Tunnel Engineering

Introduction
Out of three different modes of transportation, land ways are most
commonly used in the form of roadways, railways, canal ways, river
ways etc. as the most of the activities of human populations occurs on
land. While using all the above forms of land ways, it is very common
that various types of obstacles such as hills, flowing or still water and
water logged areas occur along the alignment. In generals, obstacles
are to land ways particularly hills can be passed safely by either open
cut or tunnels.
•Tunnel: It is an artificial underground passage to bypass obstacle
safely for carrying freights, passengers, sewage and water without
disturbing the overburden i.e land above it.
•Open Cut: It is open to sky passage excavated through huge soil mass
of obstacle, like hill in required direction to connect two roads or
railways. 2
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Tunnels
• Advantages:
 The tunneling procedure is more economical in nature, compared to
open cut trench method when the depth is beyond a limit
 The surface life or ground activities like transportation are not
disturbed when tunneling is undergone.
 The method ensures high-speed construction with low power
consumption
 Reduces Noise Pollution
 These methods have freedom from snow and iceberg hazards, in
areas of high altitudes
 Surface and air interference is restricted for tunnels
 Provision of tunnels with easy gradients, help in reducing the cost of
hauling
 The dangerous open cut to a nearby structure, when it is needed, 3 is
solved by the tunneling method
• Disadvantages:
 The initial investment cost for commencing the tunnel is high
compared to the open cut method.
 Highly skilled and experienced designers and engineer team
only will work best for this operation.
 Higher and constant supervision from the start to the end of
the tunneling project is necessary without any compromise
 Highly sophisticated and specialized equipment are necessary
to perform the tunneling operations.

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 Tunnel Alignment and Gradient
• A precise and detailed survey is necessary before setting the alignment of a
tunnel on the ground. A small error in setting the alignment would result in
the two ends never meeting at all. When starting work, both the ends of the
tunnel as well as the centre line are marked with precision on the ground so
that the correct length of the tunnel can be determined. An accurate survey is
then carried out to ensure that the centre line of the alignment and the levels
are transferred properly to their underground positions.
• The following points require special attention when deciding the alignment
and gradient of a tunnel.
• (a) The alignment should be straight as far as possible since normally such a
route would be the shortest and most economical.
• (b) The minimum possible gradient should be provided for a tunnel and its
approaches.
• (c) Proper ventilation and adequate lighting should be provided inside the
tunnel.
• (d) The side drains in a tunnel should be given a minimum gradient of 1 in
500 for effective drainage. In longer tunnels, the gradient should be provided
from the centre towards the ends for effective and efficient drainage. 5
 Classification of tunnels
The tunnels are classified into,
i. According to alignment
ii. According to purpose
iii. According to the type of material met with at the time of
construction
iv. According to the shape of tunnels
Types of tunnel according to alignment
• Offspur Tunnel
Short length tunnels to negotiate minor local obstacles, which cannot
be followed with permitted curves.
• Saddle or base tunnel
These are constructed in the valleys along the natural slope. They are
mainly constructed for the transportation purposes. Railway tracks
and roads can be constructed through these saddle tunnels.
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 Offspur
Tunnel

Saddle or base
tunnel

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• Slope tunnel
The tunnels that are constructed in steep hills. These type of
tunnel are also used for transportation purposes.

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• Spiral tunnels
The tunnels that are provided in narrow valleys in the form of loops
in the interior of the mountain.

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE
Conveyance tunnels: These types of tunnel include the sewer
tunnels, water supply tunnels, hydro-electric power tunnels etc.

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• Traffic tunnels
They include highway tunnels, railway tunnels, pedestrian tunnels,
navigation tunnels and subway tunnels.

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• Types of Tunnel according to types of Material Met
within the Construction
 Tunnels in hard rock.
 Tunnels in soft materials.
 Tunnels underneath river bed or in water-bearing soils.

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CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE SHAPE
D-Shape tunnels:
Where the risk of failure or collapse caused by external pressure from

water or loose unstable soil conditions on tunnel lining is non-existent

These types of tunnel roof also called segmented roof takes up all the

load and distributes it to the straight walls

Suitable for subways

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Circular Shape tunnels:
This shape of tunnels is strong in offering resistance to external

pressure caused by water, water-bearing soils or soft grounds

Not suitable for rails and roadways as more filling will be required to

provide a flat base

For tunnels which may have to withstand heavy internal or external

radial pressures
•Used as a sewage pipeline, to transport oil etc

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Horseshoe-shaped types of tunnel
 Having a semi-circular rood with arch sides
 Commonly used in railways and roadways

 Can withstand the internal and external pressure

 Combines the advantages of D shaped and circular tunnels

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Rectangular shaped tunnel
 Rectangular types of tunnels are suitable for hard rocks
 Suitable for pedestrian passage

 costly

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Egg shaped tunnel
 Egg-shaped types of tunnels are best suited for sewage line as it is
having a self cleaning velocity in dry weather
 Egg shaped tunnel can resist both internal and external pressure

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 Methods of Construction of Tunnels
• Cut and cover method
• Bored tunnel method
• Shaft method
• Pipe jacking method
• Box jacking method

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 Cut and cover method
• Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is
generally used to build shallow tunnels. In this method,
a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by slab which
can be capable of bearing load on it.
• The cutting is done by constructing the side support
walls either by slurry walling method or contiguous
bored piling.
• Then roof is placed on the top of the walls and
excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is
constructed. Most of the Underground metro rail
stations are constructed using cut and cover method.
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View of Metro Tunnel Slurry wall Construction

Contiguous
Bored piling

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 Bored tunnel method
• Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this
case, tunnel boring machines are used which
automatically work and makes the entire tunneling
process easier. It is very quick process.
• Tunnels boring machines (TBM’s) are available in
different types suitable for different ground conditions.
• Care should be taken while TBM is in working
conditions. The only difficulty with this TBM is its
heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and
costlier.

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TBMs

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TBM

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 Shaft method of tunnel construction
• In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth
from the ground surface. The shaft is built up to the
depth where tunnel is required.
• Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with
concrete walls. At required depth, tunnels are
excavated using TBM’s. Shafts are provided at both
inlet and outlet of tunnels.
• Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too
long. After the construction process, these shafts can
also be used for ventilation purpose as well as
emergency exits.
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Shaft Method of Tunnel

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Pipe Jacking Methods
Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under
existing structures like road ways, railways etc. In this
method, specially made pipes are driven into underground
using hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter
diameter is allowed for tunnels.

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 Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
• Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in
this case instead of pipes, specially made boxes are
driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the
front side of the box. Excavated matter is collected
within the box.

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 Tunnel Surveying
Tunnel surveying is a type of underground surveying for the
construction of tunnels. The basic procedure of tunnel surveying is to
align the center line in the ground and transfer that to the tunnel.
• Method and Procedure of Tunnel Surveying

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i. Theodolite is used for angular measurements in the form of
bearings and laser pole unit is used to determine a thin visible
vertical plane upto large height.
ii. Length of the traverse stations are depends on the visibility and
availability of leniar measurements instruments.
• Transfer of center line from surface to underground
i. For transfer of centre line from surface to underground shafts are
to be constructed at regular interval of about 500m along the
traverse lines.
ii. Place a horizontal bar on the top of the shaft and mark ‘X’ and ‘Y’
points on the bar and find the RLs of X and Y. Plumb bobs are to
be suspended along X and Y and should touch invert level of the
tunnel. Length of the plumb bob should be RL of the bottom of the
tunnel. These will be remain suspended until the construction of
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tunnel and checked the the direction while boring.
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 Tunnel Lining
• Necessity of tunnel lining: The term lining is used to indicate the
finishing touch given to the cross section of tunnel. If the tunnel is
passing through hard stratum, it may be left unlined. But when it is
desired to protect permanently to material surrounding the tunnel,
lining will be necessary. Lining may be temporary or permanent. The
temporary lining is provided for supporting the roof and walls of a
tunnel during the construction and permanent lining is provided
after completion of construction.
• Objects of lining:
 It gives the correct section to the tunnel
 It withstands soil pressure when driven in soft soils
 It reduces losses by friction and erosive action and ensures
stream line motion when the tunnel has to carry water by
providing a smooth passage at good velocity.
 It keeps the internal tunnel free from water percolation 31
 It supports large slabs of rock which might have become loosened
during blasting
 It gives strength to the weak sections in the tunnel
 It reduces maintenance cost of tunnel. If lining is not done, loose
pieces may fall from time to time and make the tunnel unsafe for
traffic
 It gives the tunnel an appearance of neatness and cleanliness
Materials for lining:
Strength and durability are the main considerations for selecting the
type of material to be used for lining the tunnel.
• Brick masonry: It was the standard material for tunnel lining, but is
now rapidly going out of use, except in the case of underground sewers,
as bricks are more acid resisting and suitable 'to carry sewage.
Disadvantage in using brick lining is the difficulty in back packing the
space between the tunnel roof and the upper curve of the arch which at
best has to be hand packed and is imperfect. At a later stage this32 may
cause uneven pressures on the arch lining.
• Stone masonry: It has more or less the same advantages and disadvantages
as brick lining and in addition it is difficult to line at the center. But, it is good
material for lining the sides.
• Cement Concrete: It has become the standard material for tunnel lining in
both rock and soft soils. Its main advantage lies in its plasticity which allows it
to be well packed. The waterproof qualities of cement concrete, makes for a
first class watertight lining. If the soil pressures are more, reinforced cement
concrete lining can also be preferred.
• Timber: It is one of the oldest lining materials, but in the recent time it is
being replaced by concrete. It is mainly used for temporary support during
construction. The advantage of timber lining is it can be easily and rapidly
constructed and the disadvantage is it is liable to decay.
Note: The empirical formula commonly applied to find the thickness of lining T
= 82 D
• Where, T = Thickness of lining in ‘mm’ D = Diameter of tunnel in ‘m’
• But the thickness is restricted to minimum of 230mm, irrespective of the
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materials used for lining.
 Drainage of Tunnels
In tunnel water comes from two sources
 Wash water, used for washing drill holes and cuttings inside the tunnel
during construction
 Ground water, from the ground through which the tunnel is driven.
Drainage arrangements in tunnels
The drainage arrangements for keeping off and removing of water maybe
classified broadly in the following three systems:
 Pre-drainage or preventing the entry of excess water from entering the
tunnel before starting the construction work. This is done by covering the
heavy blanket clay on the surface of the tunnel which will not allow the
water to seep.
 Dewatering of the tunnel i.e. removing the water that has entered the
tunnel during the construction of tunnel. This is done by constructing the
sumps at regular intervals and pump out the water.
 Permanent drainage: Keeping water off the tunnel after its completion. This
done by constructing the ditches longitudinally along both sides of the
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tunnel.
 Tunnel Ventilation
• The ventilation means supply of air, light and keeping the level of
noise bearable to human beings. The tunnel construction works are
mainly carried out by drill and blast method, which have many safety
and health issues due to the emission of dust and many poisonous
gasses. Hence it is essential to provide ventilation systems in the tunnel.

The main objectives of providing ventilation systems in tunnel are:

 To provide the working crew an environment of fresh air.
 To exhaust out fumes and gasses, that is injurious to health and
explosive in nature.
 To remove the gases emitted during drilling and blasting operations.
• Ventilation during construction and after completion of tunnel
construction is an essential feature that a tunnel should own to
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facilitate functional, comfortable and a safe environment.
• Types of Ventilation Systems in Tunnel Construction
• Longitudinal Ventilation Airflow Systems in Tunnels
• In this type of ventilation, the direction of airflow is longitudinal in
nature. At the beginning of the tunnel, fresh air is pumped into the
tunnel and it will push the pollutant air and same will be discharged at
the end of the tunnel.
• The configuration of longitudinal ventilation can be either portal to
portal, shaft to shaft or from portal to shaft. For transit and railway
tunnel, the longitudinal airflow system is used.

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• Transverse Airflow Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
The ventilation provided can be either Natural or Mechanical
ventilation.
• Natural Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
• When the length of the tunnel is short, there is a provision for
movement of air from one portal to other portal and it forms fair
ventilation during the operations. In the case of long tunnels, such
natural ventilation will be inadequate and we must design separate
mechanical ventilation system.

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• The natural ventilation can be configured from portal to portal, shaft
to shaft or from portal to shaft. As shown in figure the roadway has an
air velocity that is uniform. The temperature and the pollutant level
increases at the exit portal or the section end.
• If the meteorological conditions of the tunnel go adverse, the
velocity, the temperature, and the pollutant level get increased. The
pressure differential between the two tunnel portals, that is formed by
the differences in the elevation and the ambient temperatures of wind
are the chief meteorological conditions.
• A sudden change in wind direction or the wind velocity will affect the
natural effects along with the vehicle generated piston effect.

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Mechanical Ventilation System in Tunnels
• Mechanical ventilation system employs mechanical devices like
electric fans, exhaust, and blowers, which serves the function of
removing the exhaust gasses within the tunnel and help in blowing fresh
air into the tunnel. This system is classified as
1. Blowing
2. Exhausting
3. Combination of blowing and exhausting
• Blowing Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
Fresh clean air is blown to the working face, with the help of pipes.
When it flows back to the portal, it takes the dust and gasses with it.
This system of ventilation helps providing fresh air at the working place.
But, these systems have a disadvantage of fogging the atmosphere
inside the tunnel when the smoke, dust and foul air move out.

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• Exhausting Ventilation Systems in Tunnel
• The system incorporates an exhausting duct and foul air near the
working place. By this way fresh air is maintained within the tunnel.
Quick removal of dust and smoke is one advantage of the exhausting
system.
• The combination of Blowing and Exhausting
• This system is developed such that the exhausting system will
operate first to remove the harmful air and foul gases and after 5 to
10min time blowing system works to supply the fresh air.

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