FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUTSIN-MA,

FACULTY OF LIFE SCIENCE.

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: PSB 212

COURSE TITLE: SEED PLANTS

COURSE UNIT: 2

LEVEL: 200

SEMESTER: SECOND SEMESTER 2022/2023 SESSION

COURSE DEVELOPERS/ LECTURERS: BUAH, J., D.,*

Dr Musa DD, Bala AS, Muhammad FT, Mahmoud AA, and MH Rabiu

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CONTENTS

1.0. INTRODUCTION

2.0. OBJECTIVES

3.0. MAIN BODY

3.1 General characteristics, similarities and differences between the Gymnosperms and the
Angiosperms.
3.2 The various groups and orders (living and extinct) of gymnosperms
3.3 Studies of examples in each group of the angiosperms, root types, stem types and functions
3.4 Morphology of seed plants
3.5 Fruit formation and taxonomy of some related plants.

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INTRODUCTION

The earliest seed plants probably evolved close to 300 million years ago. They were similar to
modern ginkgoes and reproduced with pollen and seeds in cones. Early seed plants quickly came
to dominate forests during the Mesozoic Era, or Age of the Dinosaurs, about 250 to 65 million
years ago.

Eventually, some gymnosperms started to evolve angiosperm-like traits. For example, cycad
ancestors were the first plants to use insects as pollinators. They also used birds and monkeys to
disperse their brightly colored seeds. Of modern gymnosperms, Gnetae probably share the most
recent common ancestor with angiosperms. Among other similarities, Gnetae produce nectar, a
sweet, sugary liquid that attracts insect pollinators. Most modern flowering plants also produce
nectar.

As seed plants continued to evolve, Earth’s overall climate became drier, so early seed plants
evolved adaptations to help them live with low levels of water. Some also evolved adaptations to
cold. They had woody trunks and needle-like, evergreen leaves covered with a thick coating of
waxy cuticle to reduce water loss. Some of the trees were huge, like today’s giant sequoia, a
modern conifer

Seed plants are called spermatophytes. The evolution of seeds by vascular plants was a very big
deal. In fact, it was arguably as important as the evolution of vascular tissues. Seeds solved the
problem of releasing offspring into a dry world. Once seeds evolved, vascular seed plants and their
descendants diversified to fill terrestrial niches everywhere. Today, vascular seed plants dominate
Earth

OBJECTIVES:

The following should be achieved at the end of the course by the students

1. Define and explain the types of seed plants

2. Identify gymnosperms and angiosperms
3. Understand the morphology, taxonomy and fruit formation of seed plants
4. Excel with outstanding grades on any written or oral exam within the scope of this course

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 GYMNOSPERM

The division spermatophyta (sperma=seed, phyton=plant), also known as phanerogames includes

all seed bearing plants. It has been divided into two sub-divisions

1. Gymnosperm
2. Angiosperm.

The sub-division Gymnosperm (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed) includes simpler and primitive

plants of the division spermatophyte. They are characterized by the presence of naked ovules,
borne unprotected on the surface of the maegasporophylls. Hence, unlike angiosperms, seeds of
gymnosperms are not enclosed in ovary. Gymnosperm are also refeered to as phanerogams without
ovary.

Gymnosperm are the most ancient group of seed plants, originated in the palaeozoic era. The
geological records show that they were dominant plants over the earth surface during the Jurassic
and cretaceous periods of Mesozoic era. The members of several primitive groups of gymnosperm
(e.g Cycadofilicales, Bennettitales, Cordaitales) are extinct today and only their preserved remains
(fossils) are known. Other groups like Cycadales, Ginkgoales, coniferales and Gnetales are
represented by both living and fossil members. There are about 70 genera and 725 species of living
gymnosperms distributed throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the world. They also
occur in arctic zones.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GYMNOSPERMS

1. Most of the living gymnosperms are evergreen trees or shrubs with Xerophytic adaptations
2. The plant body is sporophytic and is differentiated into root, stem and leaves
3. The plant possess a well-developed tap root sytem. Roots of some taxa have symbiotic
relationship with algae (e.g coralloid roots of Cycas) or fungi (e.g mycorrhizal roots of
Pinus).
4. The stem is usually erect, profusely branched (unbranched in Cycas), woody and tuberous
as in zamia.
5. Presence of leaf scars on the stem is a characteristics feature of gymnosperm.

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6. The leaves are usually dimorphic. The foliage leaves are green, simple, needle shaped or
pinnately compound, while the scaly leaves are usually minute and deciduous. In some
taxa like Ephedra only scaly leaves are present.
7. The roots are di to plyarch
8. In the Cortex of the stem tanniniferous cells are frequently present
9. The young stem has a ring of collateral and open vascular bundles
10. The xylem consists of only tracheids and xylem parenchyma. Vessels are absent with the
exception of members of the Gnetales.
11. The phloem consists of sieve tubes and phloem parenchyma, companion cells are however
absent.
12. The stem shows distinct secondary growth and conspicuous annual rings are present in the
wood. However in some gymnosperm like Cycas primary cambium is short lived and is
replaced by successive rings of cambia formed outside the secondary phloem.
13. The wood may be manoxylic as in Cycas or pycnoxylic as in pinus.
14. The leaves have a thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
15. The mesophyll of the leaf may be undifferentiated (e.g pinus, cedrus) or differentiated into
palisade and spongy parenchyma (e.g Cycas).
16. Most Gymnospermic leaves do not have lateral veins and the lateral translocation of
nutrients takes place with the help of transfusion tissue.
17. They are heterosporous, mega and microsporangia occur on mega and microsporopylls
respectively, which usually aggregate to form compact cones or strobili
18. The cones are usually monosporangiate (Unisexual) but in some species (e.g Ephedra
foliate, E. intermedia) bisporangiate cones also occur.
19. Male cones are usually short lived, microsporangia develop on the abaxial side of the
microsporophylls. The number of sporangia per Sporophyll varies from two (pinus) to
many (Cycas). The development of microporonagium is eusporangiate.
20. The female cones are formed by the aggregation of megasporophylls. They are persistent
on the plant for several years.
21. The megasporophylls may be similar to normal foliage leave (e.g Cycas) or are cauline
(Pinus).
22. The megasporangium (ovule) is a naked structure on the megasporophyll.

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23. The ovules are orthotropous and unitegmic, but are bitegmic in Gentales.
24. The ovule integument is differentiated into three layers; the outer and inner layer is fleshy
and the middle layer is stony.
25. The microspores are liberated in various stages of the development of male gametophyte.
E.g they are liberated at 3-celled stage in Cycas, 4-celled stage in Pinus and 5-celled stage
in Ephedra. The male gametes are non-motile with the exception of Cycas and Gingko
26. The number of archegonia in a female gametophyte is variable. There are several
archegonia in Cycas and only two in Pinus. The archegonium of Gnetum is represented by
ovum only.
27. The archegonium has a single egg and a venter canal cell; neck canal cells are however
absent.
28. Pollination is direct i.e, pollen grains come in direct contact with the ovule. Pollens are
deposited in the pollen chamber where they germinate. All gymnosperms are wind
pollinated.
29. Fertilization is siphonogamic and the pollen tube may function as haustorial (e.g Cycas) or
sperm carrier ( e.g Pinus).
30. The zygote formed as a result of fertilization is the mother cell of the next sporophytic
generation.
31. The development of embryo is meroblastic, i.e the embryo develops only from a part
(basal) of the zygote.
32. Development of endosperm takes place before fertilization and hence the endosperm is
haploid.
33. Free nuclear division in the early stage of embryo development takes place with the
exception of Gnetum, Welwitschia. The embryo is Endosporic i.e the shoot apex is directed
opposite to the micropyle.
34. There is a marked tendency of polyembryony and several embryos develop in a female
gametophyte.
35. The polyembryony may arise by the fertilization of more than one eggs or by the division
of the zygote (Cleavage polyembryony). But due to physiological competition only one
embryo attains maturity.
36. The naked ovule develops into seed, the ovular integuments form the seed coat.

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37. The number of cotyledon in a seed is one or two as in Cycas or many as in Pinus.
38. The seed usually has a short or long dormant period and then it germinates to form a new
sporophytic body.
39. The seed represent three phases in the life cycle of gymnosperms
i) The integument and nucellus represent the mother sporophytic phase (first
sporophytic phase)
ii) Endosperm, the gametophytic phase
iii) Embryo the next sporophytic phase (as it develops from the zygote)
40. There is a distinct alternation of generation, the diploid sporophytic phase is dominant,
whereas the haploid gametophytic phase is reduced. The gametophytic phase is dependent
on the sporophytic phase.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS

Gymnosperms are considered to form a bridge with angiosperms, thus they share several
features and there also differences exist between them.

SIMILARITIES

1. The vascular system of stem consists of conjoint, collateral, and open vascular bundles.
2. Sporophyte is differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
3. The stem increases in girth by secondary growth
4. Vessels and companion cells also occur in some gymnosperm (Gnetales) like angiosperm.
5. Like gymnosperms, many angiosperms are also wind pollinated
6. Fertilization is siphonogamous (i.e with the help of pollen tube) in both groups.
7. Development of megaspore into female gametophyte takes place inside the
megasporangium.
8. Suspensor is formed during embryo development in both groups.
9. As in gymnosperm, polyembryony frequently found in several angiosperms
10. In both groups ovules develop into seeds.
11. The seed germination is epigeal or hypogeal in both groups.
12. The gametophytic phase is reduced in both groups

DIFFERENCES

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 1. Gymnosperms are mostly woody trees but angiosperms have a variety of habit-trees, shrubs
or herbs.
2. Xylem vessels and companion cells are of universal occurrence in angiosperms (except for
some vessels genera), but they are only confined to Gnetales amongst gymnosperm.
3. The strobili of gymnosperms are usually unisexual, whereas the flowers of angiosperm are
mostly bisexual.
4. The ovules of gymnosperms are naked whereas those of angiosperms remain enclosed
within the ovary wall.
5. The structure like ovary, style and stigma are not found in gymnosperms.
6. In the female gametophyte of gymnosperms archegonia are present but they are not found
in angiosperms.
7. Double fertilization and triple fusion, found in angiosperms do not occur in gymnosperms.
In gymnosperms the endosperm is formed before fertilization and thus it is a haploid tissue,
whereas in angiosperm it is formed after fertilization as a result of triple fusion and thus is
a triploid tissue.
8. Free nuclear divisions occur in the zygote of gymnosperms but they do not occur in
angiosperms

CLASSIFICATION OF GYMNOSPERMS

• Gymnosperm is from the Greek “gymnos” naked, and “sperma” seeds • Gymnosperms are
groups of vascular plants that reproduce by means of an exposed seeds or ovules.

• They are phanerogams according to Eichler, They include 83 genera, 12 families and 1,080
living species.

• There are 4 (four) surviving phyla of gymnosperm. They vary greatly in appearance and habitat.

They are grouped into:

a. Conifers.
b. Cycads.
c. Ginkos (Living fossils)

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 d. Gnetophytes.

Cycadales and Ginkgoales include living members which have long history and are thus regarded
as “Living fossils”, example Ginkgo biloba.

Coniferales include abies, taxus, pinus. The Gnetales is represented by 3 genera (gnetum, ephedra
and Welwitschia mirabilis).

THE DIVERSITY
o Conifers: The most abundant extant groups of gymnosperms with 6-8 families, 65-70
genera and 600-630 species.
o Cycads: The second most abundant group with 130 species.
o Gnetales: Comprises of 70-80 species including those of Gnetum, Ephedra and
Welwitschia mirabilis species.
o Ginkgo: Is the only living fossil of gymnosperms having single species.

1. CONIFEROPHYTA
 Largest division of gymnosperms including pinus, yews, spruces, junipers,
cedars, etc.
 Most diverse with 50 genera and 550 species
 The word conifer means ‘cone-bearer’; it is a distinct characteristic common to
conifers.
 Most conifers are evergreen (they retain their leaves throughout the year), usually
found in places where the climate is temperate.
 They include some of the largest, tallest and oldest trees on the planet.
 They have needle-like leaves; needle leaf conifers also have a waxy coat on the leaf
surface to help prevent water loss in the dry climate.
 Some conifers are deciduous, such as larch (Larix), bald cypress (Taxodium), and
the dawn redwood (Metasequoia).
 They have vascular tissues. Meristems and other plant tissues.
 Examples of conifers include the familiar pines, firs, spruces, yews, hemlocks,
Sequoia and junipers.

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2. CYCADOPHYTA
 Cycads are the seed bearing plants which are also called the primitive
gymnosperms.
 Second largest group of gymnosperms consisting of 11 genera and 140 species
 Cycads are found in tropical forest and sub-tropical regions; grow in semi-desert
climates and in sand.
 These plants usually have large compound leaves, thick trunks and small leaflets
which are attached to the single central stem.
 They go up to a height of about 25 cm.
 Classification of Cycadophyta:
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Cycadophyta
Class: Cycadopsida
Order: Cycadales
Family: Cycadaceae
Genus: Cycads

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 .

3. GINKGOPHYTA

 Have only one extant species, named Ginkgo biloba.

 Ginkgo comes from the Chinese word meaning “Silver apricot” (gin=silver, kyo=
apricot) and Biloba comes from the Latin meaning “double leaves” (bi=double, loba=
leaf).
 Ginkgo biloba is one of the oldest living tree species, over 300 million years ago.
 Leaves are unique among seed plants, fan-shaped with veins radiating out into the leaf
blade, Ginkgo leaves are bi-lobed, tough and more resistant to decay than other leaves.
 Seeds have fleshy coats, but they are not like the true fruits of Angiosperms • They are
attractive in appearance, but contains butanoic acid and have a bad odor like rancid butter
 Ginkgos are dioecious (Having male and female reproductive organ in separate plants).
 It has a number of medicinal values. It possesses fan-type leaves that can help improve and
sharpen the memory of a human being.

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4. GNETOPHYTA

 Gnetophyta are small group of vascular seed plants composing one of the four phylum of
gymnosperm.
 They have more angiosperm like features than any other gymnosperms.
 They include 70 species divided into three: Ephedra, Gnetum, and Welwitschia.
 Welwitschia and Gnetum are similar to flowering plants: not having archegonia and some
species of Ephedra and Gnetum are the only plants that go through double fertilization.

 Gnetum species
• Gnetum are mostly vines or shrubs
• There are about 30 species
• They are found in South Asia, Tropical Africa, and Amazon basin
• Their leaves are broad and resemble flowering plants
• Their seeds are edible
 Ephedra Species
• Ephedra known as Mormon tea or joint firs
• There are about 30 species
• They are found in Northern Mexico and South Western US
• Strobili usually emerge from the axils of leaves
• Some species undergo double fertilization.
 Welwitschia Species
• Welwitschia contains only one species (Welwitschia mirabilis)
• They are found in South Western Africa
• They survives in extremely drought
• Their leaves grow perennially and they are larger
• They have the largest leaves in the plant kingdom.

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 ANGIOSPERM
A flowering, fruit-bearing plant or tree known for having ovules (and therefore seeds) develop
within an enclosed ovary

Angiosperms Definition

What is an angiosperm? An angiosperm is a plant that produces flowers. The angiosperms, also
identified as the flowering plants, belong to one of the vital groups of plants having seeds. The
word angiosperm has been derived from a couple of Greek words where angeion stands for
“vessel” and sperma means “seed”.

Angiosperms belong to one of the most diverse and largest extant groups of plants found in the
universe. There are approximately 453 families of angiosperms that contain around 260,000 living
species classified in them. Moreover, around 80 percent of all known green plants living on the
earth are represented by angiosperms (Ref. 1). It is very well elaborated that the vascular seed
plants in which an egg is fertilized and developed into a seed in an enclosed hollow ovary are
angiosperms.

The seed of angiosperms, unlike gymnosperms, such as conifers and cycads, are found in the
flower. In gymnosperms, the seeds are borne exposed to the bodies and surfaces of the reproductive
parts for example cones. Furthermore, both male and female organs can easily be found in the
flowers of angiosperms.

The angiosperms occupy nearly every habitat located on the earth except the environments that
bear extreme climatic conditions such as uppermost mountain ranges, the deepest blue oceans, and
the regions that are present and surrounding the poles. They can be found as epiphytes (living on
various other plants), floating on the surfaces of surface waters, rooted in freshwater and marine
habitats, and terrestrial plants that vary in dimensions.

Angiosperm (biology definition): any of the flower-producing plant. Angiosperms make up the
division Magnoliophyta belonging to Subkingdom Embryophyta of the Kingdom
Plantae. Etymology: from Greek “angeîon”, meaning “receptacle” + “spérma”, meaning
“seed”. Synonyms: flowering plant; Magnoliophyta; Angiospermae. Compare: Gymnosperm.
Angiosperms can be seen as tiny herbs, parasitic plants, vines, and gigantic trees and they range in
small millimeters as tiny floating plants to the large trees that are over 100 meters tall. It is worth
mentioning here that, massive diversity can be found in the chemistry, reproductive cycles,
morphology, anatomy, and sizes of the angiosperms as compared to the other members and species
in the Plant Kingdom.

The most diverse families of flowering plants compared with the number of species are elaborated
in Table 1. The most common and diverse species of angiosperms are Orchidaceae that belong
to the orchid family followed by the daisy, pea, and grass families.

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Table 1: Name, Family, and Species of popular Angiosperms Plants

S. No. Name of Flowering Plant Family Species

1. Orchidaceae Orchid Family 25,000

2. Asteraceae or Compositae Daisy Family 20,000

3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae Pea Family 17,000

4. Poaceae or Gramineae Grass Family 9,000

5. Rubiaceae Madder Family 7,000

6. Euphorbiaceae Spurge Family 5,000

7. Malvaceae Mallow Family 4,300

8. Cyperaceae Sedge Family 4,000

9. Araceae Aroid Family 3,700

The angiosperms are extremely vital to support the existence of the living species as the majority
of the crops that are cultivated to satisfy the nutritious needs of the living are angiosperms.
Similarly, their other applications can be found in producing medicines, fibrous products, timber,
ornaments, and various other commercial products.

ANGIOSPERM ANATOMY AND MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

With reference to the definition and background of the angiosperms elaborated above, many
scientists explained them as the plants that exhibit several novel anatomical structures such
as pollens, stamens, and carpels of a flower. The sperm of the flowering plants are pollen grains
that are produced by stamens. The pollen grains contain the male gametes that may react with the
female gametes (ova) in the ovaries of the plants.

The pollen grains in the angiosperms are smaller in size than the pollen found in the gymnosperms,
hence the reduced size aids the process of fertilization by reaching the female eggs in less time. It
is often seen that some families of the angiosperms reproduce without being fertilized or in other
scenarios, by using their own pollen they can fertilize themselves. Hence, the stamens play a very
crucial role in the fertilization cycle of flowering plants.

The flowers after stamens and pollens are the next very important part of the anatomy of the
angiosperms and they are referred to as the structure where both male and female reproductive

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parts of the angiosperms can be found. The flowers are designed in such a way that they may
attract insects and other mammals for the cross-pollination process. It can be seen in various plants
that the flowers are colorful and have pleasant smells.

The ovaries, behind the flowers of the plants, are enclosed in the carpels. The ovaries in the
angiosperms can receive the pollen and can start the process of producing seeds, flowers, and fruits
more swiftly as compared to gymnosperms. If the whole process of the development of the plant
can be observed carefully, it can be concluded that the fruit is developed from the flower after
pollination and this is the prime responsibility of the carpels. The detailed anatomy of the flowering
plant’s angiosperms has been shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Parts of the Flower. Source: Modified by Maria Victoria Gonzaga, BiologyOnline.com,
from Pixy.org. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0.
TAXONOMY OF ANGIOSPERMS

The taxonomy of the angiosperms is the law that governs the classification of the plants and is the
center of the research by many botanists. The latest classification system, which is massively based
on the comparative data, extracted from the studies of DNA sequences, is known as
the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV (APG IV) botanical classification system. The
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV system was established by a group of botanists working from
various natives and research institutes and was based on the knowledge from various phylogenetic
studies. The angiosperms are placed as a group at the divisional level known
as Anthophyta (angiosperm phylum).

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EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF ANGIOSPERMS

The massive appearance, evolutionary history, and the diversification of the angiosperms can be
seen via undisputed fossil records in the middle to the late-era of the Mesozoic. Angiosperms are
referred to as the flowering plants (Angiospermae, or Magnoliophyta) that consist of both male
and female reproductive structures. The fossil evidence explored by the Paleontologists suggests
that the flowering plants initially appeared about 125 million years ago in the Lower Cretaceous,
and were diversified around 100 million years ago in the middle Cretaceous. The very early traces
to be found of the angiosperms are very scarce. The pollen fossils that have been recovered from
the geological material from the Jurassic have been ascribed to the angiosperms. The imprints of
the leaves that appeared on the fossil records of the cretaceous rocks are said to have a close
resemblance to the angiosperms.

There are several hypotheses that have been developed to understand the profusion of the flowering
plants but still, the paleontologists are busy justifying their rapid developments. The botanists
believe that although the angiosperms are derived from gymnosperms but still, they form their own
distinct species. The paleontologists are still debating that either the small woody bushes are the
origin of the angiosperms or they evolved from the tropical busy grasses.

The most initial living flowering plant is said to be Amborellatrichopoda, which is a very small
plant that was found in the rain forests of New Caledonia, which is a small island of the South
Pacific. The research confirmed that Amborellatrichopoda can be related to the existing species of
the flowering plant and is the oldest branch of the angiosperms. Basal angiosperms are also among
few other species of angiosperms but they branched off early from the phylogenetic trees. Most of
the modern angiosperms are either classified as monocots (single seed leaf) or eudicots (two seed
leaf) based on the structure of their leaves, embryos, and fruits. The phylogeny of the early
angiosperms has been shown in Figure 2 that indicates the unranked groups of angiosperms (Ref.
2).

FOSSIL RECORDS OF ANGIOSPERMS

The most ancient fossil records of angiosperms can be found nearly 132 million years ago. In the
early angiosperms, the structure, floral size, and the organization varied tremendously in the
dimensions of the flowers ranging from less than 1 cm to relatively larger sizes. However, some
of the early fossils found have no close extant relatives such as Archaefructs but the floral diversity
found in the fossil records of angiosperms is very consistent with the early radiation of
angiosperms and diversification of the floral forms (Ref. 3).

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Figure 2: The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. Credit: Haibao Tang et al. (2014). Early History of
Angiosperms. Advances in Botanical Research 69:195-222. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-417163-
3.00008-1
EVOLUTION OF ANGIOSPERM

Angiosperms Examples

There are many angiosperms examples that can be seen in daily life. From fruits to grains and
vegetables to flowers the impact and examples of flowering plants are massive for the existence
and survival of living organisms. The fruit trees are the most common examples of angiosperms.
There are various kinds of flowers that appear on the branches of fruit trees before they are
converted into fruits such as apples, oranges, and cherries. These trees are pollinated by various
insects and mammals. Once the process of attracting the pollinators is over, the carpel of the plant
starts swelling and thus ultimately gets converted into fruits, and perhaps it may change colors too.

Grasses and grains are another form of angiosperms. It is a common observation that grass crops
such as wheat and rice are unable to attract animals for pollination and hence, they rely widely on
the wind. The seeds of the grasses are very light and that can be easily spread by wind. Other
examples of flowering plants are vegetables and flowers. It can be assumed from the above
discussion that the angiosperms are very crucial in the existence of humans and the majority of the
crops are all angiosperms (Ref. 4).

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Figure 3: Examples of angiosperms: various trees, herbs, shrubs, and grasses. Source: Maria
Victoria Gonzaga, BiologyOnline.com
Characteristics of Angiosperm

The angiosperms, despite their diversity, are united by shared and derived features collectively
known as synapomorphies. Some of the vital angiosperms characteristics are that the ovules are
present in the carpels, which is a structure that is made up of ovary and the ovules are enclosed in
it and the process of pollination occurs here. Secondly, a cycle of double fertilization occurs which
leads to the formation of endosperm and there are three stamens that have a couple of pollen sacs.
Finally, the angiosperms have phloem tissues that are mainly composed of sieve tubes and
companion cells. Hence it can be concluded that the extent of angiosperms occurred from various
origins instead of one.

Distinctive features of Angiosperms:

 The reproductive organs in the flowers of these plants enable them to utilize a more species-
specific breeding system.
 They have stamens that bear pollen. This feature enables certain Angiosperms to prevent
self-fertilization while increasing the odds of fertilizing another flower of the same or of a
different plant. This helps increase genetic variability.
 They have smaller male and female gametophytes in comparison to those of other seed-
bearing plants, i.e. gymnosperms.
 They have a closed carpel enclosing the ovules. The carpel(s) and other accessory parts
may develop into a fruit, which is an important plant organ for seed dispersal.
 They form endosperm, which is a nutritive tissue for the developing embryo or for the
seedling.

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ANGIOSPERM FLOWERS AND POLLINATION

The process of pollination is very important in the process of angiosperms reproduction. Stamens
are the male sex organs in the angiosperms while the pollens are formed in the stamen of the plant.
The pollen produced in the stamen of the plant has to be transferred to the pistil that is the female
part of the plant. The process by which the pollen is successfully transferred from the male part of
the plant to the female part is known as pollination. Self-pollination and cross-pollination are the
two forms of pollination. The agents of pollination include wind, insects, invertebrates, and other
mammals.

THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF ANGIOSPERMS

While flowers are the reproductive organ, the non-sexually-reproductive body parts
are roots, stems, and leaves. The two main parts of the structure of the angiosperm are root systems
and shoot systems. The part of the plant present above the soil is called the shoot system whereas
the part of the plant that lies under the soil is the root system. The roots come under the domain of
root systems while the leaves and stems come in the shoot system of the plant (Ref. 6). The basic
structure of the plant is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Basic structure of Angiosperm. Source: Maria Victoria Gonzaga, BiologyOnline.com

Root systems

The vital responsibility of the root is to anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals from the soil,
and provide them to the tip of the plant. Root systems are classified into further two categories that
are primary root systems and tertiary root systems. The primary root systems are the most common
types of root systems that consist of a taproot that is the primary root of the plant. The taproot root
grows vertically downward and from its various smaller lateral roots are originated that either can

19
grow horizontally or diagonally. Thus, many secondary roots of relatively fewer dimensions are
produced from the taproots. The main difference between the primary and tertiary root systems is
that in the later system the primary root is a very short spanned root and the life of it is very small.
Therefore, it is replaced by the supplementary root systems. Currently, the primary and tertiary
roots are modified as per the need and nature of the plants. Carrots and beets are some of the
common examples of such systems. Meanwhile, the important and independent parts present in
both root and shoot systems have been marked in the figure.

STEM SYSTEMS

The main part of the plant that is the aerial axis in nature and bears the leaves and flowers is called
the stem. The stems conduct water and minerals from the roots and supply them directly to the
leaves, flowers, and plants. The stem of the plant is connected to the root systems for the
continuous flow of nutrients via a transition region known as hypocotyl. The area where the leaves
are attached to the stems are called nodes and internodes are the regions that lie in between two
successive nodes. Axillary and dichotomous are the two forms of branching in angiosperms
whereas the monopodial and sympodial are the two common modes of axillary branching. Many
different tree architectures have been evolved by the combination of monopodial and sympodial
branching in a single plant.

LEAVES

Leave is another vital part of the flowering plant. The leaf base, stipules, petiole, and blade also
referred to as lamina are the major parts that make the structure of the leaf. The paired stipules are
present on each turn of the leaf base while the blade and the leaf base are connected via petiole.
The process of photosynthesis occurs on the surface of the blade and thus it appears flattened and
green in most of the plants. It should be noted that many leaves lack petiole whereas there are
many in which stipules are missing. Hence, the basic construction of a leaf varies from one plant
to another depending on its functionality. Also, alternate, opposite, paired, and whorled are some
of the patterns of the leaf arrangement present on the stems in angiosperms.

REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE OF ANGIOSPERM

It has been well elaborated in the above discussion that the angiosperms are the seed-producing
plants and that generate female and male gametophytes that give them permission to carry out the
double fertilization process.

The main phase in the life cycle of angiosperm is the adult phase also referred to as the sporophyte.
However, angiosperms are heterosporous. Hence, the microspores are generated, which will
produce the pollen grains termed as gametophytes that are male ones. Secondly,
the megaspores will form the ovules where female gametophytes are present. It should be noted
here that in each pollen grain there are a couple of cells. Among the two cells, one is the generative
cell that will be divided into two sperms and the pollen tube will be originated from the second
cell.

20
The megasporangium that is present in the ovule is protected by the ovary wall. In
megasporangium, the process of meiosis occurs and three small and one large megaspores are
produced. However, among them, only the large megaspore survives and transforms into the
embryo sac and the eight-cell stage is formed after the megaspore gets divided thrice. From here,
the process of migration of cells starts, and four of the eight cells move towards the embryo sac
pole while a couple of them come to the equator thus forming a 2n polar nucleus. The anatomy of
a mature embryo sac has a single egg sac, a couple of helping cells known as synergids, three
antipodal cells, and a couple of nuclei in the center of the cell. A pollen tube is extended from the
cell, once the pollen grain arrives at stigma. Hence, in the embryo sac, the two sperm cells are
deposited (Ref. 7).

After the sperm cells are deposited on the embryo sac the process of double fertilization is started
and the future embryo is formed by the combination of an egg and single sperm. On the other side,
the endosperm is formed, after the fusion of the second sperm with the 2n polar nuclei.
The endosperm is the tissue where the food is reserved. Additionally, monocots and dicots are
developed from the zygote.

The two major groups of angiosperms, the monocots and the eudicots, are the basis of the
differences in the number of embryonic leaves. Similarly, seed leaves in the form of lipids,
proteins, and carbohydrates are stored on the surface of the embryo. The broken-down food
reserves are supplied to the developing embryo from storage sites via cotyledons.

The angiosperms are divided into three species that are hermaphroditic (pistils and stamens are on
the same flower), monoecious (stamens and pistils are on the different flower but over the same
plant), and finally dioecious (both stamens and pistils are found in different flowers in different
plants).

The complete life cycle with independent stages is shown in Figure 5.

21
Figure 5: The life cycle of an angiosperm. Source: Mariana Ruiz Villareal, CC BY-NC 3.0.
ANGIOSPERM REPRODUCTION – VIDEO

LIFE CYCLE OF ANGIOSPERM – VIDEO

Diversity of Angiosperms

The diversity of the angiosperms is classified into two major categories that
are monocots (monocotyledonous plants) and eudicots (dicotyledonous plants, or simply dicots)
based primarily on the number of cotyledons that can be found in them. Generally, the lilies and
grasses are found in monocots and polyphyletic groups are placed in the dicots. The details of both
monocots and dicots are briefed below.

Monocot: distinctive features

22
The plants that are present in the monocots are identified by the existence of the only cotyledon in
the seedlings. Monocots as a group were first identified by Ray in 1703. Moreover, this grouping
has been supported by various nonmolecular phylogenetic studies made in the late 19th century,
and thirteen other putative synapomorphies were identified. The veins running parallel to the
length of the leaves and the arrangement of the flower parts in three- or six-fold symmetry are
some of the other important anatomical features present in the monocots. It has been observed that
in monocots, the true woody tissues are rarely found. It has been explored that in the very first
angiosperms, the pollen grains were monosulcate, consisting of a single furrow throughout the
layer and this salient feature is still quite evident in all modern monocots. True lilies, grasses,
orchids, and palms are some of the most commonly seen plants that are present in the monocots
whereas rice, cereals, corns, sugar cane, bananas, and pineapples are some of the very important
and extensively utilized monocot crops.

DICOT: DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

Dicots also referred to as eudicots consist of a couple of cotyledons in the developing shoots. In
the leaves of dicots, a broad network is formed by the veins however the flower part can be seen
in four or five parts. In dicots, the ring is formed in the stem by the vascular tissues contrary to
monocots, where the vascular tissues in the stem are scattered. Moreover, dicots can be herbaceous
in nature or can produce woody tissues. A triporate or trisulcate pollen is formed by the majority
of the eudicots with three pores while nearly two-thirds of all the flowering plants are found in the
universe as dicots. Cabbage, beans, and peaches are some of the most common dicots that are
consumed by the living organisms to satisfy their energy demands.

For a comparison of the characteristics of monocots and eudicots, see this table below.

Table 2: Monocots vs. Eudicots

Monocots Eudicots

One cotyledon Two cotyledons

Leaf: parallel venation Leaf: network or reticulate venation

Scattered vascular bundles in the Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring pattern in the
stem stem; many dicot stems have secondary growth

Fibrous root system Taproot system

Monosulcate pollen Trisulcate pollen

Trimerous, meaning floral parts are Four, five, or multiples of four or five and whorls
three or of multiples of three

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 Examples: palms, grasses, orchids, Examples: beans, buttercups, oaks, and sunflowers.
and lilies.

AGE ESTIMATES OF ANGIOSPERMS

The estimation of relative ages of the angiosperms and the time frame when the important
divergences occurred in them based on the molecular data has been done via results obtained from
fossil fuels. However, the most recent efforts to estimate the origins of the flowering plants by
using the molecular data and improved dating methods have converged on the estimation of 180-
140 mya and the dates have been predicted over the range of 5 to 45 million years. In the study
conducted by Charles D Bell et al, the authors predicted the age of various angiosperms and the
divergence times by using 36 calibration times for 567 taxa. Based upon the methodology the
botanists followed, the angiosperms had an estimated age of 167-199 Ma. The researchers also
published that the relative ages of me angiospermae, gunneridae, rosidae and asteridae were 139-
156 Ma, 109-139 Ma, 108-121 Ma, and 101-119 Ma respectively [8].

ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF ANGIOSPERMS

Angiosperms provide an important source of food for both animals and other living organisms as
they are a vital component of the terrestrial environment in terms of biomass and number of
individuals. The carbon-containing compounds, especially carbohydrates, are used to synthesize
the cellular structures of plants and to fulfill their metabolic and nutritionist needs. Moreover, they
are the source of energy for many heterotopic organisms as well. The solar energy is stored in the
tissues of the plant after converting into chemical energy and then the energies are transferred into
herbivores as they consume plants and then for herbivores to carnivores and thus the food chains
go on. In many temperate forests, the feed of thousands of animals (birds, insects, and mammals)
is satisfied by a single angiosperm tree. Hence, angiosperms are very important to the ecological
web and food chain.

The impact of flowering plants in managing the food chain can never be denied. The vegetative
parts of the plants are consumed by a vast variety of insects and invertebrates. The flowers, fruits,
and seeds are a source of energy for many animals. Many pollinating insects such as bees need
pollen that can only be provided via angiosperms. Similarly, the living and reproduction cycle of
bats, birds, and mammals depend on the energy they get after consuming the fruits available on
the flowering plants. Moreover, small rodents and birds consume the seeds and they usually carry
the seeds and fruits of various flowers with them that indeed propagate the angiosperm. Another
useful advantage of angiosperms is that various secondary compounds such as oils, glycosides,
and alkaloids are produced through them. Hence, they protect many plants from foreign invasions
of herbivores by forming toxic secondary plant compounds.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ANGIOSPERMS

Another economical advantage of angiosperms is that they provide various pharmaceuticals. Apart
from some of the antibiotics that are manufactured vary in compositions, almost all of the

24
medicines are either derived and extracted directly from the angiosperms or if synthesized, their
major components are found in angiosperms. The list of medicines includes vitamins, aspirin,
narcotics, and quinine. There are certain angiosperms that are extremely toxic to livings have
proved to be very effective in the treatment of cancer, leukemia, and several heart problems.
Quinine is used to treat malaria, vincristine is used to treat leukemia, curare for muscle relaxant in
open-heart surgeries, and diosgenin is used as a precursor in oral contraceptives. The contribution
of angiosperm in maintaining our habitat is extremely vital. The variety of food resources and
oxygen supply in our habitat is strongly dependent on the versatility of angiosperms found. A
significant loss in the number of angiosperms will have a huge impact on the survival of our
habitat.

Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

The angiosperms and gymnosperms are both types of plants but they differ from each other in
many ways. The angiosperms are the flowering plants such as fruits, grains, and vegetables
whereas all kinds of pines, fir, cedar, juniper, cypress that indeed are all non-flowering plants come
in gymnosperms. The angiosperms accumulate to form flowered while cones are produced via
accumulation of gymnosperms whereas the angiosperms are mostly bisexual and occasionally
unisexual and the latter are generally unisexual and rarely bisexual. The structural differences
between both of them include the presence of sepals, petals, stigma, and styles in the flowering
plants. Moreover, in angiosperms the ovules are produced on the stalk and archegonia is absent
where in gymnosperms the ovules are sensible and the distinct archegonia are present. The major
difference again in both of them is the presence of the various numbers of cotyledons. Lastly, both
kinds of plants have their domestic uses. The angiosperms are the primary source of hardwoods
worldwide and are economically vital as the source of pharmaceuticals, timbers, ornaments, and
fiber production while the softwoods are supplied by gymnosperms such as pine fir and thus, they
are used to produce paper, lumber, and plywood.

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MORPHOLOGY SEED PLANTS

What is the Seed?

A seed is a basic part of any plant. The ovules after fertilization develop into seeds. A seed is made
up of a seed coat and an embryo. The embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis and one
(wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (gram and pea). A seed is found inside a fruit which converts into
a new plant when we plant it. Hence, the seed is the most important part.

Types of Seeds

A Seed is primarily of two types. The two types are:

 Monocotyledonous Seed

 Dicotyledonous Seed
Let us now study about these types of seeds in brief.

Structure of a Monocotyledonous Seed

A Monocotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has only one cotyledon. There is only one outer
layering of the seed coat. A seed has the following parts:

1. Seed Coat: In the seed of cereals such as maize, the seed coat is membranous and generally
fused with the fruit wall, called Hull.

2. Endosperm: The endosperm is bulky and stores food. Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are
endospermic but some as in orchids are non-endospermic.

3. Aleuron layer: The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a proteinous layer
called aleurone layer.

4. Embryo: The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm.

5. Scutellum: This is one large and shield-shaped cotyledon.

6. Embryonal axis: Plumule and radicle are the two ends.

7. Coleoptile and coleorhiza: The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths. They are
coleoptile and coleorhiza.

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Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed

Unlike monocotyledonous seed, a dicotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has two cotyledons. It
has the following parts:

1. Seed coat: This is the outermost covering of a seed. The seed coat has two layers, the
outer testa and the inner tegmen.

2. Hilum: The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the developing seed was attached
to the fruit.

3. Micropyle: It is a small pore present above the hilum.

4. Embryo: It consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.

5. Cotyledons: These are often fleshy and full of reserve food materials.

6. Radicle and plumule: They are present at the two ends of the embryonal axis.

7. Endosperm: In some seeds such as castor, the endosperm formed as a result

of double fertilisation, is a food storing tissue. In plants such as bean, gram and pea, the
endosperm is not present in the matured seed. They are known as non-endospermous.

27
MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF DIFFERENT SEED

1. Morphology of a Gram Seed (Cicer arietinum):

Gram seed is a dicot, non-endospermic seed. The seeds are produced within the pods or
leguminous fruits.

A gram seed appears conical-pyriform in outline

It has following parts:

(i) Seed Coat:
It consists of two layers-outer testa and inner tegmen. Testa is thick and brownish. The tegmen is
thin, membranous, and whitish and remains fused with testa. The pointed beak like end of the seed
has a minute pore called micropyle. If a soaked seed is gently pressed, a drop of water oozes out
of the micropyle. A small oval scar seen near the micropyle is called hilum through which the seed
was attached to fruit. Another oval scar present in the middle is called chalaza or strophiole. A
distinct ridge called raphe runs from hilum to chalaza.

28
(ii) Embryo:
It presents inner to seed coat. It consists of two circular yellowish cotyledons that are attached to
the embryo axis. The part of embryo axis above the point of attachment to the cotyledons is called
epicotyle. The tip of epicotyle is called plumule. Similarly, the region of the embryo axis below
the point of attachment of cotyledons is called the hypocotyle. The tip of hypocotyle is called
radicle. During germination, the radicle comes out first through the micropyle and grows to form
a tap root. The plumule gives rise to shoot system.

2. Morphology of Castor Seed (Ricinus communis):

Castor seed is a monocot, endospermic seed. The castor seeds are produced within a schizocarpic
fruit called the regma which on maturity breaks up into 3 cocci, each containing a single seed. A
castor seed is roughly oblong in outline with distinct convex (dorsal) and flat (ventral) surfaces. A
castor seed has following parts (Fig. 8.3)

(i) Testa:
It is the outer layer of seed coat. It is thick, hard and brittle. The external surface appears smooth,
shinning and mottled brown in colour.

29
(ii) Tegmen:
It is the inner layer of seed coat that appears dull and papery. Now it is called as perisperm or
persistent nucellus.

(iii) Caruncle:
It is a white spongy bilobed outgrowth present near the narrow end of the seed. If partially covers
the hilum (dark scar) and completely covers the micropyle (small pore). Caruncle absorbs water
which percolates through the micropyle into the seed.

(iv) Raphae:
It is a shallow ridge present on the testa of flat surface of the seed. The distinct bifurcation of
raphae represents chalaza.

(v) Endosperm:
It is a white oily food storage tissue that is present inner to the perisperm. From this layer castor
oil of commerce is extracted.

(vi) Embryo:
Embryo lies in the centre of endosperm. It consists of a radicle, a plumule and two lateral
cotyledons, all of which are present on a short embryo axis. The cotyledons are thin, semi-
transparent and oval in outline. They have palmate venation. The middle costa or rib is more
prominent and bears a few lateral veins.

Radicle lies outside the cotyledons towards the micropylar end. It is a knob-like outgrowth.
Plumule lies in between the two cotyledons and is quite indistinct. Epicotyl is also indistinct. In
between the place of origin of the two cotyledons and the radicle is present a short hypocotyl.
Castor-oil seed is dicotyledonous (having two cotyledons), endospermic (with a special food
storing tissue called endosperm) and perispermic (having perisperm or persistent nucellus).

3. Morphology of a maize seed (Zea mays):

Maize or Corn seed (Fig. 8.4) is actually a one seeded fruit called caryopsis or grain. It is a monocot
endospermic seed.

30
It consists of following parts:
(i) Seed coat:
It is fused with the fruit wall (pericarp). It encloses a kernal which includes embryo and endosperm.

(ii) Endosperm:
It constitutes 2/3 of the grain. Endosperm consists of outer aleurone layer and inner starchy
endosperm.

(iii) Embryo:
It lies on one side of the starchy endosperm and appears to be a lighter oval area in the whole seed.
Embryo consists of a scutellum and a short embryo axis (tigellum). The scutellum is a shield-
shaped cotyledon attached to a node of embryo axis. The surface of scutellum facing endosperm
is called epithelial layer. It is both secretory and absorptive in nature. The epithelial layer secretes
hormones into the endosperm for the synthesis of enzymes required for solubilisation of food. The
solubilised food is absorbed by it and then transferred to the embryo axis.

The embryo axis has plumule (upper end) and radicle (lower end). The plumule contains a few
rudimentary leaves and a conical protective sheath called coleoptile. The coleoptile has a termina
pore for the emergence of first leaf during germination. The sheath is capable of growth. It assists
the future shoot in passing through the soil during germination.

The radicle has two protective sheaths, inner root cap and outer coleorhiza. Roughly in the middle
of embryo axis arises a vascular strand. It ramifies into the scutellum. The place of origin of the
vascular strand from the embryo axis is called cotyledonary node.

31
FRUIT FORMATION AND TAXONOMY OF SOME RELATED PLANTS

DEFINITION OF A FRUIT

Derived from the Latin root word -- fructus -- fruit is an old French word that roughly means a
profit or income. In scientific terms, the fruit is the seed-bearing part of the plant formed after
fertilization. It is a matured fertilized ovary that acts as a vessel, which houses and protects seeds.
Although a fruit typically consists of a mature ovary, it can include other flower parts as well. The
two main functions of fruit are to prevent the seeds from drying and to disperse the seed.

However in some plants, fruits develop without fertilization such as banana and pineapple. These
fruits are referred to as parthenocarpic fruits and are often seedless

`````

Fig.1: Parts of a flower

FRUIT FORMATION

After the fertilization of flowering plants, the ovule develops into a seed. The surrounding ovary
wall enlarges and forms a fruit around the seeds. Many things happen between the time of
fertilization and the ripening of the fruit. The processes associated with fruit development are
dictated by plant hormones. It is divided into three stages;

32
Cell division: As seeds develop inside the ovary wall, they produce cytokinins that migrate from
the seed and promote cell division in the ovary wall. This results in added thickness to the fruit.

Cell Expansion: The seeds follow up by producing gibberellins which is exported to the wall of
the ovary and causes rapid expansion of each of the cells. The combination of more cells and
expanding cells leads to a tremendous increase in the size of the ovary. Meanwhile, the plant
produces abscisic acid, which causes the embryo in the developing seeds to become dormant. This
is significant because it prevents the seed from sprouting inside the moist, unripened fruit.

Subsequently, the developing ovules produce cytokinins that cause nutrients to be stored in the
endosperm tissues of the developing seed. In many species of angiosperms, these nutrients are
later translocated to the cotyledons.

As the ovary wall thickens, the developing seeds begin to produce either gibberellins or auxins,
depending on the species. These hormones cause cells to enlarge and the ovary wall to expand.
The combination of cytokinins increasing the number of cells and gibberellins increasing the size
of those cells leads to spectacular enlargement of the fruit.

At about this stage, the enlarged ovary can be called a fruit, and the ovules have become mature
seeds. The seeds have a dry seed coat (the former integument of the ovule) and contain a mature
embryo. Abscisic acid causes the seed embryos to remain dormant. The seed embryos are
prevented from growing until the seeds have been removed from the fruit or the abscisic acid in
the seed breaks down. Eventually, the fruit reaches full size. However, fruit at this stage tends to
be sour (acid), starchy, green, hard, and lack fruity odor. It needs to be ripened before consumption.

Ripening: This process could take a few days after picking depending on the environmental signal.
Most species must produce ethylene in order for the fruit to ripen. Ethylene diffuses throughout
the fruit tissue and into the atmosphere around the fruit. An increase in the rate of cellular
respiration in the fruit cells and synthesis of new enzymes usually accompanies the ripening
process. Warm temperatures also speed the process. The ethylene released by one ripening fruit
can cause neighboring fruits to also ripen. The manufactured enzymes break down complex cell
compounds. Acidic materials are broken down by an enzyme called kinase, so the fruit is no longer
sour. Amylase converts starches to sugars and, in the process, the fruit becomes juicier. Hydrolase
breaks down chlorophyll and large organic chemicals. With the chlorophyll gone, yellow pigments

33
become visible, and red pigments may develop. Pectinase depolymerizes pectin, which is the glue
that holds cells together. Without pectin, the fruit becomes soft.

Fig 2: Development of fruit: after fertilization, seeds develop from ovule and fruits develop
from ovary

34
Fig 3: The correspondence of flower and fruit

STRUCTURE OF A FRUIT: A fruit consists of two main parts: the seed(s) and the pericarp.
The structure and thickness of pericarp varies from fruit to fruit. The pericarp consists of three
layers:

Exocarp/Epicarp: This is the outermost layer of the pericarp that forms the skin.

Mesocarp: It is the thick, fleshy and juicy middle layer of the pericarp.

Endocarp: It is the innermost layer of the fruit which often develops into the pith.

Fig.4: Structure of a fruit

35
Fig.5: (a) Mango (b) Coconut
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

There is great diversity of fruits; three major divisions include simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and
multiple fruits

Fig. 6: The three major divisions of fruits

1. SIMPLE FRUITS: These are fruits that develop from a flower with a single ovary of a single
pistil. Simple fruits are often classified as being fleshy or dry usually according to the nature
of their pericarps

FLESHY FRUITS: Fleshy fruits are fruits whose whole pericarp or at least one of its layers
is soft and succulent (juicy). Berries, hesperidium, pepo, drupes, and pomes are categories of
fleshy fruits.

A berry has an entirely fleshy ovary. It has a soft fleshy endocarp fused with the mesocarp
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), blueberry (Vaccinium

36
corymbosum), banana (Musa accuminata), guava (Psidium guajava), pepper (Capsicum
annuum), and pawpaw (Carica papaya) are examples of berries.
A hesperidium is a modified berry with a tough, leathery rind (skin). Examples include orange
(Citrus sinensis), grapefruit (Citrus paradisi), lemons (Citrus limon), and lime (C.
aurantifolia).
A pepo is a type of fruit defined by a hard rind and a fleshy inner matrix. Watermelon (Citrullus
lanatus), pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus) are pepo
A drupe is a fruit with a fleshy exterior and a single hard, stony pit surrounding the seed.
Mango (Mangifera indica) and coconut (Cocos nucifera) are examples of plants with drupes.
A pome is a simple false fruit in which the skin and fleshy edible parthas a fleshy exterior and
a center with papery carpels. Apples (Malus domestica) and pear (Pyrus amygdaliformis) are
pomes

DRY FRUITS: Dry fruits may be indehiscent or dehiscent.

Indehiscent fruits are those that do not split open at maturity and usually falls to the ground
where the pericarp eventually decays to release the seeds. Some types of indehiscent fruits are
achene, caryopsis, samara, nut, Cypsela, nutlet
An achene is one-sided fruit with a seed attached at only one place to the pericarp. Sunflower
fruit and strawberry have achene type fruit.
A caryopsis is a small simple fruit developing from a single pistil consisting of a single ovary.
However, the pericarp and the seed coat are fused to form a covering of the entire seed. Corn
(Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), rye (Secale cereal), millet
(Pennisetum glaucum), guinea corn (Sorghum vulgare), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), oat
(Avena sativa), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) have caryopsis fruit.
A samara is a simple true fruit in which the pericarp is extended to form one or more wing-
like structures and usually contains one or more seeds. Examples is combretum
A nut is a simple true fruit with a hard woody pericarp. It develops from a superior polycarpous
ovary with only one seed chamber. e.g Cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale), Oak(Quercus
robur), walnut (Juglans regia).
Cypsela is a small simple true fruit that develops from a monocarpous ovary and contains one
seed.eg Tridax fruit

Dehiscent fruits are fruits that split open upon maturation. Dehiscent fruit types are legume,
follicle, and capsule,

37
 A legume (pod) is composed of a single carpel and has two longitudinal sutures. Soybeans
(Glycine max), green beans (Phaseolus vulgare), peas (Pisium sativum), pride of Barbados
(Caesalpina pulcherrima), flamboyant (Delonix regia) are legumes.
A follicle is composed of a single carpel and splits open along one suture.E.g Silk cotton (Ceiba
pentandra), kola fruit (Cola nitida) and milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)
A capsule is composed of more than one carpel that is united and form many-seeded fruits.
The fruit of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), and Castor oil
(Rcinus communis) are capsules.

Fig. 7: Dry and fleshy fruits

2. AGGREGATE FRUITS

38
 Aggregate fruits develop from a single flower that has many pistils. Multiple, usually fleshy,
fruitlets are attached to one receptacle. Raspberries (Rubus idaeus) are an aggregate of drupes.
Strawberries ( Fragraria ananassa) are an aggregate of achenes

3. MULTIPLE FRUITS
Multiple fruits consist of a number of flowers that fused to form a mass. Pineapples (Ananas
comosus) are considered a multiple fruit

Fig. 8: Showing different multiple fruits

REFERENCES

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(6) Fruit Growth and Fruit Types. http://plantphys.info/Plants_human/fruittype.htm (2020)
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