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 2

Inorganic chemistry
There are more (100) elements in periodic table , the behavior of elements it
gases-liquids and solids.

There are different types of bonds:

1)ionic bond

2) covalent bond.

3) coordination bond.

4) H-bond

5) π-bond

6) vanderwales bond

-There are different of oxidation state like Na+1,Ca+2,Al+3…

-There are different of coordination number it 4-8 coordinate.

-There are other properties like atomic number and atomic radius and ionization
potential , electronegativity as well as melting point and boiling point.

The element in the periodic table:-

All these element's different to (4) types:-

1) Nobel gases: - in this element we have full outer orbitals with electrons
(ns2np6).
2) The represent active element's:-
It divide to:
a) Pretransition element's (S-block element`s)
b) Post transition element's (P-block element`s)
3) a) The transition element`s (d-orbital)
The electronic configuration of this type of element`s have unfilled (d)
orbital of electron's , have from (1-9) electrons.
 3

b) The Inner transition element's:-

- These element`s called Lanthanids and actaind's
- There are (14) element`s from Lanthanid's and (14) element's from
Actaind's.
- This element's which have outer orbital S,d,F.
- This elements have unfilled (F) orbital.
- All the elements of the periodic table have two catagores:-
1) Metallic element's.
2) Non metallic element's.
3) seme metallic element's.
- The relationship between the electronic configuration and the ionic
characters:-

1) Atomic or Ionic radius:-

- In the raw on increasing the atomic number the ionic radius decreases.
- In group the atomic radius increase on increasing the atomic number.
- The atomic radius decrease on the increasing of oxidation state.

The ionic radius decrease in the atom which is similar in the outer orbital
configuration for example:-

Al+3 < Mg+2 < Na+1 < Ne < F-1

13-3=10 12-2=10 11-1=10 10 9+1=10

2) Ionic potential:-
The power of potential which is needed to have an electron from it's outer
orbital .
1) In the raw of the ionic potential increase as the atomic number increase.
2) In the group the ionic potential decreases as the atomic number increase.
3) The ionic potential increase as the oxidation number increase.
 4

3 )Electronegativity :-
1) In the raw it increase as the atomic number increase.
2) In the group it decreases as the atomic number increase.
3) It increase as the oxidation state or oxidation number for the atomic increase.
4) It increases as the atomic number for the similar ion increase.

4) Color:-
- If any substance absorb apart of the visible light a color which appear .

- These electron's can’t absorb light only if the light has a power of (1.75-3 e.v)

1 e.v = 9.608 KJ/mole

The causes of colors:-

1) Transition element's (d) .

The (d) orbital of transition elements , the electron's absorb power of the
light and to be exited to higher level's when it goes down to it lose the
remaining energy as color .

2) The Inner transition electron's:-

Lanthanid's and Actaide's also colored because the electron's in (4F) orbital.
the color didn’t change more because the orbital is big.
3) All the ion's and the compounds:-
Which have low electron's like (No2, ClO2, and O2) and a large number of
organic compound.
4) [FeII,FeIII,(CN)6]
The inorganic compounds which have more than one ion with different
oxidation state.
5) There are a colored in organic compound's which we can't put arule oracause
for its color. Example (Br2,I2,HgI2,SeCl4,ICl,SnI3,Ce(H2O) all this
compound have the same.
 5

The Lewis Composition Theory:

This theory explain:

Acid: materials which accepts au electron pair .

Base : substance which donate au electron pair.

Ex.

H+ + :NH3 [H :NH3]+
Lewis acid lewis base

Two electrons on nitrogen can be donated to pr.

Ex:

H2O + HCl [H2O HCl] H3O+ + Cl

Lewis acid lewis base

Ex:

Coordination bond

:NH3 + BF3 [H3N: BF3]

Lewis acid lewis base adduct

All the acids or bases which contain or not contain protons and all the
coordination compounds , the ligand have electron pairs (is bases) and the metal
accept the electron pairs(and be acid).

Classification of lewis acids:

1. Molecules containing a central atom with an incomplete octet
Ex:
Lewis acid + lewis base adducts
 6

F3B + O(C2H5)2 [F3B O(C2H5)2]

Cl3Al + NC5H5 Cl3Al NC5H5
Me3B + N2H4 Me3B N2H4

2- molecules containing a central atom with vacant d- orbital.

The central atoms of halids such as: SiX4,TiCl4,SnX4 have vacant d-orbital,
these substance accept an electron pair from the Lewis base to accommodate it
their vacant d-orbital and thus from adducts.

3- Simple cations ex: H+,Ag+,Cu+2,Al+3 theoretically all simple cations are Lewis
acid .

Ex:

Ag+ + 2(NH3) [H3N Ag NH3]+

H2O O2H
Co+2 + 6(:OH2) Co
H2O O2H

+
H H
Li+ + O Li O
CH3 CH3
 7

Lewis acid strength increase with:

a) Increasing positive charge of cation

Ex: Fe+2 < Fe+3
b) An increase in the nuclear charge for atoms.
c) A decrease in ionic radius
d) A decrease in the number of shielding electron shells.

The acid strength of simple cations increase for the elements moving from
left to right in a periods from bottom to top in a group of periodic table.

Thus :

Fe+2 < Fe+3 (positive charge increase)

K+ < Na+ < Li+ (or moving from bottom to top in a group)

Li+ < Be+2 < B+3 (on moving from left to right in a raw)

Strength of Lewis acid increase

4- Element with an electron sextant and contain six electrons in their valence
shell the regared as Lewis acids.

SO3-2 + :O [O SO3]-2 SO4-2

SO3-2 + :S [S SO3]-2 S2O3-2

5- Molecules having multiple bond between of dissimilar electronegativity.

Ex: CO2,SO2,SO3

+ς -ς
 8

Classification of Lewis Bases

1- Anions like :

OH-,CN-,F-,Cl-

2- Nutral molecules have electron pair

Ex: H2O , ROH , ROR (oxygen donor compound )
NH3 ,pyridine ,amines ( nitrogen donor compound)
3- Organic molecule which contain double bond

Ex:

Ethylene , benzene , acetylene

C C , , H C C H

Nots :
The basicity of Lewis base increase as the number of lone pair of electron
decrease .

:Ne: < HF: < H2O < :NH3

Most basic

-C=C- < C=C Most basic

- each double bond give one pair of electrons,

Ethylene is most basic than acetylene

 9

As we learn there is no pure properties of donor electrons but the medium is

very effective

Ex: the reaction of H+ , Ag+ (acids) with OH-,NH3

H+ + OH- H2O (stable)

H+ + NH3 NH4+

Ag+ + 2NH3 [Ag(NH3)2]+

Ag+ + OH- AgOH

* In presence of H+

CH3COO- > Cl- > Br- > I-

* In presence of Hg+2

CH3COO- < Cl- < Br- < I-

* The strength of protonic acids

The relative between the molecular structure and the acidity

A) The binary acids [HX(X= F,Cl,Br,I)]

HX H+ + X-

The ionization of HX depend on the bond strength between H and

X, H-X

- As the bond strong the H+ losing will be difficult

HF , HCl < HBr < HI

PKa Kcal (H-X)

-10 70.4 H-I
-9.5 86 H-Br
-7 100 H-Cl
3.2 135 H-F
 10

B- The oxo acids:

Ex: H3PO4 ,HNO3 ,H2SO4 ,HClO4

Om-n X(OH)n

m= the number of O atoms

n= The number of OH

m= The number of unhydroxyl oxygen

Ex: HClO4

O3Cl(OH)

H3PO3

OP(OH)2H

*As the central atom charge increase (by increase the number of unhydroxyl
oxygen) the acidity increase .

-the OH bonded to the X and did not affect to the charge of X.

X______ OH

But the oxygen in the hydroxyl species electrons from X and X will more positive
charge

O O

Cl N

OH O HO O
O

HClO4 HNO3
 11

PKa Kcal (m-n)

8.5 +1 10-8-10-9 zero
2.5 +0.9 10-2-10-4 1

Zero>> strong acid 2 or more

PKa Kcal (m-n)

7.5 Cl(OH),HClO zero
9.2 B(OH)3,H3BO3 zero
2.11 OP(OH)3,H3PO4 1
1.90 OS(OH)2,H2SO3
1.94 OCl(OH),HClO2
1.80 OPH(OH)2,H3PO3
-2.7 O2N(OH),HNO3 2 or more
-3.0 O2S(OH)2,H2SO4
-10 O3Cl(OH),HClO4

Hard and soft acid –base

Hard base is the base which contain electron donor atom which processes
high electronegativity and polarizability and resist oxidation like N,O,F .

Soft bases is a base which contain electron donor atom which processes low
electronegativity and high polarizability and rediaty oxidized like P,S,I

Hard acid : class (a)

The group (I),(II) ions and first transition metals

Soft acid : class (b):

The second transition metal and third transition metal ions.

* As a conciation

The molecular structure will affect to the acid strength directly.

Ex: HClO,HNO2,HClO4
 12

Lewis bases Lewis acid

Hard (class) F-,Cl-,H2O,ROH Li+,Na+,Rb+

OH-,CO3-2,NO3- Mg+2,Ca+2

PO4-3,SO4-2,ClO4- Mn+2,Al+3,Fe+3

NH3 Co+3,Zn+2,Cr+3

Soft (class b) I-,H-,CN-,CO Hg+2,Pd+2,Cd+2

RSH ,SCN-,R3P Cu+2,Ag+1,Pt+3,Pd+2

Intermediate Br-,N3-,SCN-,(N-bonded) Pb+2,Fe+2,Ni+2

NO2-,SO3-2 Cu+2

*Hard acid prefer Hard base

* Soft acid prefer soft base

Give the example of the soft base

Give the example of the soft acid

Solvents
The solvent in general:-
1) Help to make the reaction more rapid.
2) Change the direction of any reaction by changing the solvent.
3) Make the collection of the molecules more available at reduced temperature.

AgNO3 + BaCl2 AgCl↓ + Ba(NO3)2

We can conclude the properties of all the solvents and following:-

 13

1) The melting and boiling point of the solvents:-

If any unstable products of reaction can use a solvent with low
melting point like NH3 instead of water.

Example: - if the product boil in 100Co it’s very difficult to isolate it from
water by simple distillation but we can isolate it from H2SO4 solvent.

The physical properties of three important solvents in organic chemistry

shown in the table below:-

H2O H2SO4 NH3

Boiling point 100Co 300Co 34.4Co
Density 1 1.83 0.68
Dielectric constant 81.7 110 22.7

2) Dielectric constant :-

∑ r2

e1, e2=charge
r=distance
∑= dielectric constant
F= the force between tow charged bodies:-

1
Fα
∑

If the solvent have high dielectric constant the attraction force

decrease between the charged bodies and its solubility will be too high in
that solvent.
 14

-So in low dielectric constant solvents there is more probability to form the
ion pair and nonionic electrolytic molecules therefore decrease the solubility
of salts (high charged ions be more insoluble)

Example/ ∑ of H2O =80 more ionic solvent

∑ of NH3 =22 Less ionic solvent

-The solubility of halides in NH3 is:-

I > Br- > Cl- >F-

-The solubility of halides in H2O is:-

F- > Cl- > Br- > I-

3) The acidic and basic properties of the solvent:-

We can divide the acid, base solvents into:-

A) Protonic or protolytic solvents

HA + SH SH2 + A

B + SH BH + S

The proton (H+) transfer from the acid (HA) to the solvent molecule (SH) to
the base (B).

These reactions depended to the acidity or basicity properties of the solvent

and these solvents.
 15

Protonic – solvents divided into:-

1) Acidic or protogenic solvents:-
Example/ H2SO4 , CH3COOH (Solvent's that donate proton)
2) Basic or protophylic solvents

Example / NH3 , pyridine

(Solvent's that accept proton)

3) Amphiprotic solvents
Example / H2O, ROH
(Solvent's that donate and accept protons)

- According to the leveling effect the protonic solvents determine the acidity
and basicity of the dissolved substance.

Example / - In the aqueous solution the H3O+ is stronger acid and the OH- is the
stronger base.

Example / - In NH3 solvent the NH4 Is the stronger acid and the NH2 is the
stronger base.

Example / - The CF3COOH , HClO4 in (1)H2O(2)H2SO4 The CF3COOH and

HClO4 in H2O (solvent) , have a strong acid properties but in H2SO4 (solvent) the
CF3COOH will lose its acidic properties and HClO4 be weak acid.

B) Inart solvent or unactive solvents:-

It’s divided into:-

1) Non polar solvent:-

Like hydrocarbon solvents

Example/ benzene, toluene, hexane, heptane

They have low dielectric constant (less 10)

 16

2) Polar solvent:-
Like DMSO, DMF, CH3CN They has dielectric constant (20-40)

The polar solvents divided into:-

1) Photophobic solvents:-
Like acetonitryl , aceton , nitromethan , methylethylketon.
2) Protophylic solvents:-
Like DMSO, DMF.
 17

Group Five (v) elements

Element symbol electronic structure

Nitrogen N(7) [He]2 2S2 2P3

Phosphorus P(15) [Ne]10 3S2 3P3

Arsenic As(33) [Ar]18 3d10 4S2 4P3

Antimony Sb(51) [Kr]36 4d10 5S2 5P3

Bismuth Bi(83) [Xe]54 4f145d10 6S2 6P3

In tis lecture, we present the chemistry of nitrogen and its component

because nitrogen is a clear difference between it and the rest of the elements

The atomic number of nitrogen = 7

7
N = 1S2 2S2 2P3

Nitrogen have five electrons in the outer shell . The nitrogen can full the outer
shell from different way:

1) Accept three electrons and from nitride ion N3- , This is find in alkali
metals and alkaline earth metals nitrides.
2) From single covalent bond like NH3 or multiple bonds like -N=N, -
C=N,NO2
3) Forming covalent bonds with accept electron like NH2-.
4) Forming covalent bonds with donor electron like NH4+.

Nitrogen properties
- Nitrogen comprises 78% of the earth's atmosphere.
- Has many isotops N14, N15.
- Nitrogen is inert gas because involves strong triply bonds N=N , 1σ and 2 π
which in this case is very stable (non active).
 18

- Nitrogen is important as an essential constituent of proteins, amino acids and

nucleic acid and is also used in fertilizer and explosives.

Nitrogen compounds:
1) nitrides
These compounds consist of nitrogen and another element where nitrogen is
more electronegativity. and divided in to :

A) Ionic nitrides :

Like lithium nitride (Li3N) . it prepare from reaction te nitrogen directly with
group (I) and (II) elements. These compounds contain N3- ion and analysis in water
forming ammonia and hydroxide.

Li3N + 3H2O 3LiOH + NH3

B) Covalent nitrides

The group (III) elements form covalent nitrides like BN and AIN these
compounds has high metaling point .

C) Transition element nitrides

This kind of nitrides are sold non active and its has high melting point like
VN where has melting point 2570 °C.

Compounds of nitrogen wit hydrogen:

1) Ammonia NH3

It is the most important nitrogen compounds it is gas and has melting point
33.5°C.
 19

Ammonia is prepared in the laboratory by heating an ammonium salt with

sodium hydroxide.

NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + NH3 + H2O

Commercially ammonia is prepared by Harber bosch process, in which

nitrogen and hydrogen combine directly at (400-500 °C) and 300 atmosphere.

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

This method is very important in ammonia preparation

The ammonia structure

H
N H H

H H N
H Resonance

In the solid state te motion stop because the hydrogen bonding between the
electron pair and neigh boring hydrogen.

* Ammonia is important polar solvent bot water and ammonia undergo self-
ionization.

2NH3 NH4+ + NH2-

2H2O H3O+ + OH-

* more soluble in water forming solution has pH= 10-11

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

 20

* It is burning in air

4NH3 +O2 2N2 + 6H2O

* and oxidized by oxygen

4NH3 +5O2 4NO + 6H2O

Ammonium salts
- Ammonium salts are similar to potassium salts because NH4+ size like K+
size.
- NH4+ weak acid comparison with H3O+ .
- The structure of NH4+ is tetrahedral

N
H H
H

- The hybridation of N is SP3.

- It is sublimate compound forming NH3 and H+
- Both ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate are important fertilizers .

Hydrazine N2H4
It prepare from the oxidation the ammonia by HCl or NaOCl (sodium
hypochlorite)

NH3 + OCl- H2N – NH2 +H2O + Cl-

 21

The hydrazine is constant compound it is colourless liquid has boling point –

114 °C . It is used as fuel because the high energy that produce from burning.

N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O + high energy

- The structure of the molecule is constant and called gauche

H H

N N
H H

Hydroxylamine
It prepare from reduction the nitrite or nitrate ion by SO2.

nitrite HNO2
nitrate + SO2 (NH3OH)2SO4
HNO3

- Its solid, has melting point (33°C) .

- Its not constant therefore prepared and used as salts like NH 3(OH)2SO4,
NH3(OH)Cl.

Hydrazoic acid NH3

It is form by oxidation the hydrazine by strong oxidizing agent like HNO2.

N2H5+ + HNO2 NH3 + H3O+ + H2O

- Hydrazoic acid is explosive when pure, but stable in aqueous solution.

- It is colourless liquid
- Te boiling point = 37 °C
- The structure is N-N-N
H
 22

- It is a weak and its salts are called azides like sodium azide NaN3, sodium
azide can be made by reaction between nitrous oxide and sodium amide

N2O + 2NaNH2 NaN3 + NaOH + NH3

- This kind is called ionic azides and its stable compound. The stability of the
ionic azides may be due to the resonance forms.

-2 -2
N=N=N N N N N N N

Covalent azides are usually much less stable than ionic azides.

* on the other hand azides are used as organic intermediates and duestuffs.

Nitrogen and halogen compound (halides)

Nitrogen forms many halides only N2F4,N2F2,NF3,NCl3 are known as pure
compounds.

While NBr and NI3 have only been obtained as ammoniates

(NBr3.6NH3)(NI3.6NH3).

Nitrogen trifluoride (NF3)

- It is stable gas prepared by reaction the ammonia with fluor.

4NH3 + 3F2 NF3 + 3NH4F

- Has melting point (-207 °C) and boiling point (-129 °C).
- It's like ammonia has a tetrahedral structure but its different because it isn't
lewis base and has low dipole moment (D= 0.23) comparison with ammonia
(D=1.47).
 23

N N

F F F F
F F

The resultant molecular

dipolmoment is
reinforced by the
lone pair of electron

Nitrogen trichloride (NCl3)

- Its yellow liquid, boiling point (71°C).

- NCl3 is explosive

Air
2NCl3 N2 + 3Cl2
U.V

- Soluble in organic solvent and readily hydrolyzed

NCl3 + 3H2O NH3 + 3HOCl

Oxides of nitrogen:
Nitrogen forms a very wide range of oxides the oxidation numbers between
+1, …… ,+5 .

Ex. N2O,N2O3,NO,NO2,N2O4,N2O5.
 24

Nitrous oxide (N2O)

It is a stable, unreactive and is prepared by gently heating ammonium nitrate
at (250-260°C) it is used as anaesthetic (laughing gas).

N=N=O N N O

There resonance between two extreme structure

NH4NO3 Δ N2O + 2H2O

Nitric oxide (NO) :

- Prepared by reducting the nitric acid using copper metal

8HNO3 + 3Cu Cu(NO3)3 + 4H2O + 2NO

- (NO) can be oxidized directly to NO2 by air oxygen

2NO + O2 2NO2
- The gas is paramagnetic however the liquid and solid states are diamagnetic
because loose dimers are formed and the magnetic effect of unpaired
electrons caneels out

N O

O N

Dimer
 25

Oxa acidic nitrogen

1) Hyponitrous acid (H2N2O2)
Free H2N2O2 is a weak acid , and its unstable decomposing spontaneously in
to N2O and H2O some compounds of this acid as (hyponitrate) is strong
reducing agent and has the structure below

-2
O
N N
Hyponitrate
O

2) Nitrous acid (HNO2)

- HNO2 is known only in solution and in the vapour phase undergo thermo
analysis and form HNO3

Δ
3HNO2 HNO3 + 2NO + H2O

- HNO2 behave as oxidizing agent with I- ,Fe+2 and C2O42-

- Alkali metal nitrates yield the nitrites when heated with Pb:

Δ
NaNO3 + Pb NaNO2 + PbO

- Sodium nitrite is an important reagent in the preparation of diazonium

compound.
- The nitrite ion is a good coordinating agent and because ion pair of electrons
are present in both N and O atomic either can form a coordinate bond.
 26

M NO2 , M ONO

nitro , nitrito

3) nitric acid (HNO3)

It is an important industrial and chemical and it is an excellent oxidizing
agent when hot and concentrated.

Has planar structure and appropriate resonance structure.

O
H O N Planar
O

O O O

N N N
O O O O O O

The mixture of HNO3 and HCl (3:1) used to dissolve the Pt and Au.

1HNO3 + 3Cl NOCl + Cl2 + 2H2O

 27

Group Properties :
Group elements are

Bi , Sb , As, P, N
Atomic number

Boiling point

Radius

Electrical negative

Electrode potential

Phosphorus
- phosphate rocks are reduced by coal coke in electric ovens where
phosphorus is formed P4 where it is condensed under water component
white phosphorous.
- The phosphorus has three image : red phosphorus, white phosphorus, Blake
phosphorus.
- White phosphorus P4 is tetrahedral , white phosphorus bonds suffer from
great tension, which leads to easy breakage and this explains its
effectiveness.
- Black phosphorus is made up of double layers and each atom is linked to
three others and can be obtained.
- Red phosphorus is produced by heating white phosphorus for several hours.

Arsenic , Antimony and Bismuth

- Arsenic vapor contains As4 molecules and antimony (Sb) vapor contains Sb4
molecules.
- As,Sb,Bi used with metals to form alloyes.
 28

Compounds elements of fifth group

1) Hydrides MH3( M= P,As,Sb,Bi)
Each group V elements forms a trihydride

Ex:

PCl3 + 3LiAlH4 4PH3 + 3LiCl + 3AlCl3

The stability of these hydrides decreases from top to pottum in the

group.

2) Halides
- The elements of this group forms two types of halides trihalides MX 3 and
pentahalides MX5.
- Most are made by direct combination of the elements with the halogen.
- Nitrogen is unable to form pentahalides owing to the absence of suitable
orbitals but the subsequent elements can do and PF5,PCl5,PBr5,AsF5,SbF5
and SbCl5 are known.

3) Oxides
There are two types of oxides +3 or +5 and the basic proparties are
increased by increasing the atomic number , phosphorous and antimony are
amphoteric while bismuth is basic. For example:

M2O3 or (M4O6) (M= P, As, Sb, Bi)

M2O5 or (M4O10) (M= P, As, Sb, Bi)

- M2O5 (M= P, As, Sb, Bi) are acidic

- P4O6 is acidic
- As4O6 and Sb4O6 are amphoteric
- Bi2O3 is basic
 29

Oxygen and elements of six group

84 52 34 16 8
Po , Te , Se , S , O
Polonium , Tellurium , Selenium , Sulfur , Oxygen

Characteristics of oxygen
- The oxygen compose complexes with all the elements except noble gas
which united directly , and except halogen united will be indirectly.
- The united in the room temperature or in the high temperatures.
- It is the prevalent elements it is compose 50% weight in the earth cover and
inters in the composition of water and silicates like dust and air.
- The electron rank 1S2 2S2 2P4. So saturated the outer shell of the following
ways:
1) Acquisition (or accept) two electrons to formation oxide O-2.
2) Formation two covalent bonds as in R-O-R or double bond as in O=C=O.
3) Formation covalent bond and acquire electron as in OH-.
4) Formation three or four covalent bonds as in R2OH+.

Oxides
- Oxygen compounds called oxides a different properties of the reason is
due to the nature of bond. Some of the ionic and other covalent and
other are mix of two.

- Although the high energy necessary formation the oxide, but it is stable
in the high temperature because:

1) The higher of crystal energy value (which is the required) (energy to

arrange 1 mole from the atoms or molecules in a crystal form).

2) Smalls the size of ion oxide double charge O-2.

 30

Hydroxide
- Consists in aqueous solutions for oxides and peroxides and superoxide. The
most important of hydroxide with elements of the alkali, alkalide which
decomposed (analysis) in water:

M+OH- + H2O M+ + OH-

It is strong base
- If the combination of the hydroxide with metal is covalent then the
solubility or analysis forming acidity

MOH + nH2O MO- + H3O+

The hydroxide has the ability of formation bridge compounds

The isotopes of oxygen

The oxygen has three isotopes

O16 99%

O17 0.37%

O18 0.2039%

The physical properties

1) Has two bond pictures O2 or O3 .
O O
2) O2 has para magnetic properties and the structure the colour is pale
blue .
3) O3 happen in electrical discharge with percent of 10% or by the effect of the
U.V in the upper atmosphere where the highest concentration at a hight of
25 km. which protect the surface of the earth from U.V .
 31

O
O O
116.44

The chemical proprieties

1) The effectiveness of different oxygen and ozone. Have ozone reacts
materials in the normal temperature no react with oxygen .

O O

O O O O

O3 + 2KI + H2O I2 + 2KOH + O2

2) Effectiveness of ozone due to the high value of the standard voltage

associated with the interactions.
3) Decrease the analyzes rate of ozone in the base pacific where more stable.

Oxygen compounds
1) Hydrogen peroxide H2O2
Prepare two ways:
a) Electronic decomposition of sulfuric acid solution

2HSO4- S2O8-2 + 2H+ +2e-

S2O8- + 2H+ H2S2O8 H2SO4 + H2SO5 H2O2 + H2SO4

 32

b) Auto-oxidation for antrakinolat like 2-ethyl antrakounjul

OH O

C2H5 C2H5
O2
+ H2O2
H2/Pd

OH O

Like water in many of its properties has fixed high isolation so it is with the
water of ionized excellent solvents.

* Easy disintegration

2H2O2 2H2O + O2

* Form
O

H O H

96.5

* Strong oxidizing agent in acid medium and base as in equations:

H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e 2H2O

O2 + 2H+ + 2e HO2-

HO2- + H2O + 2e 3OH-

 33

2) Peroxides:
- Containing ion O2-2 examples include alkali metal peroxides

- With sodium Na2O2 it is a yellow powder and stable.

- With barium
Δ
BaO + O2 Ba2O2
air

- React ion peroxides with water to give hydrogen peroxide a strong oxidizing
agents
- As well as react with the carbon dioxide in the generation of oxygen in
closed systems such as submarines .

c) Super oxides
It prepare with alkali elements to formation MO2 it crystal compound,
the colour is orange.
500°C
Na2O2 + O2 2NaO2
300 At

This oxides as paramagnetic properties and strong oxidizing factor.

d) Ozonides
The ozone reacts with alkali element hydroxide except Na. its crystal
materials , the colour is red , it slow analysis to KO2 ,O2

3KOH + 2O3 2KO3 + KOH.H2O

 34

The elements of the group six :

Po , Te , Se , S

6P4 , 5P4 , 4P4 , 3S2 3P4

It low two electron from noble gas it is metal, it formation covalent compounds the
electron rank full (saturated) to same the noble gas for following ways:

1) accept two electrons S-2,Se-2,Te-2

2) formation two covalent H2S.(CH3)2S,SCl2
3) formation compound which RS- one covalent bond and one negative charge.
4) Formation three covalent bonds and positive charge R3S+ and formation the
oxidation numbers.

4 or 5 or 6 as in Te, Te+8F82- it equal =8

The group properties

There is different to oxygen the reasons of the following :

1) Decrease electro-negatively
2) It has d orbital
3) The sulfur formation , chain , series but the Se formation cyclic compound
catenation .

Types of sulfur elements

1) Solid sulfur
- it is consist of all sulfur pictures of :
a) Cyclic sulfurs consist of 6,8,10,12 atom .
b) Series from sulfur atoms it called series sulfur.
- Cyclic eight sulfur it appear three bonds pictures .
1) The orthio rombic sulfur Sα it is the most prevalent elements and more
stable from thermodynamics side it is yellow crystals
 35

O O O
O O
O
O O

2) In the 95.5 °C temperature change to mono clinic sulfur S β. the reaction is

slow and in the low temperature change to ortho rhombic sulfur.
3) Mono clinic sulfur Sɤ it is the another picture.

Six atom cyclic sulfur

It is chemical activity from S8 because to big tighten of the range (cyclic).
There is S7,S9,S10,S12 all of them non stable above 25°C .

2) The rubber sulfur

It is series , formation to cast the fusible sulfur in the cold water, it is not
dissolved in Cs2 opposite another picture.

3) The liquid sulfur

Where sulfur melting change to transparent yellow liquid, non sticky and
increase glutinous when high temperature it change to brown colour at 160 °C , the
sticky high at 200 °C and decrease to boiling at 444°C it is dark red colour. The
reason to increase sticky and to break the cyclic and change to series it is the taller
at 200°C.

Compounds of sulfur and Se,Te,Po

1) Hydrides
e.x. H2S,H2Se ,H2Te
it is the most poison (toxin) materials and it is offensive smell , but the Po
cann't prepare it is the weak acids.
 36

2) Sulfanes
Like H2S2,H2S6 it called this type of hydride by sulfanes.
It is liquid and prepare with reaction for example

Na2S(n) + 2HCl NaCl + H2S(n)

It is non stable complexes to into change H2S,S

3) Chalconides
The most of metal elements react with S,Se,Te and littile with Po to give this
compounds, the mercury react with sulfur to give mercury chalconides
HgS(n),NaS(n),KS(n)

4) Ionic sulfides
It is consist of with alkali elements , e.x. M2S , the ion S2- has paramagnetic
properties.

5) Another metals sulfides

There isn't limited structure but it has covalent properties like FeS2,CoS2.

6) Halides
a) SF4 more activity , analysis in water to SOF2 thiuonel fluoride , HF,SF4
consider important fluorescence factor change C=O,P=O to CF2 ,PF2 and
SO-COOH to CF3.
b) SF6 prepare in direct reaction between S and F it consist of blemishes. It
is stable molecule and has fixed high isolation therefore it use insulator in
electricity generators.
c) S2F10 ,it prepare from light reaction

2SF5Cl +H2 S2F10 +2HCl

 37

The another chlorides

Such as S2Cl2 , it prepare from direct reaction between Cl and S , it is orange
liquid and offensive smell it uses solvent to sulfur when the structure S 100Cl2 and
vulcanization materials of rubber.

Oxides
e.x. SO2,SO3 ,S2O,SO, TeO2,TeO3,Te2O3

The properties of SO2

1) Reduce factor it change to ion SO3--.
2) It is good solvent.
3) It is react lewis base because it has pair electron.
4) It is react lewis acid with some of amines like Me3NiSO2.

The properties of SO3

1) Prepare from reaction between SO2 and O2 with uses V2O5 to increase speed
reaction.
2) Analysis in water
3) It has the structure

S
O O
 38

The picture of sulfur :

O O
O O
S
O
Cyclic trymer
ɤ SO3
O S S O

O O

O O O

O S O S O S O β SO3
O O O
More stable
Selenium oxide SeO3
It prepare takeoff H2O from the molecule H2SeO4, it is strong oxidation
factor

Terelium oxide TeO3

It prepare takeoff water from Te(OH)6 , orange compound it react with water
slowly and analysis in base fastness to give Na2TeO4.

Sulfur acids
The sulfur acids divided to

1) The acids which content of one sulfur atom like H2SO4,H2SO3

2) The acids which content of two sulfur atoms like
H2S2O4,H2S2O3,H2S2O5,H2S2O6,H2S2O7
3) The acids which content of three atoms like tri thionic acid H2S3H6
 39

Halogens VII group

F , Cl , Br , I , At
Have ns2np5 outer orbital, At can be prepared in unclear reactor’s and in
little amounts, it’s half life time very short.

The physical properties:

- The outer orbital need one electron to be like the stable Nobel gas.

So the react very active to get this electron and convert to X - (ionic halids) like
NaCl.

- H-Cl from covalent bond with little amount of ionic character.

- All the halogens form on a two atom molecules like Cl2, Br2

I2 , Br2 , Cl2 , F2

Pink Brown Green Yellow

Solid liquid gas gas

m.p

b.p

ionization potential

Electro negativity

and Electro affinity

band angle

electrode potential

Metallic Characteristic
 40

- The bigger atom is I2, has a large number of electron and easily polarized and
get vnderwalls forces which made the substance solid.

- The Br2 liquid from the same reason but F2, Cl2, gasses.

- F2 very oxidizing agent because it has highest electronegativity.

- F2 has up normal properties because it has smallest volume and F2 hasn’t a near
(d) orbital in it's outer orbital.

- F2 can form only four bands

- F-F can be easily broken because it has lowest energy.

* In Cl2 the (d) orbital near the (p) orbital and can be used to form

pπ dπ bands

*The halogen exsist in halids form like NaCl, KCl, CaF2 ---et.

Preparation
- F2 we cannot prepare F2 in H2O
- We can prepared (HF) from the electrolyzes of the fluorides. It prepared in
Cu or Ni containers. CuO or NiO it form layer to stop the reaction between
F and Cu or Ni metals.

2F2 + 2H2 4HF +O2

 41

The halides
There are a great number to three types

1- The ionic

2- Covalent

3- Molecular halides

- They prepared by
A) on direct reaction.

2Fe + Br2 2FeBr3

S + 3F2 SF6

B) With oxygen compound

UO2 + CCl4 UCl4 + CO2

C) Fluorides can be prepared from hydrogen compound.

CrCl3 + 3HF CrF3 +3HCl

1)The ionic Halides

-The reaction of the halogen with group I&II except Be give ionic compounds.

- The fluoride are more ionic because of its electronegativity , small ion and less
polarizability.In opposite Cl & I very big with higher polarizability.
 42

2) The covalent
-With small ion like Cu+, Hg2+2, Ag+ they cannot dissolve in water

- With metals have numbers of oxidation states like Sn, Pb, Sb.

SbCl5 , SnCl4 , PbCl4 ionic

SbCl3 , SnCl2 , PbCl2 covalent

3) The molecular
Some non metals and some transition metals can form molecular halides.

-They are gases, liquids and solids.

-They have vanderwalls forces.

-They can form bridge like:-

Cl Cl
Cl Cl Cl
M M
Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl

The bridge bands have 4 electron -3-center bands.

- Br & Cl can form angle bridge.

-F can form streat bridge.

M F M

F F

M F M
 43

-The halid can be hydrolyzed in H2O

BCl3 + 3H2O B(OH)3 +3HCl

PoBr3 + 3H2O HPo(OH)2 + 3HBr

SiCl4 + 4H2O Si(OH)4 + 4HCl

The pseudo halogens

They are molecules with the same electronegativity of the halogens

They are

(CN)2, (SCN)2, (SeCN)2

Its chemistry properties:

1) They are volatile compound like the halogen

X- + X- X2

2) They reacted with metals to form salts.

3) They can form insoluble compounds like halogens HgCl2, AgC, AgN3,
AgCl.
4) They can form acids HX
5) They can form complexes
[Hg(SCN)4]= , [Zn(NCS)4]=
6) They can form covalent halids
SiBr4 , Si(NCO)4 , Si(OCN)4
7) They can be oxidized by oxidizing agent
2Ag(SCN) + Br2 (SCN)2 + 2AgBr
 44

Nobel gases group

He , Ne , Ar , Kr , Xe , Rn

Are forming Nobel gases group they have full orbitals with electron. They
are stable with high ionization potential special He & Ne.They have very low
melting & boiling point.

Polarizatility (vanderwals Forces)

He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
ionization the activity
Potential

- The undergo very limited number of reaction except with Kr, Xe, Rn with F
with stable bands increased as the atomic number increase.

The properties
1) Nobel gases can be found in air.
2) Helium forms 7% of the petroleum gases and enters in to some radioactive
reaction.
3) All the Rn isotops radio active.Like Rn222 (Actenium , Thoron, Ruthenium).
 45

The chemistry of Nobel gases

1) Xe react directly with F2 compound of +2----+8 oxidation state of Xe the

stable compounds are:-
Xe + F2 XeF2
XeF2 + F2 XeF4
XeF4 + F2 XeF6 ----etc

- XeF2 has the structure

F Xe F

Three nanbonding pair of electron

- Also other halogens react with Xe like:-

XeF2 > XeCl2 > XeBr2

As the electro negativity decrease

2) The structure of XeF4

F F

Xe

F F
- React with H2
XeF4 + 2H2 130 C₀ Xe + 4HF

- XeOF2 prepared from

XeF4 + H2O -80°C XeOF2 + 2HF

-The structure
O

F Xe F