
in the past? What did the men and women of prehistory experience? What
thoughts did they have and why were not they more inventive? Fascination
continues with each new discovery. Often the field has been compared to com-
pleting a jigsaw puzzle with 99% of the pieces missing. Almost monthly another
piece comes to light, and each one feels like a gift to be unwrapped. Where
does it fit? What does it tell us? It may add only a tiny detail, but every few years
the picture must be redrawn based on finds so unexpected that there is no place
for them in the old version.
It is humbling to acknowledge how little we know. Many books on this
topic try to give the impression that we have the answers – that we know how
humans evolved and we are just trying to fill in the details. I sincerely hope this
volume does not fall into that category. Good questions are far more important
in guiding future understanding than hypothetical answers. Old ideas deserve
to be challenged, but to do that effectively, we must be aware of the evidence
and reasoning that created them in the first place. At the end of most chapters
are a few “Important questions we cannot answer.” I encourage the reader to
add to that list.
It is also humbling to place humankind in a broad context. As a species,
Homo sapiens is both trivial and terrifying. We share the earth with about nine
million other species today, and these are a tiny part of one percent of those
that have ever lived. Recorded history and even the first villages and crops are
so recent that they do not make it into this story. Ours has only been around
perhaps 200,000 years since its origin in Africa, but in this time we have both
improved the planet for our own purposes and seriously damaged it. Whether
other species can avoid extinction depends on how well they can tolerate
human activity. Whether we continue, evolve, or become extinct remains for
future generations to determine.
vii
viii PREFACE
My purpose in writing this book has been to bring the account of human
evolution up to date with the latest contributions from many disciplines. It
explores how recent discoveries are challenging what we thought we knew, and
attempts to build a sense of anticipation for the next revelation. The greatest
leaps in our understanding occur when we reach beyond the painstaking work
of fossil hunting and archaeological excavations to see what other disciplines
can contribute. Anatomy, climatology, cultural anthropology, ecology, embry-
ology, ethology, geology, genetics, genomics, chemistry, neuroscience, physics,
and physiology all have their place in telling our story.
Indianapolis, IN, USA John H. Langdon

Acknowledgments
This effort could not have been possible without the support of many people.
I would like to thank my teachers and students from whom I have learned;
friends and colleagues, especially Shawn Hurst; and reviewers of this work in
progress. Katherine Langdon, Amy Langdon, and David Strait have been
invaluable in assembling illustrations. José María Bermúdez de Castro, Robert
Blumenschine, Peter Brown, Ron Clarke, Thure Cerling, Christopher Dean,
Eric Delson, Fernando Diez-Martin, Paul John Myburgh, and Christine Baile
and Samantha Guenther at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History gener-
ously gave permission for the reuse of images.
Most of all, I am indebted to my beloved wife, Terry, for her consistent
patience and encouragement.
ix
Contents
Part I Introduction 1
1 The Reflection in the Mirror 3
2 Background: Evolutionary Classification and Fossil Dating 31
3 A Primate Heritage 51
Part II The First Hominins 71
4 Miocene Hominoids 73
5 The Early Hominins: Australopiths103
6 The Ecological Context of Early Hominin Evolution145
7 Understanding Australopiths165
8 The Evolution of Bipedality191
Part III The First Humans 249
9 The Earliest Humans in Africa251
10 The First Technology277
11 Diet of Early Homo299
xi
xii Contents
12 Evolution of the Brain321
13 Leaving Africa359
Part IV The Middle Pleistocene 389
14 The Erectines of Asia391
15 Erectines of the West419
16 Behavior in the Middle Pleistocene461
Part V The Emergence of Modern People 495
17 Late Pleistocene Homo and the Emergence

of Modern Humans497
18 From the Middle Paleolithic to the Modern Mind539
19 Modern Humans Disperse From Africa581
20 Distributing Modern Peoples625
21 Life History and Reproduction651
22 Evolution Today and Tomorrow683
Appendix of Anatomical Terms697
Index709
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 The discovery of weapons signaled the transformation from ape
into human, according to the Killer Ape hypothesis. Screen image
of an early human ancestor from the feature movie 2001: A Space
Odyssey4
Fig. 1.2 Comparative brain sizes among larger-brained mammals.
Comparisons of absolute brain size (left) alone are misleading,
because larger mammals can be expected to have larger brains.
A simple ratio of brain to body mass (right) does a better job of
capturing relative brain development among species, but there are
many other factors that will influence brain size. These will be
explored at greater length in Chaps. 5 and 16. Data primarily from
(Boddy et al., 2022). Source: author 7
Fig. 1.3 A derivative version of Zallinger’s illustration. Such pictures falsely
suggest a linear and purpose-driven view of human evolution.
Source: José-Manuel Benitos <https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Human_evolution_scheme.svg> CC BY-SA 3.0, via
Wikimedia Commons. Source: Wikimedia Commons 12
Fig. 1.4 Appearance and range of hominin species in time. Colors
represent different radiations of hominin species. Source: author 14
Fig. 1.5 Multiregional and Out of Africa models compared. In the
Multiregional model, the continental populations are connected
through gene flow (red). The origins of this debate lay in
competing theories of the origins of human races and the
placement of known fossils in human ancestry. Source: author 22
Fig. 1.6 Phylogenetic tree of mtDNA samples from Cann et al. (1987).
Each endpoint represents an individual, coded by continent of
origin. Because there is greater diversity and earlier divergence
among the individuals from Africa, Cann concluded the last
common ancestor lived there. Obtained with permission from
Nature Springer. Source: Nature permission 25
Fig. 2.1 A hypothetical phylogeny to illustrate concepts of classification.
See text for explanation 39
xiii
xiv List of Figures
Fig. 3.1 The primate face is restructured to allow the eyes to face
anteriorly. Shown: black howler monkey, Alouatta pigra.
Photo by the author 56
Fig. 3.2 Primates commonly assume an upright trunk posture. Shown: left,
rhesus monkey, Macaca mulatta; right, Geoffroy’s spider monkey,
Ateles geoffroyi. Photos by the author 57
Fig. 3.3 Social grooming is a very important part of life in most primates.
It strengthens individual relationships and cohesion of the larger
social group. Shown: Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus. Source:
Berthold Werner <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Gibraltar_Barbary_Macaques_BW_2015-10-26_14-07-28.
jpg> CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 58
Fig. 3.4 Left: Old World monkeys maintain a quadrupedal posture when
walking, with a narrow ribcage and limbs of roughly equal length.
Shown: rhesus macaque, Macaca mulatta. Right: Apes commonly
assume an upright posture in the trees. A broad ribcage with
laterally facing shoulders and long arms increase their reach.
Shown: dark-handed gibbon, Sources: (left) Md. Tariq Aziz
Touhid <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rhesus_
Macaque_monkey_the_look.jpg> CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons; (right) Thomas Fuhrmann <https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dark-handed_or_Agile_Gibbon_
(Hylobates_agilis)_Tanjung_Puting_National_Park_-_
Indonesia_1.jpg > CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 62
Fig. 3.5 Mature male orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus. Source: Arifinal0109
<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ORANGUTAN_
SUMATRA_MENGAMBIL_PISANG.jpg> CC BY-SA 3.0, via
Wikimedia Commons 63
Fig. 3.6 Female mountain gorilla with infant, Gorilla gorilla. Source:
Charles J Sharp <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Mountain_gorilla_(Gorilla_beringei_beringei)_female_with_
baby.jpg > CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 64
Fig. 3.7 Common chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes. Source: Tu7uh <https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PanTroglodytesAtZooNegara.
jpg> CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 65
Fig. 3.8 Bonobos, Pan paniscus. Source: Pierre Fidenci <https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pan_paniscus11.jpg> CC
BY-SA 2,5, via Wikimedia Commons 66
Fig. 4.1 Timeline for Chap. 3. Source: author 74
Fig. 4.2 A human phylogeny from 1915 including known hominin fossils
Pithecanthropus, Neanderthals, and Eoanthropus (the Piltdown
hoax), as drawn by Sir Arthur Keith. The human lineage diverges
from the great apes in the Oligocene, which is now dated to 30
million years ago. From (Keith, 1915), public domain. Source:
public domain 74
Fig. 4.3 Partial maxilla YPM 13799 with P3-M2, type specimen of
Ramapithecus punjabicus from the Siwalik Mountains of northern
India (cast). In the 1960s this was argued to be the oldest known
hominin. It is now recognized as a female Sivapithecus sivalensis
about 12.2 Ma. Photo by Katherine Langdon 76
List of Figures xv
Fig. 4.4 Gorilla, chimpanzee, and human mandibles. The large canines on
the ape’s jaws shape the front of the mouth into a wide “U” shape
with parallel sides. The human jaw is narrow in front and the
molar rows are diverging to create a parabolic arcade. Photo by
author76
Fig. 4.5 The impact of the molecular clock on hominin classification in the
1970s. Left: a phylogeny according to then-current interpretations
of the fossil record. Human diverged early and all living lineages
are distinct and visible among the middle Miocene fossils.
O = orangutan, G = gorilla, C = chimpanzee, H = humans. Right:
A phylogeny according to the molecular clock. Humans,
chimpanzees, and gorillas are equally related and descended from
a recent common ancestor about 5 Ma. Source: author 79
Fig. 4.6 GSP 15000, the face of Sivapithecus sivalensis from the Siwalik
Mountains of northern Pakistan next to a recent orangutan
cranium. The similarities overwhelmingly linked the Asian
thick-enameled hominoids to the orang clade and not to humans.
Photo by author 82
Fig. 4.7 Occurrence of Miocene hominoid fossils and the Fayum site.
Source: author 86
Fig. 4.8 TM 266–01–060-1 Sahelanthropus tchadensis from Toros-Menalla,
Chad (model). Photo by Katherine Langdon 92
Fig. 5.1 The Taung infant, type specimen of Australopithecus africanus
from Taung quarry, South Africa, about 3.0–2.6 Ma (cast).
Source: Didier Descouens <https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Australopithecus_africanus_-_Cast_of_taung_child.jpg>
CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 104
Fig. 5.2 Australopithecus africanus cranium, “Mrs. Ples” Sts 5 from
Sterkfontein Cave, South Africa, about 2.5 Ma. Source: José
Braga; Didier Descouens <https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Mrs_Ples_Global.jpg> CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons106
Fig. 5.3 Paranthropus robustus cranium SK 48, from Swartkrans Cave,
South Africa, about 2.2–1.8 Ma. Sources: left, author; right
S. Nawrocki107
Fig. 5.4 SK 53, Paranthropus robustus mandible SK 23, from Swartkrans
Cave, South Africa. Photo by author 107
Fig. 5.5 Relative tooth size in A. africanus, P. robustus, chimpanzee, and
human. From left to right, upper first incisor through lower third
molar. Australopithecus and Paranthropus are more similar to one
another than either is to a living species. Data from (Berger et al.,
2015; Grine & Strait, 1994; Irish et al., 2016; Kaifu et al., 2015).
Source: author 109
Fig. 5.6 Known Australopith sites. The distribution in Africa is almost
entirely in the East African Rift Valley and South Africa. Source:
author111
xvi List of Figures
Fig. 5.7 The East African Rift Valley. Plio-Pleistocene fossil sites are
concentrated between the fault lines (in red) in Tanzania, Kenya,
and Ethiopia 114
Fig. 5.8 Olduvai Gorge, northern Tanzania. Source: Elitre <https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Olduvai_2012_05_31_2823_
(7522639084).jpg> CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons 115
Fig. 5.9 OH 5 Zinjanthropus boisei OH 5 cranium from Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania about 1.8 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 116
Fig. 5.10 Cranium of A. anamensis MRD-VP-1/1 from Woranso-Mille,
Ethiopia, about 3.8 Ma. Photo courtesy of the Cleveland
Museum of Natural History 118
Fig. 5.11 The canine honing mechanism in a chimpanzee (cast). The upper
canine rubs and sharpens against the lower premolar while the
lower canine hones against the upper canine. Photo by Katherine
Langdon120
Fig. 5.12 Tooth area in early hominins. The lower first premolar (LP3)
increases in size as the honing mechanism is lost. The molars
increase in area to a smaller extent. Data from (Berger
et al., 2015; Suwa et al., 2009; Ward et al., 2020) 120
Fig. 5.13 A. bahrelghazali KT 12/H1 partial mandible from Koro Toro,
Bahr-el-ghazal, Chad, about 3.6 Ma. Figure from (Brunet et al.,
1995). Obtained with permission from Nature Springer. 121
Fig. 5.14 A. deyieremeda BRT-VP-3.1from Woranso-Mille, Afar Region,
Ethiopia, about 3.5–3.3 Ma. Top row: views of maxilla; bottom
row: mandible. Figure from (Haile-Selassie et al., 2015). Obtained
with permission from Nature Springer. 122
Fig. 5.15 Maxillary tooth areas. A. garhi shows an unusual combination of
large postcanine dentition and unreduced anterior teeth. Data
from (Asfaw et al., 1999; Berger et al., 2015; Leakey & Leakey,
1978; Wood, 1991) 123
Fig. 5.16 The skeleton of Stw 573, A. prometheus, partially excavated, from
Sterkfontein Cave, South Africa, possibly 3.67 Ma. Source: Wits
University <https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Littlle_
Foot-2.jpg> CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 123
Fig. 5.17 The cranium of MH 1, A. sediba, from Malapa Cave, South Africa,
about 1.98 Ma. Source: Brett Eloff <https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Australopithecus_sediba.JPG> courtesy
of Prof. Berger and Wits University GNU Free Documentation
License via Wilimedia Commons 124
Fig. 5.18 Kenyanthropus platyops, KNM-WT 40000 from West Turkana,
Kenya, about 3.5 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 125
Fig. 5.19 Features that distinguish the robust cranium of P. robustus (SK 48)
on the right from the gracile cranium of A. africanus (Sts 5) on
the left. A. Anterior. Photos (left) S. Nawrocki; (right) author.
B. Inferior view. Photos by author. C. Mandibles. Photos by author 126
List of Figures xvii
Fig. 5.20 Anterior and posterior tooth row lengths in australopiths (=sum of
mean MD lengths). Ardipithecus does not exhibit the postcanine
expansion of the australopiths. Paranthropus has relatively small
incisors and enlarged molars. Data sources: (Asfaw et al., 1999;
Berger et al., 2015; Brunet et al., 1995; Grine & Strait, 1994;
Haile-Selassie et al., 2015; Irish et al., 2016; Kaifu et al., 2015;
Leakey & Leakey, 1978; Schuman & Brace, 1954; Suwa et al.,
2009; Ward et al., 2020) 127
Fig. 5.21 Posterior view of KNM-ER 23000 P. boisei showing the
characteristic bell shape of the braincase. Specimen from East
Turkana, Kenya, about 1.9 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 128
Fig. 5.22 KNM-ER 406 P. boisei cranium from East Turkana, Kenya, about
1.7 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 128
Fig. 5.23 P. boisei mandible from Peninj, Tanzania, about 1.5–1.3 Ma (cast).
Photo by Katherine Langdon. 129
Fig. 5.24 KNM-WT 17000 P. aethiopicus cranium from West Turkana,
Kenya, about 2.5 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 130
Fig. 5.25 LH 4 mandible from Laetoli, type specimen of A. afarensis, about
Fig. 6.1 There are many forms that a savanna can present. Here are three
views of the East African grasslands taken on the same day at
Nairobi National Park, Kenya. Photos by author 148
Fig. 6.2 Comparison of C3 and C4 photosynthesis pathways. C4 pathways
require an extra step of capturing CO2 in one cell and transporting
it to another. The efficiency of this transport system results in the
incorporation of more 13C. Source: Wang et al. (2012) <https://
www.researchgate.net/figure/A-schematic-diagram-of-C3-and-
C4-photosynthesis_fig11_257881531> CC BY-SA 2.0, via
Fig. 7.1 The palate of A. afarensis AL 200 “Lucy” displaying the
megadontia characteristic of australopiths (cast). Photo by
Katherine Langdon 167
Fig. 7.2 Total postcanine (P3-M3) tooth area in australopithecines (sum
mean MD length x BL breadth). Light gray is the upper tooth
row; black is the lower tooth row. Data sources: (Asfaw et al.,
1999; Berger et al., 2015; Brunet et al., 1995; Grine & Strait,
1994; Haile-Selassie et al., 2015; Irish et al., 2016; Kaifu et al.,
2015; Leakey & Leakey, 1978; Schuman & Brace, 1954; Suwa
et al., 2009; Ward et al., 2020; Wood, 1991). Source: author 168
Fig. 7.3 KNM-ER 406 P. boisei showing the extreme development of
chewing muscles. (a) The shaded area represents the origin of
temporalis. The wide zygomatic arches support the attachment of
masseter muscle and allow the passage of temporalis between the
arch and the braincase. (b) Temporalis muscle has expanded its
attachment area (shaded area). Where the right and left muscles
meet, the sagittal crest is created to provide additional bone
surface. Photos by Katherine Langdon 170
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 7.4 Microwear pattern on Sts 56 A. africanus molar. The density pits
and scratches is indicative of the coarseness of food eaten recently.
This image also shows a high degree of anisotropy (random
direction to the scratches) consistent with a frugivorous diet.
Image by Frank L. Williams and Christopher Schmidt 171
Fig. 7.5 13
C signature of diet in early hominins from dental enamel. Ar.
ramidus has the smallest proportion of 13C. The ratio of 13C: 12C
in South African australopiths is intermediate between those for
browsers and grazers, but it is fairly stable through time. P. boisei
has a significantly higher component of C3 plants in the diet.
Data from (Lee-Thorp et al., 2012). Source: author 173
Fig. 7.6 The deep robust mandible of P. boisei (cast of SL 7A-125 from
Omo Shungura Formation deposits, Ethiopia) supported
hypermegadont molars and powerful chewing muscles. Photo by
Fig. 7.7 Estimates of EQ using different body size estimates. Data from
Table 7.2. Source: author 179
Fig. 7.8 Tooth crown formation time in days as an estimate for maturation
rate (mesiolingual cusp of the upper first molar). Enamel deposition
ceases upon eruption of the tooth. The thick enamel of the
australopiths, and especially Paranthropus, was laid down at a faster
rate than in living species and the teeth erupted at a younger age.
Data from (Smith et al., 2015). Source: author 181
Fig. 8.1 Footprints of A. afarensis at Laetoli, Tanzania, about 3.6 Ma.
Source: Fidelis T Masao and colleagues. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Test-pit_L8_at_Laetoli_Site_S.jpg. CC
BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 192
Fig. 8.2 Selected prints from trackways “A” (above) and “G” below at
Laetoli. The G trackway is assumed to have been made by
A. afarensis and the A trackway by a different, unknown bipedal
hominin. The differences in the shape of the foot and placement
of feet within the gait pattern indicate significant diversity. Source:
(McNutt et al., 2021). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Laetoli_Footprints_Site_A_(2).jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 8.3 AL 288 A reconstruction of the A. afarensis skeleton “Lucy,”
from Hadar, Afar Region, Ethiopia, about 3.2 Ma. Also see
Fig. 8.6. Photo courtesy of the Cleveland Museum of Natural
History195
Fig. 8.4 The skeleton of A. prometheus Sts 573 “Little Foot” from
Sterkfontein Cave, South Africa. Source: Paul John Myburgh,
courtesy of Paul John Myburgh and Ronald Clarke 196
Fig. 8.5 Sts 14 A. africanus partial skeleton from Sterkfontein, South
Africa, about 2.5 Ma. Photo by S. Nawrocki 197
Fig. 8.6 The two known skeletons of A. sediba, MH1 juvenile (left) and
MH 2 adult (right), from Malapa Cave, South Africa, about
1.98 Ma compared with the skeleton of Lucy (AL 288 A. afarensis).
Source: Profberger https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Australopithecus_sediba_and_Lucy.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0,
via Wikimedia Commons 198
List of Figures xix
Fig. 8.7 OH 8 partial foot of Paranthropus boisei from Olduvai Gorge,

Tanzania, about 1.8 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 198
Fig. 8.8 Curvatures of the human spinal column. The curvatures help to
balance the center of mass and provide shock absorption. Upright
posture in hominins creates lumbar lordosis and decreases the
sacral angle. Image in public domain 199
Fig. 8.9 Embryonic somites develop into vertebrae and related tissues. The
differentiating factors include retinoic acid, which diffuses from
cranial to caudal; fibroblast growth factor (FGF), which diffuses
from caudal to cranial, and the products of Hox genes produced
by cells within the somites. Hox gene activation is triggered by
local ratios of retinoic acid and FGF. The activitiy of Hox genes
that are key to differentiating regions of the spine is depicted.
Changes in the control and expression of the Hox genes can
quickly change the positions of boundaries between spinal regions.
Image of spine from SMART-Servier Medical Art, part of
Laboratoires Servier© CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 202
Fig. 8.10 The position of the foramen magnum, indicated by the yellow
dots, is related to the balance of the head in an upright posture.
Australopiths (center, Sts 5 A. africanus) show an intermediate
position of the foramen between that of the chimpanzee (left)
and human (right). Photos by Katherine Langdon. Center
photo by author 203
Fig. 8.11 The major muscles of abduction of the hip in posterior view. The
lateral flare of the iliac blade brings the origin of the muscles over
the femur for greater lever action in balance. Source of skeleton
outline: LadyofHats released into public domain via Wikimedia
Commons. Source of skeleton outline: https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_skeleton_back_no-text_no-color.
svg released into public domain via Wikimedia Commons. 206
Fig. 8.12 The lateral flare of the pelvic blade places the hip abductors
directly over the joint for more effective control. This is
exaggerated in australopiths and most other fossil hominin
specimens. (a). Modern human. (b). Reconstruction of AL 288
A. afarensis from Hadar, Ethiopia. (c). Chimpanzee. Photos by
Fig. 8.13 Chimpanzee (left) and human (right) femurs aligned at the knee.
The carrying angle of the shaft of the human femur brings the
knees and feet closer to the center of mass. Photo by Katherine
Langdon208
Fig. 8.14 The anterior to posterior length of the pelvis determines lever
arms for muscles of flexion and extension. The ilium anteriorly
creates leverage for hip flexors and the ischium posteriorly
supports the hamstrings for extension. The human pelvis is
reshaped to strengthen the extensors despite the upright
orientation. (a) Chimpanzee. (b) Human. Also see Fig. 7.20 for
comparative lengths. Photos by Katherine Langdon 209
Fig. 8.15 The longitudinal arch of the human foot (top) is elevated and
strengthened during gait to provide critical leverage. This does
not occur in the chimpanzee foot (below). Source: (Elftman &
Manter, 1935), in public domain 210
xx List of Figures
Fig. 8.16 Chimpanzee and human feet compared, scaled to the same length.
Note the human great toe is elongated, rotated, immobilized and
more robust. Source: (Morton, 1922), in public domain 211
Fig. 8.17 The transverse arch. While the heads of the metatarsals (solid
outlines) rest on the ground, the bases of the same bones (dotted
outlines) are elevated at midfoot into the transverse arch. The
transverse arch of the human foot is more pronounced and gives
further support against midfoot bending. (a) Human foot. (b)
Chimpanzee foot. Source: (Morton, 1924) in public domain 212
Fig. 8.18 The toes of the human foot go into hyperextension as the heel
rises during gait. Attached ligaments and tendons tug against the
rear of the foot, pulling joints into more stable positions and
elevating the arch. Source: (Hicks, 1954) in public domain 214
Fig. 8.19 The curvature of a long bone reflects forces applied to it. In this
example of a finger, the flexor tendon is represented by the gray
band. The tendon is held in place by a retinaculum anchored
along the length of the bone (blue). When the flexor muscle
contracts, the retinaculum redirects the forces to be perpendicular
to the bone tissue (arrows). These forces are best resisted by an
architectural arch. Shown: Proximal third phalanx of the hand of
H. naledi215
Fig. 8.20 Human and chimpanzee pelvis scales to similar interacetabular
distance. The human ilium and sacrum are greatly reduced in
height to bring the sacroiliac and hip joints closer together for
more efficient weight transfer between them. Photos by Katherine
Langdon217
Fig. 8.21 The reconstructed pelvis of AL 288 A. afarensis from Hadar,
Ethiopia (model). The reduction in height exceeds that of
humans. Photo by Katherine Langdon 218
Fig. 8.22 Chimpanzee and human proximal femora. The human femur has a
larger head and neck and a more obtuse angle between the neck
and the shaft. Photo by Katherine Langdon 219
Fig. 8.23 Lateral view of calcanei of (a). chimpanzee, (b). human, (c). AL
333-8 A. afaransis from Hadar, and (d). Omo 33-74-896 P. boisei
from Omo (casts of fossils). Photo by author 221
Fig. 8.24 The calcaneal tuberosity in posterior view of (a). chimpanzee,
(b). human, and (c). Omo 33-74-896 P. boisei from Omo.
Humans have developed a medial tubercle to broaden the base
for balance and support. This feature is variable among
australopith species. Photo by author 222
Fig. 8.25 Tyrannosaurs rex and other dinosaurs achieved a bipedal posture
by balancing the trunk with a massive tail. Keeping the trunk
horizontal did not require a redesign of the pelvis. Note the
disproportion of the limbs. Source: Greg Goebel https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:T-Rex_skeleton_%22Big_
Mike%22_at_Museum_of_the_Rockies_White_Background.jpg
Fig. 8.26 Current evidence indicates substantial diversity of body plan
among earlier hominins represented in this summary image 237
List of Figures xxi
Fig. 9.1 The geographic distribution of early fossils of genus Homo in

Africa. Source: author 252
Fig. 9.2 OH 7 mandible, type specimen of H. habilis from Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania, about t1.75 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 253
Fig. 9.3 OH 13 H. habilis from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, about 1.7 Ma
(cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 254
Fig. 9.4 OH 16 H. habilis from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, about 1.7 Ma
Fig. 9.5 Comparison of individual tooth area (mean length x mean
breadth). H. habilis is very close to A. afarensis in area, but later
Homo is smaller. Data from (Berger et al., 2015; Brown & Walker,
1993; Kaifu et al., 2015; Leakey & Leakey, 1978; Wood, 1991;
Wood & Leakey, 2011). Source: author 255
Fig. 9.6 Features of the lower jaw and dentition that differentiate Homo
(right) from Australopithecus (left). Left, AL 400 A. afarensis;
right, OH 13 H. habilis (casts). Photos by Katherine Langdon 258
Fig. 9.7 Features of the cranium that differentiate Australopithecus from
Homo. Left, Sts 5, A. africanus; right, KNM-ER 3373,
H. ergaster. Sources: left, S. Nawrocki; right, Katherine Langdon 259
Fig. 9.8 Variation in Homo crania from East Turkana, Kenya, established
the coexistence of multiple species. From left to right, KNM-ER
1813 H. habilis, KNM-ER 1470 H. rudolfensis, KNM-ER 3733
H. ergaster (casts). (a). Anterior view. (b). Lateral view. Photos by
Fig. 9.9 Interpretations of early human diversity in East Africa. (a) A
standard model about 1980 and (b) a current best interpretation
of the African fossils. Source: author 261
Fig. 9.10 Cranium OH 24 cf. H. habilis from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania,
about 1.8 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 261
Fig. 9.11 OH 65 habiline lower face from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, about
1.8 Ma, in anterior and inferior views. The fossils is contemporary
with specimens of H. habilis, but the great breadth of the anterior
mouth and palate closely resembles H. rudolfensis. Courtesy of
Robert Blumenschine and Ron Clarke 262
Fig. 9.12 KNM-ER 60000 mandible, similar to the H. rudolfensis tooth
row, but adding to the variation within early Homo. Figure from
(M. G. Leakey et al., 2012). Obtained with permission from
Nature Springer 263
Fig. 9.13 SK 847 H. gautengensis or a small-brained Australopithecus from
Swartkrans, South Africa, about 1.8–1.3 Ma. Photo by author 264
Fig. 9.14 Cranial capacities of early hominins. Differences are apparent
between Australopithecus and early habilines and between all the
early species and H. ergaster267
Fig. 9.15 Paleoclimate indicators for East Africa show local fluctuations
within long-term trends. Carbon isotope ratios from paleosols
in the Omo River basin (Shungura Formation) and the Lake
Turkana basin correlate with diminishing tree cover across a
spectrum of habitats. Source: (Cerling et al., 2011)
Copyright © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 270
xxii List of Figures
Fig. 10.1 Early presence of humans in Africa and western Asia. Blue = early
Homo. Red = Mode 1 tools. Purple = both. Source: author 278
Fig. 10.2 Oldowan core and flake tools, each shown in three views. A. Early
chopper from Melka Kunture, Ethiopia. B. Flake chopper from
Saint-Clar-de-Rivière, Haute Garonne, France. Source Didier
Descouens. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre_
taill%C3%A9e_Melka_Kunture_%C3%89thiopie.jpg and https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Galet_MHNT_
PRE.2009.0.200.1.jpg CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 283
Fig. 10.3 Spheroid hammerstones from Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
Source (Diez-Martín et al., 2021), with permission courtesy of
Fernando Diez-Martin 284
Fig. 10.4 Chimpanzee hand (left) and human hand (right) compared. The
relatively long human thumb allows fingertip opposition and much
greater dexterity. Source: Denise Morgan. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chimp_and_human_hands.jpg via
Fig. 10.5 The hand of A. sediba from Malapa Cave, South Africa. Source:
Profberger. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hand_
and_arm_Australopithecus_sediba_on_black.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0,
Fig. 12.1 The human brain has approximately three times the volume of the
chimpanzee brain. This figure only compares the cerebrums.
Source: Todd Preuss. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Human_and_chimp_brain.png. CC BY-SA 2.5, via Wikimedia
Commons323
Fig. 12.2 Cranial capacities (cc) of fossil hominins through time. H. naledi
and H. florensis are on the lower right. The habilines, including
Dmanisi fossils, do not align with the trajectory of later species of
Homo324
Fig. 12.3 Cranial capacities (cc) of fossil hominins through time, including
only the fossils most likely to be on the direct lineage of
H. sapiens. This plot is more linear than Fig. 12.2 and suggests a
more continuous increase in genus Homo through time 327
Fig. 12.4 Expected and observed human visceral organ masses. The
additional investment in brain tissue is matched by the reduction
in the mass of the liver and intestine. Data from (Aiello &
Wheeler, 1995). Source: author 329
Fig. 12.5 The lobes of the cerebral cortex. The insula is hidden deep to
folds of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. Source: (Gray,
1912). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lobes_of_
the_brain_NL.svg in public domain through Wikimedia Commons 338
Fig. 12.6 Decision-making in the prefrontal cortex. Emotional motivation
may compete with social and other concerns. Possible actions and
outcomes are valuated and compared to determine a course of
action. Source: author 340
Fig. 12.7 Reorganization of the human brain. The chimpanzee (left) and
human brain (right) are approximately to scale. The topography of
List of Figures xxiii
each has been averaged from many specimens to indicate to

remove individual variation. A. The human brain displays a relative
expansion of the prefrontal cortex, especially in its inferior regions.
The lateral orbital frontal cortex now contributes to the
operculum (folds of cortex obscuring the insula). The inferior
parietal cortex has also increased its relative area.
B. Reorganization of the orbital region of the brain. The
expansion of the lateral frontal orbital cortex has pushed insular
cortex posterior, to be covered by the frontal operculum. Source:
Shawn Hurst 341
Fig. 12.8 Approximate language areas of the left hemisphere. These areas
perform other funcitons, as well. Brain outline by Hankem.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_Brain_
sketch_with_eyes_and_cerebrellum.svg released into public
domain via Wikimedia Commons 346
Fig. 12.9 The human vocal tract. The descent of the larynx, enlarging the
pharynx, is necessary for the full range of human speech sounds.
By separating the palate and epiglottis, it also makes it easier for
humans to choke on food and drink. Source: author 348
Fig. 13.1 Evidence of early Homo. While we started our story in Africa,
people had also entered Asia at an early date. Source: author 360
Fig. 13.2 Important sites in Chap. 9. Source: author 360
Fig. 13.3 Ruins of the castle and cathedral at Dmanisi. The oldest hominin
fossils outside of Africa were discovered during archaeological
excavation of this citadel. Source: Larry V. Dumlao. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ruins_of_Dmanisi_Castle.jpg.
Fig. 13.4 Mandible D2600 from Dmanisi, Republic of George, about
1.8 Ma (cast). The massive build and early date led to the naming
of a new species, Homo georgicus. Source: Gerbil. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:D2600.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0,
Fig. 13.5 A digital reconstruction of the five skulls from Dmanisi, apparently
from a single population, from (Lordkipanidze et al., 2013). The
range sizes and morphology challenges our expectations of normal
species variation. Obtained with permission from Science368
Fig. 13.6 Excavations in the cave at Liang Bua on Flores, where
H. floresiensis was discovered. Source: Rosino. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2016032812 2708_-_The_inside_of_
the_Liang_Bua_hobbit_cave_(homo_floresiensis)_
(26066080056).jpg. CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons 370
Fig. 13.7 Wallace’s Line separates the Asian and Australian continental
plates. During much of the Pleistocene, Sumatra, Java and Borneo
were connected to the mainland. Land animals crossed the water
and colonized the more eastern islands, including Sulawesi, and
Flores, only rarely by chance events. Source: author 371
Fig. 13.8 Cranium of LB1 Homo floresiensis from Liang Bua, Flores,
Indonesia, about 76 Ka (model). Photo by Katherine Langdon 372
Fig. 14.1 Erectine sites in Asia referred to in this chapter. Source: author 392
xxiv List of Figures
Fig. 14.2 Possible explanations for the distribution of erectines. (a). African
and Asian populations diverged from a broad initial distribution of
hominins. This conventional view glosses over problems of
chronology and the question of where the species arose. (b).
African and Asian populations descended independently from the
initial migration of primitive Homo. The only skeletal evidence of
this migration, at Dmanisi, is too late and too primitive to be a
good ancestor. The model assumes they are distinct species and we
can explain similarities in morphology through parallel evolution
and a high level of population variation, particularly in Africa.
Gene flow maintains coherence of the species. (c). African
populations descended from H. erectus in Asia via a back
migration. This model is contradicted by the fact that H. ergaster
in Africa predates known H. erectus in Asia. (d). Asian populations
descended from H. ergaster in Africa via a second migration.
However, there is no independent evidence for a second
migration. Source: author 394
Fig. 14.3 Franz Weidenreich’s rendering of skull XII Homo erectus from
Zhoukoudian, China, about 750 BP. (a). Anterior view. (b).
Lateral view. (c). Superior view. (d). Posterior view. Images in
public domain via Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sinanthropus_Skull_XII_norma_
frontalis.png. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Sinanthropus_Skull_XII_lateralis_sinistra.png. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sinanthropus_Skull_XII_
norma_verticalis.png. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Sinanthropus_Skull_XII_norma_occipitalis.png398
Fig. 14.4 Mandible of H. erectus ZKG D1 from Zhoukoudian (cast).
Photo by Katherine Langdon 400
Fig. 14.5 H. erectus cranium from Lantian Gongwangling, China, about
1.6 Ma. Source: Woo Ju-Kang. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Gongwangling_norma_verticalis.png in public domain,
Fig. 14.6 H. erectus cranium from Hexian, China, about 412 Ka. Photo
courtesy of Peter Brown 402
Fig. 14.7 Cranial capacities through time for the lineage of Asian hominins.
Not the discontinuities at the start and end of H. erectus,
suggesting population replacements 404
Fig. 14.8 Dubois’ illustration of the first specimens of Pithecanthropus
erectus from Trinil, Java. In public domain 405
Fig. 14.9 Sangiran 2 Homo erectus cranium from Sangiran, Java (cast).
Photo by Katherine Langdon 406
Fig. 14.10 Sangiran 17 Homo erectus cranium from Java, about 1.2 Ma
(model). Photo by Katherine Langdon 406
Fig. 14.11 Mandibular fragment of Meganthropus palaeojavanicus from
Sangiran, Java. Von Koenigswald believed this was a new hominin
similar to robust australopiths. It is now believed to be an extinct
ape. Source: Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History
Museum. https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/
List of Figures xxv
File:Meganthropus_palaeojavanicus.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via

Fig. 14.12 Skull IV late H. erectus from Ngandong, Java, about 110 Ka
Fig. 14.13 Skull IX late H. erectus from Ngandong, Java, about 110 Ka.
Source: Franz Weidenreich, in public domain via Wikipedia
Commons411
Fig. 14.14 Sambungmacan 3 late H. erectus from Sambungmacan, Java,
perhaps 100 Ka (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 411
Fig. 15.1 Sites referred to in this chapter. (a) African sites. (b) European
sites. Source of outline map. Source: author 420
Fig. 15.2 Mauer 1, type specimen of H. heidelbergensis from near
Heidelberg, Germany, about 600 Ka. Source: (MacCurdy, 1924)
in public domain 421
Fig. 15.3 The reconstructed skull of “Eoanthropus dawsoni,” the notorious
Piltdown forgery created from parts of a human cranium and an
orangutan mandible. Source: Wellcome Collection Gallery with
permission https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Skull_of_
the_%22Eoanthropus_Dawsoni%22_(Piltdown_Man)_Wellcome_
M0013579.jpg. via CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 421
Fig. 15.4 KNM-ER 3883 H. ergaster from East Turkana, Kenya, about
Fig. 15.5 KNM-WT 15000 cranium of the H. ergaster skeleton from
Nariokotome, Kenya, about 1.6 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine
Langdon425
Fig. 15.6 OH 9 H. ergaster (or H. erectus) from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania,
about 1.7 Ma (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 427
Fig. 15.7 Homo heidelbergensis cranium from Kabwe, Zambia, about 300
Ka. Photos by author 429
Fig. 15.8 H. heidelbergensis cranium from Bodo, Ethiopia, about 632 Ka
Fig. 15.9 Schematic section of the route in Rising Star Cave from the closest
entrance to the Dinaledi Chamber. Early hominins repeatedly
brought the bodies of deceased members through this tortuous
passage. Source: Paul H. G. M. Dirks et al. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geological_map_and_cross-section_of_
the_Rising_Star_cave_system.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons431
Fig. 15.10 DH 1 cranial bones of the type specimen of H. naledi from the
Dinaledi Chamber of Rising Star Cave, South Africa, about 300
Ka. This includes U.W. 101–1473 cranial bones, U.W. 101–1277
maxilla, and U.W. 101–1261 mandible. Source: Berger et al.,
2015 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homo_naledi_
holotype_specimen_(DH1).jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons433
Fig. 15.11 LES 1 cranium of H. naledi from the Lesedi Chamber of Rising
Star Cave, South Africa. Source: John Hawks, Marina Elliott,
Peter Schmid et al. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Homo_naledi_LES1_cranium.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
xxvi List of Figures
Fig. 15.12 Part of the initial recovery of bones from the Dinaledi Chamber
arranged into a composite skeleton. Source: Lee Roger Berger
research team. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Homo_naledi_skeletal_specimens.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 15.13 Articulated bones of the right hand of H. naledi (front and back).
Note the robusticity, particularly of the thumb and the broad tufts
at the tips of all the digits. Source: Tracy L. Kivell, Andrew
S. Deane, Matthew W. Tocheri, Caley M. Orr, Peter Schmid, John
Hawks, Lee R. Berger & Steven E. Churchill. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homo_naledi_hand.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0,
Fig. 15.14 ATE9-1: Mandible fragment from the TE9 level of the Sima del
Elefante cave site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain). This fossil has been
dated between 1.1 and 1.3 million years using the cosmogenic
nucleide method. This fossil has been attributed to Homo sp. With
permission, courtesy and © José María Bermúdez de Castro 439
Fig. 15.15 ATD6-15 and ATD6-69 human fossil remains (Individual 3) from
the Gran Dolina cave site, level TD6. Various dating methods
conclude that this level is approximately 0.85 million years old
(MIS 21). These fossils have been attributed to the species Homo
antecessor. With permission, courtesy and © José María Bermúdez
de Castro 440
Fig. 15.16 Atapuerca 5 cranium early H. neanderthalensis from Sima de los
Huesos, Spain, about 450–430 Ka (cast). Photo by Katherine
Langdon441
Fig. 15.17 The cranium from Petralona, Greece, an example of a robust
specimen of H. heidelbergensis, about 305–150 Ka. With
permission, courtesy and © of Eric Delson 444
Fig. 15.18 Cranium of H. heidelbergensis from Ceprano, Italy in superior and
lateral views, about 460–430 Ka. Source: UtaUtaNapishtim.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ceprano_Argil.jpg.
Fig. 15.19 Cranium from Steinheim, Germany, an example of a gracile
specimen of H. heidelbergensis, about 150 Ka (model). Photos by
Fig. 15.20 The gracile morph of H. heidelbergensis (left) has a smaller and
more lightly built face and smaller braincase. Left: Steinheim
(cast); right: Petralona. Sources: (left) photo by Katherine
Langdon; (right) photo courtesy and © of Eric Delson 446
Fig. 15.21 The gracile morph of H. heidelbergensis (right) has a smoothly
rounded occipital region, while the robust form has a strong
occipital torus and a pronounced nuchal plane. Left: Petralona;
right: Steinheim (cast). Sources (left) photo courtesy and © of
Eric Delson; (right) photo by Katherine Langdon 446
Fig. 15.22 (Above) Arago XX1 H. heidelbergensis cranium from Tautavel,
France, about 450 Ka (cast). Source: Luna04. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homme_de_Tautavel.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0,
via Wikimedia Commons. (Below) Arago XIII and Arago II
H. heidelbergensis mandibles from Tautavel, France (casts). Source:
List of Figures xxvii
Gerbil. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tautavel_
UK_2.JPG. CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons. Check for
new scan 447
Fig. 15.23 Two interpretations of phylogeny in Africa and Europe. On the
left, Middle Pleistocene fossils in both continents are place is a
single species connected by occasional migration and gene flow.
(The existence of parallel lineages such as H. naledi is ignored.).
The figure on the right places the hominins into separate lineages.
Roksandic et al., 2021 propose to merge H. heidelbergensis with
Neanderthals and to name the African lineage H. bodoensis448
Fig. 16.1 The presence of Acheulean cultures (orange) and hominin species
(blue and green). Source: author 462
Fig. 16.2 Location of sites discussed in this chapter. Source: author 462
Fig. 16.3 An adult human tapeworm of the species Taenia saginata. The
head, by which it clings to the wall of the intestine, is on the right.
Source: Center for Disease Control. https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Taenia_saginata_adult_5260_lores.jpg. in public
domain via Wikimedia Commons 463
Fig. 16.4 Examples of Lower Paleolithic bifacial tools. A. Flint handaxe
from England. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:ESS-4444B5_Palaeolithic_Axe_(FindID_228769).jpg. CC
BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons. B. A finely shaped handaxe
from Israel. Source: A finely shaped handaxe from Israel. Source:
Guyassaf. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hand_
ston_1.jpg in public domain via Wikimedia Commons. C. Two
more crudely made bifaces from South Korea. Source: Ismoon.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Paleolithic_
Handaxe._Seoul_National_University_Museum.jpg. CC BY-SA
4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 465
Fig. 16.5 How a modest-sized handaxe might be used. Source: https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lower_Palaeolithic_Bifacial_
Hand_Axe_from_Kelstern_(FindID_386979-287331).jpg. via
Fig. 16.6 Excavated handaxes in situ at Olorgesalie, Kenya, about 700 Ka.
Source: Rossignol Benoît. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Olorgesailiesite1993(1).jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0, via
Fig. 16.7 Elephant bones (Palaeoloxodon) exposed at Ambrona, Spain,
about 350 Ka. Source: PePeEfe. https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Palaeoloxodon_antiquus_-_in_situ_fossil_bones_-_
Ambrona.JPG. CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons 479
Fig. 16.8 One of the wooden spears from Schoeningen, Germany, about
300 Ka. These are the oldest wooden weapons yet discovered.
Source: P. Pfarr NLD. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Sch%C3%B6ningen_Speer_VII_im_
xxviii List of Figures
Sediment_1997_%C2%A9_P._Pfarr_NLD.jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0,

Fig. 17.1 Important sites in this chapter. Blue circles = Neanderthal
remains. Green diamonds = archaic specimens. Purple
cross = Denisovan. Red triangles = Early modern remains.
(a). Important Neanderthal sites in Europe and the near East.
(b). Africa. (c). Asia. Source: author 498
Fig. 17.2 Denisova Cave in southern Siberia, Russia. Both Neanderthals and
Denisovans were present here on and off from about 250Ka until
the arrival of H. sapiens about 45 Ka. Source: Xenochka. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Таинственная пещера.jpg. CC
Fig. 17.3 Known geographic range of Neanderthal skeletal remains. Colors
represent identified subpopulations. Cultural remains are more
extensive within the dotted boundary. Source: Nienbert, Nicholas
Perrault III. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Range_
of_NeanderthalsAColoured.png. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia
Commons504
Fig. 17.4 T. H. Huxley’s illustration of the Neanderthal cranium, type
specimen from the Feldhofer site, Germany (Huxley, 1863). In
public domain 506
Fig. 17.5 Various views of a Neanderthal cranium, La Ferrassie from France
(model). Photos by Katherine Langdon 506
Fig. 17.6 Neanderthal cranium from Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar. Photo by
author, courtesy of the British Museum of Natural History 507
Fig. 17.7 The profile of the classic Neanderthal cranium is evident in these
specimens from (top to bottom) Spy, Belgium; La Chapelle, France;
and La Quina, France; Guattari Cave, Italy. Source: (MacCurdy,
1924) in public domain; photo by Katherine Langdon 507
Fig. 17.8 Upper and lower Neanderthal dentition. Note the excessive
unusual wear on the incisors that opens the pulp cavities. A. La
Ferrassie from (Boule, 1923) in public domain. B. Shanidar 2
(casts). Photos by Katherine Langdon 509
Fig. 17.9 Mandible of a Neanderthal from La Ferrassie, France. Source:
(Boule, 1923) in public domain 509
Fig. 17.10 Neanderthal skeleton from La Ferrassie. Source Thilo Parg.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:La_Ferrassie_1_
MdlH_1_2018-10-20.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia
Commons510
Fig. 17.11 The first attempt to reconstruct the Neanderthal skeleton by
Marcellin Boule, 1912, based primarily on the specimen from La
Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. Note the enlarged ribcage,
robusticity of the limb bones, and bowing of the femur. However,
Boule incorporated apish features to make Neanderthals less than
human, including the slouching neck, bent hip and knee, and an
abducted first toe. Source: (Boule, 1923) in public domain 511
Fig. 17.12 Cranial capacities in the European lineage. There are parallel
increases between European and African populations (compare
to Fig. 12.3), supporting a genetic linkage between the two
populations. Note the marked increase in cranial capacity between
List of Figures xxix
the early Neanderthals at Sima de los Huesos and the later one.
The magnitude of variation is similar 516
Fig. 17.13 Partial mandible from Baishiya Cave, Xiahe County, China, at least
160 Ka. Protein analysis confirms this as a Denisovan fossil. It is
also the largest identified specimen known. Source Dongiu Zhang
CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=80532434518
Fig. 17.14 The cranium from Harbin, China, probably between 309 and 138
Ka. This is the best preserved cranium from a population of
lager-brained hominins that succeeded H. erectus in the later
Middle Pleistocene. Source: Ni et al., 2021 with permission 520
Fig. 17.15 Cranium from Dali, China, about 260 Ka. Photo courtesy of
Peter Brown 521
Fig. 17.16 Partial cranium from Maba, China, more than 237 Ka. Photo
courtesy of Peter Brown 521
Fig. 17.17 Cranium from Jinniushan, China, about 200 Ka. Photo courtesy
of Peter Brown 522
Fig. 17.18 Cranium from Boskop, South Africa with an unusually large
cranial capacity (cast). The age is uncertain. Photo by Katherine
Langdon525
Fig. 17.19 Cranium from Singa, Ethiopia, 145–133 Ka (cast). There is a
pathologic lesion in the right forehead. Photo by Katherine
Langdon525
Fig. 17.20 Hominin cranium from Eliye Springs, Kenya (cast). Photo by
Fig. 17.21 LH17 Ngaloba cranium from Ndutu Beds near Laetoli, Tanzania
Fig. 17.22 Digital reconstruction of the Jebel Irhoud cranium, Morocco,
about 300 Ka. Source: Philipp Gunz. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Homo_sapiens_from_Jebel_Irhoud.jpg.
Fig. 17.23 Modern H. sapiens cranium from Border Cave, South Africa,
about 100 Ka (cast). Photo by author 528
Fig. 17.24 Skuhl V early modern cranium from Skhul Cave, Mount Carmel,
Israel, about 115 Ka (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 529
Fig. 17.25 A. Qafzeh 10 early modern juvenile cranium from Djebel Qafzeh,
Mount Carmel, Israel, about 90 Ka (cast). B. Qafzeh 11 early
modern adult cranium from Israel (cast). Photos by Katherine
Langdon529
Fig. 18.1 Middle and Late Paleolithic cultures in Africa and Europe.
Source: author 540
Fig. 18.2 Sites mentioned in this chapter. (a). Africa. (b). Europe.
Source: author 541
Fig. 18.3 Part of the ceiling of the Polychrome Chamber at Altamira.
Paintings in the cave date as far back as 36 Ka. Source: Lissy
Burges. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Altamira_
Nordspanien_Pr%C3%A4historische_H%C3%B6hlenmalerei_
xxx List of Figures
Deckengem%C3%A4lde_UniDiaVerlag_Nr._41501.tif. CC BY-SA
4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 542
Fig. 18.4 The Levaloissian technique permits the shaping of a tool before it
is removed from the core. This commonly results in broad but flat
flakes with sharp edges. Further retouching allows it to be shaped
for a specific purpose. (a). Mousterian point from Beuzeville,
France. (b). Mousterian scraper from La Quina, France. Source:
Didier Descouens. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Pointe_levallois_Beuzeville_MHNT_PRE_.2009.0.203.1_(3).
jpg and https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Racloir_
MHNT_PRE_2009.0.206.2_Fond_(2).jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 18.5 First appearances of signs of modern behavior. Often described as
a “revolution”, the elements of modern cultures and technology
occurred over a long period of time. Source: author 548
Fig. 18.6 Upper Paleolithic backed blade from Brassempouy, France. The
manufacture of long slender blades required more sophisticated
flaking techniques. Source: Didier Descouens. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lame_MHNT_PRE.2009.0.214.5.jpg.
Fig. 18.7 Aterian tanged point from Algeria. Such small points were
attached to the shafts of lighter weapons. Source: Michel-georges
bernard. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:At%C3%A9rien_(Djelfa).JPG. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia
Commons550
Fig. 18.8 Microlithic blades from Dolni Věstonice, Czech Republic. These
would have been hafted into a handle to make a weapon or a
serrated knife. Source Thilo Parg. https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Dolni_Vestonice_II_Pavlov_I_microsaws.jpg. CC
Fig. 18.9 Nassarius shell beads from Blombos Cave, South Africa. Similar
beads are the earliest direct evidence personal ornamentation. Source:
Chenshilwood. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BBC-
shell-beads.jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 557
Fig. 18.10 Fragments of engraved and decorated ostrich eggshells from the
Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof, South Africa. The shells may have
been used as containers, but the decorations serve no functional
purpose except personal expression and identification. Source:
www.sciencemag.org/news/2010/03/engraved-eggs-suggest-
early-symbolism. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 559
Fig. 18.11 Symbolic notation? Engraved and notched bone from the
Aurignacian of Abri Blanchard des Roches à Sergeac, France.
Numerous artifacts with similar notches or holes suggest the
possibility of counting. Source: Don Hitchcock. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blanchard_plaque.jpg. CC
Fig. 18.12 Constructed circles of stalagmites, Bruniquel Cave, France, date to
the Neanderthal period. The circles required the relocation of tons
of stone within the darkness of the cave for an unknown purpose.
Source: Luc-Henri Fage/SSAC. https://commons.wikimedia.
List of Figures xxxi
org/wiki/File:La_structure_de_la_grotte_de_Bruniquel.jpg. CC
Fig. 18.13 Blombos Cave, South Africa. This site held numerous advanced
types of artifacts from the Still Bay Culture. Source: Vincent
Mourre/Inrap. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Blombos.jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons 563
Fig. 18.14 Engraved block of ochre, Blombos Cave, South Africa. This rock
has one of the earliest known engravings. Source: Chris
S. Henshilwood. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Blombo.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 564
Fig. 19.1 Introgression events identified among Late Pleistocene hominin
species. Each event left an identifiable genetic sequence in the
genome of later generations. Numerous additional hybridization
events in Europe left no trace in the modern human genome.
Source: author 582
Fig. 19.2 Caves in Mount Carmel at time of excavations in 1959. Source:
Benno Rothenberg/Meitar Collection/National Library of Israel/
The Pritzker Family National Photography Collection https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Carmel_(997009
157796305171.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 582
Fig. 19.3 Archaic partial cranium from Nesher Ramla, Israel, a third lineage
in the Near East, about 140–120 Ka. Source: Yossi Zaidner.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nesher_Ramla_
Homo_fossils-_a_skull_fragment_and_a_lower_jaw.jpg.
Fig. 19.4 Frontal bone from Zuttiyeh, Israel, “Galilee Man”, about
320–300 Ka. Source:‫לי‬,. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:IMJ_view_20130115_192522.jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0,
Fig. 19.5 Hominin fossils from Tabun Cave, Israel. (a). Tabun 2 mandible.
(b). Tabun 1 cranium, H. neanderthalensis, about 130 Ka (casts).
Photos by Katherine Langdon 585
Fig. 19.6 Amud 1 from Israel shows classic Neanderthal characteristics,
about 70–50 Ka (cast). Photos by Katherine Langdon 586
Fig. 19.7 Sites in the Near East mentioned in this chapter. Blue
circles = Neanderthal remains. Green diamonds = archaic
specimens. Red triangles = Early modern remains 588
Fig. 19.8 Coalescence time of two haplotypes compared. (a) The last
common ancestor of all modern human mtDNA lived about the
time that modern H. sapiens appears. (b) CMAHp is a deactivated
or pseudogene that produced a membrane antigen in other
species. The coalescence time is nearly three million years ago, so
at least two variants survived from the start of Homo. Another
variant arose about the beginning of H. heidelbergensis and many
additional versions were present by the start of H. sapiens. From
(Garrigan & Hammer, 2006). Obtained with permission from
Nature Springer 591
Fig. 19.9 Sites in Europe mentioned in this chapter. Source: author 592
Fig. 19.10 Cranium Předmostí 3 from the Upper Paleolithic in the Czech
Republic shows suggestions of Neanderthal traits on a modern
skull (cast). Photo by Katherine Langdon 593
xxxii List of Figures
Fig. 19.11 The cranium and mandible from Peștera cu Oase, Romania,
represent different individuals with mixed Neanderthal and
H. sapiens ancestry, 42–37 Ka (casts). Photos by Katherine
Langdon593
Fig. 19.12 Chatelperronian bone, ivory and stone tools and ornaments from
the Neanderthal layers at Grotte du Renne, France. The
manufacture of pendants and bone points was probably inspired
by encounters with Upper Paleolithic H. sapiens entering Europe.
Source: François Caron, Francesco d’Errico, Pierre Del Moral,
Frédéric Santos, and João Zilhão. https://commons.wikimedia.
org/wiki/File:Grotte_du_Renne_ivory.png. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 19.13 Uluzzian blades from Fumane Cave, Italy, made by early
H. sapiens migrants into Europe. In addition to the blades in this
collection, the Uluzzian has many similarities to the older
Mousterian traditions. Source: Armando Falcucci. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Protoaurignacian_Fumane_
Cave_retouched_bladelets_Falcucci_PlosOne_2017.png. CC
Fig. 19.14 This ivory “Venus” figurine from the Gravettian Culture at
Kostenki, Russia, shows indications of articles of clothing.
Source: Don Hitchcock. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Kostenki_I_Venus.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 19.15 Ceramic “Venus” figurine from Dolni Věstonice, Czech Republic.
The site shows early experimentation with firing clay, long before
pottery was invented. Source Petr Novák, Wikipedia. https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vestonicka_venuse_edit.jpg.
Fig. 19.16 A recent cranium from Iwo Eleru, Nigeria, very likely displays
influence from an archaic introgression, about 11 Ka. Source:
Harvati K, Stringer C, Grün R, Aubert M, Allsworth-Jones P,
et al. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Journal.
pone.0024024.g001-1.jpg. CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 607
Fig. 19.17 Important sites in East Asia. Green diamonds = archaic specimens.
Purple cross = Denisovan. Red triangles = Early modern remains.
Source: author 608
Fig. 19.18 Early modern cranium from Liujiang, China, 139–111 Ka.
Source: Ryan Somma from Occoquan, USA. https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Liujiang_cave_skull-b._Homo_Sapiens_
68,000_Years_Old.jpg. CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons 609
Fig. 19.19 Longlin 1 partial cranium of variant H. sapiens from Longlin Cave,
China, 15 Ka. Source: Darren Curnoe, Xueping Ji, Paul
S. C. Taçon, and Ge Yaozheng. https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Red_Deer_Cave_people_skull_anterior_and_lateral.png.
Fig. 20.1 Pthirus pubis, the human pubic louse. Source: Center for Disease
Control and Prevention. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Pthirus_pubis_-_crab_louse.jpg in public domain via
List of Figures xxxiii
Fig. 20.2 Reconstructed phylogeny of human lice (red) mapped onto

hominid phylogeny (blue). Splitting times of lice species and
clades are indicated. Lice transferred hosts at least twice, once
from Gorilla to hominins and a second time from early Homo
(presumably erectines) in Eurasia to later Homo. Source: author 630
Fig. 20.3 Major recent movements of populations in Africa. Today’s
Khoisan and Pygmy hunter-gatherers are remnants of older
foraging populations that once spanned the continent. The
expansions of Bantu-speaking farmers during = the last 4000 years
have encompassed nearly all of sub-Saharan Africa. Pastoralists of
East Africa occupy the drier savanna. North Africa is strongly
influenced by contacts with Eurasia in historic times. Madagascar
was settled by Indonesians crossing the Indian Ocean about
2000 years ago. Source: author 631
Fig. 20.4 Expansion of farming populations into Europe. Source: Detlef
Gronenborn, Barbara Horejs, Börner, Ober https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Expansion_of_farming_in_western_
Eurasia,_9600%E2%80%934000_BCE.png. CC BY-SA 4.0, via
Fig. 20.5 Expansion of Indo-European populations into Europe from the
steppes of western Asia. Source: Joshua Jonathan https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indo-European_expansions.
jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons 635
Fig. 20.6 Major population movement and corridors in Asia described in
the text. The initial populating of the continent by anatomically
modern humans is believed to have followed the southern
coastline about 60 Ka and subsequently spread eastward into the
islands and northward into China. A second migration by Upper
Paleolithic populations occurred across the steppes after 40 Ka
and repeatedly in historic times. Source: author 637
Fig. 20.7 Movement of populations into Australia, Polynesia, and the
Americas. Source: author 640
Fig. 21.1 Life history strategies describe the relative allocation of resources
to growth, maintenance, and reproduction. Different species may
follow different strategies. Increased investment in growth leads to
a larger organism, while increased investment in maintenance can
result in a longer lifespan. (Proportions shown are schematic, not
quantitative). Source: author 654
Fig. 21.2 Duration of life history phases of chimpanzees and human
compared. Humans experience two unique phases, childhood
and post-reproductive life. Source: author 657
Fig. 21.3 Schematic comparison of human vs. chimpanzee brain growth.
The human brain continues its velocity of increase in brain size
after birth, while the newborn chimpanzee brain is much closer
to its adult size. After (Bogin, 1999). Source: author 658
Fig. 21.4 Comparison of the reproductive lives of women in three societies
(see Table 21.3). The reproductive lifespan occupies the years
between menarche and reproductive cessation/menopause. Each
child is represented by a period of gestation (black) and lactation
xxxiv List of Figures
(green). The rest of the reproductive lifespan consists of cycles of

ovulation and menstruation. Note how cultural practices result in
very different hormonal and physiological experiences. Source:
author664
Fig. 21.5 The ovary as the final common pathway for the Reproductive
Filter. Numerous factors can affect the levels of circulating
estrogens. Each factor has an independent influence on the
probability of ovulation during a given cycle. Image source:
Sheldahl. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ovary.png.
CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons. Image cropped and
reversed. Source: author 668
Fig. 21.6 The rate of enamel deposition on teeth is one indication of the
rate of growth. A. Enamel is deposited more slowly and over a
longer period in humans than in African apes. B. Australopiths
have not changed the rate of deposition but have achieved a
thicker enamel coating by extending the period in which it is
created. C and D. Tooth formation in early Homo more closely
resembles the pattern of apes than of Australopiths or modern
humans. Source: (Dean et al., 2001) with permission, courtesy
of Christopher Dean 670
Fig. 22.1 The lion-man figurine from Hohlenstein-Stadel Cave, Germany.
This figurine dates to the early arrival of H. sapiens in Europe,
about 40 Ka and perhaps represents the human spirit in an
animal body 684
Fig. A1 The human and chimpanzee skulls. (a) Anterior view. (b) Lateral
view. (c) Inferior view. (d) Superior view. (e) Posterior view.
Photos by Katherine Langdon 701
Fig. A2 Human and chimpanzee mandibles. Photos by Katherine Langdon 702
Fig. A3 Human and chimpanzee dentition compared. The human
mandible has only two molars. Photo by Katherine Langdon 703
Fig. A4 The human skeleton. Public domain 704
Fig. A5 The human hand skeleton. Public domain 705
Fig. A6 The human coxal bone, lateral view. Photo by Katherine Langdon 706
Fig. A7 The human foot skeleton. Public domain 707
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Commonly recognized or recently proposed species of hominins

(see Fig. 1.1) 15
Table 1.2 Grades and species radiations in the hominin lineage 18
Table 2.1 Common tools for relative dating 42
Table 2.2 Common radiometric dating techniques 43
Table 2.3 Additional absolute dating techniques 44
Table 4.1 A discovery of diversity: List of medium and large and related
small-bodied fossil hominoids, excluding hominins (see Table
1.1), primarily from (Begun, 2007; Hartwig, 2008). It is difficult
to find consensus on names and classification of species in part
because of the speed of new discoveries and the fragmentary
representation of many taxa 83
Table 5.1 Named species of Australopithecus (Current dating from Brown
et al., 2013; Herries et al., 2013; Robinson et al., 2018; Wood
et al., 1994; Wood & Boyle, 2016) 117
Table 5.2 Summary of australopith and earlier fossil sites, arranged in
approximate chronological order 131
Table 6.1 Paleohabitats at Plio-Pleistocene fossil sites, arranged in
approximate chronological order 152
Table 7.1 Evidence for australopithecine diet 167
Table 7.2 Body mass estimates of australopithecine species 177
Table 7.3 Calculation of EQ for fossil hominins and living great apes 179
Table 8.1 Sacral angle and incidence (degrees ± SD). The sacral angle
is the relation of the body of the sacrum to the horizontal plane.
Sacral incidence is a measure that incorporates both pelvic and
sacral tilt (see Fig. 8.8). The range of values given for the fossils
indicates different reconstructions (Been et al., 2017; Tardieu
et al., 2013, 2017) 200
Table 8.2 Wedging of lumbar vertebral bodies (Latimer & Ward, 1993;
Pickering et al., 2019; Sanders, 1998; Williams et al., 2013).
Positive values for the angle between superior and inferior
surfaces indicate a greater ventral height then dorsal height;
xxxv
xxxvi List of Tables
negative values represent the opposite, contributing to a lordosis.

The wedging index is the ratio between ventral body height and
dorsal body height × 100 200
Table 8.3 Position of the foramen magnum in fossil hominins (Ahern,
2006). Distance from biporion to basion. Negative values place
the foramen anterior to biporion 204
Table 8.4 Semicircular canals, radius of curvature (Spoor et al., 1994) 205
Table 8.5 Metatarsal torsion. Positive value reflects eversion of head relative
to the base (DeSilva et al., 2019; Drapeau & Harmon, 2013) 213
Table 8.6 Limb indices of fossil hominoids and living models (Haeusler &
McHenry, 2004; Heaton et al., 2019; Johanson et al., 1987;
Johanson et al., 1982a; Lovejoy et al., 2009b; Moya-Sola &
Kohler, 1997; Napier & Napier, 1967; Schultz, 1937; S. Ward
et al., 1999). Values in parentheses have been reconstructed
from expected correlations within the skeleton 224
Table 8.7 Body mass estimated from isolated upper and lower limb bones
from Sterkfontein and Hadar (McHenry & Berger, 1998).
The numbers represent median values for unique individuals 227
Table 8.8 Summary of the appearance of indicators of bipedalism 229
Table 8.9 Selected hypotheses for the origin of bipedalism 232
Table 9.1 Early Homo and habiline fossils before 1.5 Ma 256
Table 9.2 Diagnostic Traits of Genus Homo after (Conroy & Pontzer, 2012;
Kimbel, 2009) 258
Table 9.3 Comparison of types of Early Pleistocene hominins at Koobi Fora
(Fig. 9.10)260
Table 9.4 Cranial capacities of early Homo in Africa (cc) 264
Table 10.1 Fossil and archaeological evidence for the early dispersal of
humans within and out of Africa 287
Table 12.1 Estimated encephalization quotient for hominin species, using
data from Fig. 12.2 the EQ equation of Grabowski, et al. (2016) 325
Table 12.2 Energy expenditure by great apes and humans. Data from
(Pontzer et al., 2016) 330
Table 12.3 Functional areas of the cerebrum, simplified 337
Table 13.1 Cranial capacities of Dmanisi hominins (Lordkipanidze
et al., 2013) 367
Table 14.1 Important Early and Middle Pleistocene hominin sites in China 401
Table 14.2 Cranial capacity of Middle Pleistocene hominins in Asia and Africa 403
Table 14.3 Homo erectus fossils from Java 408
Table 15.1 Erectine specimens in Africa 2.0–1.0 Ma 423
Table 15.2 Body mass estimates of early Homo species. Ruff and Walker used
a simple regression based on femoral lengths. See Chap. 7 and
discussion of Table 7.2 for other methodologies 426
Table 15.3 Encephalization quotients of early Homo species show a
substantial increase for H. ergaster. See Table 5.3 426
Table 15.4 Middle Pleistocene hominin fossils and key archaeological sites
in the Near East 437
Table 15.5 Middle Pleistocene Hominin fossils and key archaeological sites
in Europe 442
Table 15.6 Time successive populations of the Middle Pleistocene 450
List of Tables xxxvii
Table 16.1 The spread of Acheulean technologies by early appearance 467

Table 16.2 The appearance of bifacial technologies in East Asia 468
Table 16.3 Early evidence for fire by region (not a comprehensive list) 473
Table 17.1 Selected finds of Neanderthal fossils 501
Table 17.2 Parallel brain expansion in Europe and African Homo. The Sima
de los Huesos sample here represents a transition between
H. heidelbergensis and Neanderthals 508
Table 17.3 Denisovan fossil sites 517
Table 17.4 Later Pleistocene and modern H. sapiens in China. “Archaic”
refers to the conspicuous retention of primitive traits and the
failure of current species names to accommodate them 519
Table 17.5 Late Pleistocene Homo fossils in Africa 524
Table 18.1 Important MSA cultures referred to in the text 547
Table 19.1 Climatic windows of opportunity for migrations out of Africa via
the Middle East (Beyer et al., 2021) 583
Table 19.2 Neanderthal and modern sites in the Middle East 587
Table 19.3 Out-of-Africa migrations of Homo. Compare to Table 14.1 589
Table 19.4 Major Upper Paleolithic cultures in Europe 600
Table 19.5 Migration of Homo sapiens and the Upper/Late Paleolithic
cultures out of Africa, according to fossil or artifactual evidence 605
Table 19.6 The appearance of modern H. sapiens in China 609
Table 21.1 Ideal characteristics of organisms pursuing r and K strategies.
Reality is more complex (see text) 655
Table 21.2 Ratio of neonatal to adult brain size. The human brain develops
to a greater extent in a context where it can be influenced by the
environment. Data from (DeSilva, 2011) 659
Table 21.3 Reproductive histories of women from three representative
societies (May, 1978). The Colonial American is an actual figure
from vital records. Cultural infertility is a period of time when
the woman is mature but forbidden to reproduce. Unsuccessful
conceptions are assumed time lost between pregnancies. The
number of ovulations is estimated from reproductive lifespan
minus time pregnant or nursing 663
Table 21.4 Important fossil pelves providing information about obstetric shape 672
Table 22.1 Leading causes of death for 2019 (WHO, 2020) 690
Table 22.2 Examples of human gene associations with alleles undergoing
current or recent selection (Hancock & di Rienzo, 2008;
Karlsson et al., 2014; Mostafavi et al., 2017; Pennisi, 2016;
Sabeti et al., 2007) 692
PART I
Introduction
CHAPTER 1
The Reflection in the Mirror
Key Ideas in this Chapter
1. Human evolution is told as a narrative, with characters, motivations, and a

plot, because that is how the human mind is structured. Origin stories are
ubiquitous and useful in human cultures, but they are also subjective.
2. We can list numerous traits that make humans unusual; there are very few
that make us unique except in the degree of expression. There is a far smaller
distance between humans and other species than is usually assumed. We
must be wary of ascribing to our ancestors qualities of modern humans that
are not supported by objective evidence.
3. Five important traits that distinguish our species are bipedalism, endur-
ance, greater social intelligence, cooperative child-rearing, and cumula-
tive culture.
4. We have a good understanding of what the major phases of human evolu-
tion have been, but the fossil record is full of gaps and surprises. As we
gather more evidence and ask new questions, our interpretation of the
details of human evolution must be considered tentative and fluid.
5. A long-standing debate over the origin of modern populations has been
largely resolved through the use of genomic information. All modern peo-
ple are descended from a relatively recent African population, although
other recent species such as Neanderthals have made small contributions to
the human genome.
6. Theories and debates for the past, whether discredited or resolves, continue
to shape our approach to the field.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Switzerland AG 2022
J. H. Langdon, Human Evolution, Springer Texts in Social Sciences,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14157-7_1
4 J. H. LANGDON
Origin Stories
A band of hairy primates forages in a desert. Amid prehistoric-looking animals,
they scrabble for seeds and edible plants amid sparse vegetation. They seek shel-
ter at night under overhanging rocks to escape the cold and roaming predators.
When a larger band drives them from their waterhole, they retreat, passive and
helpless in a hostile world. One morning they awaken in the presence of a strange
device planted by aliens that magically gives them the gift of insight. An adult
male discovers that an animal bone may be used as a club, and with that weapon
his tribe can obtain meat from the game animals beside them. Now stronger and
better fed, the band is ready to drive away their rivals from the water hole. The
other band screams and jumps around and makes the threats and bluffs typical of
the species; but our protagonist rises on two feet and strikes his enemy with the
club, killing him. [Opening act from the motion picture 2001: A Space Odyssey
(1968), based on the science fiction novel by Arthur C. Clarke.]
Although it is science fiction, the account above is an origin story, describing
how our species acquired intellect, bipedality, and a murderous instinct. Every
society, every culture, and every family has an origin story. It may be an oral tra-
dition, a religious statement, or a history book, and frequently is a blend of all
three. An origin story is not just a genealogy. Its purpose is less to tell a people
where they came from than that to tell them who they are. It is about values and
traditions and shared experiences. It builds an identity by telling them who they
are not. In turn, origin stories may be rewritten when identities change (Fig. 1.1).
A century ago, the origin story of the United States, as written in the text-
books and taught to children, included a cast of heroes such as Christopher
Columbus, George Washington, Daniel Boone, and Thomas Edison. It
recounted pivotal events such as the American Revolution and the Civil War
and critical documents like the Mayflower Compact and the Gettysburg
Address. Americans celebrated and reenacted this identity on Independence
Day and Thanksgiving. This “America” was white, English, and largely male.
Fig. 1.1 The discovery of weapons signaled the transformation from ape into human,
according to the Killer Ape hypothesis. Screen image of an early human ancestor from
the feature movie 2001: A Space Odyssey
1 THE REFLECTION IN THE MIRROR 5
Now our nation is redefining its identity by rewriting its origin story with new
heroes and pivotal events—Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Harriet
Tubman, slavery, the Trail of Tears, and Juneteenth.
The narrative of human evolution is an origin story. It is a scientific recon-
struction of our past, but inevitably it is about our identity as human beings.
What is a human? What is human nature? How and why do we differ from
other species? Meaningful answers to these questions stray into the subjective.
The depiction of our origins in the movie 2001 built upon orthodox scientific
thinking of the 1950s. The “Killer Ape” hypothesis advanced by anthropolo-
gist Raymond Dart and popularized by Robert Ardrey postulated that we are
by nature violent and bloodthirsty. We developed those instincts to survive on
the savanna and to compete with neighboring tribes, and they continue to
surface from within us when we find ourselves under threat. This thesis perco-
lated into popular literature through such novels as William Golding’s Lord of
the Flies (1954). The movie sequence, more in line with Darwin’s optimism,
ends with the image of the crude bone weapon transformed into a spaceship—
a symbol of peaceful progress. When Dart and Ardrey looked in the mirror,
they saw the perpetrators of two world wars, the Holocaust, and imminent
nuclear annihilation. Too often we have found that anthropology has not dis-
covered a deep understanding but reflected a single dimension that we wanted
or expected to see.
Nineteenth-century anthropologists, who had a very limited knowledge of
the apes, sought evidence of an evolutionary scale among living human popula-
tions. Their concepts of what represented a more highly evolved state reflected
what they valued—the technology and institutions of Western civilization.
Accordingly, non-European peoples were considered less evolved, biologically
as well as culturally. These values and prejudices existed well before Darwin, of
course, and scientific hypotheses of evolution served to justify the institutional-
ized discrimination and exploitation that was already practiced. Today, anthro-
pologists distance themselves from such ideas.
Scientific racism is an egregious example of how subjectivity creeps into sci-
ence, but bias can be more subtle. Consider, for example, the problem of defin-
ing genus Homo and distinguishing early fossil humans from the bones of
ancestors and cousins. Should we define humans anatomically, perhaps by fea-
tures of the dentition or brain size? These traits might be easier to recognize
among fragmented bones, but they do not capture the essence of being human,
at least not for non-anthropologists. Perhaps behavior is a more important
indicator, one that we can infer from tools and other archaeological remains.
Often, however, fossils are found without tools and vice versa. Anthropologists
have sometimes defined humans by drawing arbitrary boundaries that signify
an important break with the past. For Louis Leakey, a brain size of 600 cc or
higher defined Homo. Such decisions are consciously arbitrary.
Another source of subjectivity is what is known as “discoverer’s bias,” which
can be summed up in the sentiment, “My fossil is very important for under-
standing human evolution” or even “My fossil is more important than your
6 J. H. LANGDON
fossil.” Paleontologists need to justify their efforts and find recognition among
their peers, and some egos desire more recognition than others. It is not sur-
prising that a fossil that was highly touted as an ancestor at a critical transition
has since been relegated to dead-end lineage. These exaggerated claims may
appear to be benign; but they are intended to influence media attention around
a new discovery and they may divert funding from other projects.
Box 1.1 Some Essential Vocabulary

Human—A member of the genus Homo, which includes many species,
including our own, Homo sapiens.
Hominin (Subfamily Homininae)—A member of the group that
includes humans and our extinct relatives. A precise definition eludes us,
but bipedal posture and dental features provide a working approach.
(Before a change in classification in the 1980s, these were called
hominids).
Hominoid (Superfamily Hominoidea)—A member of the division of
primates that includes humans and apes.
The following terms should be considered informal common names for
grades of hominins. While they persist in standard use, they are now
divorced from formal taxonomic meaning and are retained because a
more precise sorting of species remains vague and controversial.
Australopiths—Early African hominins of the genera Australopithecus,
Kenyanthropus, and Paranthropus.
Habilines—Small-brained primitive humans belonging to Homo habi-
lis and a few more species that overlap in time, space, and morphology.
Erectines—Members of a more derived grade of genus Homo from the
Middle Pleistocene with medium-sized brains and more complex behav-
iors than habilines. Different authors recognize from one to four or more
species of erectines.
The following abbreviations are used for dates throughout the book:
Ma = millions of years ago.
Ka = thousands of years ago.
BP = years before the present.
CE = Common Era, replacing A.D. in historic dates.
Constructing Human Identity

Let us place our origin story in the broadest context. What is special about
humans? Of these traits, which are more important? What defines us and which
need to be explained? Let us begin by considering some of the more commonly
cited traits.
Brain Size Humans have large brains, our favorite organ in such discussions.
They are larger than those of any other living primate by far, but there are other
6900
0.027
6000
Brain volume (cc)
Brain:body ratio
0.02
4000 4300
0.012
0.01 0.010
2000
1346 0.006
797
349
0 0.00 0.001
chim h e d blu
pan uman lephan olphin e wha chim h e d blu
pan uman lephan olphin e wha
zee t le zee t le
Species Species
Fig. 1.2 Comparative brain sizes among larger-brained mammals. Comparisons of

absolute brain size (left) alone are misleading, because larger mammals can be expected
to have larger brains. A simple ratio of brain to body mass (right) does a better job of
capturing relative brain development among species, but there are many other factors
that will influence brain size. These will be explored at greater length in Chaps. 5 and
16. Data primarily from (Boddy et al., 2022). Source: author
mammals with brains even larger in absolute size, including elephants and most
whales (Fig. 1.2). Human brains are relatively larger than those of any other
living animal when scaled for body size, but they have the same internal anat-
omy as other mammals. No one would argue that the brains of whales or chim-
panzees are just like ours, but it is difficult to explain the human species from
the physical brain alone.
Bipedalism The fact that humans habitually stand and walk on two legs has
ramifications throughout the body, especially in the musculoskeletal system.
One of the more important consequences is the freeing of the upper limbs for
cultural activities. Darwin proposed that a positive feedback loop linked bipedal
posture, freeing of the hands, development of technology, and brain expan-
sion. We now know that our upright posture evolved before these other traits
and must have been selected for other reasons. Humans are one species among
many groups of animals that became fully or occasionally bipedal in different
contexts and in different ways. These include dinosaurs and birds, some lizards,
kangaroos, and kangaroo rats.
Loss of Body Hair Humans are “the naked ape,” such that hairlessness is one of
our most visually conspicuous traits. Of course, we have not completely lost
our body hairs—they are simply shorter, finer, and fewer in number. They con-
tinue to play an important role in sensation. Chimpanzees and orangutans have
relatively sparse hair by comparison with other primates, but not to the extent
seen in humans. Severe reduction or loss of body hair is observed in several
other mammalian groups, including all cetaceans (whales and relatives), hip-
popotamus, elephant, rhinoceros, many suids (pigs), and the naked mole rat.
8 J. H. LANGDON
Hands Human technology and material culture would not have been possible
without dexterous hands and opposable thumbs. However, opposable
thumbs—and first toes—are primitive primate traits shared among nearly all
monkeys and apes. Human hands are especially capable because of the propor-
tions of our digits and our neuromuscular control.
Meat-eating Meat-eating was considered to be a point of contrast with the
great apes until field studies revealed that chimpanzees regularly cooperate to
kill and eat a range of mammals, especially monkeys. The human proclivity for
hunting and carnivory and also for fishing has ramifications for our material
culture and provides windfalls of calories, protein, and other nutrients.
However, carnivorous behavior is not unique to humans and is far less universal
among us than the current Western culture would indicate.
Intellect As much trouble as we have defining intelligence, it is clear that
humans have mental abilities far beyond those of any other land animal and
probably sea animal as well. But whatever behavior we choose to measure intel-
ligence—tool use, culture, problem-solving, abstraction, social interaction, use
of language—at least the rudiments are observable in other species, and espe-
cially among the great apes.
Morality Darwin singled out a moral sense as a defining feature of humanity.
We may understand it as a “knowledge of good and evil,” or a recognition that
we should adhere to an abstract set of learned rules. Are elements of morality
found in other species? Individuals of many other species have demonstrated a
theory of mind—a recognition that other individuals have their own perspec-
tive in the world and are not merely projections of one’s own mind. With that
comes empathy, the ability to recognize and identify with the emotional state
of another individual. Add to these the ability to learn and anticipate the likely
consequence of one’s behavior, and the potential for moral behavior is present.
We can observe these behaviors, but we are unable to assess the thought pro-
cesses and motivations that link them.
Examination of the traits described above tells us that humans are not quali-
tatively different from other animals, but have merely developed certain ana-
tomical traits, behaviors, and abilities in different ways. The more comprehensive
list of traits in Box 1.2 identifies numerous ways in which humans diverge from
the typical mammalian condition, but very few of these traits are absent among
our close relatives. Their expression is a matter of degree. Our truly unique
attributes, e.g., mastoid process, chin, and arch of the foot, make a disappoint-
ing definition of human. The real lesson from these lists is not how humans
stand out, but how little we stand out. In all aspects—genes, anatomy, and
behavior—we are impressed by the continuity between ourselves and other
animals. The study of the fossil record blurs that line further. Nonetheless,
these are the features whose emergence we seek to track and explain.
Box 1.2 How Are Humans Different?

Most traits that appear to make humans different from other mammals
are unusual rather than unique. Here is a selected list of distinctive ana-
tomical characters possessed by humans. Unique traits are indicated with
an asterisk (*).
• Relatively enlarged brain.
• Relatively enlarged prefrontal cortex.
• Mastoid process*.
• Converging orbits—shared with all primates.
• Binocular vision—shared with all primates.
• Color vision—shared with most primates.
• Reduced olfactory sense and apparatus.
• Relatively flattened face and short jaws.
• Crowded squarish molars.
• Reduced canines.
• Chin*.
• Enlarged pharynx.
• Relatively complex articulation of sound.
• Forward position of foramen magnum.
• Relatively enlarged semicircular canals.
• Broad shallow thorax—shared with apes.
• Laterally facing shoulder joint—shared with apes.
• Greater humeral torsion.
• Relatively longer, dexterous thumb.
• Well-developed flexor pollicis longus muscle.
• Thumb opposition—shared with most primates.
• Fingernails and prints—shared with all primates.
• Structural lumbar lordosis*.
• Relatively inflated weight-bearing bones for shock absorption.
• Relatively short, broad ilium.
• Relatively curved iliac blade.
• Iliac pillar*.
• Relatively short space between acetabulum and sacroiliac joint.
• Relatively large gluteus maximus.
• Relatively short ischium.
• Relative enlargement of birth canal.
• Greater carrying angle of femoral shaft.
• Enlarged femoral head.
• Higher angle of femoral neck.
• Enlarged femoral condyles.
• Enlarged calcaneal tuberosity.
(continued)
10 J. H. LANGDON
Box 1.2 (continued)
• Lateral tubercle on the calcaneal tuberosity*.

• Reduced peroneal tubercle.
• Relatively enlarged hallux (first toe).
• Adducted hallux.
• Hyperextension of toes at the metatarsophalangeal joints*.
• Longitudinal arch of the foot*.
• Relative hair reduction.
• Relatively greater expansion of subcutaneous fat.
• Wider distribution of eccrine glands.
• Local thermal sensitivity of eccrine sweat glands*.
• Increased skin vascularity.
• Male facial hair.
• Prominent breasts.
• Relatively reduced gut size.
Behavioral traits in the following list also distinguish humans more by

degree of development and expression than by innovation. Unique traits
are indicated with an asterisk (*).
• Pair-bonding of sexual partners beyond a mating cycle.

• Sexual intercourse beyond that for conception.
• Sexual division of the economy*.
• Cooperative breeding.
• Resource sharing beyond kin.
• Intelligence, by any definition.
• Moral sense.
• Language.
• Learning language by immersion*.
• Culture.
• Tools and material culture.
• Art.
• Complex society involving individuals with defined roles.
• Omnivorous diet.
• Food production.
• Intentional alteration of the environment.
Genomes Humans are also distinct genetically. Comparisons of genomes are

not straightforward and estimates of similarity between the human and chim-
panzee genomes vary because different methods have been used. Chromosomes
contain long strands of DNA and we are familiar with the idea of mutations
changing out one nucleotide for another. However, many other kinds of
genetic change are possible, with varying effects on the actions of the genes.
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se devinait macérée dans des aigreurs ; mais elle s’accordait plus
d’une consolation. Respectée comme une femme d’élite, elle
exerçait en son petit monde d’élèves un prestige qui allait croissant.
Ses tâches lui plaisaient ; elle avait « la psychologie des
corrections » et savourait à relever des solécismes au long des
copies une jouissance jamais épuisée. Preneuse de notes
infatigable, elle lisait prodigieusement ; son « intellect » présentait la
grossière universalité d’un magasin de solde où on eût rencontré de
tout, mais rien qui fût à elle. Au surplus, elle se croyait exempte de
pédantisme, simple autant « qu’une bonne mère de famille », bien
qu’elle eût intimement pour cette espèce un parfait mépris.
Elle jugeait M. Ardel « intéressant » et l’abreuvait de louanges
qu’il acceptait, étant peu blasé sur ce nectar. Des conseils
bibliographiques sollicités auprès de l’érudit les avaient mis en
rapports ; à son tour, il se servait de la vieille fille pour des
recherches accessoires, et, en récompense, l’avait conviée à
prendre une tasse de thé.
Elle vint la première, trouva le professeur une cigarette aux
lèvres, allant et venant par son salon. Il affectionnait cette vaste
pièce aux anciennes boiseries blanches, où le canapé et les
fauteuils d’un vert passé, les vases et la pendule Empire semblaient
avoir conquis leur décor exact. Pauline n’avait encore allumé aucune
lampe ; mais les flammes de la cheminée dansaient au plafond et le
réverbère de la rue projetait à l’intérieur sa clarté crue que trois
grandes glaces se renvoyaient étrangement.
Les incartades d’Égalité fournirent l’entrée en matière de la
conversation. Mlle Total, qui inclinait au socialisme, opina qu’on
devait se résigner à voir les prolétaires évoluer « vers une
émancipation progressive ».
— En attendant, jeta Pauline sans amertume, ce sont nos
provisions qui évoluent ; cette fille, je viens de m’en apercevoir, nous
a emporté dans sa malle un kilo de sucre.
— L’esclavage, confirma M. Ardel, même pour les esclaves, avait
du bon.
Mlle Total, le menton dans sa main droite, observa d’un air
profond :
— C’est que l’enseignement populaire n’a pas encore donné tous
ses résultats.
On sonna et Pauline s’empressa d’aller ouvrir à M. Flug ; elle le
voyait pour la première fois ; aussi fut-elle étonnée de son aspect :
gringalet, d’une pâleur glabre, les oreilles couvertes par des cheveux
en filasse, son nez court coiffé d’un lorgnon, il gardait la tenue d’un
étudiant bohème ou d’un cabotin sans emploi. Ses jambes grêles
flottaient dans un pantalon trop large ; malgré la rigueur du temps il
se dispensait d’un pardessus. Il ôta d’un mouvement ahuri, comique,
son feutre bossué, et, introduit au salon, salua, comme l’eût fait un
somnambule, Mlle Total qui répondit avec déférence.
Flug marchait entouré d’une célébrité excentrique ; de même que
M. Ardel — et cette similitude de mésaventures les rapprochait, —
dès ses débuts, à la suite d’une querelle avec ses chefs, il s’était fait
reléguer dans un trou, mais avait pu s’en évader. Il se donnait
comme anarchiste ; sa philosophie dépassait les hardiesses
permises, exposant une sorte d’idéalisme radical, dont la bizarrerie
assurait à ses livres un succès de curiosité.
M. Ardel, en le voyant arriver si maigrement vêtu, insista pour
qu’il s’assît auprès du feu.
— Vous semblez croire, ricana Flug, que le froid existe ; pour moi,
il n’existe pas…
— Oh ! pour vous rien n’existe !
— Rien ! c’est affirmer trop. La matière et l’esprit sont de vagues
données de connaissance ; quelque chose devient-il en leur
écoulement ? Nous ne savons.
— Vous ne nierez pourtant pas, réfuta Mlle Total, que la science
existe.
— La science ! Vocable creux ! La science de quoi ? Les
phénomènes, pendant que nous tentons de les fixer, se déforment
ou sont dissous ; les lois se réduisent à des rythmes sans
consistance ; le monde m’apparaît un flocon de vapeur qui s’irise
dans le miroir de mes yeux mobiles…
Cet état de nihilisme bouddhique où le philosophe arrivait à se
perdre, M. Ardel le jugeait tellement fou qu’il s’en fût amusé pour sa
part comme d’un innocent paradoxe ; mais une confidence, tout à
l’heure, l’avait éclairé sur les fruits de la doctrine.
— Qu’eussiez-vous fait, dit-il, à ma place, s’il vous advenait ce
qui m’est advenu aujourd’hui ? Un de vos élèves, qui est aussi le
mien, Pigaut, est venu me trouver après la classe et m’a tenu ce
langage :
« Monsieur, pourriez-vous m’aider d’un conseil ? Je suis dans
une passe lamentable ; depuis un mois, j’ai l’idée que le monde
extérieur est faux, je comprends qu’il y a en mon cerveau une fausse
notion de mon corps, de ma pensée, de tout ce qui est… » Et il
accompagnait sa confession d’un regard implorant. Je l’ai d’abord
tournée en plaisanterie, je lui ai pincé le bras :
« Voyons ! Sentez-vous que le monde extérieur est vrai ? »
Pour toute réponse le malheureux s’est mis à pleurer. J’ai pris un
autre ton, il m’a promis de regimber contre l’idée fixe, mais je le vois
très malade.
Flatté de l’anecdote, Flug souriait paisiblement ; il se doutait peu
que ses thèses eussent un tel pouvoir de pénétration.
— La bonne méthode pour le guérir, déclara-t-il, serait, j’estime,
la contraire de celle que vous avez suivie. Il fallait approuver son
point de vue, lui persuader que le bonheur est justement de ne plus
croire à la réalité des choses…
Pauline, sans attendre la suite de son discours, sortit pour
préparer le thé ; en revenant, comme elle offrait à Flug des
pâtisseries, il n’eut pas l’air d’apercevoir l’assiette qu’elle lui tendait ;
accoudé contre un coussin du canapé, les jambes étendues, il
continuait à disserter en pleine abstraction.
— Monsieur, dit-elle après un instant de patience, voulez-vous
faire à mes semblants de biscuits l’honneur de les prendre pour de
vrais gâteaux ?
Flug allongea nonchalamment vers l’assiette sa main exsangue.
Le goût du premier biscuit ayant plu à son palais, il se leva, en reprit
un second, puis un troisième. Mlle Total et Pauline se regardèrent
avec un sourire. Il développait ses ironies contre la science,
insouciant de froisser l’historien, son hôte, et encore moins ses
interlocutrices.
— Savoir les dates de Rhamsès Ier, la composition du radium, ou
bien jouer au bilboquet, ce sont, devant l’Absolu qui est le Néant,
des occupations équipollentes.
M. Ardel, à la longue irrité par ce verbiage métaphysique,
dévisageait son collègue d’un œil sinistre, en précipitant les bouffées
de sa cigarette.
— Mais, sacrebleu ! s’écria-t-il soudain, si l’Absolu est le Néant,
qu’il nous laisse tranquilles dans nos contingences. Je tiens des
faits, ils me passionnent, je néglige de m’enquérir, parce que c’est
inutile, s’il y a, dessous, quelque chose ou rien. Cela me permet au
moins des positions nettes dans ma vie, tandis que, la vôtre, vous
êtes bien forcé d’en faire deux parts, dont l’une dément l’autre et
s’en moque. Par exemple, devant vos élèves, vous ne pouvez pas
aller jusqu’au bout de vos principes ; sans quoi, ils vous riraient au
nez.
— Dès l’instant que je pense une idée, riposta Flug, entamant un
quatrième biscuit, j’ai le droit de l’énoncer, et je l’énonce. Ainsi, pour
moi, Jésus n’est qu’un mythe ; je l’ai indiqué en passant, à mes
bonzes, et ils n’ont pas bronché. De même, je leur ai démontré
comme quoi la justice est un mensonge.
— La justice elle-même ! glapit Mlle Total. Alors, que nous
laissez-vous ?
— La justice, appuya Flug de sa voix mordante, pareille au son
d’un fifre, — ou ce que nous appelons de ce mot, — est fondée sur
la sécurité sociale qui est la suprême injustice ; car le bien collectif
ne peut jamais dépendre de la souffrance de quelques-uns, et les
droits d’un seul égalent ceux de tous réunis.
Pauline se résignait en silence, rétive à la dialectique de Flug,
quoiqu’elle ne sût point y objecter d’argument péremptoire. Elle fut,
au reste, soulagée lorsque partirent les deux visiteurs : Mlle Total lui
semblait aride comme une pierre ponce ; Flug, détestable en ce qu’il
faisait de l’existence une fantasmagorie, où, seul réel, il promenait,
pour se divertir, sur une toile vide, des ombres dérisoires.
« Que d’orgueil chez ce philosophe ! Quelle éponge racornie doit-
il avoir en guise de cœur ! »
Elle l’opposait à Julien, et celui-ci sortait de la comparaison
grandi jusqu’aux étoiles. Flug n’avait pas seulement contre lui d’être
laid, dédaigneux, mal éduqué ; la foi où elle se refusait à suivre
Julien envoyait sur ce Caliban un reflet qui en accusait la grimace.
L’intelligence, quand elle se tourne à nier, finit par se dévorer elle-
même, et rend l’homme pareil à l’animal monstrueux qui se
mangeait les pattes. Pauline commençait à s’en apercevoir et à
chercher ailleurs un principe de vie. Où est le lieu de la Sagesse ?
se demandait son âme ; mais, ce lieu, des ténèbres l’en écartaient.
Elle tomba donc dans une phase d’inquiétude que sa jeunesse
robuste et la pensée de Julien, sans doute aussi une aide invisible,
lui firent traverser courageusement. Des anxiétés et des appétits
fougueux de bonheur tour à tour l’assaillaient. Elle s’attacha d’une
affection presque tremblante au logis et à la petite ville dont elle
pouvait, d’un jour à l’autre, se voir séparée. Chaque matin, en se
levant, elle s’attendait à ce que son père trouvât dans la boîte aux
lettres la nomination néfaste. Le soir, tandis qu’elle brodait sous la
lampe, écoutant fuser le bois des tisons, des sifflets lointains
d’express, semblables aux cris aigres des paons dans la solitude
d’un grand parc, l’emportaient vers les villes inconnues que
maintenant elle ne désirait même plus connaître. Au rebours, elle
enviait la quiétude des provinciaux sûrs de mourir sous les solives
où leurs pères ont entendu, tout enfants, les rats grignoter. Si elle
rangeait du linge en son armoire, le plaisir naïf de le toucher et de le
mettre en ordre était gâté par cette réflexion : « Demain peut-être il
me faudra l’empiler dans une malle. » Grâce aux Rude elle avait pu
retenir une servante d’âge, qu’on lui certifiait sérieuse et probe ; mais
est-ce la peine, se disait-elle, que je la mette au pli, si, dans un mois,
nous devons la renvoyer ? Au fond de ses craintes s’insinuait l’idée
constante de Julien.
Quand elle sortait, les femmes qu’elle entrevoyait tricotant dans
l’embrasure des fenêtres, le vieux crieur, au coin d’une place, qui
battait du tambour, puis mettait ses besicles pour lire d’une voix
enrouée l’annonce d’une vente publique, le petit clerc d’une étude
qui, la plume derrière l’oreille, le nez collé contre la vitre, épiait les
passants, le capitaine en retraite qui entrait au café de l’Écu faire
son bridge avec le percepteur, même le chanoine courbé qui se
dirigeait d’un pas lourd vers la cathédrale, tous ces gens, pour elle,
étaient heureux : leur allure et leurs moindres gestes répondaient à
la sécurité d’une existence bien assise et d’un avenir que rien, sauf
la mort, ne déconcerterait.
A la nuit close, après le souper, M. Ardel se promenait
régulièrement une heure ; Pauline et lui, le plus souvent, remontaient
un boulevard entre des files profondes d’ormes dominant des pans
d’anciennes murailles pressées de toits et de jardins ; puis, ils s’en
revenaient, tournaient le long des rues confinées et muettes.
De loin en loin, sous le brouillard, un réverbère brisait sa clarté
dans le large ruisseau dont le courant, divisé par des pierres plates,
glissait avec un bruit furtif. Des boutiques, çà et là, restaient encore
éclairées, une boulangerie déserte où les pains dormaient sur des
rayons, une basse échoppe où un savetier indolent martelait une
semelle. Ailleurs, les volets des maisons étaient clos comme les
paupières d’aïeules assoupies ; quelques-unes, tout en bois, avaient
de rares fenêtres étroites, et leur étage surplombant étayait de lattes
brunes ses parois vermoulues. Des ruelles noires eussent paru
mortes, sans une lampe devinée derrière une persienne, sans les
accords faux d’un piano usé. Parfois, un portail d’hôtel que charge
un fronton triangulaire s’entre-bâillait, une dame emmitouflée
franchissait le ruisseau, soulevait le heurtoir d’une porte voisine.
Pauline s’imaginait les habitants de ces demeures aussi paisibles
que leur toit, et une veillée gaie, comme elle pouvait l’être chez les
Rude.
Il y avait, sur leur chemin, une maison d’une vétusté frappante
qui arrêta un soir M. Ardel ; on l’appelait la maison d’Abraham, parce
qu’elle montre, à l’angle de son pignon, le patriarche sculpté, à
genoux, le front contre sa main, voyant en songe sa descendance
jusqu’à la Vierge Marie figurée plus haut avec l’Enfant.
— Un arbre de Jessé, indiqua nonchalamment le professeur.
Pauline tint à savoir ce qu’on entendait par un arbre de Jessé.
— C’est un symbole sémitique, répondit-il sans plus d’explication.
Elle en exigea pourtant, et s’étonna qu’on lui eût laissé jusque-là
ignorer l’histoire des religions.
— Je veux l’étudier, il faut que je lise la Bible et le Coran.
— La Bible n’est pas un livre pour les jeunes filles.
Elle répliqua simplement qu’un abrégé lui suffirait, et il supposa
qu’elle aurait, le lendemain, oublié cette fantaisie.
Au bout de la rue Dauphine, ils passèrent devant la cathédrale ;
une lanterne clignotait sous le porche de droite : quelque office,
pensa-t-elle, où doit être Edmée, sinon Julien. Mais, en élevant les
yeux sur la grande tour, elle retrouva son aversion première ; la tour,
dont le faîte, presque terrible, s’isolait dans la nuit diffuse, semblait
mépriser les ombres chétives circulant à ses pieds ; sa fierté
sauvage humiliait et repoussait. Ses flancs durs enfermaient le
silence écrasant des cloches, le vertige d’escaliers infinis et de
charpentes ténébreuses arcboutées au-dessus du vide. Pauline en
avait peur, comme d’une prison d’angoisse où l’on devait suffoquer.
Elle eût souhaité, malgré tout, revoir l’intérieur illuminé de l’église,
entendre les cantiques. Ainsi, en son être intime, se faisait un flux et
reflux de sollicitations contraires.
Ils redescendirent du côté de l’Yonne et suivirent à gauche les
maigres tilleuls du quai. Rien, dans ce paysage, ne laissait Pauline
indifférente : les lumières du pont, vives et tranquilles, se
prolongeaient sous l’eau silencieuse, « une eau, disait M. Rude, faite
pour couler le long d’une Trappe ». Le croissant de la lune y
reposait, près du bord, comme une bague rayonnante oubliée parmi
les joncs ; la ligne des coteaux se fondait en brume ; sur le
ronflement grave du barrage passa le cri d’une chouette, dans les
peupliers de l’autre berge.
C’était l’horizon même où Julien respirait. Ils contournèrent le bas
du jardin ; et Pauline, en apercevant du feu aux fenêtres de l’atelier,
songea qu’ils devaient être là, tous réunis.
— N’est-ce point pour dimanche, demanda M. Ardel, que les
Rude nous ont invités ?
Elle tressaillit à sa question, fit un signe d’assentiment.
— Eh bien ! continua-t-il, je crois que nous n’irons pas. Je ne puis
sacrifier mon après-midi, j’ai trop de travail.
— Comme tu voudras, répondit-elle, tout à fait maîtresse de ses
inflexions et de son visage.
Elle n’en craignait pas moins que son père, sous un prétexte ou
un autre, n’espaçât, puis ne cessât les relations nouées avec les
Rude ; la possibilité d’un départ justifierait l’interruption d’une amitié
dont il se méfiait.
Mais, le surlendemain, vers quatre heures, un coup de sonnette
la fit courir à la porte et elle se trouva en présence de Julien, moins
triomphant, plus grave qu’à leur dernière rencontre ; il venait voir le
professeur, ayant quelque chose à lui proposer. Comme il
connaissait déjà le cabinet de M. Ardel :
— Vous savez le chemin, dit Pauline, sans le conduire en haut.
Sa visite dura un assez long moment, et, quand il ressortit, elle
entendit son père lançant d’un ton satisfait :
— Je vous laisse aller. A l’autre dimanche.
Elle se tenait au seuil de la salle à manger ; sur le vestibule
flottait un jour vague d’où se dégageaient son buste calme dans un
corsage blanc, ses mains claires et son front, la pulpe de ses lèvres
qui semblait d’un rouge assombri. Elle regardait Julien descendre :
sa cravate bouffait sous son cou svelte ; il balançait une canne à bec
d’ivoire faite d’un jonc qu’il avait coupé dans les bois. Elle crut saisir
en ses yeux la tendresse contenue d’une pensée qu’il taisait. Un
instant il s’arrêta près d’elle, lui parla d’Edmée, laquelle était
souffrante : une langueur mal définie l’opprimait ; elle ne mangeait
plus, restait, des heures, frileuse et triste au coin du feu, et délaissait
même son piano.
— J’irai prendre de ses nouvelles, dit Pauline.
Comme il la quittait, elle aperçut au bas de son manteau un long
fil ; elle se pencha prestement, et, avec une grâce discrète, elle l’ôta.
Ils en rirent, se séparèrent dans une simplicité affectueuse.
La persuasion d’avoir son amitié enivra plus fort Pauline de ses
espérances. Mais sa hâte était grande d’apprendre ce qu’il avait pu
dire à son père. Le professeur, quand elle lui monta sa lampe, s’en
ouvrit de son propre mouvement : un ami de Julien offrait de traduire
en anglais le Saint-Simon, et à des conditions avantageuses ;
l’affaire tombait d’autant mieux qu’en cette fin d’année M. Ardel se
voyait à court d’argent.
— Ce garçon-là, décidément, a du bon. Il possède le flair des
mystiques pour tirer de la vie tout ce qu’elle peut donner…
Voilà pourquoi, oubliant ses intentions de rupture, Victorien
promettait une visite aux Rude. Julien avait su le prendre par son
point le plus sensible, sa vanité d’auteur peu lu. Sous son écorce de
dur égoïsme, cet homme gardait un fond de naïveté enfantine, et, s’il
rencontrait du dévouement, il le payait d’un retour subit d’affection.
Pauline, le lendemain, alla, de bonne heure après midi, voir
Edmée. La jeune fille se prétendit tout à fait mieux, quoique sa figure
tirée déclarât une longue lassitude ; elle se préparait à sortir avec sa
mère pour assister, au Carmel, à une prise d’habit.
— Nous vous emmenons ? invita Mme Rude cavalièrement.
Pauline ne refusa point, curieuse d’une cérémonie singulière
pour « une profane » ; et elles partirent.
En chemin, Edmée leur confia qu’elle enviait la postulante
admise à recevoir le voile ; mais, sa mère ayant paru chagrinée de
cet aveu :
— Rassure-toi, fit-elle de son accent câlin ; tu le sais bien, je ne
te quitterai jamais, pas même pour me marier !
— Vous ne vous marierez pas ? s’étonna Pauline en la sondant
d’un regard jusqu’en ses moelles.
— Ah ! mais non ! les hommes sont une trop vilaine espèce.
— Qu’en sais-tu ? répondit Mme Rude, qui éclata de rire.
— Vous, Pauline, reprit Edmée, vous avez ce qu’il faut pour le
mariage, vous serez une délicieuse épouse.
— Pas plus qu’une autre ; mais, si je me mariais, j’aimerais
absolument mon mari…
Tant de monde se pressait en l’étroite chapelle du couvent
qu’elles eurent peine à s’y faire place. L’odeur des cires brûlant au-
dessus de l’autel saisit Pauline d’une volupté confuse. Elle se
haussa sur la pointe des pieds pour entrevoir en avant de
l’assistance la novice, toute blanche comme une mariée, assise
dans un fauteuil, avec un prie-Dieu et un cierge allumé devant elle,
la tête inclinée profondément. Pauline la jugea grande et remarqua
la maigreur pointue de ses épaules.
A la droite du chœur, un dais couvrait l’archevêque coiffé de la
mitre, entouré de prêtres amples dans leur surplis. L’aumônier du
Carmel, en chaire, achevait un sermon ; il exposait la puissance
rédemptrice d’une pauvre cloîtrée sauvant un monde qui l’ignore et
ne veut point d’elle ; il commentait aussi la devise que sainte
Thérèse inscrivit sous l’épée ardente de ses armes : Zelo zelatus
sum.
Pauline l’écoutait sans émotion ; ses yeux étaient attirés, à la
gauche de l’autel, là où une grille noire laissait deviner une arrière-
chapelle emplie de clarté, le chœur des religieuses dont elle ne
voyait rien.
Il se fit un brusque remuement de chaises ; le sermon terminé, la
novice se leva ; elle prit le bras d’un vieillard, un homme à la
moustache rude, offrant la carrure d’un ancien officier, et se dirigea
vers la sortie. Pauline la vit passer tout contre elle, baissant les
paupières, laide, mais transfigurée par une jubilation douloureuse,
inexprimable, tandis que le vieillard, son père, sanglotait. Légère et
céleste, comme si elle ne touchait plus le sol, la fiancée du Christ
gagna le fond du vestibule, près de la clôture, dont la porte
s’entrouvrit. Les nonnes, dans leurs manteaux noirs, rangées
derrière, un cierge à la main, l’attendaient en psalmodiant. Elle
s’agenouilla devant les prêtres pour avoir leur bénédiction, puis elle
embrassa sur les deux joues son père, ses frères, et ses sœurs,
tous en larmes comme si, morte, ils l’ensevelissaient. Le silence était
si poignant que, seul, s’entendait le son funèbre des baisers coupés
par de sourds sanglots. Elle pénétra, sans se retourner, dans la
clôture, se remit à genoux, baisa la croix qu’on lui présentait, et
disparut à la suite de la procession où elle marchait la dernière,
pendant que la porte se refermait pour ne plus s’ouvrir sur elle.
Cette cérémonie simple et déchirante bouleversa Pauline ; c’était
un peu comme si elle eût assisté à un holocauste sanglant. Tout le
pli païen de sa nature résistait à l’héroïsme de la victime qu’elle
estimait égoïste et même barbare : pourquoi faire souffrir les siens,
et pourquoi répudier les douceurs permises d’une destinée
normale ?
Mais Edmée, l’attirant, la remmena dans la chapelle où elle se fit
passage impétueusement jusqu’au chœur. Celui des cloîtrées,
derrière les barreaux épais de la grille, apparaissait rose, tant le jour
qui tombait de deux fenêtres sans rideaux était vif sur les murs
blancs, au-dessus des boiseries brunes. Le plancher miroitant
répétait les lumières d’un petit autel, au fond de la salle où se
dévoilait ce grand air espagnol de noblesse pauvre que sainte
Thérèse légua aux Carmélites.
Déjà la procession rentrait, et les sœurs s’arrêtèrent en deux
rangées ; les flammes paisibles de leurs cierges se continuaient, leur
voile retombait sur leur face encline, et elles semblaient informes
sous le lourd manteau d’où sortaient leurs mains pâles. Pauline eut
cette idée :
— On dirait des mendiantes.
Et ces femmes étaient bien en effet les mendiantes de l’éternelle
Compassion, les vierges sages veillant à la porte de l’Époux, dans
l’attente de l’heure où Il les convierait aux noces.
Cependant, la novice s’était agenouillée contre la grille ;
l’archevêque lui posa les questions voulues par la règle.
— Que demandez-vous ?
— La miséricorde de Dieu, la pauvreté de l’Ordre et la compagnie
des sœurs.
Elle répondit d’une voix très calme, ayant, depuis longtemps,
énoncé en son cœur ce qu’elle articulait devant les hommes. Ensuite
elle sortit au bras de la prieure, sa paranymphe ; son père les
regardait toutes deux s’en aller. On chanta en son absence le
Psaume : In exitu Israel, et chaque verset vibrait comme le choc d’un
glaive tranchant les liens de cette âme avec la terre corruptible. Elle
revint, portant l’habit du Carmel, sauf le grand voile et le manteau
que l’archevêque bénit en de longs oremus.
Pauline fut surprise qu’il ne mît pas dans ces prières plus
d’émotion. L’impersonnalité des rites la dépassait. L’archevêque lui
parut vieux, maussade : haut et lourd, avec des paupières mornes,
un menton de galoche, une voix cassée. Les joues cramoisies, il
suffoquait visiblement dans la chapelle trop pleine, sa mitre
scintillante avait l’air de brûler son front, et le seul effort de lire le
fatiguait au point que son grand vicaire, par instants, devait le
remettre en bonne voie sur la page où il se perdait. Mais, dès qu’il
eut achevé la liturgie, deux religieuses vêtirent la nouvelle sœur de
la ceinture, du scapulaire et du manteau. Pauline fut touchée de
cette toilette sainte, de la grâce des doigts prestes arrangeant les
plis.
Au milieu du chœur un tapis de grosse serge était déployé ; la
Carmélite s’y prosterna, les bras en croix ; les prêtres chantèrent le
Veni creator ; puis l’archevêque commença un lugubre Pater noster,
poursuivi à voix basse, de même qu’aux enterrements, tandis qu’on
encense le cercueil. Une des sœurs jeta sur elle de l’eau bénite en
silence. Pauline, se substituant à la nonne immobile allongée
comme un cadavre sous un suaire, se représenta la révolte qu’elle-
même eût éprouvée à mimer ainsi ses funérailles. Elle croyait
impossible l’absolu d’un tel renoncement, et vaine cette parade de
mort.
Pourtant, lorsqu’elle la vit se relever et passer devant les autres
en leur donnant le baiser de paix, quand toutes se mirent à
psalmodier : Ecce quam bonum et quam jucundum habitare fratres
in unum, les paroles d’exultation traînées sur une note languide que
variait seule, au terme du verset, une pause dolente, attendrirent
Pauline jusqu’aux larmes. La douceur sévère de la mélopée lui fit
entrevoir chez ces recluses un sentiment supérieur à l’amour
humain, la charité, prélude de la communion des bienheureux dans
l’Ineffable.
Au moment du Salut elle redescendit avec Edmée et Mme Rude
hors du balustre de l’autel, et, cette fois, elle s’abandonna sans
ergoter à l’impression des chants, des luminaires, de l’encens. Le
plaisir qu’elle recevait allait au delà d’un bien-être sensitif ; son esprit
trouvait une affinité sympathique entre la consomption des grains de
l’encens qui fumait, celle des bougies brûlant sur les candélabres,
les unes plus haut, les autres plus bas, les unes à droite, les autres
à gauche de l’ostensoir, et la ferveur soumise des cloîtrées
consumant leur chair en jeûnes et en oraisons. La gravité du Tantum
Ergo, l’adoration des assistants concentrée sur l’Hostie la
pénétraient d’effluves pieux, et c’était, pour son âme, tellement
nouveau qu’il lui sembla, quelques minutes, entrer dans une vie
parfaite.
En sortant de la chapelle, Mme Rude lui demanda :
— Eh bien ! que dites-vous d’une prise d’habit ?
— Je ne sais trop ; ce que j’en puis penser n’a guère
d’importance. Je viens de voir des choses très belles, mais plus
d’une qui me choque et m’ennuie. Ces religieuses ont une foi
violente, c’est évident ; sont-elles sûres de ne pas se sacrifier pour
rien ? En tout cas, je ne serai jamais du bois dont on fait les
Carmélites.
Cette déclaration répliquait à un mot de Julien, au retour de
Druzy ; en contredisant Julien, elle ramenait encore vers lui sa
pensée.
Le dimanche où elle comptait le revoir, il prévint sa mère par un
télégramme qu’il ne rentrait pas ; la veille, il avait dû faire une
conférence à Paris, dans un cercle d’étudiants, et on l’y retenait,
pour une seconde réunion, jusqu’au lundi.
Pauline, à la déconvenue profonde qu’elle dissimula, put sonder
la blessure de son amour. Mais, avec l’injustice de la passion, elle
interpréta l’absence de Julien comme un signe de légèreté
indifférente.
« La place que je tiens dans ses actes est minime, sinon nulle.
Autrement, il aurait fait bon marché de sa réunion. Et qui sait si elle
n’est pas un simple prétexte ? »
Elle cédait à ces amertumes, pendant que M. Rude jouait avec
Edmée la sonate de César Franck. Toute la langueur du premier
temps répondait à sa tristesse ; le motif du violon se balançait
comme un oiseau marin perdu sur la houle au crépuscule ; il
s’élevait, porté par un désir d’espace inassouvible, puis retombait
vers le flot monotone, immense, de son ennui.
« Pourtant, reprenait Pauline qui se blâmait de ses suspicions,
j’ai tort de supposer Julien capable d’un mensonge. S’il n’est pas
revenu, c’est qu’il avait des raisons sérieuses. Puis-je lui en vouloir ?
Ai-je aucun droit sur ses faits et gestes ? »
« Oui, continuait-elle, durant l’orageux et rauque allegro ; mais
devrai-je indéfiniment souffrir dans l’incertitude ? Et, quel moyen
d’amener une explication ? Est-il sage de la souhaiter, si elle doit
faire mon désespoir ?… »
La torpeur désolée du lento accabla son cœur malade.
Néanmoins, tandis que le canon du final entrelaçait, comme le
carillon d’un matin de Pâques, ses voix ferventes, elle se laissa
rasséréner d’une joie presque liturgique. Elle-même chanta,
« voulant, songeait-elle, faire plaisir à ces bons Rude », un air d’une
cantate religieuse de Bach, celle pour tous les temps.
Quelques jours plus tard, Edmée vint la surprendre un matin, et
arriva, pressant contre son corsage une botte de mimosas ; un oncle
de Mme Rude qui habitait Toulon lui en avait expédié une caisse.
Aussitôt elle ajouta :
— Julien m’a dit : « Tu devrais en offrir à Pauline Ardel », et
maman a été, comme moi, tout à fait de son avis.
Pauline s’extasia de toucher ces fleurs que les vents de la mer
avaient nourries sur un sol ardent ; le chrome clair de leur coton
duveté évoquait l’ambre d’un ciel diaphane ; mais, surtout, elle
respira dans leur haleine délicate et insinuante les sentiments qu’elle
prêtait à Julien. Elle tria les tiges, les disposa dans des vases et,
plus d’une semaine après, par ses soins l’odeur emmiellée du
mimosa imbibait encore le salon. Pour la retrouver, elle s’y attardait
plus longuement que d’habitude et réitérait ses exercices de chant
avec une ténacité dont fut ébahi son père. Parfois elle se grondait de
ses ivresses puériles :
« Cette attention ne prouve pas du tout qu’il m’aime… Je saurai
bien, dimanche, si ce n’était qu’une attention. »
En effet, comme, cet après-midi-là, elle se trouvait chez les
Rude, avant qu’on commençât à faire de la musique, elle et Julien
s’approchèrent ensemble d’un tableau, le portrait d’une jeune fille en
robe mauve, tenant un lis à la main.
— Ce lis, dit-elle, n’égale pas pour moi le ravissant mimosa
d’Edmée.
Elle n’osait émettre un remerciement direct ; mais son sourire le
proféra.
— N’en parlons pas, se défendit Julien ; le pauvre ne donne que
ce qu’on lui a donné.
— Il n’est jamais pauvre, celui qui sait donner beaucoup avec
peu.
— Dites plutôt qu’il est riche, celui qui, en recevant peu, sait avoir
beaucoup.
Sa repartie aurait pu être déplaisante s’il ne l’eût commentée
d’un coup d’œil brusquement idolâtre devant lequel Pauline abaissa
ses paupières. Leur conversation ne dura point davantage, Edmée
les ayant rejoints.
Pauline emporta comme une victoire le regard de Julien.
Cependant, à réfléchir, elle conclut que, s’il éprouvait pour elle un
penchant vrai, des scrupules et des objections l’en dissuadaient.
Durant les mois qui suivirent, nulle imprudence amoureuse ne lui
échappa ; il se contraignait dans les limites d’une sage amitié. Elle
aussi se raisonnait, envisageait les difficultés d’un mariage où, entre
l’épouse et l’époux, des heurts quotidiens seraient inévitables :
« Je ne conçois guère Julien se mettant matin et soir à genoux
pour prier, allant à la messe le dimanche, et moi boudant seule dans
mon coin. »
Elle sentait impossible le compromis dont vivent tant de
ménages, lorsque la femme est croyante et l’homme indifférent.
D’autre part, l’essor de sympathie qui l’avait passagèrement
soulevée vers les confins d’une religion, ne tarda pas à fléchir. Elle
acheta, pour quatre sous, à l’étalage d’un brocanteur, une traduction
des Évangiles, et commença la lecture de Saint-Mathieu. Mais, faute
d’un guide, le Livre sacré la scandalisa : dès les premiers chapitres,
l’étoile des Mages et les songes de Joseph la mirent en défiance
comme un conte de fées ; Jean-Baptiste, avec son vêtement de poil
de chameau et sa voix qui rugit la menace « du feu inextinguible »,
lui produisit l’effet d’un sauvage Arabe fanatisant des foules. Dans la
tentation de Jésus au désert, elle n’aperçut qu’un symbole vide de
réalité. Et, prise d’un dégoût bizarre, elle s’abstint de pousser plus
avant.
La venue du printemps lui fut une diversion : cet hiver
interminable, tellement âpre que certains soirs, selon l’hyperbole
comique d’Edmée, « les dentiers des vieilles dames, quand elles les
ôtaient, devaient claquer de froid sur leur table de nuit », se fondit
dans une soudaine tiédeur. L’air se fit doux comme un vêtement. La
maison des Ardel possédait une étroite cour intérieure enclose par
les murs des jardins proches. Un frêne et un acacia s’y entrelaçaient
au-dessus d’un puits. Pauline s’égaya de voir sortir leurs premières
feuilles. Les tilleuls du voisin lui appartenaient un peu, car ils
laissaient retomber des frondaisons jusqu’à portée de sa main. Des
pinsons qui les habitaient venaient sautiller sur ses arbres, ils
descendaient sur son dallage picorer les miettes qu’elle leur
réservait. Il y avait quelques pieds de terreau où elle sema des
héliotropes et des violettes.
Aux heures chaudes elle s’asseyait là, brodait un chemin de table
destiné à Mme Rude. L’oncle Hippolyte, devant elle, marchait à
petits pas. Sur le toit de la remise, contre la lucarne découpée en
demi-losange, une des branches de l’acacia remuait vaguement son
ombre ; le soleil ranimait le vert des mousses au milieu des tuiles
effritées. Elle entendait les jeunes filles d’une pension rire en jouant,
jeter des cris aigus et, souvent, chanter des chœurs, un entre autres
qui la charmait par sa mélancolie simplette relevée de vigueur :
C’était Anne de Bretagne avec ses sabots…
Malgré tout, elle se plaisait davantage à travailler près des
fenêtres de la rue, dans l’obscure attente de voir passer Julien.
Lorsqu’elle y venait, Armance, sa nouvelle bonne, mettait à une
distance respectueuse sa chaise en face de la sienne, et tricotait ou
raccommodait sans mot dire. Armance était veuve, et inconsolable
d’un fils unique, qui, faisant son service à Auxerre, avait voulu
sauter, une nuit, le mur de la caserne et s’était tué sur le coup.
Sèche et menue, coiffée d’un bonnet noir, elle laissait lire en ses
traits et sa contenance la dignité des douleurs muettes. Elle
témoignait à Pauline un dévouement soumis et néanmoins presque
maternel. M. Ardel l’estimait, bien qu’il la sût dévote et que le bruit de
son chapelet, le soir, entre ses doigts, l’offensât comme une
dissonance dans la maison.
Vers la fin d’une journée d’avril, toutes deux cousaient, la croisée
entr’ouverte. De la rue, pénétrait, circulant avec une brise, l’acide
exhalaison de l’herbe qui croît, mélangée au parfum des lilas. Des
formes de passants se réfléchissaient dans les vitres, et Pauline y
distinguait deux messieurs gantés causant auprès d’un portail, d’un
ton bas, à la manière des provinciaux toujours inquiets d’être
espionnés.
En ce moment, le pas vif et autoritaire de M. Ardel retentit sur la
chaussée ; une autre voix d’homme, méridionale et grasse, ripostait
à la sienne, fort cassante. Son interlocuteur et lui s’arrêtèrent un peu
avant la porte. Pauline reconnut M. Galibert, le professeur de
quatrième. Natif de Marseille, il offrait les dehors d’un commis
voyageur aisé plutôt que d’un pédagogue : les joues opimes, les
épaules larges, la barbe fleurie en éventail, la poitrine avantageuse
où s’étalait un plastron rouge, les mains chargées de bagues ; il
faisait miroiter le pommeau d’argent de sa badine et écartait ses
larges pieds plats ; d’une loquacité incoercible, Galibert s’imposait
par l’assurance de sa verve ; il prétendait protéger et morigéner tous
ses collègues ; au reste, vantard et pleutre, « tirant » sans
enthousiasme ses quinze heures de service par semaine, mais
satisfait de soi, de son siècle et du gouvernement.
Il venait d’avertir M. Ardel au sujet d’un article paru le matin
même contre lui dans une feuille locale ; on l’y incriminait comme
« réactionnaire. », sous prétexte qu’en exposant à ses élèves la
politique de Louis XIV, il avait justifié le pouvoir absolu.
— J’ai grand’peur, insinua Galibert, que cet article n’arrive
simplement pour corser d’antérieures dénonciations anonymes.
Vous espériez, n’est-ce pas, votre nomination à Versailles ?
Pourquoi l’attendez-vous encore ?
(Ici Pauline fut tentée de se dire : « Tant mieux si elle ne vient
pas ! » Mais elle refréna ce mouvement d’égoïsme.)
— Je veux vous parler en ami, continuait-il. Vous savez la
formule, quand on s’occupe de vous : M. Ardel, il est à part.
— A part ! répliqua Victorien, je n’y serai jamais assez. Les tares
d’un métier ne s’impriment que trop sur un mercenaire, comme
l’usure du harnais sur la croupe d’un âne. Maintenant, qu’on me
fasse blanc ou noir, en aurai-je un cheveu de plus ou de moins ? Je
souffre suffisamment, croyez-le, des contraintes qu’il me faut subir.
Je ne dis pas tout haut le vingtième de ce que je pense ; mais,
quand je rencontre chez mes élèves un de ces préjugés primaires
qui me dégoûtent, c’est mon devoir de les secouer.
— Nego, mon cher collègue. Un fonctionnaire ne doit pas avoir
d’autre opinion que l’État. Et, puisque j’ai commencé, j’irai jusqu’au
bout. Une chose vous fait du tort, votre liaison avec les Rude : vous
passez pour calotin.
— Ça, c’est plus raide ! Sachez, monsieur, que je n’ai pas même
fait baptiser ma fille.
Et, sans lui serrer la main, M. Ardel rentra en faisant claquer la
porte.
A l’instant où il prononça la phrase : « Je n’ai pas même fait
baptiser ma fille », les yeux de Pauline se croisèrent avec ceux
d’Armance, aigus comme deux pointes d’aiguille ; la bouche ridée de
la veuve se fronça d’une tristesse effarée ; puis elle se pencha vers
son ouvrage pour cacher son émoi. Pauline sentit amèrement ce
recul de la servante :
« Faut-il qu’elle soit bête ! »
Mais, à son insu, elle devint toute pâle de la révélation faite à un
tiers sur sa personne ; jamais Victorien ne lui avait appris d’une
façon précise qu’elle était une non-baptisée ; jamais non plus elle
n’avait songé à lui poser la question. Six mois plus tôt, elle eût
trouvé logique la conduite du professeur et ne se fût aucunement
froissée de ce qu’elle avait entendu. Maintenant, elle s’en chagrinait,
comme d’une humiliation publique :
« Le baptême en soi, ce n’est rien ; sur le front d’un homme ou
d’une femme, cela ne se voit pas. Et pourtant c’est immense,
d’adhérer, en principe, à une communion sociale… Mon père ne
pensait qu’à lui, lorsqu’il m’en a exclue. »
Elle se leva précipitamment pour monter chez M. Ardel et
provoquer une explication. Mais elle réfléchit que mieux valait
attendre de s’être maîtrisée. Un moment plus tard, elle lui porta du
linge qu’Armance avait blanchi, et, s’évertuant à rester calme :
— Je t’ai entendu, dit-elle, rentrer avec Galibert. Quel besoin as-
tu de faire connaître à toute la ville que je ne suis pas baptisée ? Ce
serait à moi, il me semble, d’en être informée la première.
— Bah ! Un détail sans importance. Je ne vois pas ce qui peut là
t’ennuyer. Aurais-tu honte d’être émancipée ? J’ai mis d’accord mes
actes avec mes convictions. Très peu l’osent, et quoi de plus
simple ?
— Trop simple ! Tu m’imposais, dès ma naissance, ta volonté,
sans savoir quelle serait la mienne.
— Tu deviens joliment raisonneuse. C’est justement pour la
réserver, ta volonté, que j’ai agi comme j’ai agi. Ceux qui mènent au
baptême les nouveau-nés n’engagent-ils pas leurs enfants dans une
religion dont ceux-ci, avant d’être hommes, ne voudront plus ? M’a-t-
on demandé, à moi, ma permission pour me baptiser ?
— En tout cas, il est inutile de le crier sur les toits et de me
signaler comme un phénomène.
— Alors, tu n’as pas le courage de ton indépendance ? Va, tu
n’es qu’une chiffe !
— Sois tranquille, répliqua-t-elle, je te prouverai que je ne le suis
pas.
— Oui-da ! En quoi faisant ?
Elle ne répondit point et s’enferma dans sa chambre où elle
pleura sans bruit, désespérément. D’elle à son père, en la chaîne
invisible de leur affection un anneau était rompu ; et, ailleurs, nulle
main secourable ne se tendait. Les Rude et Julien lui présentaient la
possibilité d’un appui, mais inefficace ; comment leur confier sa
détresse, alors qu’elle ne pouvait leur dire : « Je suis avec vous » ?
Son orgueil, néanmoins, se raidit à reprendre une sérénité de
surface, elle essuya le tour de ses yeux rougis, les lava, et
redescendit à l’heure du souper.
Victorien, dans l’intervalle, s’était avoué qu’elle avait, en un point,
raison contre lui :

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Human Evolution: Bones, Cultures, and

Genes 1st Edition John H. Langdon

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Beyond Sex Differences Genes Brains and Matrilineal

The Human Gene Editing Debate 1st Edition John H. Evans

Anthropology of Race Genes Biology and Culture 1st

Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

Chimpanzees and Human Evolution 1st Edition Martin N.

Artificial Intelligence and Human Evolution:

Artificial Intelligence and Human Evolution:

ISSN 2730-6135 ISSN 2730-6143 (electronic)

I find the study of paleoanthropology both fascinating and humbling. The

Indianapolis, IN, USA John H. Langdon

1 The Reflection in the Mirror 3

2 Background: Evolutionary Classification and Fossil Dating 31

3 A Primate Heritage 51

Part II The First Hominins 71

5 The Early Hominins: Australopiths103

6 The Ecological Context of Early Hominin Evolution145

8 The Evolution of Bipedality191

Part III The First Humans 249

9 The Earliest Humans in Africa251

10 The First Technology277

11 Diet of Early Homo299

12 Evolution of the Brain321

Part IV The Middle Pleistocene 389

14 The Erectines of Asia391

15 Erectines of the West419

16 Behavior in the Middle Pleistocene461

Part V The Emergence of Modern People 495

17 Late Pleistocene Homo and the Emergence

18 From the Middle Paleolithic to the Modern Mind539

19 Modern Humans Disperse From Africa581

20 Distributing Modern Peoples625

21 Life History and Reproduction651

22 Evolution Today and Tomorrow683

Appendix of Anatomical Terms697

Fig. 8.7 OH 8 partial foot of Paranthropus boisei from Olduvai Gorge,

Fig. 9.1 The geographic distribution of early fossils of genus Homo in

each has been averaged from many specimens to indicate to

File:Meganthropus_palaeojavanicus.jpg. CC BY-SA 4.0, via

Sediment_1997_%C2%A9_P._Pfarr_NLD.jpg. CC BY-SA 3.0,

Fig. 20.2 Reconstructed phylogeny of human lice (red) mapped onto

(green). The rest of the reproductive lifespan consists of cycles of

Table 1.1 Commonly recognized or recently proposed species of hominins

negative values represent the opposite, contributing to a lordosis.

Table 16.1 The spread of Acheulean technologies by early appearance 467

The Reflection in the Mirror

Key Ideas in this Chapter

1. Human evolution is told as a narrative, with characters, motivations, and a

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Box 1.1 Some Essential Vocabulary

Constructing Human Identity

Fig. 1.2 Comparative brain sizes among larger-brained mammals. Comparisons of

Box 1.2 How Are Humans Different?

Box 1.2 (continued)

• Lateral tubercle on the calcaneal tuberosity*.

Behavioral traits in the following list also distinguish humans more by

• Pair-bonding of sexual partners beyond a mating cycle.

Genomes Humans are also distinct genetically. Comparisons of genomes are

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Indianapolis, IN, USA John H. Langdon

1 The Reflection in the Mirror 3

2 Background: Evolutionary Classification and Fossil Dating 31

3 A Primate Heritage 51

Part II The First Hominins 71

5 The Early Hominins: Australopiths103

6 The Ecological Context of Early Hominin Evolution145

8 The Evolution of Bipedality191

Part III The First Humans 249

9 The Earliest Humans in Africa251

10 The First Technology277

11 Diet of Early Homo299

12 Evolution of the Brain321

Part IV The Middle Pleistocene 389

14 The Erectines of Asia391

15 Erectines of the West419

16 Behavior in the Middle Pleistocene461

Part V The Emergence of Modern People 495

17 Late Pleistocene Homo and the Emergence

18 From the Middle Paleolithic to the Modern Mind539

19 Modern Humans Disperse From Africa581

20 Distributing Modern Peoples625

21 Life History and Reproduction651

22 Evolution Today and Tomorrow683

Appendix of Anatomical Terms697

Table 16.1 The spread of Acheulean technologies by early appearance 467